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Sustainable Peacebuilding Strategies for the Management of Ezza Conflicts in Nigeria and the Barolong Land Dispute in South Africa

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Sustainable Peacebuilding Strategies for the Management of Ezza Conflicts in Nigeria and the Barolong Land Dispute in South Africa SUSTAINABLE PEACEBUILDING STRATEGIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF EZZA CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA AND THE BAROLONG LAND DISPUTE IN SOUTH AFRICA ANIK.J.,, Student Number: 26143070 OCRiD ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6617-1484 Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Peace Studies Department of Politics and International Relations, Faculty of Human and Social Sciences North-West University, Mafikeng Campus Supervisor: Professor Victor Ojakorotu. July, 2017 ii DECLARATION I, Kelechi Johnmary Ani, declare that this thesis, entitled "Sustainable peacebuilding strategies for the management of Ezza conflicts in Nigeria and the Barolong land dispute in South Africa", hereby submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Peace Studies in the Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university. I declare that this is my work in design and execution and that all materials contained herein have been duly acknowledged. Dare . .JJ./4.Q __:µ, ~ Kelechi Johnmary Ani Date ... 1.. 1./18. .ll Professor Victor Ojakorotu ii iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my lovely family; Ijeoma, my wife, Kamsiyochi and Chiziterem, my children. iii iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The quest for a doctoral degree is a challenging experience that no individual can attain without the direct and indirect support of others. I appreciate Professor Joel Patrick Dada, the Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Management and Social Sciences of Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria who warned me that the only way to bag a PhD in record time is to pursue it in a foreign country following the agonising delay in my Master's degree programme at the University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. Consequently, my friendship with Dr Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo and Ogo Nnanyere of the Departments of History and International Relations, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State and Ebonyi State University Abakaliki, Nigeria gave me the crucial contact of Maduka Ude, who at the time (2013) was a Doctoral candidate at the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, where I was later admitted to study Peace and Conflict Studies. Due to the lack of a supervisor, the then Dean of Faculty, Professor Ufo Okeke Uzodike, referred me to the North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa where I was admitted in 2014 for my PhD programme in Peace Studies. Following the delay in processing my visa, I only started the academic programme in 2015. I am very grateful to you all for facilitating the academic networking towards my doctoral studies. At the North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, I drank the milk of mentorship, guidance and friendship from my amiable supervisor, Professor Victor Ojakorotu and later the great counsel of Professor Lere Amusan, Head of the Department of Politics and International Relations at this university. I remain indebted to my supervisor, who accommodated my official and unofficial disturbances and did not abandon me in times of challenges. He was always there to encourage me and initiate a new approach towards resolving any challenge at different stages of the research. I cannot express the depth of gratitude to Associate Professor Donatus Ifukwu Aj aegbo, Head of Department of History and Strategic Studies, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, (FUNAI) Nigeria. He is a mentor, father and advisor. I will forever, remember the speed at which he entered the rain with me to the bank and withdrew one hundred and twenty iv V thousand naira as financial support when I complained in June, 2015 that I could not travel to defend my thesis in the Department because I could not pay for my flight ticket. He has remained a major player in this thesis; proof-reading it and raising probing questions and better syntactic arguments. I extend sincere gratitude to colleagues in FUNAI: Professors Ngozi Ojiakor and Chinedu Nwafor Uba, Dr Onuora Benedict Nweke, Dr Immaculata Enwo­ Irem, Nonye Echezona, Evelyn Enwere and Lucky Ugbudian for their encouragement during my studies. I wish to thank the pioneer Dean, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Professor Austin Chukwu as well as the immediate past Vice Chancellor of FUNAI, Professor Ibidapo Obe, for their timely recommendations and approval of my study leave, whenever I needed to travel to South Africa for my research. I am grateful to Reverend Father Barrister Emeka Longinus, Chaplain, Saint Joseph's Catholic Chaplaincy, College of Agricultural Science, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki