CONTENTS

ART STUDIES ...... 7

Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and ”The Personal History” of a Composer ...... 9 Bostan, M. C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of the 20 th Century……………………………………………………………………….. 17 Demenescu, V. L .: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20 th Century from the Perspective of the Main Representatives of the Musical Culture from Banat, the Romanian and European Musical Culture ...... 21 Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music...... 27 Măniut, P. M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music...... 31 Niresteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education Pupils ...... 37 Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Modern Composition School ...... 41 Petrescu, A. R.: Robert Wilson or Time and Immovability ...... 45 Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem ...... 49 Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue (part II), a Parallel between Vocal Therapy Exercises and Vocalization-Proposal...... 55 Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contemporaneity in the Dragaica ...... 61 łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music ...... 67 Vârlan, P. M.: The Hexa- and Heptacord Modal System in T. Ciortea’s Piano Compositions ...... 73

SPORT STUDIES ...... 79

Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician A Position Paper on Music-Related Injuries and their Relationship to Sports Injuries ...... 81 Cioroiu, S.G.; Moldovan, E.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health – A Current Problem ...... 85 Chicomban, M.: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports Training in the Basketball Game ...... 93 Enoiu, R.; Enoiu, R.S.: Dribble Improvements in Basketball Game through Multimedia Means ...... 101 6 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) – 2009 • Series VIII

Fe teu, D.; Balint, L.: Improving Pupils' Initiative Taking Capabilities through Physical Education Lesson s ...... 107 Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From the Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of the Explosive Muscular Force Specific to the Sprinter ...... 115 Martoma, A.: Non – Nutritional Natural Antioxidants ...... 119 Moldovan, E.; Cioroiu, S.G.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesitherapy in their Correction ...... 127 Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport ...... 135 Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, G.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength Conversion Training in Junior Sprint Events ...... 139 Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, M.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity Indicators in 12-14 Year Old Children over One Athletics Competition Year ...... 145 Simion, G.: Considerations on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game ...... 151 Toh ănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects Children at the Age of 10-14 years ...... 157 Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and Sports ...... 163

Authors Index ...... 169

ART STUDIES

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

POSSIBLE LINKS BETWEEN THE HISTORY OF SOUND AND THE PERSONAL HISTORY OF A COMPOSER

1 Lauren Ńiu BELDEAN

Abstract: ,The history of sound’, a notion which belongs to the composer Aurel Stroe, finds its correspondence in the temporal envelope of the acoustic sound and it refers to its evolution in time, going through the three stages of its existence: attack, sustainment and decay.

Key words: Stroe, history of sound, tuning systems, micro-intervals.

Aurel Stroe shared with me, during some “I listened in my childhood many times discussions at the Busteni villa, some of to the peasants singing. In Urlati. There his thoughts, which resonate beyond art. In were some girls, a group of 5-6 girls, his opinion, “the human being lays his coming to the mountains for vintage, and personal history, under multiple shapes, in oh they sang, sir: some of them had more his creation”. vibrato, some others had less vibrato… According to this affirmation and having some of them simply attacked and held a proper knowledge of the semantic fields, the sound. This influenced me a great Stroe operates with the ,multiple shapes’, deal. You can find all these influences in which could be the forms of sounds, their my Oresteias , in Choephoroi ...” ,history’ . Stroe later transformed the experiences The forms of sounds cannot be imagined of sound perception from the times of his by Stroe as predestined monads, which are childhood into skills and the craft of condemned to temperance. For him, they creation. He understood and reevaluated are ,tunings’, and the composition the fact that through the oscillations of technique through which the tuning of a intensity and frequency, shown in ,the sonorous structure changes, in many of his history of sound’, its pitch will distort works, is interesting. The distinctive the sound: “if one heightens or lowers patterns of these ,tunings’ are described by [the pitch], the fact that something is not the musical microtonal intervals of tuned will be heard”. If, for example, a different sizes, among which the most structure carries on, at the beginning, in a preeminent are the commas. normal tuning, through these oscillations, To reinforce the argument about the at a certain moment, in the same ,tuning’ technique, we need to mention that structure, another tuning can be the composer calls on the sources of encountered, and this one could fit a well inspiration coming from his childhood, a known tuning such as: the Pythagorean, period in which he found himself, through the Tibetan, or the Zarlinian tuning. predestination, accompanied by music:

1 Composer.

10 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

An important influence for the creation of Stroe was the music of George Enescu. In his scores, especially in his latest works musicale ” a table of the subtle intonation for piano and violin such as the suite deformations, which, according to “Childhood Impressions ” (in this context, Danielou, are perceived by our psyche as look for fragments from “The Well’s privileged points (easily perceivable), and Spring” or “Cradle Song”), or the Violin which are situated on the axe of the Sonata No. 3 “In Folk Romanian sonorous continuum. He discovered and Character ”, Stroe explores the meanings determined the existence of a multitude of of ,history’. In some fragments of these swaras , classifying and placing in the table works, the ,histories’, transformed into all the existing intervals in the European color, have the permanent capacity of and extra-European musical practice. narrating something new. Sustaining the existence of perception at The Violin Sonata No. 3 seems to be the level of our psyche, the author gave among the first works in the history of them a formal model, showing that these music which expects the interpreter to could, in fact, be constructed by the create a ,personal history’; the musical Pythagorean relations (which are easiest to work has the interpreter look for a certain be remembered by our psyche: the sound through his fingering technique. In multiples of 2, 3 and 5). He affirms that the this way, the interpreter has the possibility sounds of the temperate European system to touch the pitch and the color a priori are lifeless, and illusory. imagined. This assertion seems somewhat hilarious, In his pages, Enescu changes with great since we know that people have operated ingenuity the techniques of attacking the for centuries with such “illusory” sounds, sound, maintaining it within the same these standing at the foundation of the parameters, and accessing a microtonal master sonatas of Beethoven, Brahms and interval zone, in its interior. For example, other composers of temperate, tonal works. he succeeds to modify the effect of a The traditional vocabulary and grammar passage evoking the blowing of the wind references (tonal, serial and neo-modal through attacking the sound each time in a references) do not allow the composers to different way, diversifying thus, different trouble themselves to use more than 12 parameters in ,the history’ of a particular sonorous elements; nor do these references sound. allow to attain the ethos of these elements The impregnation of sound with completely. Following the deadlock ,which liveliness, with ,history’ , cannot appear but resulted as a consequence of the uniformity within this compositional option. In the of the vocabulary, composers try to make tonal, or serial (dodecaphonic) music, up for the deficit of the ,temperate’ ethos, where its form is almost callous, through through the emphasis of secondary the conviction to temperance, the ,history’ parameters in the sound’s instrumentation is absent. like, for example, its emission with a In musical practice, the conception and certain intensity and a certain attack the performance of music uses only modality (sweet or less sweet sound). This unchangeable, standard tones, c, d, e, f, g, produces in the sonorous conscience of the a, b ; thus, it is possible to play only on 7 listener the specific difference, afferent to steady pitches (or swaras , as musical notes a certain affective zone (zone present in are named in Indian music). This is already the interaction among these vocabulary known since the researcher Alain Danielou elements). presented in his work “ Le semantique

Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and … 11

Classical and dodecaphonic composers into sound; a note can become a sonorous present, through their scores, a image). The notes cannot be ,music’ but in unidirectional mode of conceiving and the moment of instrumentally displaying perceiving sonority. It is, thus, clear that a the structure the notes describe, the temperate d sound will sound different sonorous restoration occurs only through from an attacked d. But through this notes transformed into sounds. distinction we can discover only half the The sounds themselves take a completely truth because, in fact, none of the different meaning, which is the effect of composers using this vocabulary has the translation of notes into sonorities. The started the rigorous work of studying all sound appears in the act through ,history’, sounds under the aspect of their ,history’, succeeding in this way to control through and no scientific research has been led to analyzing the temporal envelope (which permit the exact observation of quality. can be pictured as an oscillograph giving A supplementary explanation to Stroe’s the frequencies' coordinate system to the assertion that “the human being lays his intensities of the partial components of that personal history, under multiple shapes, in sound). his creation” permits us to imagine what In all the scores of the past centuries, but meant for George Enescu the experience of also in many contemporary scores, a sound those times, of the contact with the can only be fixed through a note. From fiddlers’ song, either when he listened to here results the distinction appearing in the them on his native lands, or when he was German theoretic interpretation, which around them during his stay in Paris. The associates a musical tone (der Ton) to a fact that violins produce, above all, non- written note (in whichever sonorous temperate sounds is well known; for a system), while a sound (der Klang) is violin, music is represented by the notes B, viewed as a sum of associated notes, a C, D, E, F, G, A, H, which are the same configuration made up of multiple notes used by any European musician. sonorous elements. Thus, the “Klang” Each time they play what they have to notion can be attributed to a chord or play, however, through deviation, they put cluster, but it cannot be mistaken for a together, on an ad hoc basis, a multitude of “Ton”, which follows a singular sound, its swaras which results from the specific given image through a written note. The notes. In the interstice between the formal reality, according to which, in classical object (represented by notes) and the real composition, the sound we hear is equal to sonorous image, the special ethos can be the written note on the paper, has not been found, which the violinists drag to the conceived only for the practice of surface in a matchless way. composers, but also for the manufacturers Starting from the reality given by the of musical instruments. The manufacturers non-temperate entities, in the two works of wanted to temperate the intervals, which Enescu appear some features of the had been, until that time, non-temperate (it musical form: the differentiation between suffices to mention only the ones note as a musical notation element and belonging to the Zarlinian intonation sound. system). Through tempering all intervals It is necessary to understand that notes appeared the possibility of writing on are poorer in meaning than sounds because paper the chromatic scale, which they always appear schematically (as any represents all notes which can be used by a written sign). We can say that a note is the European composer. We point out the fact formal expression of a sound (translated that ,the personal history’ of the composers

12 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII that subscribe to using the temperate- One can observe in instrumental sonatas, chromatic scale is, in general, a history of rather than in symphonies, how frequent the fixation of a sonorous construction. the manner of perturbation of the initial We have mentioned already the model appears. In the moment in which the connection between the written note and exposition continues (when the music the sound in the music of any given begins again, after the repetition sign), it composer (Bach, Haydn, Mozart and continues the harmonic-melodic pattern of Beethoven). It is the prototype of the the first exposition, but with small composer that draws up the sounds of transformations of the relations between tonalities through notes (and other signs). notes, and thus, by changing sounds. Here The composers of those times could not, appears, in continuous emancipation, the however, fix into scores the ethos procedure of ornamental variation. associated to the notes, which is, in fact, The skill of the classic creators, to handle part of the sounds. Grammar gave them the pattern of discourse (the 0 moment and only the possibility to write some of these the final ,coming back’, at the same notes (the most important ones). moment), belongs to the attributions of the The ethos of sonorities can, however, be musician interpreter (either conductor or imagined and deduced from notes in instrumentalist); we recognize the source different ways: the formal structures, of this practice from the experiences which are generally dynamic, are suited to described by the history of music: an array be analogized to some play characters; of harpsichord and violin players, like these characters do not have an existential those from the 17 th century (Giuseppe status only because they are built on Tartini, Pietro Locatelli and others), temperate-chromatic pitches criteria. They created in time (until the moment when are ontologisms, ,histories’, because they Nicolo Paganini appeared as an excellent exhibit the formation of a great idea (of virtuoso) schools specialized in existential, philosophic, religious nature). instrumental improvisation. Thus, in the art of sounds, a familiar way Concerning the act of vocal performance, through which the human being displays, related to the ,sound as searching concerning the great classics, his personal typology’ (which is to be discovered by history’, under multiple forms can be, for Enescu and some of his contemporaries), example, the multiple ways to present the we want to give another example which musical material: the expositive sonata differs from the norm: the graphics of the forms in which, in the real execution, pitches from the scores. In the time of the deviations from the composer’s tablature classic opera composers Vincenzo Bellini, use to take place. Gaetano Donizzeti and Giaccomo Puccini, One can easily observe that ,the personal singers knew how to attack a sound, even history’ of the classical creator recurs to if they had to look on a score with notes the myth of ,the eternal coming back’. The written in the temperate system. procedure of the imitative polyphony is an One can, therefore, assume that example for this, with the models held by interpretation has always belonged to the the fugue form. Some other examples are nature of artist. By modifying indications offered especially by the sonata and appeared the tiny differences among the symphony genres, in which the extreme above mentioned ,swaras’, differences movements (Allegro) have a sonata form, between the pitches of notes. Since then, and where the expositive section is there have been respected, through repetitive. tradition, some rules for sounds which do

Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and … 13 not exist for notes; the simple notes (B, C, fixation, univocal and ,temperate’, through D, E, F, G, A, H) are those which reiterate which the ,personal history’ becomes in whichever intonation system (be it non- objective. Through the interpretative act, temperate or temperate). The ethos of a the sound modifies constantly, detaching melody modifies unconditionally from one itself from the notes (from the starting ,tuning’ (intonation system) to another, schemes), even if the reality of the score is which makes perceivable the fact that the presented in the relation note-sound. sound has always been a variable which Without an authentic interpretation, they can take multiple possible values, while could seem ,poor’, but confronted with an the note has remained the invariable abstract projection, with a virtual, more element to which multiple sonorous suggestive image, which is richer in correspondences can be attributed. This is semantics, another image is invented by only perceivable during interpretation, the intelligence of the modern musician in when the artist on stage defines the dogma the 20 th century. Pictured in this way, given by the grammar and vocabulary of presented by a more complex grammar the temperate system, a grammar and a than the classic one (which would have vocabulary of notes, especially. Under this enabled another kind of enrichment field aspect, the classical grammar can be for these ,histories’), the ,personal considered imperfect or incomplete. histories’ of a composer could manifest in We must bind the constructive a different way at the level of what is noted consistence of the musical form, and given than at the level of musical encountered at the classics, with the semantics. interpretation of the musician that steps An envy-sparking fact is to be remarked, into the concert hall with his own ,history’. which is almost unbearable for the need of Through his level of understanding, the the modern-day creator: without the ethos musician gives life to the notes, to the of the ,musical words’, the 18 th , 19 th and, ,personal histories’ displayed by them: the partially, 20 th century composer subdued to ,Bachian’, ,Mozartian’ or the the univocal construction relation existing ,Beethovenian’ history. The transfer from between note and sound, which enclosed notes to sounds can manifest in different him; he laid his ,personal history’ in ways. This can only be possible through manuscripts of a remarkable conceptual the fact that the interpreter mentions an consistence, turned immortal through their authentic dictionary of ,sounds-ideas’, strength of expression. which are only his, transforming the In the 20 th century, however, a change existence of the written form in the occured, concerning the interpretation of existence of the sensible form , musically the noted work and ,the personal history’ accurate and dynamic. Through the of an artist. Following the appearance of interpretation that he offers, there can be the interest for ethnomusicology and made qualitative analogies and folklore, the composers of the national differentiation among the types of schools and the folklorists discovered in ,personal histories’ of the composers their research field a multitude of melodies displayed in the scores. which could no longer be noted according The integration of the interpretative act to the exact correspondence note-sound, in the codified creation by a score of notes present at the classical composers. leads us to discovering another face of An example of this new perspective is Aurel Stroe’s statement, for whom there is encountered at Béla Bartók, who wrote the a singular form of thinking: that of pitches of the sounds with special

14 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII alterations, looking for additional A moment from the third part can be notations. Already at Bartók, the relation taken as an example, in which a sound between note and sound does not resemble noted with a quarter of tone is discovered anymore to the one employed by the and played on the d chord a little higher. grammar of the classical composers. This Through its position and the fingering is due to the wave of oral tradition in technique, chosen deliberately by Enescu, written creation (look for the functional this sound fluctuates, and produces a notation of the micro intervals in his sonority that, in our psyche, is intercepted Carrols ). We can argue that Bartok bridges as a turbid feeling, as something reaching the natural gap between the interpreter’s for clearing. intuition and the composer’s strict way of Here appear micro-intervals, a category noting. Alike George Enescu, Bartók of sonorous pitches, whose ,inhabitants’ explains the preexistent notation system. take on morphism , applied between the Being very close to the artist’s conscience, steps of the intervals, which had been he no longer writes notes in his scores, but codified from the 17 th and 18 th century in intentional notes (semantics of the micro the temperate European music, and which intervallic type). have been used by all classic composers Bartok’s ,personal history’ infiltrated in a (being then considered an ultimate creation situated at the balance of synthesis clarification of the ultimate acoustic of certain traditional languages accustomed construction process of the vocabulary that with the renewal generated by archetype- a musician could use). folkloric Weltanschaung. It appears as Aurel Stroe links this morphism to the different, as very individualized, in revolutionary cultural-historic phenomena comparison to the ,predestined’ histories of which take place in music, and which have Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner; in established a perception and assimilation this context, we only have to think of the paradigm, different from the classical one: last three Bartokian string quartets. “The discovery of some extra-European Coming back to the Sonata No. 3 for musical traditions: Asian, African music, Piano and Violin by George Enescu, we the music of the two Americas, led to can observe that the relation note-sound interesting observations concerning the appears in a special way, the massive share formation of musical scales, which all being given by the interpretation of the seem to be different from the so-called text, which leads to the necessity of a ,temperate’ scale used by the European careful analysis of the construction aspects musician. Surely, European music has of the work. Its structure resides in a gained a lot through temperateness, multitude of shapes acquired by sounds. especially from the construction point of Here, we can distinguish sounds that are view: we couldn’t have imagined neither imprecisely attacked, and which filter their the symphonies of Mozart, nor pitch on the way, as well as sounds which Beethoven’s string quartets, nor Richard are clearly attacked, which then lose Wagner’s dramas, without a preliminarily themselves in a flow, through sinking in temperateness, without a precise the continuum from which it came from: codification of sounds with which the we observe sounds which are clear from composer works. In the extra-European the beginning to the end and, of course, music there is a greater variety of sounds there are also the imprecise sounds. Apart and, in addition, there is something very from these, some other sound categories important: the power to create semantemes can be observed. - minimal unities significant at the level of

Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and … 15 relation between two sounds - and this is intervals not as some temperate intervals obtained precisely through these micro- but as producers of new effects, as intervals. Said in a simple manner: on a producers of meaning at a very tiny level. piano, between the C-D notes only C sharp A quarter of sharp - for example - by exists, respectively D flat . In the extra- Enescu, doesn’t necessarily mean that the European music, however, we encounter specific note climbs up with the quarter of other notes in the C-D interval, other temperate tone, but that the instrumentalist beside C sharp and D flat . This fact has is invited to look in that moment (in that long been preserved in the European music very moment when he plays the violin) a as well when certain instruments used to certain point in which a musical interval is be played like the violin, the cello, the happening - meaning that the pitch relation flute, but this was lost with time. But it between two sounds in which a new appears frequently in the extra-European expressive effect appears, like - let’s say - music being not just an empty virtuosity, an ,unusual word’, never before used until but linked - as I was saying - to powers to then, and this ,word’, maybe evidently turn signify at very small levels”. upside down at the highest levels the Looking at the quarter of tone categories whole grammar of the respective section.” from the Sonata in folk Romanian The study of this aspect should also be character , which presents an intonation integrated into a sonorous structure grammar through which the ,histories of analysis: it is the material with which the sound’ are being pushed towards composer works and which represents the successive formation stages until their last ,history’ enciphered by him. definition, Stroe makes certain “If for the classical music the sound is a observations to Enescu’s mentality in given thing, a constant lasting as long as relation to those of other quarter of tone the sound, in Enescu’s music the sound theoreticians (who eluded the possibility of becomes a variable, it becomes more the creation of semantemes through a flexible. A sound can be attacked higher, static, roughly productive division of tone): then lowered, the again risen - and not „The Third Sonata seems the necessarily in glissandi forms, reappearance of the micro-intervals after schematically enough - (as modern music several centuries of absence. I don’t know sometimes teaches us), but in some fine exactly if Enescu is the first one to use undulations, very rich - in the length of a them again, my impression is that the sound. From electronic music we know the Czech Alois Haba intented this some time fact that a sound can be changed from before and I think that the Frenchman multiple points of view: it can be changed Wyschnegradsky also. But these two as attack, it can be changed as form, thus it scholars started from an initial mistake: can fluctuate from diverse points of view they made a temperance based on quarters in a given time; it can be changed from the of tones , this establishing certain errors point of view of its relation with the which make the perception of the sonorous surroundings - in which it manifests itself , material difficult and destroy the semantic and thus the outer envelope (,history’) of effect concerning micro levels. These the sound can be changed, factors like its errors appeared- let’s say- doubled, thus intensity can be changed, timbre variations multiplied in comparison with those of the can be obtained on the same sound, and classic temperance. Enescu - maybe in an evidently, from all these variations intuitive manner - but with a vision out of different combinations can rise, which the ordinary - manages to use these micro- practically leads to endless possibilities to

16 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII modify, to vary, to give life to a sound. ,the history of sound’ and ,the personal This leads to some sort of continuum in history’ of the composer (both contained in this variation, continuum which links to different quantities in the musical work) the idea of psychological continuum have to be rethought and completed again created by its musical form. He creates ontologically, at multiple levels, together sonorous forms, lied-forms, he makes with the content of the score, to variation-forms, - all kinds of forms reestablish, through the dynamism of (having a predilection though for the conscience, the musical composition sonata-form). But his forms never appears identity. obvious when listened to, the cuts (discontinuities) are blurred by the References continuous flux.” Alike Aurel Stroe’s saying, from which I 1. Vieru, Anatol. Cartea Modurilor . started, the way to grasp the semantics of Bucure ti: Editura Muzical ă, 1980. the art work and the complexity between

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE CONCERTIZING SPIRIT IN THE EUROPEAN MUSIC IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20 TH CENTURY

Maria Cristina BOSTAN 1

Abstract: A preference of the 20 th century composers is to be noticed not only in the combination of the symphonic with the concertizing elements (Prokofiev, Honegger, Enescu) but also in the impregnation of the compact orchestra assembly (symphonic or chamber orchestra) with specific concertizing elements, thus developing the genre of ‘concerto for the orchestra’. The rapport between the soloist and the orchestra changes in direct connection to the configuration of the form in which the concertizing compositions are made up: if the latter consist of structures of the classical form, the soloist instrument is attributed the leading role. The soloist instrument is integrated in the symphony (starting from the transformation of the musical soloist discourse into a symphony within the instrumental concerto), in Prokofiev’s (Concerto Symphony for Cello and Orchestra opus 125, 1953) and Enescu's creation (Concertizing Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, 1901).

Key words : concertizing spirit, European music of the 20 th century.

