Challenges in the Conservation of an Over-Harvested Plant Species with High Socioeconomic Values
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sustainability Article Challenges in the Conservation of an Over-Harvested Plant Species with High Socioeconomic Values Yan Chen 1,2,* , Hong Liu 2,3,* and Joel Heinen 2 1 University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Zhongshan Institute, No.1 Xueyuan Road, Shiqi District, Zhongshan 528402, China 2 International Center for Tropical Botany and Department of Earth and Environment, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL 33199, USA 3 Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, 11935 Old Cutler Road, Miami, FL 33156, USA * Correspondence: [email protected] (Y.C.); hliu@fiu.edu (H.L.) Received: 28 June 2019; Accepted: 31 July 2019; Published: 2 August 2019 Abstract: Overexploitation to meet commercial demands has threatened the existence of many species. In theory, one can adopt a portfolio of policies and measures from both the supply (i.e., encourage cultivation while punishing poaching) and demand (i.e., education of consumers) sides to achieve sustainable use. Here we examine the effects of governmental policies and measures towards the utilization of Aquilaria sinensis, a threatened species with high cultural and economic values. We found that, despite national protected status and a suite of government initiatives and granted projects to implement cultivation of the species, poaching persisted and even intensified. From the consumer side, current cultural education related to the species was not coupled with equally strong conservation education, which might have inadvertently reinforced the notion that wild-sourced materials are better, and facilitated a luxury goods-like market for wild products. It appeared that the current government portfolio of initiatives was highly skewed towards utilization, and therefore not effective for promoting the long term ecological persistence of the species. This finding is likely not unique to A. sinensis, nor limited to China. A more balanced portfolio of government initiatives to include stronger and more direct conservation measures towards highly exploited species is needed to achieve sustainable use of this species and related species. Keywords: Aquilaria sinensis; overexploited plants; conservation policy; portfolio of initiatives; NGOs; sustainable use; restoration-friendly 1. Introduction Increasing demand for a wide range of wild plants and animals associated with increasing human needs and populations and, in particular, commercial trade, has led to the overexploitation of many species [1,2]. Globally, overexploitation is the second greatest threat following habitat destruction and alteration, to species survival [3–5]. How to balance species conservation and utilization has been a persistent challenge for many species [6]. On the one hand, putting target species under national or provincial/state protected status to control use is a main conservation tool. On the other hand, farming of wild animals and plants is being used or encouraged in both national and international policy. For example, the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity [7]; Goal 8 in CBD–Biodiversity and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [8]; and Strategic Goal B, Targets 7 and 18 in the Aichi Biodiversity Targets [9] are all about promoting sustainable use for assumed benefits for local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. But data supporting or opposing the efficacy of these policies are scarce [10,11]. Sustainability 2019, 11, 4194; doi:10.3390/su11154194 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, 4194 2 of 13 Plants constitute the vast majority of species facing over-harvesting [11] and, among them, harvesting for medicinal purposes represents the majority of uses [3,11]. Species in the genus Aquilaria, also known as agarwood or incense wood, are part of both Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese Medicine in South, Southeast and East Asian countries [12]. They are commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory related ailments and diarrhea, as well as for sedative and cardio-protective properties. Agarwood has also had cultural and religious significance for its use in making aromatic materials for religious ceremoniesSustainability 2019 in, 11 the, x FOR Middle PEER REVIEW East and East Asia for several millennia [12–15]. 