and the members of Heirs of God's Kingdom Catholic Charismatic Renewal prayer group, Abakaliki, Nigeria for their prayers, vigils, love and encouragement through-out the period of my doctoral studies. In a special way, I appreciate my wonderful wife, Ijeoma Genevieve Anikelechi. She has shown unimaginable level of support, love, assistance and understanding, especially in the first quarter of 2016, when she was critically sick in Nigeria, while I travelled to hunt for this PhD in South Africa. I remain perpetually indebted to my children, Kamsiyochi and Chiziterem, their lovely shouts of Daddy! Daddy! continue to echo in my head. I will not forget Kamsi' s quest to protect and guide my research material. I also wish to thank my cousin, Afam Okorie, for the brotherly advise, financial support and sense of belonging that his presence generated in my mindset throughout my studies. Engineer Ben and Mrs. Uzoma Omoyeni supported me during the visa processing and all time I was travelling through Lagos. I remain grateful to you all! I acknowledge my friends at the North-West University, Mafikeng Campus (Onyebukwa Chijioke Francis, Gabriel Kinge, Maduka Ude, Frank and Okolo Nnamdi Dickson); all from the Department of Politics and International Relations. I also thank Mrs Afong Ramel of the \I vi Department of Development Studies, Dr Joshua Chukwuere of the Department of Informatics, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus for their goodwill throughout my stay at the university. I am sincerely indebted to all the people whose articles and other forms of academic works I consulted during my studies, especially the works of Professor Uchenna Anyanwu, former Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of Nigeria, Nsukka and Dr Anthony Itumo, Head, Department of Political Science, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria. I extend heartfelt thanks to Reverend Father Ifi Felix, the Parish Priest of Immaculate Heart, Ndiegu Okpuitumo, Abakaliki Diocese for the extra-ordinary support in extensively sourcing materials from the Citizen's Advocate Library, Catholic Diocese of Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. vii LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AIGP Assistant Inspector General of Police APC Armoured Personnel Carrier ASP Assistant Superintendent of Police BNC Barolong National Council CAD Cape Archives Depot CP Commissioner of Police CRS Conflict Resolution Strategies DPO Divisional Police Officer DO District Officer EBSUTH Ebonyi State University Teaching Hospital FEGA Federated Ezillo General Assembly FETHA Federal Teaching Hospital Abakaliki FRCN Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria HCPCP Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property HRCRC Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Centre HRH His Royal Highness HRW Human Rights Watch IACRS Indigenous African Conflict Resolution System IDEA Ijigban Development Elites Association IDP Internally Displaced Person(s) IDU Iyonu Development Union IGA Ishielu General Assembly viii IGP Inspector General of Police KNCHR Kenya National Commission on Human Rights KLA Kenya Land Alliance LGA Local Government Area LGC Local Government Council LGEA Local Government Education Authority MP Mobile Police MWU Mbaise Welfare Union NAD Native Affairs Department NAE National Archives Enugu NEC National Electoral Commission NEMA National Emergency Management Agency NPC National Population Commission NTA Nigerian Television Authority NWPAL North West Provincial Archives and Library OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights OMO Obeagu Mgbalukwu and Ojiegbe PDP People' s Democratic Party SEMA State Emergency Management Agency TA Tribal Authority UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization WACR Western Approaches to Conflict Resolution WDC Women Development Centre ix ABSTRACT In time past, there was enough expanse of land that humanity had no need to compete or clash over land. However, as the population expanded in different gee-political environments, land became a 'scarce' resource. Man began to compete in the scramble and quest to retain available land spaces. The situation is made worse by the fact that land, as a means of production, is fixed. The implication was the rise of conflicting interests amongst land contestants. Ironically, Africa, more than any other continent in the globe, has experienced the most conflicts in the world. This study focused on peacebuilding strategies for the management of Ezza conflicts in Nigeria and Barolong land dispute in South Africa. The study relied on theories of negative and positive peace to explain the conflict setting. It adopted non-probability sampling strategy and employed a qualitative research approach. The researcher reviewed literature on Ezza and Barolong studies as well as the causes and forms of land conflicts in the study areas. The scholars in conflict studies have neglected Ezza and Barolong peoples. Consequently, the researcher traced the historical background of the conflicts ravaging
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