After the supremacy held within the concertizing virtuosity reflects on the framework of the instrumental-soloist concerto entire orchestra assembly in whose by piano and violin (besides assigning the structure the soloist instrument is, most of soloist role to the cello and to other wind and the times, an “integrated” voice. The new brass instruments, such as: the flute, the oboe, tendencies of the dodecaphonism of the the clarinet, the bassoon, the horn), in the 20 th Second Viennese School become concrete century the composers extend the soloist's in Schönberg and Berg’s concertos and instrumental range, orienting to instruments will also influence the creation of the such as the viola (Batrók, Hindemith), the composers belonging to the national trumpet, the saxophone (Debussy and Milhaud modern schools (Stravinski, Batrók, compose a rhapsody and a concerto for Prokofiev). The creation of the composers saxophone and orchestra, alongside with Astor of the national schools reveal the structure Piazzolla), the clavichord or the Martenot of the composing language based on neo- waves (André Jolivet). The timbre range modals, triggered by the melodic content diversifies both on the soloist plan and within with folklore influence. The tonal-modal the symphonic assembly by the soloist synthesis in their creation contains individualization of an instrument or group of “generating archetypal modal cells” instruments, accomplished by virtuosity or (oligochords, pentatones, hexatones) increased expressivity, integrated in the characteristic of the popular modes. thematic discourse. The soloist instrumental concerto preserves One witnesses in the 20th century the the coordinates of form and the conditions of spreading of the concertizing genre in the the harmonic amplitude (from abundant composers’ creation, by the enrichment of chromatics to atonalism). the elements of technical difficulty. The

1 Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 18 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

The structure of the soloist instrumental Fantasy (Claude Debussy – Fantasy for concerto is different from a composer to piano and orchestra, 1891, where the another, still preserving the classic patterns orchestra score is impregnated with soloist bi-, tri-, and quadripartite (as I shall try to elements, the piano being treated as a prove further on). Some baroque structures “voice” integrated in the symphonic such as Passacaglia, Fugue, Aria can be discourse, and Feruccio Busoni – Indian resumed. Fantasy for piano and orchestra, 1913). The In Max Reger’s creation, one can meet accent falls on the motility characteristic of quotations from the protestant chorals (the the instrument, with a focus on the emphasis second part of the Concerto for Piano and of the soloist virtuosity with composers such Orchestra opus. 114, 1910), the Concerto for as Batrók, Stravinski, Prokofiev (as Violin and Orchestra opus 101 (1908) is presented lower) or with the composers composed as an ample concertizing sonata. from the “Group of the six” who resume the Similarly, Hans Pfiztner is responsible for forms of the 18 th century (Germaine the interference between the symphonic Taillefère) in Concerto in D Major for Piano writing and the form of the theme with and Orchestra (1926), Darius Milhaud who, variations, in Concerto for Violin and besides the Concerto for Saxophone and Orchestra opus 34 (1924) and in Concerto Orchestra (1938), with jazz and south- for Piano and Orchestra in E flat major American elements, composes also a series (1923) he distributes the working out of the of concertos for piano and orchestra, études, themes both to the whole orchestra and the spiritually and humorously written, and soloist instrument. Beginning with the André Gedalge, who composes the Concerto second decade, the structure of the form and for Piano and Orchestra opus 16 in C Minor. the compositional technique develop new We meet a symbiosis of elements aspects within the framework of the soloist characteristic to the soloist and rhapsodic concerto. Within the bi-, tri-, and concerto (Ravel, Rhapsody – Concerto quadripartite structures one can identify Tzigane, 1924), between concerto and the musical structures which are constituted on symphonic poem or fantasy. The score of the polyphonic forms of baroque, the the orchestra accompaniment is written treatment of the musical elements (melody, either for a great symphonic assembly, for a rhythm, harmony, instrumental timbre chamber orchestra (Hindemith, ostakovici), modulations, dynamics, agogics), unique to or for wind instruments (Kurt Weil – the new musical orientation (expressionism, Concerto for Piano and Woodwinds, and neoclassicism). For example, one can meet Igor Stravinski with his Concerto for Piano Passacaglia, Toccata and Aria as parts of the and Wind Instruments, 1924). Within the concerto (Schönberg, Stravinski, framework of impressionism, French ostakovici). Hindemith is, as I have already composers such as Debussy and Ravel focus pointed out, an example for the re- on the concertizing style, Debussy evaluation of the concertizing genre of the composing the Fantasy for Piano and baroque (Concerto Grosso). In this context, Orchestra (1935) amply developing the Hindemith, as well as the modern symphonic discourse, and Maurice Ravel, composers such as Poulenc, orients towards the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra: № 1 instruments such as the organ, the in G Major and № 2 in D Major for the left clavichord, the viola d’amore, the viola and hand (1935) which I will present further on. the cello. The title changes in Kammermusic The return to the old art, especially for the (Hindemith), Concertino (Stravinski, polyphonic constructions and the modal Honegger, ostakovici) for miniatures, language, is reflected by Ottorino Respighi whose dominant instrumental character is in the Gregorian Concerto for Violin and part of the concertizing spirit, Capriccio Orchestra (1921) and in the Mixolidian (Igor Stravinski, Capriccio for piano) and Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1922). In Bostan, M.C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of … 19 contrast to the modal preoccupations of (1986) by I. Xenakis. Composers such as some composers such as Respighi, the Bartók, Stravinski, and Lutoslawski address dodecaphonic technique was adopted by also the orchestra assembly which they Alban Berg in Concerto for Violin and enrich with concertizing elements specific to Orchestra (1935) and Arnold Schönberg in the instrumental soloist style, by Concerto for Violin and Orchestra opus 36 individualizing the instrumental timbre and (1936), a threefold work, and Concerto for the highlighting within the assembly of the Piano and Orchestra opus 42 (1942), a individual soloists marked by virtuosity. fourfold work, with strong contrasts A preference of the 20 th century between the assembly and the soloist. composers is to be noticed not only in the By synthesizing the already introduced combination of the symphonic elements aspects and summarizing the issues related with the concertizing ones (Prokofiev, to the evolution of the instrumental soloist Honegger, Enescu) but also in the concerto, one pictures the diversity of the impregnation of the compact orchestra options which refer either to the assembly (Symphony or chamber) with compositional writing or to the instruments specific concertizing elements, thus, for which the concertizing works are developing the “concert for orchestra”. The composed. Starting from the “classic” relationship between the soloist and the instruments, the concertizing works address orchestra changes according to the such instruments as: the saxophone, the configuration of the form in which the panpipe, the bandoneon, the clavichord, and concertizing work is made: if it is based on the Marternot waves. classic forms, the soloist instrument is The concertizing spirit reflects on the attributed the main role without the symphonic and chamber genre also by the orchestra’s being, its mere accompaniment symbiosis among the particular support and the harmonic and modular characteristics of these genres (the atmosphere, this representing also a means instrumental soloist virtuosity of the of support and technical work. The soloist assembly’s compartments, with a strong instrument is integrated in the symphony as individualization of the timbre, the well (starting from the transformation into a complementary thematic discourse within symphony of a soloist musical discourse in the symphonic assembly, the increase or the framework of an instrumental concerto), reduction of the assembly and the direct in Prokofiev’s creation (Concerto involvement of the soloist instrument in the Symphony for Cello and Orchestra opus symphonic discourse). The new language is 125, 1953) and Enescu (Concertizing experimented by A. Jolivet in Concerto for Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, 1901). Marternot waves (1947). André Jolivet is a Together with Prokofiev and ostakovici, modern composer who pays special the concerto for the soloist instrument is also attention to the instrumental soloist of interest for the Russian composers Aram concerto, composing a significant number of Haciaturian and Dmitri Kabalevski. the following works: Concerto for Piano Known for his symphonic music and his (1951), 2 concertos for trumpet (1948, 1954) ballet suite, Aram Haciaturian (1904-1978) Concerto for Percussion (1958), 2 concertos dedicates soloist concertos to piano, viola for cello (1962, 1966) and Concerto for and cello where he uses the resources of the Violin (1972). The French composer Armenian folklore from the perspective of achieves a vocal-symphonic symbiosis in the genre’s modernity. Concerto for Soprano and Orchestra – Dmitri Kabalevski (1904-1987) as a Songe nouveau rêvé (1971). The representative of the Russian music avant- constructivist technique and the garde, together with Haciaturian and mathematization of the musical language are ostakovici (although he is forced to blame the reflected in Concerto for Keqrops Piano dodecaphonism), composes 3 concertos for 20 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII piano and orchestra (1936-1937), the Concerto the musical substance of tension (by using for Violin and Orchestra (1940), and the flageolets, trills, tremolos, “col legno”, “sul Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1946). tasto” effects) (A. Vieru, W. Berger). The instrumental virtuosity predominates If up to the 8 th decade of the 20 th century both in the construction of the soloist score the interest of the Romanian composers and in the one of the concertizing instrument, headed mostly towards string instruments by impregnating the symphonic discourse (violin, cello), currently it is decreasing for with specific elements (ample passages in an the concertizing genre generally. Some improvisational style or of an increased composers are heading towards viola and proportion and technical difficulty) and the double bass (M. Moldovan, M. Marbé) [1]. individualization of the instruments in the Thus, the composers of the 20 th century assembly. The rapport between the orchestra continue to promote the instrumental soloist and the soloist instrument can change by the concerto in their creation, focusing on the equal involvement of the two partners in the expressivity of the instrumental timbre, on the development of the symphonic dramaturgy. amplitude of the traditional forms and the The soloist instrument tends to be considered combination of the characteristics of the a “voice” in the symphonic assembly and the concertizing genre with symphonic principles. characteristics of the soloist instruments, of The role of the soloist instrument has an individual assertion and virtuosity, are to be impact on the symphonic conception of the found in the orchestra assembly as well. score as well. In the Romanian music of the 20 th century, The concertizing spirit is reflected in the the composers, starting from George Enescu’s 20 th century as a tendency towards example and using elements of the traditional playfulness and the explanation and popular songs, resort to the stylization of the exhaustion of the technical-expressive folkloric material, capitalizing the melodic- resources of the instruments that are used. To rhythmic characteristics of authentic song and the emancipation of the concertizing spirit dance. Even when they use compositional has also contributed the new vision on modern techniques, Romanian composers instrumentation within the orchestra introduce modal elements within the rigorous assembly; new research on rhythm, the music serial organization. exterior to the European space (jazz, the Starting with 1950, the concertizing music of the Extreme Orient), traditional creation is based on the synthesis of forms folklore and electronic music. The symbiosis and includes a variety of musical languages, that the romantic composers achieved by from tonalism to serialism and modalism transforming the concertizing score into a (Paul Constantinescu and Sigismund symphony, the individualization of the Todu Ńă ). Despite these contributions, one instruments in the symphonic assembly, as can notice that harmony still constitutes a well as the enrichment of the symphonic main element. Similarly, the role of the works with concertizing elements has been soloist instrument in the genre has, in amplified by modern musicians. The relation to the orchestra, a different concertizing spirit from the creation of the contribution. Either it manifests as a composers of the 20 th century is transferred to foreground element, as a soloist voice, or it the symphonic or chamber assemblies and is assimilated in the orchestra assembly. The gains new stylistic coordinates. seventh decade brings along the tendency to dissipate the melodic substance to promote References the timbre punctualism where the technical effects of the instrumental writing represent 1. Firca, L.C. Modernitate i avantgard ă an important means the expression. The în muzica ante-interbelică a secolului atmosphere, the musical idea, the expression XX (1900 - 1940 ). Editura FundaŃiei are evasively suggested, without depriving Culturale Române, 2002. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE COMPOSITIONAL CONTEXT IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20 TH CENTURY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE MAIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THE MUSICAL CULTURE FROM BANAT, THE ROMANIAN AND EUROPEAN MUSICAL CULTURE

V. L. DEMENESCU 1

Abstract: This study follows the development lines, which attract the creations toward the rural folk music direction, the transformation of original melodies (rural or lectern music) according to the affinities for the neo-romantic, neoclassical, folkloric, impressionistic or expressionistic orientations, characteristic to some representative creators.

Key words: modal harmony, musical language, dialects, popular melody.

1. Introduction renewals, managing to make spectacular changes, due to the variety of possibilities The 20 th century, considered relevant as offered by the European musical idioms, at regards the elaboration, the broadcasting, the end of the 19 th and the beginning of the and the knowledge of a new sonorous 20 th century, due to the relationships world, is characterized by the detachment between the Romanian composers and the of the major-minor functionality, in favor western musical environment, or due to of modal sonorities. The compositional their studies at the western schools of orientations, the currents and the directions composition. of the 20 th century can only be the result of Comparing the initial data of the an upper musical endowment that helped autochthonous traditional Melos with the the European composers to succeed with studies made within the national school of the force of their creations, and with a new composition, one could notice the gradual impulse, to cultivate a fertile ground for emancipation of stylistic processes [5]. the next generations [2], the ground of The consequences of these new music able to artistically and harmonically directions are debated by Romanian absorb the features of traditional folklore. musicologists, who do not hesitate to call Following the same ideal, because of the the specialists’ and the public’s attention to folk melodic thesaurus, which was ready to various studies, ample paper works with an receive valorization, the Romanian analytical character, thus offering a solid composers started off on a road of basis regarding the historical and

1 Faculty of Music, Vest University of Timi oara. 22 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII progressive aspect of the original musical harmonies of fourth are present in creation. 24 Popular Songs and Doinas, by Sabin Alongside the development of the two Dr ăgoi, and in the ballet At the Market , by segments of composition and of musicology, Mihail Jora (1891-1971); the the second half of the 19 th century and the accompaniment and the modal cluster are beginning of the 20 th century sustains the present in the suite Impressions from necessary steps regarding the organization Childhood , by George Enescu. of a new cultural society. The organization In the folkloric creation of a people, the of musical education was accomplished by tune not only plays a very important role, the foundation of the Conservatory for but it also represents the trace of mental Music and Declamation in Ia i (1864) and of and historical structure of that people. This the Conservatory of Music in Bucharest affirmation is also valid for the Romanian (1864). people and for the popular song born from The main problem of the Romanian art the people’s lives along centuries [6]. creators seems to be the cultivation of Gottfried Herder pleads in his work modal harmony. Gavriil Musicescu and “Concerns about the Philosophy of Dumitru Kiriac form such stylistic Humankind” for the liberty of all nations orientations, grafted and derived from the to express themselves in their own two traditional lodes of Romanian song, languages. This shows that all nations have the folkloric, and the clerical. their own national values, which define the Romanian music at the beginning of the characteristic Melos that distinguishes 20 th century, with all its aspects, on the one's origins. Thus, within the expressive level of the architectonic form and musical framework of every people, music and languages, is the result of the interference melody represent the basic elements for the between West and East, between the creation of the national specific, which is folkloric and cultured creation, between passed off from one generation to another, laic and church music. Sonorously, the through the inherent evolutions that consequence of the interference offers a metamorphose the human being and its European language with diversified concepts. aspects. The Romanian popular melody has its The connection of Romanian creation to roots in the cultural, social and European creation of that period is made with geographical evolution of the Romanian the common elements within the musical people; their tumultuous history has language typologies, identified in the musical contributed with all kinds of influences to creation of the national schools’ creating the popular melody along time. It representatives. Thus, the modal harmony, reflects the spirituality and artistic genre of imposed through the polyvalent a nation, and many art personalities have functionalism as well as through modal been interested in the deep beauty of cadences, is met in Seven Songs on Lyrics by folklore. Clement Marot , by George Enescu, in The evolution of Romanian music leads Concert for String Orchestra , in Rustic us to the conclusion that the popular Entertainment, by Sabin Dr ăgoi (1894-1968), melody is at the basis of our musical and in The Christmas Byzantine Oratorio, by school. Our folkloric song entails a special, Paul Constantinescu (1909-1963) [4]. unusual mystery, and it requires deep The tritones with a double major-minor knowledge to understand its meaning. aspect are also met in The Third Sonata for The expressive power of music comes Piano and Violin , by George Enescu; the from the blending of verse and melody, Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20 th Century 23 which are different from one region to psychological determinants, which have another. In order to not destroy the given it a certain physiognomy, Byzantine authenticity and originality of customs of religious music has been not only adopted, certain regions, we must avoid certain but also adapted to various people, processes of deliberate and uncontrollable according to their specific musical thinking obscuration of the specific of certain and feeling. Thus, it has received a new, folkloric melodies. original expression and dimension, specific One knows that since ancient times, to the people that have adopted it. people have built a series of popular, Generally regarded, all these people rudimentary, or modern instruments, which form, from a clerical music’s point of had the role to amplify the expressivity of view, the same spiritual community, as the the used sonorous material, and to last researches on compared South-East complete it when it exceeded the European folklore show, each of them possibilities of the human voice. This led contributing by their original and specific to the crystallization of two distinct styles aspects to the crystallization of their own in popular melody: the vocal and the national church music. instrumental style. The causes that have lead to forming The main characteristic of Romanian these national variants of the same original popular music is that it is predominantly Byzantine music are decisive; thus the vocal, the instrumental style being more differences imposed by them are present suitable for dance tunes, pastoral, and not only in each nation, but also within the fiddler’s songs. same nation, in small social communities Another important feature of Romanian like villages. In other words, Byzantine folklore is the idea and the horizontal church music may show artistic expression development of tune, the monody, which is differences from one social unity to present when the tune is performed by a another. group of interpreters. In fact, the variant of unity is an In time, we notice a permanent aesthetical law known ever since Aristotle, development of popular song, which confirmed by various modern acquires new elements: ornaments, experimented researchers, who have melismas, a wider range, and dialectal proved that the lack of variation in unity melodic formulas. These elements need a would lead to monotony and dullness. This colored harmony if they are included in the aesthetical law of variety in unity governs professional creation, to keep the the arts of all times, being expressed in expression of tunes significant. fine arts, in music, language, clothes, Because of the historical and social- customs, etc. Therefore, no one has ever cultural circumstances, which have formed thought to homogenize and generalize the Byzantine religious music, adopted in dialects, popular music, or the clothes general by the South-East European specific to a region. Such an attempt would people, because of the various not only create adverse reactions, it would heterogeneous influences, and because of also be considered absurd. the autochthonous popular music Thus, referring to church music, not only influences that have marked it [1], because the national variants of Byzantine music, the different musical ideas of some of its but also the regional variants within the reformers, because of its oral circulation same people, or its dialects, correspond for centuries, because of the deficiency of folkloric regions. Folkloric regions and notation systems as well as of musical dialects do not only exist in our 24 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII country, Romania, but in all countries; the first centuries of Christianity, the they are determined by the contribution of church cantata had as model the the autochthonous element, specific as synagogue canticle, which had been expression of soul and spiritual community joined, along centuries, by the musical to a social group [3]. Thus, for example, in influences of people from Minor Asia, his work, entitled The Serbian Orthodox Syria, Antiochia, Armenia and the Church Popular Song , which appeared Ancient Greece. Together with the posthumously in 1969 at Beograd, the apparition and development of Christian Serbian bishop Stefan Lastavici establishes hymnography and with the passing of numerous variants of local dialects time, the church canticle suffered a certain (napev ), differing from one another in synthesis, beginning to get a determined richer or poorer melodic lines. specific. The creation and evolution centre As regards our church music, one of the of canticle was Byzantium, the capital of most individualized local dialects is the the East Empire; from here it spread dialect from Banat, a dialect of great towards other great monarchal centers artistic beauty, differing from other from Greece, Mount Athos, Palestine, dialects in its rich and varied melodic, Alexandria and the Romanian countries. nuanced expressivity, as well as in the Along centuries, in the Romanian organic interpenetration and unity between countries, the Byzantine music was an the musical substance and the sacred objective reality, an integrant part of the content of the text. Our church music, in art and culture of the Romanian people. general, as well as the music from Banat, This specific art has been kept, developed has reached the present structure as a result and passed off in a traditional spirit, of a natural evolution, after it assimilated together with its manuscripts written by all influences along centuries, which Romanian copyist musicians, well-known created an entity of autochthonous of the neumatic singing and writing, who elements by spiritual needs specific to the opened schools close to the great thinking and musical predisposition of our monasteries in the country. people. In some regions, like in the old The human voice cannot be defined by Romanian counties, which have been mode or tone notions, but by the influenced by the Greek and Turkish complexity of elements: the musical scale, music, foreign influences have imposed in the genre to which it belongs to, the a different way due to historical and social- sonorous system, the system of cadencies cultural circumstances; these and melodic formulas. Speaking of a circumstances are different from the ones musical scale, we consider a fragment of of the Romanian people from Ardeal and scale, counting sometimes three, four, or Banat. five sounds, and other times even going beyond the octave. The groups of three, 2. Modal Structures in the Byzantine four, or five sounds sometimes form Cantata from Banat sonorous systems; from their chaining or joining are created scales with a greater The music performed in the Church of range. the Orthodox Orient is known as In psalm music, for example, the Byzantine music; musicologists and systems of four or five sounds can be met historians of the modern era, those who in the diatonic genre, as well as in the have focused their attention towards the chromatic genre. Their use slowly leads to study of medieval arts, named it that. In the forming of cadence systems Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20 th Century 25 approximately specific to each voice, as the domination of the Hapsburg Empire well as to the creation of a melodic rises again in the second half of the 19 th formula, determined by the melodic century with the foundation of the choral tessitura, which appears between the basic societies and reunions, explaining thus the sounds of each voice: tonic and dominant development of music and the attempts of (this differs from voice to voice, or, folklore harmonization. Among the oldest sometimes, from a category of canticles to bands from Banat stands the Lugoj choir another, within the same voice). (founded in 1810), and the ploughmen The cadences and melodic formulas are choir from Chiz ătău (founded in 1857). two categories of elements met in The knowledge of the essential data of Byzantine and Gregorian cultured music. the history of music from Banat is very In cultured music, there are melodic important, because it proves the existence formulas that show, starting from different of an artistic climax. The study of musical heights, the same melodic tessitura. This values inherited in time completes the happens in psalm music with the seventh horizon of knowledge, and this is an and the eighth voice’s hymn. efficient way to form and cultivate The more the canticles spread orally, the traditional thinking. more typical the melodic formulas and the Following the ascension of the cadences became. This phenomenon is representative composers from Banat, met in the entire lectern music. The related to the size of the Romanian and reduced number of melodic formulas European composition, we conclude that constraints the ones who perform this the apogee of the creation from Banat is music orally, making it seem, for the less similar to the apogee of the Romanian and skilled people, poor and monotonous. European creation, and this fact sustains Terentiu Bugariu speaks about three the choice of this article’s subject. Thus, models in the church canticle from Banat: 1922 is marked, concerning the creation the proper voice, called the voice itself, from Banat, by the conclusion of the the equivalent of verse style, the voice of Three symphonic paintings by Sabin “stihoavna”, an Orthodox Church song, Dr ăgoi, and in the European creation by and the hymn’s voice, which is similar to the publication of Sonata Nr. 2 for Violin the irmologic style. and Piano by Bela Bartok, by the opera Timotei Popovici affirms that each of the Master Peter’s Puppet Show by Manuel eight voices usually has two or three tunes de Falla, by the first version of the approximately different, which in our orchestral work of Mussorgsky’s Pictures country are called the voice itself, the at an Exhibition by Maurice Ravel, by the hymn’s tune and the antiphon’s tune. The plays entitled Fünf Klavierstücke by same division is made by Dimitrie Arnold Schönberg, and by the opera Cuntan, except the fact that he adds a Mavra and Wind Octet by Igor fourth tune called the “podobia”. Aurel Stravinsky. Popovici mentions the following patterns: The year 1923 brought for the creation the voice’s tune, the antiphons’ tune, the from Banat the apparition of Suite of Folk hymn’s tune and the “pobobia” tune. Dances for Piano, The Romanian Dance The musical art from Banat was of Concerto for Piano , the 25 Doinas for remarked through its originality, related to Piano and the Eight Miniatures for Piano the mentality of the people of that region. by Sabin Dr ăgoi as well as the opera The The national feeling of the Romanian Girl from Cozia by Emil Montia. population from Banat in the period under 26 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

The opera Prince Charming by Herman Lazar; the European repertoire was Klee, a composer from Banat, and the enriched with: The String Quartet nr.3 choral poem King of Mountains by and Micro-Cosmos by Bela Bartok, Thimotei Popovici, complete the Kammermusik Nr.5 and Nr.6 by Arnold compositional picture of the year 1924, Schönberg, and The Second Symphony by which includes the opera Doctor Faust by Dimitri Sostakovici. Feruccio Bussoni, String Quartet by What we attempted to underline in the Gabriel Faure, Kammermusik Nr. 2 for last part of the article sustains the idea that piano obbligato and 12 Solo Instruments the modal musical thinking represents an op. 36 by Paul Hindemith, the rhapsody important conquest of the European and for concerto for violin and piano Tzigane Romanian musical language, including by Maurice Ravel, Concerto in the musical language from Banat, through Mixolydian Mode for Piano and the extraordinary above mentioned works. Orchestra by Ottorino Respighi, Winds Quintet op.26, Serenade op 24 and Suite References for Piano op. 25 by Arnold Schoenberg, Concerto for Piano and Winds by Igor 1. Cinci, E. Sfânta Liturghie – crea Ńia Stravinsky, and Symphony VII op.105 by suprem ă a gândirii religioase. Jan Sibelius. Panciova – Serbia. In: Revista pentru The Prelude, Fugue and Toccata for art ă i cultur ă Lumina, anul LVIII, piano, Five lieder on lyrics by Reiner nr. 7-8-9, 2005, pag.51. Maria Rilke and Romanian Rhapsody nr.1 2. Demenescu, V. L. Modele de gândire by Zeno Vancea mark the year 1926, modal ă în crea Ńia muzical ă european ă together with The Third Sonata for Piano din prima jum ătate a secolului XX . and Violin “in Romanian folk character” Timi oara: Editura Eurostampa, 2006. by George Enescu, Two Romanian 3. Măniu Ń, P.M.; Măniu Ń, L.C. Cronica Dances for Winds, Battery and Piano at ideilor contemporane - studii i Four Hands by Theodor Rogallski, publicistic ă, vol. 1 (compendiu al Lyrische Suite für Streichquartett by dominantelor de gândire ale culturii i Alban Berg, Concerto for Clavicorn, civiliza Ńiei secolului al XX-lea). Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Violin and Cello by Bra ov: Editura Universit ăŃ ii Manuel de Falla, Simfonietta by Leos „Transilvania” din Bra ov, 2005. Janacek, Concerto for Wind Orchestra 4. Stoianov, C. Coordonate stilistice ale op.41 by Paul Hindemith, the poem crea Ńiei lui Sabin Dr ăgoi i Zeno Tapiola op.112 by Jan Sibelius, and Vancea. Bucure ti: Revista Muzica Oedipus Rex by Igor Stravinsky. nr. 4, 1990. In 1927 the opera Năpasta by Sabin 5. Stoianov, C. Repere în neoclasicismul Dr ăgoi and the Psalm 127 by Zeno muzical românesc . Bucure ti: Editura Vancea were finished. In the same year Funda Ńiei România de mâine , 2000. George Breazul founded in Bucharest The 6. Vărădeanu, V. Originea muzicii Phonogramic Archive for the Gathering noastre biserice ti - manuscris. Arhiva and Study of Musical Folklore , and the Episcopiei Aradului. Romanian repertoire was enriched with The Chamber Symphony op.5 by Mihail Andricu, the Fantasy for Symphonic Orchestra by Mihail Mihalovici, Concerto grosso nr.1 op. 17 by Filip Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

ON THE ORNAMENTATION OF BAROQUE MUSIC

Ignac FILIP 1

Abstrac t: The contrastive mentalities of the two nations represent the generating sources of their music: Italians are extroverted and passionate, used to expressing their joy and pain directly and spontaneously, whereas the French filter their feelings intellectually. This is the way the both contrastive mentalities gave birth to two contrastive styles of musical expression. Italian music is characterised by drama, spontaneity, a fantastic richness of musical forms and a colourful expression, which also includes bizarre elements. Its opposite, French music, emerged as a reaction to the volcanic music: it is intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides clear musical forms and precise rules for interpretation. These contrastive elements of expression influenced the entire European musical life strongly, and led to a gradual polarisation of baroque music in relation to the two styles.