2 of 14 While agarwood’s traditional uses continue in modern times, new applications are being developed; Plants constitute the vast majority of species facing over-harvesting [11] and, among them, for example,harvesting it is now for used medicinal in the purposes perfume represents industry the [majority12,16]. of How uses Aquilaria[3,11]. Speciestrees in arethe beinggenus harvested has also changed.Aquilaria, Traditionally,also known as agarwood usable or agarwood incense wood, is formed are part of naturally both Ayurvedic when andAquilaria Traditionaltrees react to mechanicalChinese or biological Medicine in (i.e., South, by Southeast herbivores) and East injuries Asian countries to tree [12]. trunks. They are Agarwoodcommonly used can for the be harvested treatment of inflammatory related ailments and diarrhea, as well as for sedative and cardio-protective non-lethally by carving out the oil-rich injured tissues without cutting down the whole trees. In order properties. Agarwood has also had cultural and religious significance for its use in making aromatic to increase production,materials for religious tree trunksceremonies are in oftenthe Middle injured East and artificially East Asia for throughout several millennia the [12–15]. trunks on naturally growing and plantedWhile agarwood’s trees. In addition,traditional uses the leavescontinue have in modern also beentimes, developednew applications to be are used being in medicines and for otherdeveloped; uses [12 for,17 example,]. Extractions it is now from used in both the perfume leaves industry and heartwood [12,16]. How are Aquilaria not limited trees are to being medicinal uses; harvested has also changed. Traditionally, usable agarwood is formed naturally when Aquilaria trees they are alsoreact made to mechanical into incense or biological products, (i.e., or by as herb fragrancesivores) injuries in the to production tree trunks. ofAgarwood cosmetics, can be personal care and ornamentalharvested items non-lethally in China by andcarving India out (e.g.,the oil-rich soaps, injured shampoos, tissues without carved cutting sculptures, down the whole beads, bracelets and boxes).trees. Lower-grade In order to increase wood production, containing tree lowtrunks levels are often of injured oil is burnedartificially for throughout fumigation the trunks purposes and on naturally growing and planted trees. In addition, the leaves have also been developed to be used crushed leavesin medicines are used and asfor ingredientsother uses [12,17]. in Extractions biscuits [ from18], both instant leaves noodles, and heartwood balms are and not limited candle wax [19]. In China andto medicinal India, bark uses; isthey also are also used made to makeinto incense paper products, and fibersor as fragrances for making in the clothproduction and of rope [20,21]. Harvesting cosmetics,Aquilaria personaltrees is care increasingly and ornamental lethal items for in theChina reasons and India mentioned (e.g., soaps, above,shampoos, and carved because illegal sculptures, beads, bracelets and boxes). Lower-grade wood containing low levels of oil is burned for harvest in protected areas is often done hastily and without regards to the trees’ survival. fumigation purposes and crushed leaves are used as ingredients in biscuits [18], instant noodles, balms Amongand the candle 20 recognizedwax [19]. In China species and India, in the bark genus is also usedAquilaria to make, fourpaper areand fibers critically for making endangered, cloth one is endangered,and seven rope [20,21]. are vulnerable, Harvesting Aquilaria and the trees remaining is increasingly six lethal species for the are reasons classified mentioned as data above, deficient [22]. One of the majorand because threats illegal to harvest all species in protected in the areas genus is often is done over-harvesting hastily and without (Table regards S1) to [the22 ].trees’ This includes survival. A. sinensis, whichAmong is listed the 20 asrecognized vulnerable. species Oddly,in the genus over-harvesting Aquilaria, four are is critically not cited endangered, as a threat one is factor in the Chinese Redendangered, List. Aquilaria seven are sinensis vulnerable,is endemic and the remaining to southern six species China are andclassified occurs as data naturally deficient [22]. in Guangdong, Hainan, Guangxi,One of the Fujian, major threats and Hong to all species Kong in (Flora the genus of China;is over-harvesting Figure1 )[(Table21]. S1) In [22]. order This toincludes protect A. the species sinensis, which is listed as vulnerable. Oddly, over-harvesting is not cited as a threat factor in the legally, the ChineseChinese Red government List. Aquilaria hassinensis placed is endemicA. sinensis to southernunder China the and Wild occurs Plants naturally Protection in Guangdong, Regulation by putting it onHainan, the State Guangxi, Key ProtectedFujian, and PlantsHong Kong Category (Flora of II China; list in Figure 1999 (State1) [21]. KeyIn order Protected to protect Plants the Category, First Edition).species This legally, means the thatChinese any government legal collection has placed of A. wild sinensis plants under(within the Wild protectedPlants Protection areas or not) is Regulation by putting it on the State