Key words : baroque, Italian music, French music, mentality, difference.

French Ornamentation Compared to began to express itself by the means of Italian Ornamentation baroque music. The tendency towards diversification was promoted through the In the European art music from the 17 th inevitable connections and the reciprocal and the first part of the 18 th century, there influences of the traveller-musicians and it, was no stylistic unity. Different finally, resulted in two contrastive forms: compositional and interpretative manners the French and the Italian style. existed in different musical centres, which The emergence of these forms of musical evolved farther away from the common expression is not randomly related to the roots of the musical baroque. two peoples. The contrastive mentalities of The musical communication among the two nations represent the generating these centres was established during the sources of music: Italians are extroverted journeys of the famous interpreters and and passionate; they use to express their composers of the time. By their trips, the joy and pain directly and spontaneously, musicians familiarized the Europeans with whereas the French filter their feelings the musical language characteristic to their intellectually. This is the way the both native places. contrastive mentalities gave birth to two Starting from a common source, Italian contrastive styles of musical expression. music, the baroque European music, Italian music is characterised by drama, became more diverse. spontaneity, a fantastic richness of musical The stylistic diversity, which emerged forms and a colourful expression, which mainly from the specifics of each nation, also includes bizarre elements. Its

1Dept. of Musical Interpretation, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 28 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII opposite, French music, emerged as a the violin, like the famous Arcangelo Corelli, reaction to the volcanic music; it is whose eyes reddened countless times, whose intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides face maimed, and whose eyes moved as if in clear musical forms and precise rules for agony, so that the interpretation of the music interpretation. These contrastive elements seemed to have transformed him into a of expression influenced the entire different man’ [4]. European musical life strongly, and led to Quantz (chapter X. 19): ‘Italian music is a gradual polarisation of baroque music in less balanced; French music is yet much relation to the two styles. One element too restrained and, probably, because of that should not be ignored is the traditional that, in French music even what is new political, cultural and spiritual rivalry seems old. But, the French style should not which existed between the two nations. be despised; we recommend to beginners This rivalry marked the two musical styles, to combine the decent and clear conduct of the conceptions of the music lovers and the the French interpretation with the Italian contemporary professional musicians. The clear-obscure’ [4]. French considered the Italian music tasteless Quantz (chapter XVIII): ‘The taste of and vulgar. On the other hand, the Italians these two nations determine the others' considered the French music inexpressive taste as well.’ and useless, destined for the ears, and not for These two contrastive styles led to two the heart. To understand the atmosphere of different styles of ornamentation. In the the period and of its musical rivalries, some Italian style, the figurative ornamentation of the most controversial opinions are worth was primordial for the use of the proper to be quoted: ornamentations. The Italians preferred a Marin Mersenne ( Harmonie universelle spontaneous improvisation, an – Paris, 1636-37, p. 356): ‘Italians strive embellishment of the melodies through themselves to render passions, spiritual melodic notes, figures and rhythmic- states ... for us, the French, it is enough to melodious cells. The French used the please the ears’ [1]. ornamentation of the musical sounds as the Georg Muffat ( Florilegium, I. – basic unity of melody. Augsburg, 1695): ‘The French are There are some quotations about the characterized by a natural melodic spirit French and Italian ornamentation: and suppleness – a soothing character Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 2): ‘ Man kann which is dispersed by excessive and das Adagio, in Unsehung der Art dasselbe useless variations, by too frequent and zu spielen, und wie es nötig ist, mit uninspired intervals’ [2]. Mannieren auszuzieren, auf zweherlen Art Francois Raguenet ( Parallele des Italiens betrachten; entweder im französischen, et des Francais, en ce qui regarde la oder im italianischen Geschmachte…Die musique et les opera ) [3]: [The French] erste Art erfordert einen netten und an ‘play the violin with much more delicacy einander hangenden Vortrag des and care, in comparison to the Italians who Gesanges, und eine Auszierung desselben agonise every time: the cellist tortures his mit den wesentlichen Manieren, als instrument and his body, he loses control Vorschlägen, ganzen und halben Trillern, and is so agitated, as if this impetuous Mordanten, Doppelschlägen, battemens, movement were an infirmity. I have not seen flattements, u.d.gl.; sonst aber keine anyone so seized with passion while playing weitläuftigten Passagien, oder großen Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music 29 zusatz willkührlicher Verzierungen…. ’ One cannot deny the fact that, in the Italian [The interpretation of the Adagio and its music, the interpreters have the same merit ornamentation can be dealt with according as the composers; but, in the French music, to two ways: the French or the Italian way the contribution of the composers to the … The first way demands an engaging perfect achievement of the melody is and fluent interpretation, and an greater than that of the interpreters] [4]. ornamentation of the melody with basic After all, the two musical styles got elements such as appoggiaturas, trills, together through their synthesis, from mordents, groups, vibratos, but without which the German baroque emerged, and further arbitrary ornamentations] [4]. through the great artists of the time such as Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 3): ‘ Die Telemann, Händel and Bach. französische Art das Adagio auszieren, kann man durch gute Anweisung, ohne die References Harmonie zu verstehen, erlernen.Zu italiänischen hingegen wird die 1. Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato Wissenschaft der Harmonie unumgänglich (Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten erfordert.’ [The French ornamentation of im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil the Adagio can be learned under good 1, in Tibia 2/97, p. 401-407. guidance, without having to study 2. Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato harmonies. In comparison, the Italian (Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten ornamentation requires knowledge of im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil harmony] [4]. 2, in Tibia 3/97, p. 481-488. Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 4): ‘ Daß die 3. Donnington, Robert. A performer’s französischen Componisten die guide to baroque music , Faber and Auszierungen mehrenteils mit hin Faber, Londra, 1973 (în limba schreiben; und der Ausführer also auf maghiar ă: A barokk zene nichts weiter zu denken habe, als die gut el ıadásmódja ). Budapest: Editura vorzutragen, ist schon gesaget worden. Im Zenem őkiadó, 1978. italiänischen Geschmachte wurden, in 4. Ganassi, Sylestro. Opera intitulata vorigen Zeiten, gar keine Auszierungen Fontegara/La quale insegna a sunare darzu geseßet; sondern alles der Willkühr di flauto . Vene Ńia, 1535 (în limba des Ausführers überlassen;…Die denn german ă dup ă Peter, Hildemarie: nicht zu läugner ist, daß in der Schule des kunstvollen Flötenspiels italiänischen Musik fast eben so viel auf und Lehrbuch des Diminuierens ). den Ausführer, als die Componisten; in der Berlin: Robert Linau Verlag, 1956. französischen aber, auf den Componisten 5. Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Musik als weit mehrals auf den Ausführer ankomme, Klangrede , Editura Residenz Verlag, wenn das Stück seine volkommene Salzburg und Wien, 1982 (traducerea Wirkung thun soll.’ [The French în limba maghiar ă: A beszédszer ő composers used to display most of their zene ). Budapesta: Editura Editio ornaments; thus, the interpreter did not Musica, 1988. have anything else to do than to interpret 6. Mersenne, Marin. Harmonie them correctly. Italians preferred not to universelle . Paris, 1636-1637, p. 356. display the ornamentations at all; they 7. Muffat, Georg. Florilegium. were left to the interpreters' ingenuity … Augsburg, 1695. 30 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

8. Quantz, Johann. Versuch einer regarde la musique et les opéra. Paris, Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu 1702. spielen. Berlin , 1752. 11. Raguenet, François. Parallele des 9. Quantz, Johann. Versuch einer Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu regarde la musique et les opéra. Paris, spielen, 1752. 1702.

10. Raguenet, François. Parallele des Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS IN AUREL STROE’S MUSIC

1 Petru Ńa M. M ĂNIU ł

Abstract: Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person who found similarities between works of art and fuzzy sets, which are subject to gradual change. In compositional art, Aurel Stroe translates these notions into his music. This perspective is adequate, since mathematical notions are very close to the aesthetics of works of art, which involve a poetic dimension, the ethics of intentional ambiguity and vagueness, features which promote musical interpretation.

Key words: fuzzy sets, contemporary music, (non-)Euclidean geometry.

The music of Aurel Stroe is one of the and organically be identified in his best Romanian works of art of the XXth compositions. century. The aesthetic approach on fuzzy sets Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person is a way to analyze the profound signification who found similarities between works of of his art. The explanations I will provide art and fuzzy sets, ”which are subject to further refer to the way mathematical gradual change” [2]. This perspective is arguments simplify the understanding of a adequate, since mathematical notions are work of art, especially in the context of the very close to the aesthetics of works of art, XX th century, when philosophy and art which involve a poetic dimension, ”the introduced ”the primacy over the real”. ethics of intentional ambiguity and Mathematics is useless within a world in vagueness”, features which promote which the possible does not take musical interpretation” [3, p. 62]. precedence: ”if you take the real for There is an obvious compatibility granted or consider it unique, you miss the between mathematical notions and unit of deeper mathematics. But if you phenomena, which are deeply related to double, triple or polymerize the real, if you each other, and the artistic background, as dive into the ocean of the possible, then it is shown in the specialized literature. mathematics becomes a means to know, to Goethe promoted the mathematic approach explore the possible” [1, p. 61]. The work concerning art, by pointing out the spiritual of art is itself a reality meant to multiply dimension of mathematics, which reality in a deeply recreative way, which is contributes to the development of the neither photographic nor mimetic. The creative artistic phenomenon: musical masterpieces composed by Aurel ”mathematics is an element of the inner Stroe are the best examples to support the superior sense; practically, it is an art. statement above, as they reflect a perspective Nevertheless, mathematics is not able to of the possible, infinite world, as well as the perform any moral act; a mathematician is marginal visions of reality. The composer’s accomplished only if he is accomplished as spiritual refinement is transposed to his an individual” [4, p. 53]. The end of the musical work, which is the fruit of his quotation made by the Romantic German approach on world and art, and which artist makes the distinction between the explains why these concepts can naturally artistic valuation of the artistic piece of work

1 Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 32 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII and its creator’s moral profile, which proves sense of delineating three specific directions: to be so important. As one fundamental law the study of structure, space and changes. of aesthetics states, ”every aesthetic end The study of structure generally focuses product may not always be moral”; it on the theory of numbers (elementary proclaims the superiority of the spiritual algebra); abstract algebra is the result of a quality over the aesthetic aspect. deep investigation and abstracting of these ”The Euclidean geometry is the perfect theories (abstract algebra studies the introduction to philosophy” [5, p. 35]. The structures which generalize the properties work of art has a lot in common with the of numbers in the usual sense). The philosophical conceptions of non-Euclidean ”vector” concept, generalized in the sense geometry, especially as regards the meaning of vector space, and studied by linear of Aurel Stroe’s composition work which algebra, is specific both to the study of displays complex ideational understood structure and space. The study of space implications. Euclid, the famous Greek naturally starts from (Euclidean) geometry geometrician, who lived around 300 B.C., and three-dimensional familiar was a professor in Egypt; among other trigonometry which later becomes non- works, it is worth mentioning his book, Euclidean geometry and plays an essential ”Elements”, a geometry manual, which role in the theory of relativity. The study of contains individual theorems for plane and change, as it reflects the dramatic special geometry, algebra and the theory of background of the musical discourse, is numbers. He promoted the logical reasoning necessary, especially in case of arts, where and deduction and influenced Newton in his measurement and predictability of work ”Principia”. Today it is known that the changing some variables are essential. Euclidean geometry is not the only The current development process of independent geometric system due to human society requires ever more Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (”the resources, both material and human. We Euclidean geometry is not respected in can notice a constantly changing scale of vicinity of the black holes and the neutron values and lifestyles; we are on the stars, where the gravitational fields are very threshold of supportability, at a critical intense)” [6]. point in human evolution. It is the energy Mathematics is usually defined as the and the space-time of the habitat in which science which is concerned with structure, we are dwelling that keeps us together. All change and space. A modern approach on these barriers are also related to the level mathematics states that it is concerned with of civilisation we are living in, to the way the investigation of abstract structures, people create, achieve and consume artistic axiomatically defined by formal logics. products, and to the present cultural The basics of the structures investigated by paradigm. Therefore, we should consider mathematics are sometimes found in music from a space-limit perspective (a natural sciences (especially in Physics). philosophical limit of non-Euclidean Mathematics defines and investigates its geometry): the conquest of a new own structures and theories, to synthesize dimension, the perception and pragmatic use and unify multiple mathematic fields as a of the properties of a new dimension could unique theory, a method which usually be more than an intellectual challenge, a step simplifies generic methods for calculation. towards self fulfilment and, implicitly, a Occasionally, mathematicians study fields of proof that man can survive in a world which mathematics strictly for their abstract seems to be consumed. interest; therefore this approach is more The issue regarding the fourth dimension related to art than to science. The specific is not only a mathematical issue, but also domains of mathematics are used to mark an aesthetical one. Nevertheless, nobody, generically the limits of the trends excepting for the mathematician Howard approached by mathematics to date, in the Hinton who had intensively trained his Măniu Ń, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music 33 imagination, has got a picture of the modern composition art. The tragic feature volume in a non-artistic act with of the paradox of the non-Euclidean significant expressive implications. All knowledge” [7, p. 122] is very well adapted great mathematicians, except for a few of to the aesthetic background approved by them (Henri Poincare was ahead of them), contemporary art. agree to the fact that there is incontestably This new geometry shows that space is no a four-dimensional space. Nowadays, a longer the Euclidean space. It is also obvious great number of scholars and philosophers that we are able to understand various types are concerned with the issue of the fourth of spaces with different properties, where dimension. This issue replaced the interest parallel lines meet, where the angles of a people used to have for the squaring of the triangle scale down unlimitedly while its circle or for the perpetuum mobile. To sides become longer, and other similar conceive the fourth dimension, we should anomalies. The non-Euclidean geometry leave the strictly scientific, concrete turns into a hyper geometry or a dimension of the human universe which metageometry, a theoretical background to can be directly analyzed, and study investigate hyperspace, the fourth dimension. thoroughly the meanings of art. But what is hyperspace? Once this question is It is known that Euclidean geometry has asked, difficult issues are brought into three dimensions: length, width, height or discussion. Is it a space accessible to man, to thickness. It is only since 1621, due to the his spirituality, or is it a hypothetical space research done by Sir Henri Saville, that a new similar to Einstein’s space? type of (non-Euclidean) geometry was born Here we are very close to the concept of because of certain obscure issues specific to the infinity of the (aesthetic, expressive) geometry (especially as regards parallel universe which raises the following question: lines); this discipline was the result of the what is a bound? It may be more than ”the contributions made by Saccheri, Lambert, extremity of a certain surface”. The issue Gauss, Lobatschevsky (his research was related to infinity is abnormally complex and highly appreciated by the scientific world), out of the intricate network of numbers, of Bolyai, Riemann, Helmholtz, Beltrami and abstract or concrete geometry; it suffices to many others. Simultaneously with remember the difference between ”the Lobacevski, the Hungarian mathematician undefined” and ”the infinity”. The infinity from Transylvania Janos Bolyai (1802-1860) which pushes our imagination to limits is created non-Euclidean geometry. During his nothing else but the undefined. It is nothing studies, but especially after he graduated the else but a variable infinity which oversteps Academy in Vienna, Janos Bolyai made the imposed bounds. Our imagination cannot important discoveries which contributed to perceive but a finite area, to which is added his major work "Appendix" (1832); his work another finite area, and this circuit is endless. was published in Latin as a completion of the It can neither reach big infinity nor small manual written by his father. The results infinity, only what is left finite. Imagination achieved are a thorough dialectic study of the cannot reach infinity, neither the bound of big issues of mathematics. Bolyai’s research set infinity nor zero, the bound of small infinity. up the foundation of new trends in geometry These two ”extreme states” of infinity are which, however, were not understood and ideas which only reason can understand. appreciated by his contemporaries. ”The infinity made of more pieces is nothing The research of the reference works but the mobile and fugitive shape, the parody mentioned above proves the profound of infinity”. correlation between them and the musical Mathematical infinity removes phenomenon created by Aurel Stroe, which imagination and first appeals to reason. To has a unique interior geometry, developed conceive and reach infinity, reason does according to other macro and micro formal not have to cover the domain of infinity laws than the ones commonly used in and waste the series of undefined bounds. 34 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

It is enough for reason to find that a finite All Kantian and Neokantian efforts made right line can be prolonged on both sides, by idealist empiricists finish up by to find also that any given number can be preserving the same obscure information added to a unit, and to notice that this is on this issue; all philosophers who were always possible, independent of the preoccupied with space and time (Spencer, number or the line. The mathematic Helmholtz, Renouvrier, James Sully, infinity is a kind of ”spontaneous infinity”, Stumf, Wiliam James, Ward, Stuart Mill, similar to the artistic infinity; it is an Ribot, Foille, Iuyan, Bain, Lechalas, infinity which is made up outside Balmes, Donnan, Bergson, and many imagination and reason, which gives birth others) were not able to solve the double to the force of things, the infinite numbers enigma; their most controversial theories or the projections of superior geometry. are still obscure. Among the scholars According to Jouffret, ”a geometrical preoccupied with the exploration of the being would be created with its own multiple dimensional geometry, it is worth individuality, which is above the finite and mentioning Poincare and Goursat (France), the unlimited”, while the unlimited is Cayley, Hinton (United Kingdom and the connected to our mind. Such a superior United States of America). Certain theories being could act in an interpersonal space promoted by Hinton or some remarks of which would overstep our imagination, Boucher’s geometry state that the one who either in big infinity or small infinity, can use the fourth dimension will be able without having anything in common with to see the whole interior of the material this imagination. It is a space which people bodies, without being stopped by their can conceive beyond their reason, and this surface and even without taking it into had been impossible but for the mysterious consideration; the tiniest interior and force of art, whose impact on the concepts exterior particles of objects will appear as of new mathematics has become obvious; juxtaposed, not as superposed. Whatever it imposed the ideas of an extra human we may think, what happens beyond our space, which at first sight seems more being is much more fertile than anything unreal than our hereditary space, where which happens anywhere else. things happen similarly to the way they do Schofield (Hinton’s disciple) presented in our familiar space. the three dimensional life in an ingenious It is not easy to know or to define a way. He started from the non-dimensional hyperspace (from a cultural, not from a being, who cannot see anything, not even geophysical point of view). It is difficult to herself/himself; everything is non-being define the three dimensional space: the and s/he is convinced that the non-being is Kantian formula, which states that space is her/his universe. On the next level, there is subjective, a required supposition of all the linear being, who lives together with experiences, cannot be ignored. The her/his fellows; s/he cannot see anything comparison between aprioricists, who state but the extremities of the line, a point. that the idea of space is innate, and Then he analised the plane being, or the empiricists, who argue that this idea is the two dimensional being, who cannot see result of experience, does not ease the anything but two lines; in the end, the issue under discussion; neither do we find thinker described the volume being, who out whether to accept the idea that space is cannot see anything but surfaces and the a structuration order in time and that time hypervolume being (the artistic work), who is a succession order, as Leibnitz stated. can perceive volumes instantaneously and We do not go any deeper in understanding completely. All revelations and apparitions this issue if we state that time can be in the Old and New Testament come from represented by space or that space is beings who possess the fourth dimension: necessary for all representations. the spiritual dimension which makes the Măniu Ń, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music 35 perception and feeling of the artistic act spirit is able to identify it. Our spirit can possible. develop a superior conception of the fourth Hinton proved to be the scholar who dimensional space, adequate to our passionately dedicated himself to tridimensional space and it can use it researching the fourth dimension. He was likewise. The only difficulty is to decide or at not only a mathematician, who used to least to sense that there is a fourth dimension make fun of the thrilling game of the most (or even more dimensions) in the universe. daring hypotheses, but also a balanced, Therefore, the three dimensions are the gifted man with a vast, unique imagination, measurements of matter in space. These which allowed him to put forward viable measurements take into account only one theories for most of his abstractions. feature or characteristic of matter: the Besides the mathematical works, he also extension in space. From this point of view wrote scientific literary works, but only a it is impossible to find other dimensions, few of them were successful. This is the except for length, width and thickness. But case for the novel Stella, which narrates it is likely that other senses (like the the life of a young girl, who was made cultural sense) could reveal other invisible by her father (he took the unexpected coordination characteristics of principle of the refraction of light as a space and time; thus, we might discover an basis). In ”The Fourth Dimension”, the extension of the fourth dimension. As reader is led to the darkest of the greatest Ouspensky stated, ”by time we understand enigmas: the author pretends to have built ”the distance” which separates the events some solid four-dimensional cells called in their succession, connecting them to tesseracts which are a close transposition different entities. The distance can be of a four-dimensional space. found in a direction which does not exist in What Hinton wants us to develop by this the three dimensional space: the fourth experience is a special feeling (comparable dimension. By the term ”time” we express with the fundamental power of the spirit). a reality, a certain space and a movement This means that we have to train our within the space and, consequently, the conscience to look at things from a time extension is the extension in an different, non-conventional point of view: unfamiliar space, which explains why time an artistic, aesthetic point of view. Hinton is the fourth dimension of space”. stated that ”when we meet infinity at a Nevertheless, from a certain point of view, certain moment of our thinking, this is a time and space are interchangeable. sign that this way of thinking is related to a Mathematicians use time as it were the reality which proves to be higher than the fourth dimension of space. The idea of one we are used to”. The space we usually explaining space by time and time by conceive is limited, not in terms of surface, space is similar to the one by which we try but in a way which cannot be grasped. But to explain the night by the day and the day why does space have to be by the night. According to Ouspensky, ”the tridimensionally limited? The spiritual sense of time is an imperfect sense of experience is the only capable of space, it is the limit of our space”. Space is answering this question. We may the visible present; time is a burning space experience the cultural existence of the which becomes past or future. Space is an fourth dimension; in a way or another, the intense time, a horizontal time; time-space human being is not simply a tridimensional is the lasting time, time is the ephemeral (material) being. There have been put space. We cannot measure our limited forward certain suppositions, which in an space but as related to time. If we want to arbitrary and artificial way provided a draft give time a reality, we can only represent it of the relation of our body with the existence as an immaterial space. It provides a total of the fourth dimension; it states that our lack of objects; in exchange, it is full of the 36 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII events it develops. For us, time begins mathematical figure; it is the real world of when we cannot understand each other any physics, the way pursued by physicists to longer; the picture of space is made up reach reality. Metageometry also looks around us, when we follow the passing of outside our space for less conventional and time. Space and time share certain subjective situations which have uncertain properties; for example, the centrifugal relations with the space we created (or force (this mysterious energy which is the which was created inside ourselves) to help eternal enemy of gravitation), as the rotary us understand the phenomena of the motion of the Earth, has a mathematical universe. representation by the formula in which ”There is not only the sensuous music; time and space intervene. By virtue of this there is also a spiritual music. There is not principle, time is limited only by time and only the music which is being performed at space is limited only by space; space is present, but also the eternal music, which almost always limited by time, and time is exists even when it is not performed. All surrounded by space. They fight for lonely people have their silent music inside supremacy and vanish in the dark. Space themselves and I am glad that there is such necessarily exists in time. music. But where do people get the music Eddington stated that ”the fundamental from? They get it from us, the musicians, measure is not between points in space, but because it has to be first performed and between two points in space associated to listened to (…) so that any person can some moments in time (the case of the think about it and dream of it when s/he work of art). We consider time a moving returns home” [8, p. 134-135]. of space and space a break of time; in reality, time is as motionless as space. We References picture it as a river which flows unceasingly. In reality, it has never moved, 1. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei . Bucharest: it is we who are flowing, not time. We are Humanitas Press, 1991. kept between space and time and end in a 2. Dediu, D. Fenomenologia actului cosmic deadlock. When mathematicians componistic. Bucharest, 1995. get us out of space, when they get to a 3. Larson, C. Persuasiunea – receptare i critical point in which space gives no feed responsabilitate . Ia i: Polirom Press, back to their calculations, they make a 2003. fourth variable break into the background, 4. Goethe, J. W. Maxime i reflec Ńii . time, which restores the balance of their Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972. calculations and allows them to go further. 5. Goethe, J. W. Maxime i reflec Ńii The work of art is related to this (Meditations and reflections) . temporal reality which contributes to the Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972. embodiment of the work of art and the 6. Hart, M. O sut ă de personalit ăŃ i care cultural (even more, the spiritual) au influen Ńat evolu Ńia omenirii . dimension, which is in fact the fourth Bucharest: Lider Press, 2003, art. dimension (left aside by mathematicians). Euclid . In conclusion, Hilton assures us that we 7. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest: will never be able to see a four Humanitas Press, 1991. dimensional figure physically, but only 8. Hesse, H. Lupul de step ă. Bucharest: with the mind’s eye. The real, three Rao Press, 1995. dimensional and strictly material world is obsolete; it has to be replaced by non- Euclidean properties and by four dimensional space and time. The four dimensional world is not just a mere Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

CREATIVITY IN THE MUSICAL GAME – A MAJOR ELEMENT IN THE EDUCATION OF PUPILS

Lucian NIRE ŞTEANU 1

Abstract: The paper, which belongs to the field of pedagogical methodology, aims at emphasizing the game as a permanent activity in a person’s life. This activity manifests itself in the first years of life by the employment of the so-called ‘functional games’ for the coordination and gradual organization of the child’s physical movements; it continues with fictional games, and creation games. These games are also employed in the creative work of adults, and they seem necessary for the maintenance of one's moral and psychic balance.

Key words: game, creation, modeling, activity, stimulation, mission, emotional background, creative work.

Musical games have a long tradition in in particular, fulfills several functions: it the history of universal music, representing promotes the creativity, the modeling, and sources of inspiration in the practice of the development of the children’s composition; they are needed to promote personalities. Due to this factor, games the instructive, educational and formative have always represented an important development of children. research topic in the fields of education, Equally, due to their importance, musical psychology, and biology. Despite its games have been subject to spread, research on games became methodological research concerning the functional only in the 20 th century. identification of the most efficient means From a large range of opinions and for teaching music in relation to the observations of some thinkers, philologists physical, psychologic and artistic and famous artists, the most useful can be necessities of children. These methods considered the ones referring to the have been perfected by the teachers in the purpose of the game in connection to the Romanian educational system, who, by life and activity of children and youth at elaborating the necessary musical different ages. materials, have contributed to the Thus, one of the most comprehensive development of the children’s personalities definitions about games is that of as future professional musicians. Friederich Schiller (1759-1805), who, in Talking about games, one can assert that his work called “Letters on the Aesthetic they are adapted to the age of a person. Education of Man”, states that “the human Being a human activity, the musical game, becomes truly human when he plays, the

1 Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 38 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII game representing the main means of his playing games, they prepare for life’; the full expression of freedom”. games represent, thus, the practical According to the poet’s statement, the exercises necessary to becoming mature. game reflects a person's creativity. Throughout this presentation, there have The Dutch historian and theoretician of been made references to a signifying culture, Johan Huizinga (1872-1945), definition of the game, as a formative and presents in his famous book, “Homo creative action, bearing a great importance ludens” (1938), a conception about game for the children's and adolescents’ life to that is close to that of Schiller. Huizinga their gradually becoming mature. To an considers the game “an essential, equal degree, the game fulfills a functional stimulating element of all forms of human role of great significance in the life of culture”. adults as well. According to the psychologist Edouarde For an adult, the work on a daily basis Claparede (1873-1940), the game stands should not represent a mere obligation, for the most important preoccupation relative to the function that he has, for towards which the child manifests its full which he is paid; work should be viewed, interest, since it supports its biological and instead, as a permanent creating activity psychological needs. In Claparede’s which might be interpreted as a superior conception, the meaning of game consists manner for the manifestation of game. in the very ‘action of playing’, which An occupation which lacks the emotional ‘prepares the future, by quenching the background created by the permanent needs of the present’. addition of novelties, progressively added The Russian psychologist Serghei to the process of the daily activity from a Leonidovici Rubinstein (1889-1960), particular field, (the addition of novelties defines the game as being ‘the child of means creative work), will degrade in time. work’. He demonstrates that the game is a If one limits himself to the operations product specific to human activity, and that based on a daily routine, he will end the essence of the game consists of the performing an activity which lacks children's preoccupation with the ‘reflected satisfaction, a necessary feature in the transformation of reality’. For example, process of work. one social function of a mother is that of On the other hand, active adults, as well preparing food for her family; in games, as retired people, have during their free the child takes over the function of the time vital energies. These need to be mother, pretending to cook for other consumed to avoid boredom, which is a children, an activity which causes it much psychically extremely dangerous satisfaction and joy. Paul Popescu phenomenon. The free time of an adult Neveanu states in the “Dictionary of should be filled with different challenging Psychology” (Dictionarul de psihologie - preoccupations of a creative type; adults Bucharest, 1978) that a child's game is ‘a could also get involved into society or kind of … determining activity for his sports games with a festive character psychological development’. which have the purpose of bringing joy In the children's and youth’s life, the and satisfaction. game fulfills a formative function: ‘by Nire teanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education … 39

A special category of games is Thus, the child prepares for activities far represented by gambles. These ones, by more complex, getting prepared to attend their nature, have a double effect: either school. the euphoria of the gain, or the failure During school, the creative games which can trigger personal dramas in change gradually into practical activities, association to drugs, or even to dramatic, creating thus a consciously created sometimes, fatal actions. product. This represents the stage where From here the necessity of finding an we can already talk about an equivalence occupation for one's spare time, and of of games and creative work. consuming supplementary energy, by The different types of games played at choosing creative actions, such as society different school ages actively participate in games, which have the benefit of inducing the development of the creative initiatives a state favorable to creative work, of the pupils. rightfully considered as happiness. The importance of the educative value of For adults, the game has also an the musical game consists of the fact that, important function, for their daily because of the emotional states that it professional activities, in emphasizing induces, it can become an efficient method other features: fun and entertainment, in the harmonious development of the relaxation after work, the escape from the human psyche at all ages. This is why we influence of preoccupations that may stress the necessity of using modern negatively affect a person's sensitivity. teaching procedures, inspired from the vast These games can be categorized as: society field of instructive games, in the games, artistic-musical or sportive games, instructive-educational process. It is worth destined to the satisfaction of one’s desire mentioning the vital energy comprised in to win in fair competitions, according to the musical games; this energy stimulates some precise rules among groups of valuable creative performances. partners participating in the game. Unlike other games, the musical game, as One can argue that the totality of the a dynamic form of instructive games, will spiritual and material productions, as influence a child more strongly in his consequences of the human mind and educational development, due to the effort, have been born within processes of strengthening of the transfer qualities of creative work, which, at times, may be music. taken for the game itself, the latter thus Musical games carry different aesthetic becoming the most moral human activity, values which become materialized in: the most serious ‘child of work’. songs, different rhythms, polyphonies, The creative game is the type of game by catchy lyrics, adequate to the actions which the child builds, draws, models, linked to the children’s age, songs, sings, dances, plays different musical associated to physical movements, instruments, etc. By getting familiar with choreography, the use of school musical different working materials, from different instruments, etc. These values promote the activity fields, in the process of playing a development of the pupils’ creativity on game, the child will perform the practical several levels. exercises which correspond to their use. 40 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII

The several reflections related to the 2. Vasile, V. Metodica educa Ńiei creativity of the musical game reveal the muzicale. In: Muzica . Bucure ti: great importance of the musical game in Editura Muzical ă, 2004. the socialization of pupils; the musical 3. Iv ă canu, A. Jocul muzical cu cântec. game proves to be, thus, a major factor in Contribu Ńii la educa Ńia muzical ă the education of pupils. pre colar ă. Cluj-Napoca: Academia de Muzic ă „Gh.Dima”, 1969. References 4. Niedermayer, A. Educa Ńia muzical ă modern ă. Concep Ńia pedagogic ă i 1. Munteanu, G. Jocul în educa Ńia instrumentarul Orff. Sibiu: Editura muzical ă. Bucure ti: Editura Hora, 1999. Universit ăŃ ii Na Ńionale de Muzic ă.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

PAUL CONSTANTINESCU – A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE ROMANIAN MODERN COMPOSITION SCHOOL

Roxana PEPELEA 1

Abstract: Paul Constantinescu distinguishes himself as a representative of the folk trend as well as the father of the Romanian Byzantine style; he also discovered the comic stream of Romanian spirituality and acquired a prominent place among the neoclassic Romanian composers. These four directions outline the stylistic tendencies reflected in his creation.

Key words: Paul Constantinescu, modal, neo-modal, diatonic, chromatic.

1. Introduction for larger forms ( Symphonietta ), the amplification of folk motif by pasting other The entire modern national school of citations or personal motives ( the composition is centred on the folk- Romanian Suite, the Concerto for the Byzantine axis that sets its traditional String Orchestra ), the creation of some nuances, being permeable to worldwide more complex modal melo-rhythmic trends like the Expressionism or the structures ( the Symphony ), the formation of Neoclassicism. Displaying a unitary melodic profiles of folk essence based on character, Paul Constantinescu’s creation the utilization of the whole-step and half- sets itself in this traditional reality by step structure ( the Concerto for the String particular aspects. Orchestra, the Piano Concerto) , the application of the cyclic principle ( the 2. Content Symphony ), the exploitation of the modal archetypal cell as a generating element ( the The folk direction goes along the steps of Triple Concerto ). Enescu’s creation, from using the The Byzantine direction registers only quotation, through the creation in folk or the first two steps of processing (the same Byzantine vein, to the stage of essentials as with folk music). If the folk creation and extraction of archetypes. With P. follows a method towards complexity, the Constantinescu, the existence, between Byzantine one comes to simplification, these steps, of some transition phases from the instrumentalism and related to the elaboration level of folk data chromaticism of the Two Byzantine Studies is to be noted: the harmonization of folk to the diatonic aspect of the Byzantine melody ( the Romanian Suite, the Variations for Cello and Orchestra and the Symphonic dances , Three Pieces for the Byzantine Sonata for Cello Solo, finally Piano ), its utilization as a theme generator reaching the vocal style of the Psaltic

1 Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 42 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Liturgy. Thus, the peak of this direction, separate expressions: the humorous, the the Oratorios in Byzantine style, represents grotesque , the transcendental comic (with the most faithful expression of the a view to philosophy). The humorous composer’s modal diatonicism. The expression (caricature) refers to a utilization of a common potential of miniature type programme music (Four intonations, with cantus firmus Fables for the Piano) , or it is in Arghezi’s individuality, taken over, probably, from manner (Cântece pentru voce i pian, Macarie, is remarkable for proving the lyrics by Arghezi, or Ciurezu). The unitary character of the Byzantine style. grotesque receives tragic-comical, absurd The neoclassic direction originates, on (Din c ătănie, Gornistul, apte cântece din the one hand, in the recovering of some uli Ńa noastr ă), or frivolous, parodic, classical valences (symmetry, equilibrium) realistic-critical nuances, or nuances in the of the Eastern European folklore, and manner of Caragiale ( O noapte harmonizes, on the other hand, with a furtunoas ă). The transcendent humour worldwide tendency of the epoch – directs the Balkan spirit to the border of recovering and applying the classic sublimated play; it is of ludicrous subtlety, composition forms and techniques to the and combines elements of the Turkish Romanian ethos. The Neoclassicism in Orient (Isarlîk) with the philosophic Constantinescu’s creation belongs to the essence of Ion Barbu’s poetry ( Riga area of syntheses: between the neoclassic Crypto i Lapona Enigel). Under the (neo-baroque) style and the folk one influence of Anton Pann’s style, the source (Three Pieces for the Piano, Symphonietta, of inspiration is confounded here with a Prelude for the Piano Solo) – a synthesis certain level of folklore (the urban type) achieved by most Romanian creators in robustly coloured with the Greek-oriental this epoch; between the neoclassic and the influences of the time (augmented second, Byzantine style (Liturgy, Oratorios) – an diminished third, rhythmic melismas), used unusual synthesis in the Romanian musical as fashionable quotation, often creation, but typical of the world music – superimposed in the palimpsest technique. as, for example, the fusion between the The tendencies of bringing out the value of neoclassic (neo-baroque) and the the artistic attributes of the folk song Gregorian intonation (Respighi, require currently clearer and realistic Hindemith, Stravinsky etc.); between the (even naturalistic) ways of perception, traditional form and the innovative modal encountered at the level of melodic language involved by the folk-Byzantine procedures and of harmonic-polyphonic, or direction (Symphony, concertos). orchestral techniques (leitmotivs, violent The expressionist direction, for Paul harmonies, polymodality, ostinati, Constantinescu, is another modality of mixtures, aggressive brass band sonorities expression of a basic folk mode, as or folk instruments). The presence of the opposed to other composers who, within programme argument oriented to this esthetics, also conceived works that expressive spheres is observed in the songs generally lack the Romanian element (M. on lyrics by Eminescu, t. O. Iosif, and Jora, Joujoux pour Ma Dame). The works C. Theodorescu, in which the composer belonging to this direction are either employs the following modal techniques: melodies with a text, or they are based on a the use of minimal scales, the literary theme or a programme argument. superimposition of the melody elements, One feature of this direction is the comic fourth chords, the modal nuance, which for Constantinescu takes on complementarity etc. Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Composition School 43

Overall, the composer’s style from now on. The third period is that of demonstrates a unitary aspect with a high “compromises” that the composer makes extent of musical language consistency. on the ground of accessibility, to educate The evolution of Paul Constantinescu’s the “taste” of the masses, on the aesthetic composition language had not undergone patterns of the newly-installed regime in spectacular changes of optics; it consists of power (the dances for the orchestra, the the steps he took on the modal domain, instrumental and choral pieces). In the from diatonicism towards chromaticism. following concerto literature, we notice an An attempt of dividing Constantinescu’s evolution of the modal language towards creation into periods suggested in this chromaticism ( The Piano Concerto, 1952 ). thesis will refer to the temporal The fourth period, containing the subdivisions, according to Vasile composer’s last opus – The Triple Herman’s attempt of dividing the Concerto for the Violin, Cello, Piano and Romanian music in Form ă i stil în noua Orchestra - overtakes the prerogatives of crea Ńie româneasc ă (Editura muzical ă, the culminating moment of his whole Bucure ti, 1977). Therefore, the following creation, the synthesis of all composition stages in the composer’s creation are procedures, excepting the comic aspect. suggested: I. 1929-1938 – marks the The unity of Paul Constantinescu’s opening of directions and establishing the creation is determined, first, by the parameters of genuine creation. II. 1939- tendency towards a common specific 1948 – rounds up the final affirmation of potential of intonation, which marks the his creation. III. 1949-1956 – settles the constants of the inspiration sources of the maturity of his style and language. IV. theme. Based on these constants, works 1957-1963 – marks the delimitation of a belonging to different expressive spheres, new vision on the modal treatment. The or to different style directions, achieve the first period represents, besides his debut, unifying element, reaching, through the moment of certain openings – within generalities, the possibility of establishing the modal spheres of the folk and certain parameters, between which Byzantine style, even with touching some Constantinescu’s modal thinking retains stability points (the Psaltic Liturgy, 1936), certain melodic types. This common or anticipations ( Nunt ă în Carpa Ńi, 1938), potential of intonation can be detected in: marks an apogee ( O noapte furtunoas ă, I. the melodic source of Anton Pann 1934) and a final point ( Riga Crypto and (quotation from Spitalul amorului or Lapona Enigel , 1936) of the comic Cântece de lume ) – a unifying element tendency, musically doubled by between the folk and the Byzantine expressionist techniques, anticipates Neoclassicism and the comic-parody neoclassical tendencies ( Sonatina, 1933, creation with Greek-oriental nuances; II. Symphonietta, 1937, Prelude for the Piano Macarie’s Irmologhion – a unifying Solo, 1934 and Burlesque for the Piano, element inside the Byzantine creation (the 1938). The second period represents the Byzantine Studies, the Oratorios and the fulfilment of a creation cycle of Byzantine Liturgy); III. the occasional folk species, inspiration (the composer will only once for example Doina recrutului ; in the comic come back this direction, in 1963, with The creation ( Din c ătănie, O noapte Triple Concerto for the Violin, Cello, furtunoas ă), and also in the neoclassical Piano and Orchestra, but in a new mode), creation ( The Piano Concerto ); IV. the and the masterly opening of the performing melo-rhythmic style, common for themes section of his creation, the most important proceeding from an archaic folk level, 44 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII developing an identical ascending- Therefore, following the new stylistic descending tetrachordal profile (the slow directions, the composer’s mind probes in parts from Symphonietta, the Concerto for the depth of modal monody, while other the Violin and the Concerto for the Harp ); directions represent (in his modal V. the archaic type of melody, laid on conception) the domain of harmonic, octosyllabic meter, used for outlining epic polyphonic or instrumental–orchestral themes; VI. the improvisatory type of innovation. Therefore, the conclusion is melody, illustrating the rubato principle, that the originality of Paul polyphonically distributed in unison or Constantinescu’s creation regarded from octave, regarding the atmosphere of slow the perspective of the analyzed melodic, movements ( the Concerto for the String harmonic, and polyphonic parameters Orchestra, the Triple Concerto ); VII. the becomes real in enlarging the processing Dorian-Phrygian cell in association with area of the folk music regarding the the subtonic relation of modal harmony – a contemporary folk trend, in building the unifying element placed above the foundation of his creation in Byzantine thematic spheres or style directions (with style, in sensing the peculiarities regarding examples from Miori Ńa or Riga Crypto i the comic musical elements and in molding Lapona Enigel ). this material into forms and types specific to the cultured art, by processing 3. Conclusions techniques adequate for a personalized modal language. Constantinescu’s contribution to the progress of the Romanian composition References school registers two stages: one of an absolute genuineness, in which the 1. Constantinescu, Paul. Despre „poezia” composer has the upper hand, and a second muzicii. Ploie ti: Editura Premier , one, displaying him as the initiator of the 2004. modern direction promoting the Byzantine 2. Firca, Cl. L. Direc Ńii în muzica background. The second stage also româneasc ă 1900-1930. Bucure ti: displays him as a creator of the Romanian Editura Academiei, 1974. comical opera, having his own vision in 3. Giuleanu, V. Melodica bizantin ă. approaching the folk direction - through Bucure ti: Editura muzical ă, 1982. new modalities of carrying out folk music 4. Vancea, Zeno. Crea Ńia muzical ă at a high (melodic, harmonic, polyphonic, româneasc ă, sec.XIX-XX, vol. II. instrumental-orchestral, formal) level. In Bucure ti: Editura muzical ă, 1978. close connection with the style directions, 5. Tomescu , Vasile. Paul the field of modal innovation oscillates, Constantinescu. Bucure ti: Editura and affects one or another parameter of the muzical ă, 1967. musical flow.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) – 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

ROBERT WILSON OR TIME AND IMMOVABILITY

Alexandru-Radu PETRESCU 1

Abstract: Being convinced that “we should set the traditional school of theatre on fire”, Wilson troubled the strong tradition of Western theatre, founded on the idolatry of the word. His options unveil his affinity to mystery, symbol, ritual and the sonorous beaches on which he uses to superpose his unique imagistic scenic vision, the slowed down motions and elaborated lights.

Key words: image, light, ritual, opera management.

Nowadays, one rarely finds time to think supports the idea that one can choreograph about TIME. This is, though, what Robert any music and also dance to it (see his Wilson succeeds in his shows, compositions directed as motion shows, transforming the scenic space in temporal during the period 1940-1960, most of them images. in Cunningham’s choreography). Robert Wilson (b.1941) first studied Robert Wilson’s creation for the stage business management at the University of has been immense, since his first motion Texas (1959-1962), afterwards he studied shows were held at the end of the 60-ies, the art of painting in Paris and then and the last ones in 2005. His shows were architecture, interior design and painting named by certain critics tableaux vivants . (again) in New-York. He has not attended Just to name a few: the Life and Times of a school of theatre. As major influences Joseph Stalin (1973), Einstein on the which have affected his creation, he Beach by Philip Glass, Leonce and Lena mentions, beside the activity developed by Georg Büchner and Peer Gynt by with disabled children, the avant-garde Henrik Ibsen (2005). As regards opera group formed by Martha Graham, Merce stage management, he produced Médée by Cunningham and John Cage. This group Charpentier, presented together with the has experienced different stylistic music version by Bryars (1984); Salomée orientations, it has moved away from by Richard Strauss at Scala of Milan serialism and electronic music to graphism (1987); Pelléas et Mélisande (1997); Le and qualified sonorous constructions, and Martyre de Saint Sébastien by Debussy; was labeled by Sorin Lerescu as free from Die Zauberflöte by Mozart (1991, 1995, any constraint. The musical creations of 1999); Parsifal by Wagner la Hamburg the group use to shock through the (1991); Madame Butterfly by Puccini originality of the language, the exploitation (1993, 1994, 1997); The Castle of Blue- of new manners of attack and the Beard by Bártok; Erwartung by Schönberg employed instrumental techniques. Cage in Salzburg (1995); Oedipus rex by

1. Transilvania University of Bra ov, Faculty of Music, Musical Interpretation Department. 46 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Stravinski (1996); Alceste by Gluck at discourse as a whole). It is like the Théâtre Châtelet in Paris (1996); Lohengrin difference between (dynamic) by Wagner at Metropolitan Opera in New- instantaneous photographs and (static) York (1998 and 2006); Der Ring des family photographs from the time of our Nibelungen by Wagner at the opera in Paris grandparents, in sepia colours , that we (2002) and at the opera in Zürich (2006); surely still have, forgotten, in a drawer of Osud (Destiny) by Leoš Janá ček in Prague. old furniture. In 1992, Wilson founded the Watermill It is said that an image makes a thousand Center, a “laboratory” in which the didactic words. If we were to decipher and describe activity interweaves with the activity of every image in any of his settings and if we production and of archiving his multiplied them by one hundred, we would achievements. Wilson has been distinguished discover a story which could not be with numerous prizes. displayed in days. This is the case of his very For Robert Wilson’s temporal first shows, King of Spain (1969) - 3 hours, communication the second is the most Deafman Glance (1970) - 7 hours, Overture important time unit: “Every second is (1972) - 24 hours, KA Mountain and perpetually something else, very different Guardenia Terrace (1972) - 7 days and (...). The only constant thing is change” 7 nights. For instance, in Overture, only the [8, p. 473-474]. Every cliché, every second passage of a procession from one part of the has its own space in time – for Wilson, it is stage to the other lasted an hour – “the much dilated – so that the message should advancement is imperceptible, like an find its time to be both exposed and immobile painting in space and time” [2]. received. It is, if the comparison is Quite similar, in The Life and Times of allowed, like watching photographs of our Sigmund Freud , on a beach full of sand we childhood, in which there is comprised not could see “a turtle which traversed the only an immovable image, but a stage in 34 minutes, [and] a runner which succession of images – known only by us – traversed the stage in approximately 7 or 8 that only we, the watchers, can „remake” seconds – different actions which were with the eyes of the mind and of the soul. performed according to different rhythms, In the very same way, Wilson’s shots [and] different speeds” [1]. succeed, leaving us the time to receive the The development of Wilson’s studies succession of his intentions through our with reference to the relations sound-image own perceptions. Wilson does not submit and space-time in the scenic space image to music, he uses music to create originates in the communication that he images. Even if, in theory, the images has developed with the children he might be deemed in conflict with the adopted: Raymond Andrews – a deaf-mute dramatic musical developments (how child – whom he met in 1967, and with could we imagine a static allegro vivo ?), Christopher Knowles – an autistic child – they submit to the latter through the very whom Wilson met in 1971. imagistic construction which supports the Because of their handicaps, each of the images of musical dynamics (not in the children had a different perception on the sense attributed by Music Theory, which is communication with the environment, the sum of the indications with respect to being much more sensitive in receiving the the intensity of the musical sonority, but in “messages” coming from the exterior. the sense of the evolution of musical Wilson noted that the scale of shading, Petrescu, A.R.: Robert Wilson or „Time and Immovability” 47 graduation and differentiation of the patterns” [6]. In this way, corporal- stimuli was much more sensitive as expressive mini-structures are created and compared to the one of a normal person, integrated within a mega-structure of giving this way birth to a wider diversity of image. This happens because Wilson does reactions-responses. This fact led to the not “present” humans and human passions, development of the system of but, using this ballet in images with a cold, communication stimulus-reception- glacial, non-real appearance, with an stimulus (through feedback), based on almost non-human precision of “codes” of images and sounds. Up to the movements, he proposes a series of framing of the “code” within a structure of esthetical-moral and scientific values space-time there was but a step, a necessity which are only created by human bodies, appeared from the attempt at quantifying values which do not need a real “time” the dimension (as form) and the time that it frame but which exist within a spatial needs to be perceived and understood. temporality . Based on this (nonverbal) An aspect which has a deep impact on communicational alphabet , Wilson, the audience is Wilson's use of light; with starting from the dramatic and musical its help he creates the spatial dimension of text, substantiated and developed a new the stage. An empty stage, with no light, is “formula”, a new modality of scenic static and frozen. communication based on visual codes . Whoever steps onto a stage with no light, These had to be explicit as to be in complete darkness, is acquainted with a deciphered by anyone, even by non-time sensation. Wilson considers that handicapped people, who might, only by time “flows” on a horizontal surface and seeing the shows, understand them. The space (light) on a vertical surface; the codes had to possess a universal character, intersection of the two axes space-time to exceed linguistic and cultural barriers. creates what he calls “tension”. The In this way, as I have shown above, to dimension of this dramatic tension is every “cliché” in the stage manager’s deciphered by the stage manager on the settings there should be attributed a form basis of what we call musical dramaturgy . and a dimension , which has to be placed in According to this dimension, he constructs a space and which has to contain their own every shot, every “cliché”, developing time interval (an interval necessary to relations of complementariness among the perception). drama, the musical discourse and the It is argued that Robert Wilson is a scenic image. The fragmentation of the continuator of Gordon Craig, since the actors’ movements and characters is like a actors playing in his settings turn into “dissection” of the whole creation, up to marionettes. The manager’s (Wilson’s) words, syllables, and sounds, its work with the actors focuses on the reconstruction and transformation into architectural dimension of the corporal scenic composition ensuing afterwards. design, the precision and expression as Being convinced that “we should set synthesized and direct as possible, the traditional school of theatre on fire” determined by the moment of the situation [5], Wilson has troubled the strong in which the character finds himself in the tradition of Western theatre, founded on respective context. “He does not want the idolatry of the word. Wilson has also actors or singers; he wants models, changed the way in which the theatre

1. 48 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII looks like and sounds” [3, p. 76]. 2. Hernandez Andrade, L. Robert This deeply creative stage manager, whose Wilson . Available at: name has often been associated with http://classes.design.ucla.edu. innovation in art, has succeeded in Accessed: 17-08-2008. bringing out a unique vision on theatre and 3. Holmberg, A. The Theatre of Robert opera shows. Wilson's interpretations of Wilson. Cambridge & New-York: Wagner’s and Gluck’s works (two Cambridge University Press, 1996. reformers of the genre who “acknowledged 4. Ionescu Arbore, A. Realizarea the priority of the drama, but [who] spectacolului liric . Bucure ti: flooded the stage with symphonic Muzical ă Publishing House, 1992. commentaries” [4, p. 31]) unveil his 5. Lupu, Gabriela; Wilson, Robert. Ar affinity to mystery, symbol, ritual and the trebui s ă d ăm foc colii de teatru sonorous beaches on which he uses to tradi Ńional . In: Cotidianul (1 May 2008). superpose his unique imagistic scenic Available at: www.cotidianul.ro. vision, the slowed down motions and Accessed: 7-05-2008. elaborated lights. 6. Robert Wilson’s „Butterfly” poses in Although a controversial artist, Wilson L.A. Available at: hopes that his inheritance will be “a footnote http://www.operawest.com/index.php in the history of theatre”, being aware of the ?option=com_content&task=view&id uniqueness of his artistic approach and of the =18&Itemid=9. Accessed: 1-10-2008. influence it exercises on humankind [7]. 7. Stuart, R.B. The Extraordinary Life of Multi-Media Artist Robert Wilson. References Available at: http://www.hamptons.com/detail.php? 1. Entretien avec Robert Wilson. In: articleID=1858. Accessed: 3-09-2008. Résonance no.11 (1997). Available at: 8. Tonitza Iordache, M. and Banu, G. http://mediatheque.ircam.fr/articles/te Art of Theatre, Second Edition revised xtes/Ircam97b. Accessed: 30-08-2008. and completed. Bucharest: Nemira Publishing House, 2004.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

SONOROUS HYPOSTASES FOR A TANKA POEM

Cezara Florentina PETRESCU 1

Abstract: The vocal miniatures pertaining to the composers Theodor Grigoriu and Dan Dediu, on which we make a series of analytical considerations, prove the richness of the musical means through whose intermediary there may be associated the word and the music. The lyrics offer an original interpenetration between Zen and Christianity; there will be insisted on the diversity of the two aphoristic sonorous hypostases, one based on sonorous metaphors, the other one based on metastylism.

Key words: haiku, Romanian lieder, analytical landmark.

“To write vocal music means, after all, to unutterably deeper, more precious, more create relations between a multitude of fragile” [4]. words and a multitude of musical sounds” The lieder we submit for analysis belong to [5, p. 51]; the manner in which these Theodor Grigoriu (b.1926) and Dan Dediu relations are built pertains to every (b. 1968), two reference names of the composer’s style. The lied, the supreme Romanian school of composition. The text sign for the musical refinement of a was written by the poet erban Codrin (b. culture, is a complex genre, with certain 1945), who, through his lyrical creation of features of structure and attitude, in which Japanese type, inscribes in the “austere sign, the sounds express themselves, beside the Zen, of the high altitude poetry”[1, p. 71]. words, even more than poetry can do by It is about the third stanza in Agnus Dei itself, as the sonorous completeness is from Missa Requiem in which the poet, being built in connection to the meanings adapting the Oriental fixed forms to the of the text with whom it inseparably spirit and letters of the Romanian merges for ever. language, manages an interpenetration of In an exposé dedicated to the Romanian maximum originality, beyond the lied, the composer Carmen Petra doctrines, between Zen and Christianity, Basacopol stated that “the basic element of leaving free way to interpretation, in a lied is poetry” [4], also quoting the opinion waltz of spirit through symbols. „Missa of the essayist Nicolae Steinhardt: “poetry requiem unifies gunsaku and sequences on is not a simple genre. It is a state of mind, the tissue of ideas in the Christian hymn of of the psycho-somatic complex, of the the Middle Ages. The suggestions of the temperamental disposition. It is in the most verses in Latin melt in a few dozens of obvious manner a state of grace (…) it is a tanka and haiku, where Buddha seems manner of knowledge analogous to forgotten, there being accepted God’s intuition or revelation, therefore kingdom instead of the path towards nirvana, or inversely, which is the very

1 Transilvania University of Bra ov, Faculty of Music. 50 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII same thing” [2, p. 235]. The poems haiku appear terms of expression, beside the and tanka by erban Codrin have also numerous rallentando s (measures 4-5; “lured” other Romanian composers measures 8-9; measures 12-13; measures (Eduard Térenyi, Vasile Sp ătărelu, 16-17) followed by the return to the initial Cornelia T ăutu), but those who opted for tempo, while in the second case there are the lyrics “Thorns and wild roses / grow doloroso, sostenuto, dolce , but there are no red around / a wood triptych - / bleeding rallentandos or ritenutos, the composer once more / the crucified body” are seemingly leaving at the interpreters’ will (according to the information we hold for the eventual – and minimal – fluctuations the time being) only Theodor Grigoriu and of the unfolding speed that he proposes Dan Dediu. (the crotchet ~ 80). Dediu’s lied, globally The lied composed by Theodor Grigoriu seen, is seemingly more alert than the one is part of the cycle of 9 haikus for voice of Theodor Grigoriu, especially due to the and piano Dincolo de t ăcere, Iisus [Beyond values of the notes which are being used Silence, Jesus]. Its lyrics are chosen after (subject on which we will return) and to an anthological criterion and follow a the “fugitive vision” on Jesus on the cross, central idea. Dan Dediu’s lied belongs to made iridescent by the transparent the cycle Wolfiana op.59 , unified sonorities used in small and very small especially through the metastylistic manner nuances by the younger composer whose of musical treatment. Although it is an creative approach is marked by the speed important element, we will not discuss as typical of the century. follows every cycle of lieder integrally and As formal structure, the square shaped the elements of musical dramaturgy it construction created by Theodor Grigoriu contains, but we will try – through brings a little form with reprise, based on revealing formal aspects as well as aspects the varied resumption of the segment of musical language – to decode the (phrase) b and a small evolution (the “interpretation” that each composer gave segment/phrase c). The segmentation of to the same poem, and the different manner the musical articulation is generally in which each master translated through modelled by the poetical text, the music the signification of the words. composer enhancing the text and creating a Both lieder, created on a poem of only certain expression through intuition and three lines are likewise of small imagination, through delving into dimensions – 17 measures at Theodor substance, and not through technical Grigoriu and 10 measures at Dan Dediu – means. having as possible model Weber’s Dan Dediu’s lied proposes the formal aphoristic creations; the composers did not structure a av. In phrase a (measures 1-4), feel the need to bring an instrumental it is like an homage in metastylistic “supplement”, of music without text, manner brought to the “Cantor from except an intervention for the piano Leipzig”, the symbol BACH is well (measures 4-6) in Dan Dediu’s musical incrusted in the piano accompaniment. The piece. Both creations unfold in a unique series of seven descending perfect fifths measure of 4/4 and in a unique tempo (measure 4), articulated in groups of two, which suggests for the interpreters rather which lead to a movement of crotchets in an atmosphere, a state, then a developing the grave register of the piano, with a speed ( Quasi lento at Grigoriu’s lied, and melodic motion from phrase a are to be Malincolico at Dediu’s lied). There is to be noted . With small modifications, phrase a mentioned that in the first case there do not v (measures 7-10) is the shift upwards of Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem 51 the first two measures of phrase a; the afterwards, the left hand closes the lied accompaniment undergoes an inferior with two ascending fifths in the acute chromatic translation which produces on register of the piano. (END). the expressive plan a more accentuated Unlike Dan Dediu, who successively darkening of the atmosphere generated by brings (at the piano) the sounds of the the view of the Crucified body. In the last interval of fifths, both during the musical two measures, the piano brings the symbol piece (ex.1) and in its end (ex.2). BACH once more to the right hand;

Ex. 1

Ex. 2

Theodor Grigoriu exploits the sonorous sounds, both in some moments during the effect created by simultaneously bringing lied (ex.3), and in its end (ex.4), bathed by out the acoustic potential of the interval the sonority of the same interval.

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Ex. 3 Ex. 4

Both lieder undergoing the analysis are which “advances” the sonority: through a deprived of dimensioned piano single sound at Grigoriu (ex.5), through introductions, the instrument is the one accord structures at Dediu (ex.6).

Ex. 5 Ex. 6

As regards the type of writing, Theodor with a single hand the three voices of the Grigoriu resorts to a unique solution, accompaniment. which is the harmonized (choral) carol. Likewise, the pedalling – extremely The main melody, entrusted to the voice, diversified and adapted both to the has a Byzantine „scent”, seemingly instrument one disposes of during the invoking Jesus’ sacrifice for every mortal. execution and to the expected (desired) The vocal melodic line, unfolded in a sonority – is an element which will give relatively restrained range ( re 1 - re 2), the measure of the instrument’s qualities. „sounds” in a si minor with mobile steps Dan Dediu creates a page of music with (II, VI, VII), but it is practically orchestral valences through a generous 4 neutralized by stereotyped accords of the musical range ( Do 1 – lab ), resorting to piano, which „glide” on parallel elements of suggestion and symbol, sextaccords in a likewise restrained range, without doing this however directly, between re - la 2, all notes being preferring to submit a modal atmosphere distributed, according to the writing, to be strongly diluted by bringing the chromatic executed with a single hand. This is one completeness ever since the very moment in which the pianist is required beginning. The profile of his melodic lines, maximum expressivity and a completely different from the linearity of differentiation of the manners of attack, those of Theodor Grigoriu, sends our control and safety on the fingers, to render thought to the dodecaphonic manner of treatment: almost in zigzag, in which Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem 53 prevail the increased and diminished a certain expression through intuition and intervals, beside the frequent exchange of imagination, through delving into instrumental registers. The voice unfolds in substance. The piano especially has a comfortable range re 1 – mi 2, but the minims, complete notes and crotchets, interpreter is required greater self- which creates conditions for the sonorities assurance and ability because of the to „live”, to develop themselves. The intonation difficulty of the intervals and of distribution at a single hand of the piano the frequent exchange of the sonorous accompaniment does not constitute an registers in the general sonority brought by impediment for enhancing the pluriphonic the piano. syntax but, on the contrary, stands for an As regards the set of intervals resorted interpretative challenge in aphoristic to, it seems interesting to mention that manner launched by the composer. The Theodor Grigoriu pre-eminently uses (in two plans, the voice and piano the melody of the voice) the intervals of accompaniment, do not seem to merge, seconds (13 Big seconds 9 small seconds , giving the impression of a permanent especially in a descending sense, although „discordance”, although, separately, each from the expressive standpoint there is an may justify itself through the prism of the „equilibrium” masterly created through consonance concept. compensating the descending intervals Dan Dediu resorts to a higher diversity with an almost equal number of ascending of intervals, both in the vocal and intervals or of perfect primes, situations in instrumental part using, for instance, in the which there is resorted to the „effect” melody of the vocal part 2m,3m, 4-, 2M, given by intervals used a single time along 3M, 1p, 6M, and also increased and the musical piece (3m , 3M , 4p , 6M ). decreased intervals, in a pre-eminently Rhythm, the fundamental parameter of the descending evolution starting in the high musical discourse is approached in a points of the vocal range. different manner by the two composers. To exemplify this view, the two The vocal line created by Grigoriu is pre- important elements in the poetic text, the eminently constructed with values of „wood triptych” (ex. 7 and ex. 8) and the crotchets, minims or minims with point, in „crucified body” (ex. 9 and ex. 10) are close correlation with the text; the dealt with in a different manner by the two segmentation of the musical articulation is composers, concerning the melody of the generally modelled by the poetical text, the vocal part (intervals, sense of composer enhancing the word and creating development, rhythm).

Th. Grigoriu

Dediu

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Th.Grigoriu

Dan Dediu

And about the piano part, in both cases indications with respect to expression, there exists a complementariness of the which model the sonorous discourse, (...) senses. with a finely dosed charge of the sentiment For both musical pages, the relation expressed through music” [3, p. 247]. music-poetical text may seem surprising at a first research. The composer Dan Dediu References puts aside sonorities obtained through a metastylistic language to a poem of the 1. Basa, V. Merii în floare. Eseu despre oriental type, tributary as aesthetics to structura poeziei lui erban Codrin. elements taken over from Zen thinking. Constan Ńa: Ex Ponto Publishing The composer Theodor Grigoriu House, 2002. considers that Japanese poetry is capable 2. Codrin, . Marea t ăcere . Slobozia: of being associated to the reduction of the Star Tipp Publishing House, 2001. range of expression means up to a 3. Cosma, V. Muzicieni din România, minimum level, which offers however an vol.3. Bucure ti: Muzical ă Publishing infinity of interpretative solutions. The House, 2000. master provokes the interpreters to search 4. Simpozion dedicat liedului românesc perpetually for something „else” in the art în context universal Festivalul i of interpreting the lied and to recompose concursul liedului românesc. Bra ov: not only the musical signs of the score, but October 2006. also their spirit, their inferred meaning, the 5. Vieru, A. Cuvinte despre sunete. „unsaid”, decoding the signification Bucharest: Cartea Românească contained in the „richness of nuances and Publishing House, 1994.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE SINGING PEDAGOGUE (part II) A parallel between vocal therapy exercises and vocalization

1 Claudia POP

Abstract: As a vocal pedagogue, I am trying to create a school to promote a safe pedagogy, to prevent the damage of the voice. Moreover, if the voice is damaged, I try to cure it through non-medical methods, together with the vocal therapist and the phoniatrician.

Keywords: Vocal therapy exercises, vocal exercises, vocalization.

1. Introduction 2. Exercises for Resonance

First, if the voice is already damaged, The goal: we, the team formed with a • To lift the vocal sound into the phoniatrician, recommend to determine superior resonance system, especially the vocal range of the dysphonic voice, into the nasal cavity, by the activation comparing it to the medium of the of the soft palate. One gets then a “nasal speaking voice (by the way, Dr. Bogdan resonance” or a “ honky ” muffled is the first phoniatrician in Romania; he sound [34]. developed an original method to recover the speaking voice. I have taken over and Means of doing: researched, building a method to recover • the singing voice, based on Dr. Bogdan's The student will stand up and inhale exercises. I have included these exercises slowly, keeping in mind the correct posture in my everyday singing lessons). and breathing technique. The exhalation Usually, for a healthy voice, the will be only through the nose, trying to “medium tone ” is a note between C 1 (the phonate using the “ [h]m” consonants with central C is C 1) and F 1. For a dysphonic the mouth opened; • voice, this medium tone is lower or The larynx will be comfortably low, higher than normal, so we will try to the pharynx is large, the tongue is relaxed higher it up or lower it down, according and lifted posteriorly, the velum is relaxed to the phoniatric evaluation. and the mouth large opened; • If the voice is healthy, I recommend to The placement of the sound should be start the vocalization with the “ medium localized in the anterior facial bones; tone ” of speaking, meaning C 1 for mezzo- • The emotional atmosphere should be sopranos or altos, and D 1 for sopranos. For relaxed, the student should picture a masculine voices, B for baritones and perfect day, exclaiming in mind: “ hm-hm- basses, and E flat for tenors. hm-hm, what a wonderful day! ”

1 Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Bra ov.

56 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

• The glottal attack will be aspirate, • The glottal attack should be clear, firm, light, with the “ imaginary h ” firm, light, with the “ imaginary [h] ”, and (meaning a rate of air flowing through the forward placement of the sound the nose, before the sound is heard); resonance into the anterior facial bones • The student sings the sound “ [h]m”, and the feeling of the abdominal shortly, repeating it 5-10 times, on “appoggio ”. different notes, from semitone to This is somehow similar to the “ yawn- semitone, focusing on the forward sigh ” technique used in vocal therapy. placement of the nasal sound and the The various ways to use the “ yawn-sigh ” abdominal “ appoggio ”. Then s/he will in a regular vocalization for resonance sing a sustained tone; may be summarized in the following notations: Not to forget:

Fig. 1. Range for all exercises

Fig. 2. A vocalization for resonance

These exercises can be continued as followed:

Fig. 3. A vocalization for resonance in major second

Fig. 4. A vocalization for resonance in major third Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue 57

Fig. 5. A vocalization for resonance in perfect fifth

3. Exercises which Combine the Consonant the soft palate, since arching the velum is m with the Vowels a, e, i, o, u: necessary for the implosion phase.

The goal: Means of doing: To obtain the relaxation of the This exercise is like taking inventory of pharyngeal muscles, the “ open the throat ”- one’s voice. movement for the vocal expression of the The pharynx should be enlarged, to vowels a, e, i, o, u , without any effort, acquire freedom of phonation, means to display a larger pharyngeal pronouncing [h]m (an imaginary h, for the resonance cavity. It is known that the nasal light glottal attack) about 3-4 seconds, then consonants and the plosives can discipline lightly pronouncing the vowels a, e, i, o, u.

[h] M – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM; [h] M – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM; [h] M – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM; [h] M – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM; [h] M – MM – MU – MM – MU– MM – MU – MM – MU– MM – MU – MM; [h] M – MM – MA – MM – ME – MM – MI – MM – MO – MM – MU – MU – MM.

The jaw will be moderately low, being a semitone to semitone, depending on the guarantee for a low larynx, trying the “ yawn- range of the individual subject. sigh ” sensation, by picturing the “ interior Not to forget: smile ”. This avoids the muscular tension which can appear in the tongue, pharynx and • The vocal sound should have both larynx; “pointed and round ” qualities;
The subject must be sure to get a deep • The glottal attack should be firm and breath before the attack of the tone, to light in the same time, using the sustain the phonation; “imaginary [h]”;
The articulation of each vowel will be soft • The abdominal support and the and clear, avoiding the hard glottal attack, resonance placement of the vowels as well having in mind a good breath control, a as for the consonant [m] should be as near forward and high placement of the vowels, as possible. as nearly as possible in the same place as the consonant m, the so-called “ mask ” resonance; This exercise can be repeated 5-6 times, each time in a much higher key, and can be transposed upward and downward, from Fig. 6. Range for all exercises

58 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Fig. 7. A vocalization for the relaxation of the pharyngeal muscles

Fig. 8. An enumeration exercise, using legato and the intonation of only one sound, counting from one to ten

This exercise continues from semitone to This exercise will also continue from semitone within the recommended range. semitone to semitone within the recommended range. All these exercises present the physical part of the “work itself”. I believe that beyond the exercises, the individual work with a subject means to focus also one's particular attention on the education of the student’s mind, the student’s soul and the student’s body. Paraphrasing Novalis (who was the pseudonym of Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (May 2, 1772 - March 25, 1801, an author and philosopher of early German Romanticism), [35], the fusion of all the Fig. 9. An enumeration exercise of the days above mentioned aspects creates the of the weeks, from Monday to Sunday, “magic of the pedagogical art”, which using legato and the intonation of only one consists in “using arbitrarily the world of sound the sensibilities”. Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue 59

Thus, if we, the singing teachers, the vocal training of the speaking voice are the coaches, the vocal therapists or, the vocal foundation of an objective singing retrievals, named by me singing pedagogues, pedagogy and mastery of the vocal technic, use a proper vocal technique, based on or both of the singing and speaking voice, it related to the phoniatric exercises, we will not is the sovereignty of a singing pedagogue. only succeed on the vocal field, keeping the voice healthy, but also train the singers' References minds, preventing the illness of the voice, and offering an alternative for a healthy and long- 1. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Results of living voice. Experiments with Human Larynxes. In the first and second part of this study, In: Practica Oto–Rhino Laryngdegica , I firmly recommend not to respect the 1959. dictum: “just relax and sing naturally” , 2. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Données because that can induce the laziness of the nouvelles sur la function laryngee. In: whole mechanism which produces the J. Franç. O.R.L ., 1959. singing voice. 3. Cohen, A. L'Art de bien chanter , 1666, My opinion is that this is a matter of of Jean Millet. France, 1969. muscular independence which is necessary 4. Bogdan, C-tin. Foniatrie clinic ă. In: for any delicate skill. The extrinsic Via Ńa Medical ă Româneasc ă. laryngeal musculature, the neck muscles Bucharest: Publishing House, 2001. have to be consciously controlled and the 5. Bica, N. The phoniatria in a intrinsic musculature, which is largely conductor’s vision . The Doctorate unconscious, must be activated. Only then, Thesis, Cluj, 2000. we can have the sensation of the 6. Brodnitz, Fr. Keep your voice healthy . “resonance” or the sensation of the New York: Harper & Brothers forward placement of the sound . This Publishing House, 19 53. means the perfect coordination between 7. Brown, R. The Singing Voice . New diaphragmatic action and the vocal cord York: Macmillan Publishing House, activity during the process of emission of 1966. the singing voice. 8. Cernei, E. Enigme ale vocii umane . We, the singing pedagogues, will always Bucharest: Litera Publishing House, be concerned with freedom and natural 1982. voice production, acquired through years of 9. Cleall, Ch. Voice Production in Vocal assiduous and conscious professor-student Technique . Paris: Alphonse Leduc work. The real development of vocal technic Publishing House, 1937. comes not only with a stronger and louder 10. Curry, R. The Mechanism of the voice, but with the addition of freedom, Human Voice. New York: Ed. agility, brilliance and beauty to the voice. Longmans Green, 1960. We will also succeed to acquire a healthier, 11. Deyoung, R. The Singer’s Art. professional voice, both in speaking and in Chicago: DePaul University, 1958, singing. litography. Singing is one of the most competitive 12. Dupon-Tersen, Y. Physiologie et professions. In my point of view, the psychophysiologie de la phonation. knowledge of the mechanism which In : La Voix, cours International de produces the voice, the correct body Phonologie et de Phoniatrie. Paris: posture, the breathing technique, the Librairie Maloine Publishing House, phonation, the vocalization, and the 1953. 60 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

13. Eckert-Mobius, H. C. A. Lehrbuch der Speaking and Singing Voice . New Hals - Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde . York: Ed. Harper & Brothers, 1964. Leipzig: Georg Theime Publishing 24. Lewis, J. Singing Without Tears . House, 1964. London: Ed. Ascherberg, Hopwood 14. Fucks, V. The Art of Singing and Voice and Crew, 1970. Technique . New York: Ed. London 25. Marchesi, M. Ten Singing Lessons. House & Maxwell, 1964. New York: Macmillan, 1901. 15. Fugére, L. Nouvelle Methode Pratique 26. Miller, F. E. Vocal Art-Science . New de Chant . Paris: Enoch De Cre York: G. Schimmer, Inc.1917. Publishing House, 1979. 27. Petrescu, L. Respira Ńia, vorbirea, i 16. Garde, E. Le monophassage de la voix via Ńa. Bucure ti: Editura Tineretului. parlée . Bordeaux: Studii, 1979. 28. Pop, I. tiin Ńa, Arta i Pedagogia 17. Garzanti della Musica Encyclopedia. cântului. Bucharest:. Music Academy, Available at : 1996. http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/887469 29. Perelló, J. The Break of the Singing 18. Gârbea, t.; Cotul, G. Fonoaudiologia . Voice . Folia Phoniatrica, 1993. Bucharest: Didactical and Pedagogical 30. Pommez, J. Les disphonies Publishing House, 1967. fonctionnelles . Bordeaux: Studies, 19. Gârbea, t., Piti , M. Patologia vocal ă. 1972. Bucharest: Didactical and Pedagogical 31. Raskin, J. American Bel canto. In: Publishing House, 1978. Opera News , Jan.15, 1966. 20. Gould, J. W. The Clinical Voice 32. Ross, K. Final report of the voice Laboratory: Clinical Application of teachers’ survey. In: Research Comm. Voice Research. In: Journal of Voice , N.A.T.S. , 1947. 1988. 33. Sarafoleanu, D.; Sarafoleanu, C. 21. Grant, J. C. An Atlas of Anatomy . Compendiu O.R.L. Bucharest: National London: Ed. Bailliere. Tindall & Cox, Publishing House, 1999. 1962. 34. Vennard, W. Singing: the Mechanism 22. Husson, R. Vocea cîntat ă. Bucure ti: and the Technic . Carl Fisher, Inc. Ed. Muzical ă a Uniunii 1967. Compozitorilor, 1960. 35. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 23. Lawson, F. The Human Voice: A Available at: Concise Manual on Training the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

TRADITION AND CONTEMPORANEITY IN DR ĂGAICA

1 Mădălina RUCSANDA

Abstract: Dr ăgaica (Midsummer’s Day) is a custom specific to the summer period and integrated into the group of customs and songs which anticipate or accompany picking the harvest; it is celebrated on the 24 th of June, on the eve of the summer solstice, and it both means the protective agrarian divinity of the eared cornfields, cattle and married women, being the equivalent of Sânziana 1 (St. John’s Day), and the ritual which refers to the prosperity and protection of grain crops. Nowadays, the custom has disappeared, but sporadically it is still performed in the areas of Buz ău and Teleorman. The custom is also known by the Slav peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people and Bulgarian people.

Key words: Custom, songs, prosperity, protection, grain crops.

Customs should be known in their audience. As regards customs, things are beauties and splendour, as besides their slightly different: a great part of them are spectacular character, they also embrace integrated into the people’s everyday life the human valences embedded, by and their important moments in life, which harmoniously combining ritual acts and have not changed. ceremonies, juridical and economical acts, Dr ăgaica (Midsummer’s Day) is a moral values and aesthetic expressions, old custom specific to the summer period and myths and knowledge provided by the integrated into the group of customs and people’s experience. All these are songs which anticipate or accompany syncretically expressed by poetry, music picking the harvest; it is celebrated on the and dance. Independently of their name or 24 th of June, on the eve of the summer manner of performance, the customs do solstice and it both means the protective not belong only to the village in which agrarian divinity of the eared cornfields, they are performed, but to the nation, to the cattle and married women, being the whole country due to the echo felt in the equivalent of Sânziana 1 (St. John’s Day ), cultural life and the place they take in the and the ritual which refers to the prosperity contemporary Romanian culture. and protection of grain crops. Nowadays, songs and dances have become Etymologically, Dr ăgaica (Midsummer’s cultural goods by including them into Day ) – an autochthonous custom whose shows, TV programmes, radio programmes Dacian native name has been lost – is also or concerts, as unlike other times, they are the equivalent of Sânziana (St. John’s not produced for the needs of those who Day ), a word which comes from the dance the dances or sing the songs, they Romans from Sancta Diana (which is also are especially produced for the outside common nowadays in Transylvania) and it

1 Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 62 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII is also known under this name in Oltenia, agrarian divinity, a counterpart of Diana and the Banat, Transylvania, Maramuresh, Iuno in The Roman Pantheon and of Hera Bucovina; it is also known under the and Artemis in the Greek Pantheon; in the following names: Dârdaic ă, Împ ărăteas ă popular belief it is considered that Drăgaica (Empress ), St ăpâna Surorilor (Mistress of would walk on ears or float in the air during the Sisters ), Regina Holdelor (Queen of the the summer solstice and would enjoy Grain Crops ), Mireas ă (Bride ), Sora cea singing and dancing over fields and forests, Mare (Elder Sister ). In the groups of accompanied by her bridal train of virgin people in which Drăgaica is accompanied deities and beautiful girls. by a girl dressed like a boy, the custom is It is also considered that Dr ăgaica is called Dr ăgan, Dr ăgănoi, Mire (Groom ), born on the 9 th of March, the spring Băie Ńoi ( Big Boy ). equinox in The Julian Calendar, the day Nowadays the custom has disappeared, when Mother Dochia died; she but sporadically it is still performed in the miraculously grows up and becomes areas of Buz ău and Teleorman. mature until 24 th June, the day of the For the first time, this custom was summer solstice in The Gregorian mentioned by Dimitrie Cantemir in the Calendar , when Sânziana ( Our Lady’s work Descrierea Moldovei (Description of Bedstraw ) or Dr ăgaica , the plant which Moldavia ), where he identified the bears her name, is in bloom. She is also character Dr ăgaica with Ceres, the Roman invoked by virgins at marriage age and by agrarian goddess: ” Dr ăgaica seems to wives holding their children in arms during represent the goddess Ceres. Indeed, when the wedding dance. the grains begin to ripen, all the girls in In Teleorman, the custom is performed the neighbourhood villages select the most as a show presented at the housekeepers’ beautiful and good-looking one, whom they houses on 24 th June by a group of 5-7 girls call Dr ăgaica. They crown her with an ear aged between 14 and 19, dressed in white, wreath, ornamented with many finely with a veil on their faces, on which flowers embroidered head kerchiefs, with the keys of Our Lady’s Bedstraw are pinned. The of the granaries suspended on her hands girls hold a scythe in their hands and their and accompany her with great ceremony meaning is to announce the forthcoming on the fields. In such ornaments, with the harvest and the symbolic death of the spirit arms unfolded and the head kerchiefs of wheat. One of them is selected to be against the wind, as if she were flying, Dr ăgaica, who is wreathed with wheat Dr ăgaica gets back home, singing and ears. In the groups of people in the south of dancing, while she passes through all the Muntenia, the girl who performs the role of villages she passed before with the great the divinity is dressed like a bride, in a train of people and surrounded by all the white dress, wearing an Our Lady’s other girls who often call her their sister Bedstraw wreath on her head. and mistress in very nice songs. Moldavian A few weeks before the event, the bride girls, who live in the countryside, are (Dr ăgaica ) and the groom ( Dr ăgan, willing to be honoured like this, although Dr ăgăicoi , Băie Ńoi ) are selected. In an eternal tradition states that the girl who Dobrogea, girls use to wear men masks. performs the role of Dr ăgaica does not The scythe is an important object, which marry for the next three years ". girls with men masks and other female The customs, beliefs and the Romanian participants hold in their hands; in folklore of Drăgaica trace back to a Teleorman there is a banner ornamented Neolithic goddess, a lunar, equinoctial and with garlic, coloured ribbons and flowers Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica 63

(similar to those used by the călu fights among the groups of Dr ăgaice armed dancers ). Once set up, Dr ăgaica ’s train of with sticks, sickles or scythes have not virgins goes to the village or over the been attested, they are mentioned in the fields; at stopping places or crossroads, the folk expression with reference to fight, girls get into a circle singing and scuffle, wrestle, tussle: ” Iat ă Dr ăgaica" performing a lively dance whose (Here is Dr ăgaica ),”A c ăpătat Dr ăgaica" movements draw up a cross. (They received Dr ăgaica), ”S-a f ăcut An important element of the dance of Dr ăgaic ă" ( He/She became Dr ăgaic ă) - Dr ăgaice is the imitation of a scythe fight, (Dolj, Prahova, Râmnicu S ărat, Putna, which uses to happen especially when two Suceava). groups of people meet; in old times, this In Transylvania, on 24 th June, the girls custom used to cause much pain, as it was pick up Our Lady’s Bedstraw; they make a kind of bravery, similar to a duel 2. After up bunches and plash circular and cross- the dance, the girls receive gifts from the shaped wreaths on the musical background owner of the grain crops for whom the performed by the country lads and their girls dance and sing and, in some places in extempore songs. These wreaths and Dobrogea, they are also offered honey. All bunches are brought to the village, where the people whose grain crops have been they are hung on gates, doors, windows, passed through by Drăgaice believe that sheds, beehives and even on vegetable their harvest will be rich and protected beds or thrown over houses and leant from drought and hail. The group of girls against eaves; people believe that they will wanders in the village accompanied by a protect their house and household against child who is holding a banner (on which evil forces, and they will also bring good ears, garlic, absinth, Our Lady’s Bedstraw luck, health and wealth to people, animals flowers are pinned), a whistler (who and crops. accompanies the girls’ song and dance by From a musical point of view, the lyrics playing the flute, the bagpipe or the of the song are made on an octosyllabic clarinet) and sometimes by a drums player. catalectic or acatalectic pattern, by the The ritual song of Dr ăgaica is followed appearance of the completion vowels (like by Hora dr ăgăicii (Dr ăgaica’s Hora ), u, in example no.1 or î, in example no. 2); which is usually a dance tune, and by other the melody is generally syllabic, two, three dances, specific to the custom: unornamented, the profile is sinuously Brâu and Geamparale or Cârligu and descending. Floricica (in Brânceni village) or Bălu Ńa The loss of the initial ritual character and Floricica in Beiu village (always allowed the amplification of the lyrics present in the ritual dance of the Călu ari ) with new, satirical, moralising elements. or Buceacul (in Poroschia). The aksak rhythm is characteristic to the Among other ritual acts, Dr ăgaicele use vocal melody of Dr ăgaica , which is based to tear strips of their handkerchiefs or head on the identical repetition of the same kerchiefs and give them away to the hosts specific formula (see examples no. 1, 3): while the women who attend the performance use to give them in return items of their children’s clothes to be pinned on the banner. Children are often hold by Dr ăgaice in their arms to be dandled. Although in Moldavia and in The sonorous patterns are varied, from some counties of Muntenia and Oltenia the hemitonic tetrachord system in which 64 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII the fourth step is situated at an increased of female aerial spirits dressed in white fourth interval as compared with the and appearing at night to bewitch men fundamental chord (like in the example (Iele ), who according to the folkloric no. 1). superstition, take revenge on people scalding them with boiled water. People in Tetra chord system villages state that Dr ăgaica (Midsummer’s Day ) is an ”evil” feast; in case they do not celebrate it, they could have many misfortunes: for example, the ones who ignore the feast, continuing to perform their daily chores, could die by drowning Anhemitonic pentatonic system type 1 or be struck by lightening. Old people also believe that the girls who want to get married soon have to turn somersaults naked in grass and wash themselves with dew early in the morning. Married women can also perform this ritual to be loved by their husbands all year The anhemitonic pentatonic chord- long and have healthy and beautiful system of type 1, with a crenellated profile, children. The dew in the Midsummer’s is in favour of the perfect fourth intervals Eve has mysterious qualities; in many parts and the great third (e.g. no. 2) and the of the world it is believed that if you modes like the Doric-Mixolydian sprinkle with it all over your body it will heptatonic chord system with increased become attractive and fit, and if you wash second between the steps III-IV; here, the your face with it, you will become good- characteristic is the presence of the great looking and haughty. third, which is ascendant on the On Dr ăgaica it is believed that medicinal fundamental and the perfectly ascending plants can be successfully picked up in the jump of the fourth to step I at the end of forests. Many of the flowers and plants the melodic stanza (example no. 3). picked on this day to be used as remedies are brought to church to be consecrated Chromatic mode 1 and thus purified of the negative influences of Rusalii/ Iele (Whitsuntide/Female Aerial Spirits ), the evil fairies of the forests. The laurel leaves and the plants picked before the first rays of the sun, still covered with The architectonic pattern is fixed, and dew (then dried and kept in a white silk binary; the song has two melodic lines, sachet) get magical properties. which are similar in terms of content; the Sânzienele are also considered by the second line or both lines are repeated: in young girls a way to find their predestined example no. 2, the pattern is ABBv, in husband and the time they are supposed to song no. 3, the pattern is AAvBBv. marry. The men’s cross-shaped wreaths The custom is also known by the Slav and the girls’ circle-shaped wreaths are peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people thrown over their houses. If they get stuck and Bulgarian people. on the roof, this is a sign of wedding, In the Romanian mythology, Dr ăgaica is otherwise the predestined man or woman a special name given to a certain category still have to be expected. In some villages, Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica 65 there is another custom: on their way back After Dr ăgaica, there are first signs that home, the girls watch through the wreath, summer turns to winter: days become and the age and the physical appearance of shorter, and nights become longer, the the person they can see are signs of the wheat’s root gets dried and grains get moral qualities of their future husband. ripen, the hen constellation (the Pleiades) If on Dr ăgaica’s Eve, the girls put is visible, flowers lose their perfume and untwined Our Lady’s Bedstraw under their their healing power decreases, cuckoos pillow, at night they will dream their stop singing, fireflies start roaming in predestined husband; if the flower is forests, the leaves in the elm tree, poplar pinned in their hair by virgins or young tree and lime tree turn upside down. The wives, they will become attractive and cultured country or mountainous feasts to lovable. celebrate the agrarian goddess have become opportunities for young people to meet each other in view of marriage.

1. DR ĂGAICA

2. HAI, DR ĂGAIC Ă, S Ă S ĂRIM

Muntenia, Teleorman

66 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

3. DR ĂGAICA

Poroschia, Teleorman

References

1. Petriceicu Ha deu, B.: Etymologicum 2. Nicola, Ioan R. et al. Curs de folclor Magnum Romaniae. Dic Ńionarul muzical, part I . Bucure ti: Editura limbii istorice i poporane a Didactic ă i Pedagogic ă, 1963, p. 192. românilor, vol. I-II. Bucure ti: Editura 3. Oprea, G.; Agapie, L. Folclor muzical Minerva, 1972-1974, p. 490. românesc . Bucure ti: Editura Didactic ă i Pedagogic ă, 1983, p.172.

1 Our Lady’s Bedstraw is a yellow-golden flowered plant, nicely perfumed, which grows in the lawn, in grasslands, in forest edges and glades.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE FUNCTIONAL PYRAMID IN BACHIAN MUSIC

1 Ciprian łUłU

Abstract: Being at the border between the polyphonic and the harmonic period, J.S. Bach’s creation represents a synthesis of the values of past and the referential founding of the classic harmony. The exploitation of the field of his creation reveals the multitude of parametric nuances which the author combines in each opus, exquisitely offering a valuable simplicity, enriched by spirit and love. This study proposes a review of the functional presences and of their continuation in different hypostases, imagined under the form of a pyramid of harmonies, part of Bach’s spectromorphologic universe.

Key words: harmony, parametric nuance, pyramid of harmonies, spectromorphology, functional coloring, functional cellularity.

The spectromorphology has as object of The spectromorphology presupposes study the revelation of the multitude of formal launchings in the analysis of a song facets that a musical entity may contain, focalized on several levels, starting from the “multiplicity” that they can exist into. the explicit level (the analysis according to Permanently submitted to an influx of the “classic” parameters: rhythm, melody, multi-parametric selections, the analysis polyphony, harmony, heterophony, etc.) focuses on the different segmental paths and continuing with more refined analyses. which compose the architectural spectral The latter part implies a collection of the “multiplicity”, starting from the detail of analytic material and a division into plain the uniqueness and going to complex samples of specific or connective inter- sonorous constructions. parametric particularities as well as a The multiple existence of an entity is pyramidal structuring of the sonorous perceived at the level of two basic material. standards: It is this type of structuring that I intend a. “the actant” which represents the to focus on by reviewing their functional main, active and explicit level where the presences and their manifestations in information is directly presented; different, singular or complex hypostases b. “the adjuvant” which represents the on different contextual levels. This fact passive, shadowed, implicit level, triggers a complex spectrum which companion of the main level, where the demands organizing rules for the information is latently present, waiting for functional typologies and their the appropriate context for manifesting and classification. These typologies and their explaining. classification are established according to the pyramidal model under the form of “absorbing columns of functional

1 Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 68 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII consistencies whose organizing sight projects against a referential scale which derives, in a different manner, from the very typological development of all classifications with conjectural-parametric Fig. 2. Two-part invention in D minor (the fulfillment”[3]. At the same time, the theme) analytic focalization on the functional detail, latently or explicitly formulated, 3. The complex functional cell : it is imposes a detached approach by the proof noticed by functional launchings in more of a real pyramid of vertical, multi-layered complex hypostases, charged with harmonies. ornamental accords (with coloring functions) whose composition comes from A. THE FUNCTIONAL COLORING the cooperation of the foreign sounds among them, or by the conversion of a In the tonal-functional system (musical base component. The functional units system based on the gravitation of sounds which compose the functional cell are: the towards a tonal centre) any accord can main accord (referential) and those of reveal its functionality, according to its ornamental coloring. There are several “relationship” to the tonal centre, where its types of composed functional cells, starting contribution to the support of the from the palette of the melodious- gravitation is tributary to a pre-established ornamental formulas by rapport to the hierarchy. On the one hand, the accord, as main accord. Thus, each ornamental a functional cell, manifests in different accord “acts” according to the model hypostases, revealing its valences imposed by the corresponding melodious- according to ornamental-functional ornamental formula. criteria. 1. The simple functional cell (blank) – COLORING FUNCTIONS, the zero accord: is a “pure”, unique accord, COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLEX free of any dissonance (element that does FUNCTIONAL CELL not belong to the accord) which supports by its own power, more exactly, by its a. Passage-coloring function : Ax B constitutive elements (tierce, quint, dominant seventh or, as the case may be, lowered seventh).

Fig. 1. Three-part invention in B minor, m. Fig. 3 3 (the second thematic motive) There are two different main functions 2. The simple functional cell (A and B), and the coloring function (x) (ornamental) – the colored accord: placed, by substitution, at the end of the consists in ornamentations of unique first accord (A), is related (by the help of accords by the help of an isolated the passage) to the second accord (B). melodious note (passage, embroidery, etc). łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music 69

Thus, there are involved three functional c. Appoggiatura-coloring function : A xB units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the formula of the passage, Ax B, within two functional cells, one complex (Ax) and one simple or complex (B).

Fig. 7

Fig. 4. WK I, Prelude in G-sharp minor, There are two main different functions m. 3-4 (A and B) and the coloring function (x) placed, by substitution, at the beginning of b. Embroidery-coloring function : A x A the second main accord (B). Thus, there are involved three functional units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the formula of the appoggiatura, AxB, within two functional cells, a simple or complex one (A) and a complex one (xB).

Fig. 5

There is one main function (A), and the Fig. 8. WK II, Fugue in B-flat major, coloring function (x) placed, by thematic answer (fragment, m. 7-8) substitution, inside the pylon accord (A). Thus, there are involved two functional d. Anticipation-coloring function: Ab B units (pylon-ornament-pylon), which, by the repetition of the former, justifies the embroidery function (type A x A ) within a single complex functional cell (A x A ).

Fig. 9

Fig. 6. WK I, Fugue in A-flat major, There are two main different functions (the theme, m. 1-2) (A and B), and the coloring function (b) placed, by substitution, at the end of the first accord (A), which has an anticipatory function for the second accord (B). Thus, there are involved three functional units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the 70 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII formula of the anticipation, Ab B, within B. THE FUNCTIONAL CELLULARITY two functional cells, a complex one (Ab) and a simple or complex one (B). As it was pointed out in the previous pages, in Bach’s composition the functional cell is presented in two hypostases: - the simple functional cell, which has a single accord, as main unit equivalent from a dimensional-metric point of view to the cell itself.

- the complex functional cell, which is Fig. 10. Piano Partita no. 3 in A minor denser than the simple cell, and marked by (Fantasia), m. 10-11 the presence of some secondary functions of an ornamental coloring, whose e. Delaying-coloring function : A aB contribution increases proportionally to their dimension and linear consistency. Some further explanations shall clarify the proposed terminology. 1. The main function represents a main functional unit, a pylon accord, a harmonious resistance structure which sustains the melodic, harmonic, polyphonic and heterophonic paths (see example 1 - 12). Fig. 11 2. The additional function refers to any There are two main different functions coloring accord which, usually, substitutes (A and B), and the coloring function (a) a main functional unit; more exactly, it is placed, by substitution, at the beginning of about the replacement of one segment in the base accord (B), as a lengthening of the the development of the main function with first functional pylon on the territory of B, a supplementary accord, different from this which suggests the already-known pattern one. This additional functional unit appears of the delaying formula. because of the cooperation of notes that are Thus, there are involved three functional exterior to the main functional unit (see units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the example 1 - 12). specific formula of the delay, A aB, within The components of an additional two functional cells, a simple or complex function cooperate either for the definition one (A) and a complex one (aB). of an accord or for the confirmation of the accord’s identity: either both elements are exterior to the base accord, or an element of the main function cohabitates with an element exterior to it.

Fig. 12. WK II, Prelude in D minor, As a consequence, the addition function m. 3-4 (the theme) can be expressed differently, more precisely or more ambiguously, depending on the degree of detachment to the reference accord, such as:

łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music 71 a. The real additional function of sounds the main accord pylon which they can exterior to the main functional unit (see ignore or to which they can adhere under example 6). the form of a known melodious formula b. The ambiguous additional function (ornamental or expressive) as functions of which is composed of hybrid elements: at the ornamental addition. least one exterior sound and, respectively, By cumulating these two categories, an one component of the main functional unit entire vision on the ornamental addition (see example 4). results, which is mixed on the grouping of c. The ornamental additional function (the the five types of functional coloring: ornamental function) which is composed • Passage addition functions – of sounds exterior to the main accord, ornamental which have, each, melodious-ornamental • Embroidery addition functions - and expressive formulas. ornamental • Appoggiatura addition functions – ornamental • Anticipation addition functions – ornamental • Delaying addition functions – ornamental

4. The typology of the functional cellularity The variety of the functional particularizations on a determined temporal- metric unit forms a rich typological palette of functional cells, starting from a simple accord to most elaborate formulas resulted from the interference with the additional units, with Fig. 13. WK I, Fugue in A minor, .m.49 multi-layered productions according to the cumulative densities, in direct or latent d. The additional function is composed of expressions. sounds exterior to the main accord, which Bach’s harmonic recipes rely on three enter the composition of this additional categories of constituents: function, isolated sounds whose a. The simple functional cell is made of a functionality cannot be inserted in the single accord – the main function, already-known formulas. dimensionally equivalent to the cell itself, which we can find in two variants 3. Particularizations of the additional previously presented: function • The blank functional cell, where the As it was pointed out before, the zero accord is expressed in exclusive additional function, localized within the formulations by only its basic functional cell, is to be found in five constituents (see example 1); variants, differentiated by the involvement • The colored functional cell, whose manner in correlation with the pylon, the main function is enriched by supporting accords. Each of these state melodious-ornamental, expressive, their affiliation to or their detachment from unique notes, without having the the main function by the status of sounds intention of deriving from an which compose them, as exterior notes to additional accord (see example 2). 72 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII b. The compound functional cell is made Known as “melodic note”, the melodic of two functional entities, a main, dissonance does not belong to the referential one, and an additional one. The composition of the accords [2]. The typology of the compound functional cells traditional harmony accords them a special derives from the nomenclature of the treatment. At the opposite side of this additional cells which enter their vertical harmonic concept is the linear constituency: concept promoted by Ernst Kurth [1], who • Ornamental compound functional assigns an absolute priority to the melodic cells: of passage, of embroidery, vector, considering the harmonic of anticipation, of appoggiatura, parameter a “secondary phenomenon”. of delay; The bachian style is positioned at the • Additional functional cells: of crossing of both orientations (the passage, of embroidery, of horizontal and the vertical one), as a anticipation, of appoggiatura, of symbiosis of the harmonic concept and the delay. melodic/polyphonic one. c. The complex functional cell is made of a minimum of three functional units (a main References one and additional ones) whose linear and between-level combinations generate a 1. Kurth, E. Grundlagen des linearen typological pyramid which is much more Kontrapunkts, Bachs melodische elastic and complex than the previous one. Polyphonie . Bern, 1917. 2. Todu Ńă , S. Formele muzicale ale barocului în operele lui J.S. Bach , vol. I. Bucure ti: Editura Muzical ă, 1969. 3. łuŃuianu, T. Spectromorfii în partituri palestriniene şi bachiene. Bucure ti: Editura Vergiliu, 2005.

Fig. 13. Goldberg Variations, var.21, Canone alla Settimana, m. 8

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE HEXACHORD AND HEPTACHORD MODAL SYSTEMS IN T. CIORTEA’S PIANO COMPOSITIONS

Petre-Marcel VÂRLAN 1

Abstract: In his piano music, the composer Tudor Ciortea used different types of modes, extracted from the Romanian folk music or from the music of other cultures. Some of these modes have up to seven intonation elements, a feature which, according to T. Ciortea, represents the Romanian national musical spirit.

Key words: Ciortea, hexachord, heptachord, modes, piano.

The piano works represent an important The composer Tudor Ciortea resorts to part of Tudor Ciortea’s compositions; they the modes specific to the Romanian consist of 42 piano works, grouped into folklore in a great part of his piano work, suites like Suita pentru pian pe teme as they are a resource to capitalize the folk populare târn ăvene , Suit ă pentru pian (on inspiration for piano, moreover, in other folk themes from the Banat collected by S. plays, the composer uses the particular Dr ăgoi), Patru cântece maramure ene expression of the modes due to the pentru pian or into cycles like six piano sonorous charm they give to the musical sketches De-ale copiilor , Trei piese discourse. (Elegie , Capriciu , Poveste ) or self The hexachords used in the plays are independent plays like Cântec de joc and both major and minor. In case of this Cântec (based on input collected by Bela modal formation one can notice the Bartok in Bihor), Colind (collected by cadences on various sounds as well as the S. Dr ăgoi in Banat), Toconelile (children’s mobile steps which appear against a song in Gorj), Preludiu , Rondoletto , harmonic background. In case of the Toccatina , Roman Ńă or the symphonic play example mentioned in Cântec (collected Varia Ńiuni pentru pian i orchestr ă pe o by B. Bartók in Bihor), measure 1-7, the tem ă popular ă. Three sonatas for piano cadence requires two sonorous centers and a sonatina are added to the plays (G and C) due to the formation of two mentioned above. chord layers:

1 Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 74 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

E.g. 1

The composer develops heptachord Aeolian type (with the seventh step formations [1] of the Dorian type with mobile) from hexachords by the fixed and mobile steps (E.g. 2 – a: Cântec appearance of a new sound in the harmonic from Suita pe teme b ănăŃ ene ) and of the background (E.g. 2 – b):

E.g. 2

The hexatonic scale is used in the piano tonal layers – the hexatonic modal system play Elegie (measures 6-14 from Trei piese with the double third (F, F #) / the hexatonic pentru pian ) in a structure of three harmonic- mode in transposition 1/minor chord on E b:

E.g. 3

The hexatonic mode is also used in other teme târn ăvene or Rondoletto : works like Joc ( Voinice te ) in Suita pe Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano…. 75

E.g. 4

In Bocet ( Suita pe teme b ănăŃ ene ), this (the sound C appears only in measure 8 as mode appears with a changing note which a changing note): does not interfere with its structural profile

E.g. 5

The following examples will present the Dorian mode with Aeolian agreement, the heptachord modes used under varied types, Phrygian mode, the Lydian mode, the diatonic, with fixed or mobile steps, like the Mixolydian mode, the Mixolydian mode Ionian mode (a) the Ionian mode with with Doric agreement, the Aeolian mode, acoustic 1 agreement (b), the Ionian mode the Aeolian mode with acoustic agreements with acoustic 2 agreement (c), the Ionian 2, the Aeolian mode with Doric agreement, mode with acoustic 5 agreement (d) and the Aeolian mode with Istrian agreement, others like the Dorian mode, the Dorian the Locrian mode, acoustic mode 1, mode with Istrian agreement or the acoustic mode 2: chromatic mode [2] 1 a agreement, the

76 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

E.g. 6

In case d, mentioned above, ( Cântec la clac ă de tors ), the mode consists of two tetrachord submodes, which in fact coincide with the tetrachords of the heptachord mode (in E.g. 6: *it is sharp in the score; we consider it B flat because it shows the mobility of the modal third; **it appears only at the end as a Mixolydian characteristic). The composer also uses chromatic heptachord modes, out of which some also have mobile steps, like in the following example – the chromatic 1a (a), structure b (b) and structure d (c) or the agreements of the structures a and b (e):

E.g. 7

An octachord mode is also found, which noticed in the example no. 2 – and the is the result of the combination of the harmonic background: tetratonics of the melodic conduct – to be

E.g. 8

The acoustic modes (E.g. 9) are well agreement – acoustic 1 with Lydian displayed by the uses with or without agreement, acoustic 1 with Mixolydian modified steps – acoustic 1 (a) and agreement – some of them with a cadence acoustic 2, acoustic 1 with Doric on various steps: agreement (b) and other modes with

Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano…. 77

E.g. 9

The acoustic 2 appears in the following chromatic 2a agreement (b) or with Aeolic cases without agreements (a), with agreement:

E. g. 10

The acoustics 5 and 6 appear in the plays in Suita pe teme b ănăŃ ene and in Piano Joc ( Pe loc and Călniceana ) and Colind ă Sonata no. 1:

E.g. 11

Mode 2 is also used, with limited and in first transposition – b) [3]: transposition (in second transposition – a,

E.g. 12

In Piano Sonata no. 1 the composer used with limited transposition in transposition the second and third transposition, while in 3, with marked inconsistencies which Piano Sonatas no. 2 and no. 3 he used the appear sporadically and create harmonic first and the third transposition. This mode layers): also has mobile steps (E.g. 13 - *mode 2

E.g. 13 78 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

In Preludiu , which reflects the centers is made by a common sound like composer’s apprenticeship period, we can the Greek sinaphé . identify an application of the wheel The following example shows the principle (trohos) in the Byzantine music, application of the principle according to as a system of modal construction and the fourth wheel (tetrachord, 4 sound melody composition, based on chromatic micro mode) against the chromatic mode 6 tetrachords, by placing their modal centers in the modal system of the Byzantine on other pitches rather than on the initial music: one. The connection among the respective

E.g. 14

The plays called Preludiu and Piano resonance of the Byzantine music, but Sonata no. 1 (part I, measure 84) are plays especially of folklore. The following in which the composer resorts to the example shows this case by a gravitational inverted chromatic formula, which is also stratification C/ F [4]: an aspect of the mobility of steps, a

E.g. 15

References 3. Messiaen, O. Technique de mon langage musical . Paris: Edition 1. Giuleanu, V. Tratat de teoria muzicii . Musicales, Leduc, 1944. Bucure ti: Editura Muzical ă, 1986. 4. Terényi, E. Armonia muzicii moderne 2. Oprea, Gh.; Agapie, L. Folclor (1900-1950) . Cluj-Napoca: Editura muzical românesc . Bucure ti: Editura MediaMusica, 2001. Didactic ă i Pedagogic ă, 1983.

SPORT STUDIES

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE SUFFERING MUSICIAN A POSITION PAPER ON MUSIC-RELATED INJURIES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SPORTS INJURIES

Eugen ALBULESCU 1

Abstract: This paper is a modern vision of training both technical and physical way in musician work art .For the musician I think that this vision is the key to achieving a good technique and to being able to keep performing for long periods of time without complications. Between musical performing and sport performing it is a strong connexion because the psychological war with oneself is very similar. The elevation of adrenaline levels is common to both musicians and sports players. In order to understand injury in the music word, one needs to study the commonalities and the differences between the music world and the sports world.

Key words : technique, instrument, musician, holistic, sport.

1. Introduction in both heavy computer users and musicians in the most recent decades). Musicians get plenty of training in This likening is useful, but limited in technique, the ability to deliver the best scope. Musicians do not repeat motions in rendition on their instrument. We also get the same way computer users do. We training in interpretation, music history, repeat actions in the service of a musical expressivity, large formal architecture, idiom – often some ostinato passage that musicianship, teamwork, and a host of repeats feverishly, and there is an other qualities. Musicians often experience emotional context in which our muscles pain associated with making music. The are dependent on amounts of tension and pain often is emotional, due to the work release. Often the tension and release is performed, but often the pain is more part of the musical language, and cannot be physical, and quite real. In dealing with dissociated through a simple “relax your this pain one often encounters common muscles as you play” mantra, the way a and trendy diagnoses such as Tendonitis, computer user might. RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury), Carpal As a performing pianist I have Tunnel, etc. The problem is that the way in encountered injury often. In fact, being which these diagnoses are given often able to discern between a simple sprain reflects the likening of musical activity and a more complicated inflammation of with that of typing (hence the commonality one’s tendons is key to achieving a good of RSI in musicians and typists in the technique, and to being able to keep 1980’s) and more recent, to computer work performing for long periods of time (hence the commonality of Carpal Tunnel without complications. In piano technique it is essential to understand the way in

1 Associate Professor, Lehigh University, Bethlehem PA, USA. 82 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII which muscles act. Although one could talk Technique in fact is individual for every about sophisticated phrases –specific person. The right way is the way in which motions that shape a musical idea, there are the performer is in touch with their body. two basic types of motion in piano Every mechanical aspect hinges on our technique. There is an upward motion and a understanding of how our own physical downward motion. Every muscle reacts systems work. either pulling away from the key or pushing The Sports Analogy Now it is time to toward the key. Contrary to common offer a new perspective on musicians and perception, piano technique is more physical injury. Instead of looking at ways concerned with the upward motion of our in which to make music analogous with muscles. This is the motion through which other repetitive tasks, we should perhaps we lift our fingers giving amplitude to our look at endeavors that stress our muscles to downward motion that usually follows. their limit in a similar way. Perhaps such The downward motion is marked by a an endeavor is the world of sports. There few elements. First, any amplitude from are many similarities, as well as the surface of the key makes the downward differences. For starters, just like sports, motion easier, and less exhaustive music making is often competitive – most physically. young performers start their careers This is due to the creation of through competitions. The music world momentum, and the inertia that occurs often bestows instant fame for young and when the finger bumps the key. able performers, and the younger and more Secondly, we are helped by gravity, as able, the better. Hence there is an implicit well as the elasticity of our fingers on race towards the ability to deliver technical this downward movement. wizardry, often at the cost of musical The result is that with a good upward individualism and stylistic relevance. Still, preparation, the downward movement is many schools push the notion of technique relatively easy. The injury occurs when for technique’s sake. The race is for better, pianists do not understand the basic faster, more bombastic, more accurate, and physics of piano playing. On one hand, usually more “flashy.” In the race to do this, they are taught to keep fingers close to the often young musicians reach an unrealistic keyboard. This unfortunately prevents the potential with the added cost of long-term necessary amplitude from occurring. The injury. The major differences between music fingers start moving together with the and sports are obvious. Music does fulfill a piano key, as opposed to already being in more artistic ideal, and competition is motion when the finger makes downward incidental. Another not so obvious difference motion do double duty as both moving is that the music world is not as holistic as themselves from a resting point to full the sports world is when it comes to injury. speed, as well as doing the same to the We do not have trainers who coach us on our entire mechanism of the piano key. movements, we do not have designated The resulting injuries are common, and doctors that stand by at our concerts and unfortunately the research has been massage our arms or fingers. Our injuries are insufficient in dealing with this type of often kept from our audiences and often from injury. Most common, the injury becomes other musicians. something of a stigma on the performer. However there are many reasons why the Their technique is deemed inadequate when two fields – music and sports should be there are injuries prevalent. This leads many researched collectively when it comes to musicians to hide their injuries, so as not to physical injury. First, the nature of injuries prejudice presenters from hiring them, and a pianist experiences would be very similar even potential students from studying with to the types of injury a tennis player them. This is unfortunate, because it assumes would. We do a similar level of repetitive that there is a right way for all technique. tasks in our training and in our Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician a Position Paper on Music –Related … 83 performances. What is different is that a classifying physical injuries as stemming tennis player is in a constant battle with from the same set of repetitive tasks him/herself for a faster serve, for an error- invalidates the central tenet of a musical less point, and is in a constant context. psychological war with their own When musicians tense up, they are tense selfsabotaging mechanisms, not to mention for individual reasons. Perhaps their with their opponent. A concert pianist is physique demands it – a small hand needs also in a battle with him/herself for a more tension to stretch for instance. Perhaps faster/better technical delivery of the their performance anxiety manifests in a music. The psychological war with oneself tensing of muscles that in turn triggers long is very similar, and self-sabotaging or shortterm injury. Perhaps the way they elements occur just as vividly. On top of react to passion present in the music they this, we contend with the act of interpret, is to tense up physically. Simply interpreting a great work; our assigning their injury as stemming from psychological attitude reflects also that of repetitive motion is short sighted. The big the composer, and whatever competitive elephant in the room, the central modifier for “edge” we may want over other artists as our tension points in front of an audience is we play a concert, we are in a constant the secretion of adrenalin. Amongst its many fight to tame an instrument that is usually functions, it has the physiological effect to foreign to us (not many pianists travel with contract our muscles faster and to heighten their own instruments as in the old days, their tension, and disregard pain in the Horowitz ,Michelangeli and others did). process. Perhaps this is one of our Tennis players need the crowd on their evolutionary holdovers – the “fight or flight” side. One can safely assume their playing response. Our bodies evolved to secrete large will be extra tense muscularly if the public quantities of this substance in our roots for their opponent.By comparison, a anthropological past when we faced performing pianist also needs the crowd on predators. Even though we are never in their side as well. But this is so that the physical danger when playing music or music achieves a closed circuit between sports, we still experience the same chemical the performer and his/her audience, in instinctual secretion, and this is not which mutual inspiration occurs. Usually something we can shake off, though many the better energy this abstract circuit use betablockers and other chemical/ generates, the less damaging tension psychological devices (alcohol, affirmations, occurs in a pianists’ body. The Big etc). In fact, in both music and sports, Elephant in the Room adrenalin is one of the key ingredients that When dealing with injury in the music gives us the upper edge. This exhilarating field, as well as in the sports field, one has substance is one of the reasons ironically that to contend with chemical modifiers that we love both music and sports. put immense pressure on our physical The elevation of adrenaline levels is systems. As mentioned previously, injuries common to both musicians and sports stemming from piano playing have been players. In order to understand injury in the assigned historically as RSI and Carpal music word, one needs to study the Tunnel – in the same way these conditions commonalities and the differences between surfaced in typists and data entry computer the music world and the sports world. In operators. The problem is that when typing many ways music is athletic. In order to or doing computer work, one does not feel deliver the amounts of notes to an sorrow, or ecstasy or angst, in the same audience, musicians need to have their way one does within a musical muscles toned. Pianists, for instance, composition. One also does not get the need a clear understanding of the hinges thrill or the pain from opening one’s soul that act to create the sound on the piano. in front of a live audience. Hence The common tendons, as well as the 84 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII flexing of the joints ranging from the public, an artist needs to take a serious and smallest at the tip of the fingers, and long-term approach to physical injury. This moving back to the wrist, the elbow, the approach needs to be exploratory, well shoulder, as well as every vertebrae on our guided by an expert in sports injuries, and spinal column. Sounds on the piano can be monitored dynamically. At least some of the created from flexing any one of these joints. monitoring has to take place in the context Working in synergy, these joints create an of a live performance, as only then do some effortless technique. Muscles need to be of the conditions leading to injury occur. trained at every level for this to happen. Musicians need to be fully conversant in the Certain toning and conditioning is key for injury advances and diagnoses in the sports the prolonged tension that these muscles fields. They also need to think of this as an need to exert in he space of a concert. ongoing holistic approach, rather than a Without the proper toning, adrenalin stops crisis mode prompted by a condition that being exhilarating, and rather becomes a makes their continuation of “business as poison. Even in the sports world, usual” impossible. Medical research and professional players often have to deal with even rudimentary analysis of musicians by the fact that in practicing a tennis serve for “trainers” will be unfortunately be hampered instance, one does not experience the by commercial unfeasibility. Sports injury is adrenalin present in front of an audience in a true industry because of the economics of Wimbledon. Once muscles contract professional sports. Music will never attain differently in that new “live” condition, the critical mass when it will be often the element of precision changes commercially advantageous to study those dramatically, and the possibility for other injuries to be on par with sports. However adverse effects like cramping, trembling, one may hope that researchers into sports etc., also becomes imminent. Further injury may also learn more about sports research is needed to form the basis for a injuries by studying what happens to cohesive understanding of the crosscurrents musicians, given the different types of and benefits of treating musical injuries as a stressors that are incumbent on musicians, as sport injury. described above.

2. Conclusions References

This research needs to emanate from the 1. Billings, Andrew C. Olympic Media. medical profession, and needs to take in Inside the Biggest Show on Television, consideration the adrenal gland’s effect on Published by Routledge, UK, 2008. muscle contracting and how this triggers 2. Fuller, Linda. Sports casters/Sports such conditions as tendonitis. My casting. Principles and Practices . conclusion from the perspective of a Published by Routledge, UK, 2008. performing pianist is based on the 3. Sport, Media, Culture Global and empirical experience from my own Local Dimensions. Edited by Alina performing career, of and from teaching Bernstein, Neil Blain, UK, 2002. students up to university level. What is 4. Sport in the City. Cultural needed from the performers is a serious Connections. Edited by Michael Sam, attitude towards injuries. Our proneness to John E. Hughson . Published by injury, minor and serious, should be a Routledge, UK, Publication Date: given, not the exception reserved for those 30/03/2010. with “poor technique”. In order to fully 5. Sporting Sounds Relationships appreciate one’s own physical aptitude, between Sport and Music . Editors: and to relate it to a betterment of the ability Anthony Bateman; John Bale to deliver a musical composition to the Publisher, Routledge, UK, 2008. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON HEALTH – A CURRENT PROBLEM

S. CIOROIU 1 E. MOLDOVAN 2

Abstract: Through this work we try to draw an alarm signal, in our country, on a change in the individual life of today’s society, with important repercussions on the health and quality of life. The lack of physical exercise is a major risk factor for many diseases, a fact that is shown by multiple WHO analyses, through the increase of morbidity and mortality due to these illnesses. We are trying to help by presenting the advantages of swimming, which can be a used as a solution, as many European countries believe.

Key words: physical activities, health, swimming.

1. Introduction health is already clearly established and quite well known [23]. The importance of physical exercise for a An important, though unwelcome, feature healthy life has been highly appreciated of modern life is that physical activity has a since ancient times. The following Indian low level. Due to the many technical means quotation is very significant "Body activity available in modern human life, that is designed to increase body power opportunities which may require the body to and strength is called physical exercise. It perform physical exercise have been should be practiced regularly and in a considerably reduced [17]. correct manner. Physical fitness, body Current epidemiological studies have firmness, work capacity, physical shown that sedentary living and the obesity resistance to weight lifting, eliminating associated with it are important factors physiological disorders and stimulating contributing to the emergence of serious digestive functions can be effectively diseases with a significant impact on health achieved through correctly done exercise. and the quality of life, such as diabetes and In contrast, enhanced effort leads to atherosclerosis. Currently, the coexistence fatigue, exhaustion, or may give rise to of these two diseases is a frequent cause of other body weaknesses" [24]. mortality and morbidity [24]. Where health is seen not only as a state It is a truism today that physical characterized by the absence of disease but inactivity, sedentariness, is a great danger as a positive concept, encompassing for the individual. For example, WHO physical, social and emotional wellness, estimates that physical inactivity is the importance of physical activity for annually responsible for 1.9 million premature deaths in the whole world, and

1 Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 2 Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Bra ov.

86 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII that 600 000 (something less than 1/3) of diet and physical activity" [14]. The these occur in the European Region, in the platform offers possibilities to: 53 countries that belong to this region • submit plans to improve nutrition and [7, p. 53-57]. increase the number of those who do Among the projects initiated by the exercise; European Union, some are mentioned in • analyze the effectiveness of these plans the following: and programs, to have a better record of The European Network on Nutrition and examples of good practice [14]. Physical Activity - NPA is a network established by the European Commission in 2. Benefits of Exercise 2003, which included experts nominated by EU Member States and WHO [23]. The – developing the heart muscle; first meeting of its members took place – improving blood circulation through on 30.06 - 01.07.2003, [20] and on 15 blood vessels; September 2003 was issued material on – normalizing the blood pressure - high the NPA "mandate", which noted that pressure tends to decrease, while the "the network was initiated to provide a lower one tends to increase; forum for discussion and exchange of – strengthening the bones in order to views on the contribution of nutrition and sustain body weight; physical activity to improve and maintain – improvement of the immune defense health" [22]. system by increasing the number of The role of NPA is to advise the circulating red blood cells, lymphocytes European Commission on nutrition and and neutrophils; by stimulating the physical activity problems, providing production of beta-endorphin at brain material for the annual work plans of the level the anti-tumoral activity of NK CAP FPH (2003 to 2008) (Community cells (natural killer) increases; one Action Program in the Field of Public picogram (the billionth part of a gram) of Health) and will be maintained throughout beta-endorphin increases the activity of the action of this program. At the first NK cells against tumors by 42%; meeting of the NPA Network, – lung development by stimulating deep representatives of several EU countries breathing; presented studies that focused on our – reduction of negative emotional country and were meant to bring about a experience, improving the self-image by positive and constructive attitude of those reducing anger and frustration; responsible [3]. – improved digestion and stimulated The EU Platform for Action - Diet, intestinal activities, reducing the Physical Activity and Health was launched production of gas and constipation; on 15 March 2005 and is also an initiative – -developing muscle, bone and connective that sought to accelerate and improve the tissue; effectiveness of CAP FPH actions (2003 to – improving the beauty of the body; 2008).The launching initiative belongs to – increasing the systolic flow; the European Commission, its purpose – slowing down the aging process; being "to provide a common forum for all – ensuring a good quality sleep stakeholders at European level interested [8], [13-14], [16], [25]. in preventing and tackling obesity through Cioroiu, S. et al.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health … 87

The concern of authorities, and the human body is endowed with 650 muscles, various professional organizations’ worries which give it the ability to move. If not for tendencies manifested in health in used, these muscles begin to lose their general, and the various indicators of shape and function and, if remaining health in particular are based on a huge inactive for a long time they can become amount of information that results in useless [25]. significant figures. Swimming is one of the special sports, Further studies and epidemiological data since it doesn’t show the typical collected within them are those which restrictions of most sports. Swimming is draw attention to a continuing increase in addressed to all age categories, can be the proportion of sedentariness, an practiced regardless of physical condition alarming decrease in the percentage of does not require special equipment or those who manage to accumulate a "team-mates" and can also be practiced by sufficient amount (for the benefit of pregnant women without any risk [19]. favorable effects) of motion, of physical Some people can practice swimming activity, per week. Thus, statistics show alternating high intensity exercises with that 17% of the world’s adult population is low intensity ones, while others can only totally inactive physically, and a rate of see it as a means of relaxation [27]. 41% of it are adults who do a slight form Swimming has been known since of activity - insufficient for them to benefit prehistoric times, the earliest swimming from its effects [7, p. 53-57]. Of the records, according to Stone Age multitude of existing data and statistics paintings, are about 7000 years old. about what happens to the European Written references date back to 2000 BC. population and, especially, the population Some of the earliest references include of children and young people, a study from the Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the England is mentioned, done in 1989 on Bible, Beowulf and other epopees. In over 10 000 children aged between 9 and 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, of German 15 years: the average number of hours of origin, wrote the first book on swimming, exercise - regardless of sex - was 4.7 hours a dialogue on the art to swim (Der / week, also including physical activity at Schwimmer oder ein Zwiegespräch über school. As always, boys, compared to girls, die Schwimmkunst) [16]. accumulated a greater number of hours of In the next section of the work we physical activity [13]. present the strengths of this sport and Design and implementation in schools of why it should be practiced by many of us. programs characterized by a genuine openness to educational content, 3. The Influence of Swimming on the promoting the practice of various Locomotory System systematic exercise would contribute to the success of the school and the family The greatest advantage of swimming is regarding a harmonious physical that muscles and joints work without development of young people [9, p.42-43]. having to bear any weight. Thus, over two There are many types of exercise. The thirds of the entire muscle mass grows most beneficial to health are those from without joints having to suffer. Ligaments which the body benefits the most. The 88 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII become stronger and develop their 4. The Influence of Swimming on the flexibility. Cardio-Vascular System Swimming does not only ensure the maintenance of good condition but also a The particularities of the effort made in harmonious physical development, swimming, the position of the body under movements made in immersion processes water, water pressure on the thoracic box detensioning all muscle groups, in and low body weight are just some particular the para-vertebral muscles. elements that enhance the functionality of An adequate combination of static vital importance for the organism: the exercises with dynamic ones determines a cardio-vascular and the respiratory good blood circulation and a good systems. maintenance of muscular structures, Related to the cardiac function, having positive effects on the body swimming practiced regularly leads to the position. development of the heart – hyperthrophia. By symmetrical movements, axial- In general, a sport that requires intense symmetric in "back" and "crawl" and effort from the thorax (gymnastics, central-symmetrical in "butterfly" and wrestling, weight lifting, boxing and "breaststroke", swimming ensures the swimming) favors the right half adoption of proper positions and remedies development of the heart; however, any orthopedic deficiencies. depending on the degree of adaptation of Adopting a horizontal position in water, the heart muscle and on the specific effort, the bone and joint system is freed of on the training methodology used tension and has positive effects upon [1, p. 227-228], the heart may be right, left growth [2, p. 45-57]. or entirely hypertrophiated. Once having American physiologists even determined given up on competitive activities, an increase of the STH hormone which regressive or nonregressive phenomena intensifies protein development and occur on a functional level for the right or synthesis. In association with other the left heart, apparently depending on the pituitary hormones (ACTH and specific type of effort thyrotropin), thyroid and gonadal ones [11, p. 98-102]. with an anabolic role, STH stimulates the Swimming switches from the growth process in height. quantitative engagement of the heart, [5, p.234-239]. tachycardia, to a commitment to quality, Used for therapeutic purposes, bradycardia, with fewer heart revolutions swimming assures the healing of neuro- per minute. Bradycardia training provides motor, bone and joint affections, and a biologically reduced consumption in prevents affections such as spinal cord resting. Therefore there is a controlling deviations, physical deficiencies or expansion of heart cavities. Heart muscle metabolic problems (obesity). elasticity associates swimming with In the morpho-functional recovery longevity. Swimming opposes cardio- program, swimming is the most common vascular morbidity and risk factors of this therapeutic factor, even used in system: excessive weight, hypertension, hydrokinetotherapy (under-water hypercholesterolemia, aterosclerosis, high movement therapy) [21]. neuro-psychological intensity.

Cioroiu, S. et al.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health … 89

In 1999, Italy, a complex of hypo- when initiating swimming in sports aerobic and hydro-aerobic exercises with particular attention should be given to moderate intensity were applied by a group respiration [12, p. 45-48]. of researchers to a sample of young A correct technique of aquatic women (aged 15-30) for one month, in respiration is used curatively for people daily 20 minute meetings. Devices such as with respiratory, heart or circulatory the portable spirometer and the telemetric problems. heart monitor were used, which The rhythm of breathing, properly highlighted adaptive changes and allowed synchronized with the pace of data comparison. There were statistically implementation of various movements and significant differences only in the group beating water pressure, has a positive that practiced in water. And Japanese influence on such diseases. researchers in comparative studies of Voluntary influence on respiratory various exercises carried out on land and in phases is possible because breathing is a water, concluded that myocardial cortical function; voluntarily, it may be adaptations occur in particular due to water temporarily halted – apnea, can be pressure on the thorax that intensely accelerated (hyperventilation) or slowed stimulates pressure receptors and down (hypopnea). intensifies venous circulation in particular by chest suction. 6. The Influence of Swimming on the Neuromuscular System 5. The Influence of Swimming on the Respiratory System Swimming develops sensitivity to sensations as a signal function through the The use of oxygen, differences between transformation of internal and external arterial and venous blood or decreasing the influences on the body. This sport effort of the contracting muscle are the develops psychomotric skills by the functions that best benefit from swimming prioritary processing and integration of the [6, p. 67-69]. spatial parameters of movement (direction, There is an adaptation period of time shape, amplitude), and then the temporal when people begin to swim, when oxygen ones. Unlike other sports, except for consumption is greater than its admission. gymnastics, swimming helps the mind In this period the body meets its energy form body schemes by developing requirements in particular by providing impressions about the body [10, p. 64-67]. anaerobic energy processes, and increasing the capacity of absorbing and using oxygen 7. The Influence of Swimming on is achieved through training as a result of Metabolism increasing the vital capacity, the heart flow (volume range) and an optimal adaptation As for the sensory interference, of the circulatory system. continuous adaptation to water temperature Enhancing the use of oxygen, increasing and humid air from the pool improves the capacity of tolerance to oxygen deficit, thermal sensitivity. Water temperatures improving irrigation blood, gradually between 24-26 Celsius degrees represent develops the respiratory system. Therefore, strong stimuli that induce the constriction 90 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII of blood vessels. As a consequence, a in society. I chose swimming because it is greater quantity of heat is produced and a complete sport, with very few side circulation and energy metabolism are effects and more benefits and advantages intensified. than other sports. Our view is that Romania could follow the example of 8. The Influence of Swimming on the other countries regarding the introduction Nervous System of swimming as a compulsory or optional subject in primary school. By perceiving a lower weight than in The role of empowered people in this reality, the effects of aquatic exercises on regard is essential, and the general interest relaxation or therapeutic practices go should be maximal. Reducing the waiting beyond the anatomic-functional scope, and time in front of medicine cabinets, swimming, in association with natural reducing the number of patients, a decrease environmental factors, ensures the mental in the number of obese children, a decrease health of the individual, stabilizing the in the number of people with disabilities, psycho-affective and the neuro-vegetative are ethical problems that we all need to balances. solve, whether we are teachers, doctors, Swimming in the Netherlands is kinetotherapists, sports instructors, required. Children from ages 4 or 6 go nutritionists etc. Many of us are first of all swimming twice a week. Swimming parents and our children's future health is diplomas are listed A, B and C. A and B uncertain. Certainly, to a lesser or greater diplomas are required. Those who want a extent, we all have the means to do C swimming diploma can do this something, we just need to be aware of optionally. To obtain such swimming them and to start using them! diplomas a period of 2 years is needed [4]. Practice in Denmark is one hour of References swimming per week in grades IV to VI [8]. 1. Cioroiu, S. Efecte ale înotului de 9. Conclusions performan Ńă asupra organismului uman. Tez ă de doctorat, Universitatea Prevention of diseases has become a din Pite ti, 2007. trend in today’s medicine, and everybody 2. Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv . in Romania tries to change things in this Bucure ti: Editura Didactic ă i regard. Specialists in the field recognize, Pedagogic ă, 1996. after decades of experience, that it is more 3. Dumitru, G. Activitatea fizic ă - factor useful to prevent a disease than to treat it, de promovare a s ănătăŃ ii în firstly in terms of life-quality and secondly Europa(I), 2006. Available at: from an economic point of view, since the http://www.medicinasportiva.ro/sport/ costs are considerably reduced over time. articole/Activitatea%20fizica%20in% Many illnesses can be avoided by lifestyle 20Europa%20I.html changes: physical activity, diet, tobacco, 4. Gavril ă, A. "Mami, e prea greu!" alcohol, etc. 2008. Available at: In the present work we wanted to http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/mami- emphasize the impact of physical activity e-prea-greu.html Cioroiu, S. et al.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health … 91

5. Guyton, A.C. Fiziologie . Bucure ti: 15. Diet, Physical Activity and Health - Editura Medical ă Amalteea, 1999. EU Platform for Action . Available at: 6. Jivan, I.; Cirla, L. Nata Ńie – culegere http://scholar.google.ro/scholar? de texte de specializare vol. I . 16. Exerci Ńiul fizic - moda sau necesitate? . Bucure ti: Centrul de multiplicare In: Perspective , nr.5, 2005. Available at: A.N.E.F.S., 1992. http://www.perspectivechicago.com/ar 7. Martin, B.W.; Kahlmeier, S.; ticle.php?id=64 Racioppi, F. et al. Evidence-based 17. The Health Benefits From Swimming . physical activity – HEPA Europe, The Available at: European Network for the Promotion http://www.24hrfitness.co.uk/fitness/th of Health-Enhancing Physical e-benefits-of-swimming.html Activity. In: J Public Health 14, 18. Health Education Authority. Health 2006. update 5. Physical Activity. London: 8. Mita, B.; Miclescu, L. Dezvoltarea 1995. spiritului competi Ńiei sau dezvoltarea in 20. History of swimming. Available at: spiritul competi Ńiei (eseu) . In: Stiinta http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_o Sportului , nr.1, 2003. Available at: f_swimming http://www.sportscience.ro/html/revist 21. International Physical Activity e_2003_37-7.html Questionnaire (IPAQ) . Available at: 9. Moldovan, E. Activit ăŃi de timp liber http://www.ipaq.ki.se/ipaq.htm în natur ă i în alte arii cognitiv- 22. Inotul - calea spre s ănătate . formative. Bra ov: Editura Available at: Universit ăŃ ii Transilvania din Bra ov, http://www.medicas.ro/fitness- 2007. welness/inotul/ 10. Monciu, I. Fiziologia Educa Ńiei fizice 23. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA) i sportului . Bucure ti: Editura network first meeting. Luxembourg, 30 Didactic ă i Pedagogic ă, 1997. June – 1 July 2003 . Available at: 11. Mure an, E. Înot – Sintez ă. Bucure ti: http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin Editura Funda Ńiei România de Mâine, ans/life_style/nutrition/ev_20030630_e 2000. n.htm 12. Todea, S. Exerci Ńiul fizic în educa Ńia 24. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA) fizic ă i kinetoterapie . Bucure ti: network. Mandate. Luxembourg 15 Editura Funda Ńiei România de Mâine, September 2003 . Available at: 2003. http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin 13. Benefits of Swimming - Health ants/life_style/nutrition/documents/ev_ Benefits . Available at: 20030630_rd02_en.pdf http://www.benefitsofswimming.com/ 25. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA) 14. Children, obesity and associated Network members . Available at: avoidable chronic diseases . http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin Available at: ants/life_style/nutrition/documents/ev_ http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_projects/ 20030630_rd01_en.pdf 2003/action3/action3_2003_04_en.htm 92 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

26. Rolul exerci Ńiilor fizice în men Ńinerea 27. Swimming - health benefits . Available at: st ării de s ănătate . Available at: http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv http://www.armonianaturii.ro/Rolul- 2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Swimming?Open exercitiilor-fizice-in-mentinerea-starii- 28. U.S. Department of Health and Human de-sanatate.html*articleID_420-articol Services, Physical Activity and Health.

26. Swimming . Available at: A report of the Surgeon General . http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/ex Pittsburgh: National Center for ercisefitness/exer3116.html Chronic Diseases Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

TECHNICAL TRAINING – A FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT OF SPORTS TRAINING IN THE BASKETBALL GAME

Mihaela CHICOMBAN 1

Abstract : The technique of a sports branch includes all the motor actions ideally executed from the point of view of their efficiency. The technique implies the rational and economic execution of a type of movements specific to sport branches. It includes a specialized system of motor structures established according to the regulations of the basketball game in order to obtain the optimum efficiency in competition.

Key words: technique, technical training, components of the technique, style, technical procedure, technical elements.

1. Introduction

The content of sports training became tactical training, physical training, more and more complex as sport psychological training, artistic training and performances evolved and as the work biological training for competition. methodology for each sports branch was Technical training is a fundamental outlined and established. Due to such component of sports training. progress, it became necessary to The technique of a sports branch systematize the content of sports training includes all the motor actions ideally according to well-defined rules, among executed from the point of view of their which those related to the purpose or the efficiency. The technique implies the effects physical exercises have on various rational and economic execution of a type elements of the athlete’s training. of moves specific to sport branches. It Therefore, physical exercises – includes a specialized system of motor differentiated according to their specificity structures established according to the and addressability, applied according to regulations of the basketball game in order price rules - represent the content elements to obtain the optimum efficiency in of sports training. competition [5, p. 234]. The fields such exercises address are: the The technique of the basketball game technique, the tactics, the effort capacity, represents all the specific moves executed the mental, theoretical, artistic and by an athlete while playing the game, biological sphere. Nowadays, sports according to the rules and duties imposed training is based on: technical training, by his/her team playing in a competition.

1 Dep. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 94 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Technique differentiates sports branches 1. The technical element is a from one another: the basketball technique fundamental motor structure substantiating is different from the tennis technique, the the practice of a sports branch (passing, ski technique or wrestling technique and so throwing the ball through the basket). The on, each having specific systems of motor technical element is an abstract notion, as structures. the passing is executed by certain well- defined motor structures. 2. Technical Training 2. The technical procedure designates a concrete motor structure or a particular The technique is conditioned by the way of executing the technical element. other components of the sports training, For example, throwing through the basket especially by the physical training. When from the semi distance jump is a concrete training beginners, we must make sure of technical procedure designed to execute a the physical availabilities that shall characteristic action of the basketball game represent the fundamentals of their with maximum of efficiency. technical training, consisting of various The technical procedures in each repeats (in order to become skills). The particular sport exist due to various factors, development of the effort capacity at an among which the coach and the athlete inappropriate level leads to faulty creating new models of efficient technique. In sports games, technique procedures: the morpho-functional and influences in a priority manner the solution mental particularities of athletes who leave of complex game situations and conditions their mark on the execution of a certain and the economy of the movements. technical procedure, the quality of the The level of technical training of an sports materials (boards, baskets etc.). athlete greatly depends on his/her initial 3. The style represents the particular way level and on his/her motor experience, a (the personal mark) of executing a fact that determines appropriate methodical technical procedure. It shows in high class measures. Thus, for beginners, the training athletes and its result is the efficient process aims at enlarging the motor basis execution of a certain procedure. As far as that shall include means from the running beginners are concerned, the style is out of class, jumping class, throwing the ball etc., the question, as it is well known that in while for trained athletes the specialization various phases of forming motor skills, is a strict one. The appropriation of a sum moves with direction are not always the of motor abilities and skills stresses the best. sensorial system to a larger extent – 4. The fundamental mechanism of the comparing the internal information with technical procedure is made up of a logical the external information and relating them series of motor actions, objectively to the verbal one – thus favoring the necessary to efficiently execute this appropriation of the move. procedure. Running, stamping on one foot, detaching, throwing and landing represent 3. Components of the Technique the fundamental mechanism of throwing the ball through the basket while moving. Analyzing the technique and the To this mechanism we must also associate technical training, the scholars point out the spatial-temporal and dynamic features the following components: of that particular procedure, namely the position of the body or of its segments Chicomban, M: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports Training … 95 during the execution of the exercise Learning the moves in sport [3, p. 207] is (procedure), the final efforts or the special because performance is emphasis of different moments of the materialized in the quality level of the action execution. Consequently, the execution itself. If objects are used (for the fundamental mechanism of a technical sports games), these are intermediate tools procedure needs to be understood as a to achieve and assess force, speed or system of strongly connected (spatial, resistance features of such moves. In sport temporal, dynamic and energetic) factors we learn how to conduct our own body determining an increase in efficiency. movements in unusual conditions - The fundamental mechanism of the jumping, unbalance – coordination that technical procedure is featured by: requires a complex system of abilities.
Spatial – temporal aspects The requirements of the competition − distance regulations related to the display of the − amplitude motor and effort capacities, also determine − position the particularities of learning a technique − direction in sport (the duration of the attack in − duration basketball is of 24 sec). − rhythm Learning a sport technique consists of
Dynamic – energetic aspects three types that determine as many types of technical abilities. − of force 1. The perceptive motor (or sensor- − of speed − motor) learning resides in changing the of coordination conduct depending on the actual conditions − of precision emerging during training or competitions. − of balance The athlete reacts by a preferred answer − of internal and external force that may be perfected from the that result in the efficient performance of coordination, precision or finesse point of the muscles. view (e.g. launching the ball on the counter attack). This type of technical ability is 3. Learning the Technical Procedures executed by the spatial-temporal organization of the directly perceived The laws and the steps of learning the “external events”. The perceptive images motor acts and actions substantiate program and adjust the motor actions, learning the technical procedures, with correcting them (when appropriate) by certain specific, differential notes, several interventions until obtaining a determined by the particularities of each synchronization between the anticipated sport. image and the efficient action [3, p. 135]. “Sports skills” are formed by long-term 2. The motor learning results in the practice, with and without self-control, and abilities on the grounds of the sensor, they are influenced by tiredness, by the kinesthetic or proprioceptive components, variety of the performance conditions etc. in which the end of a move is the sign for Thus, it results that the skills are not initiating the next move. The abilities exclusively motor, they are formed by the attain the final level of the fluency, participation of the second signaling precision, coordination and tempo by system, turning into complex abilities. stereotype repeats. 96 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

3. The intelligent motor learning is necessary means, executing the procedures determinant in the training process of the with restriction) and methods favoring “heuristic” sport branches techniques - like correct practice are imposed, mainly wrestling, box, sports games, fencing – in referring to the components of the which the opponent is opposive and fundamental mechanism of the technical inventive, its actions being executed in procedure. high uncertainty conditions. III. The step of fine coordination and of The technical procedures pertaining to technical procedure consolidation is the sports branches belonging to this essentially featured by the correct category are also called tactical or execution of the move, generally in “technical – tactical” (underline the varied standard or "stereotype" content of the learned elements for tactical conditions: the execution with increased application purposes). speed and force rates and in resistance The steps of technical learning need to conditions, fluent execution, with correct be passed through for the technical rhythm, precision and amplitude. The procedures and they have certain information is meant to "finish" and particularities determined by the specific improve the execution of the previously rules of certain sports branches – learned procedure. regulations – and they are set depending IV. The step of improving and on it. overlearning the technical procedure is The steps of technical learning are the featured by its execution in various following: conditions with superior efficiency rates I. The step of information and of (coordination, precision, fluency and so representation formation, is the step in on). The athlete is able to anytime adapt which the athlete creates his/her the executions to the most varied external conception and the fundamentals of the conditions created by the opponent, the process that is to be learned – on the atmosphere, the field, the public and so grounds of explanations and intuitive on. Overlearning is an effect and a means. The athletes elaborate a section condition determined by the need for an project (on the grounds of their previous increased number of repeats, and it is motor experience) depending on the motor determined by each type of sport. In qualities, on the effort capacity and on the basketball, overlearning has massive observation spirit they have. intellectual participation as its II. The step of the "raw" or insufficiently valorization (throwing the ball through differentiated moves is featured by the first the basket from 3 points) requires a practical executions of that particular thorough mental analysis of the effective technical process in which the verbal circumstances in which the shoot is indications of the coach represent the main executed (opponent, field, viewers). information received by the athlete. The Learning all the technical procedure is phenomena featuring this step are: done on the grounds of certain models set excessive effort, jerky (improper) rhythm, by specialists after numerous and decreased amplitude, precision and so on. comprehensive studies that mainly refer If the motor acts are appropriated with to the fundamental mechanism of the mistakes, such mistakes will be difficult to procedure and also of the execution correct at a future time. For these reasons, details specific of various styles. particular motor measures (using the Chicomban, M: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports Training … 97

Important competitions provide the best 4. Methodic Priorities Related to conditions to study the technique at the Learning a Sports Technique highest level. Accordingly, the competition organizers or the methodic Although the techniques in sport are forums of the international or national quite varied, we may emphasize some bodies organize technical data collection. common traits of their learning The audio-video means are located in organization as follows: various positions to include all the 1. Establishing the basis of the technical trajectories of the body and of its training (for each training level – segments, and are highly important in the beginners, advanced, performance) is technique analysis. Such cameras are equivalent to the action of specifying the installed at least in three points in order to main technical procedures that shall provide the analyst with a represent the objective of those particular multidimensional picture (horizontal, athletes’ training. The coaches are lateral, frontal), and they are equipped with supposed to establish the technical hi-fi chronometers and chronographers procedures to be appropriated and which precisely offer the duration of each improved (during a certain period of time) move sequence. on the grounds of the requirements of each Studying the technique and elaborating quality level of the athletes [4, p. 203]. its rules results in the increase of the As far as the beginners are concerned, execution speeds, optimum coordination, the essential requirement shall be the mistake correction etc. correct and thorough appropriation of the Going through the learning steps implies main technical procedures, acknowledging the permanent comparison of the execution that they may be efficiently applied in the to the model, analyzing the positive and competition activity. The fundamental negative aspects of the execution and the condition of appropriating in due time the setting of corrective measures: circuit technical procedures scheduled for certain (feed-back) that may be repeated until the training periods is to provide an increased overlearning step. volume of work materialized in numerous repeats. Feed-back has three phases: 2. Maximal valorization of the athlete’s a. The premotor phase (corresponds to availability to obtain technical virtuosities the first learning step) when the subject may be found at all training levels and it is acknowledges the objectives of learning, carried out at the same time as the solid depending on which intention appears, and appropriation of the scheduled technical a project containing the execution desired procedures. Therefore, the coach must take parameters is set. into account the personal inclinations and b. the motor phase (corresponds to the options of the subjects related to some second step) when the subject passes to the technical exercises. Hence, the technique is effective execution of the procedure with not a pattern including the non- mistakes that cannot be avoided. differentiated training of all athletes, yet it c. The post-motor phase of the is an instrument for optimizing the activity execution’s appreciation (afferent to steps of each separate athlete. III and IV), in which the athlete’s mental 3. For all training levels, technique scheme is compared to the model shown appropriation is strongly related to the by the coach. complex requirements of competitions. 98 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Considering the effective requirements circumstances similar to the competition of the contest, technique may be scheduled ones, as they are not learned as a purpose in adversity conditions depending on the itself, but to be easily and efficiently circumstances that may appear during the applied in competitions. For the better and sports contests, thus specifying a more correct appropriation of such competition technique and not an abstract procedures, coaches resort to various technique, segregated from the concrete, methods, among which making their multiple and permanently changing needs execution easier (e.g. throwing the ball of a competition. through the basket at the sound signal, 4. The individualization of training is the regardless of the position of the player best method to appropriate and improve when the signal is heard). technique. As not all athletes have the In the contemporary concept of technical same qualities, (some of them have better training, practicing in conditions that are joints mobility, other better speed or better analogous or identical to the competition is ability etc.) individualizing technique highly important, being able to validate the appropriation represents a rule of training. effects and efficiency of training 5. The tendencies towards "technical [1, p. 187]. exaggerations" need to be stopped as such 8. Periodic evaluation of the technical exercises cannot be applied in training by means of control norms and competitions and they are not efficient. tests. Such attitudes are mostly shown within the Specialized teachers establish some beginners groups, as they do not realize the exercise structures, depending on the requirements of the true virtuosities of the specific nature of each sport, that are competition technique, thus being tempted highly significant to emphasize the level of to appeal to meaningless tricks. the technical training (e.g. executing a 6. The action system necessary for each certain number of throws through the technical procedure is set by the coaches, basket in limited time and with a certain who specify a set of exercise structures percentage for scoring). afferent to learning that particular procedure quickly and thoroughly. To 5. Causes Leading to the Stagnation of attain such objectives, we must also take Technical Evolution into account the development of the motor qualities needed to optimize their Learning a sports technique, as all execution. The algorithm shall be repeated processes of motor learning is not a linear, systematically and for a long time, until ascending process, but follows the path of obtaining the desired outcome of the a discontinuous curve, featured by repetition. Related to learning evolution, ascending parts and by still times. coaches may change the exercise The main causes determining “still structures, replacing them with other, more times” in learning are: efficient ones for the new circumstances, 1. Too much information provided by even more interesting in order to fight the coach – such as explanations and monotony. demonstrations – that the athlete cannot 7. Independent exercise of the technical assimilate. In the initial phases of motor procedures or of some of their structures learning, attention is stressed to a larger has an important role, yet it must be extent, leading to accentuated mental continuously doubled by repeats made in tiredness, and due to the large number of Chicomban, M: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports Training … 99 repeats, physical tiredness installs. Too 1. Collaboration between the coach and much information, considering the already scholars of other fields (biomechanics, existing tiredness, causes the normal aerodynamics, ballistics, electronics). reaction of the body shown by lack of 2. High technicality rates of the sports coordination and precision, faulty materials and equipments. For example, in fundamental mechanism of the move etc. basketball, the balls, the boards with rings, Reducing the quantity of information and and last but not least the footwear, play an optimum time pauses between repeats may important part. The materials they are prevent tiredness (both mental and manufactured from overthrow many of the physical). Thus it is important to carefully precepts of past technique and help to analyze the indications, specifying only attain high performance. those related to the moments of executing 3. The innovative search of athletes and the technical procedure. coaches is the effect of the existence of 2. Accentuated physical tiredness, shown more competitions, both internal and by the decrease of the effort capacities, of international, and aims at finding and the general coordination reduces the promoting novelty to surprise the control capacity. Therefore, the athlete opponents and to ensure sport success. must be permanently monitored and when Higher technical executions appear in tiredness symptoms appear, repeats must each important competition (European and be ceased. World championships, Olympic Games) in 3. Incomplete information (verbal and sports games. intuitive) that does not create a clear Due to the fact that all that is presently representation of the ability or action to be promoted at an international level – as far as learned. techniques are concerned, may be relatively 4. A subject’s lack of motivation easy to accomplish (assimilate), the scholars consequently entails insufficient attention, in the field are concerned with renewing low will etc. them. Yet, the future belongs to technicians 5. The incongruity between the and athletes able to create new models, aspiration level and the athlete’s capacities superior to the presently known ones. The at a certain time requires the development personal mark of the athlete in executing a of the factors conditioning learning and the technical procedure is highly important in improvement of the technical abilities establishing new technical procedures and (force, speed, resistance indicators etc.). needs to be maximally valorized as they 6. Using inappropriate materials and favor the creation of particularly efficient equipment from the quality point of view, motor structures to gain success. which may determine incorrect learning of There is no doubt that sports techniques the procedures. are continuously evolving, constantly improving from one step to another, 6. The Evolutional Character of Sports changing in a spectacular manner. Because Technique of this, scholars are permanently concerned with studying all the technique The technique of various sports branches (continuous) improvement possibilities, overdeveloped in the last 15-20 years due thus orienting athletes’ training both to the to the following causes: inheritance from the past as well as to the perspective of the future requirements of sports development. 100 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

References 4. Ionescu, St.; Dârjan, C. Instruire i performan Ńă în baschet la copii i 1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul Sportiv juniori. Bucure ti: Editura Didactic ă i Modern. Bucure ti: Editura Editis, Pedagogic ă R.A, 1997. 1993. 5. Negulescu, C.; Popescu, F.; 2. Dîrjan, C.; Hri că, A.; Predescu, T. Moanta, A. et al. Metodica înv ăŃă rii i Baschet la copii i juniori . Bucure ti: perfec Ńion ării tehnicii i tacticii Editura Sport – Turism, 1995. jocului de baschet. Bucure ti: 3. Epuran, M. Metodologia cercet ării ANEFS, 1997. activit ăŃ ilor corporale , Volumes I and II. Bucure ti: ANEFS, 1992.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

DRIBBLE IMPROVEMENTS IN THE BASKETBALL GAME THROUGH MULTIMEDIA MEANS

R. ENOIU 1 R.S. ENOIU 2

Abstract: This paper is a modern training instrument by which small athletes are attracted to learning, strengthening and improving the dribbling map in basketball, using techniques and computer multimedia. The CD that resulted from this work contains no less than 100 drills for learning and strengthening the technical element, presented in a software application for PC.

Key words: basketball, dribbling, skill, PC application, improving .

1. Introduction dribbler. Later you will learn not to abuse by dribbling. Dribble must be learned and Modern technology penetrates perfected without watching the ball, and increasingly more and increasingly fast in the ball must be driven with the same all fields of science. In Romania, sports’ dexterity with both hands", concluded the training is an area in which computer same great player [2, p. 52-54]. technology and multimedia is used quite little, and this happens only at major sports 2. Objectives clubs. Multimedia applications for PC and tapes / DVDs used in training are often In this context, the work is meant to be a "imported", production is almost modern training instrument by which small nonexistent. This paper is meant as an athletes are attracted to learning, incentive and also a modest contribution to strengthening and improving the dribble the guideline for creating new local map in basketball, using techniques and applications, enriching and improving computer multimedia. The CD that methods of training. accompanies the paper contains no less "The first of the basics of the basketball than 100 exercises for learning and game that you need to train, as it is processed strengthening the technical element, individually, is driving the ball," said Oscar presented in a software application for PC. Robertson, one of the best professional Exercises are specifically selected and offensive basketball players in the U.S., structured so that they can be completed quoted by Vasile Popescu in 1969 according to the principles of the theory of [1, p. 371-374]. “Why is dribble ranked sport and physical education, from easy to more important before throw?" Simply difficult, from simple to complex because before shooting you need to know [3, p. 220], [4, p. 170]. The program how to approach. To become a includes videos of all exercises and a professional, you should be an excellent selection of materials in video format,

1 Department of Collective Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 2 Department of Individual Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 102 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII selected research bibliography on the • Establishing the methodology for using Internet. these methods and means in the practice Basically, the multimedia CD can be of juniors; used successfully in junior training. • The experimentation of means can Statistical data from research results show develop skills; an improvement from the training obtained • The video recording of gross selected by uncompromising modern techniques. exercises; The application for PC can be used for • Processing and editing a recorded video any other component of the game of material; basketball training, so it can achieve a • Creating a design and program interface whole set of CDs for each technical for PC; element, or technical process action tactics. • Bringing together all elements and The aim of the paper is to propose using achieving a final application; multimedia means in preparing the young • Conclusions and recommendations. for the future of operating systems. For this work we have established the Acquiring dribbling at an early age is following research hypothesis: the actually launching the great performance, application of multimedia means to and must be allocated due importance strengthen and improve the dribble, for a [5], [6, p. 141-145], [7, p. 64-68]. period of approximately 200 days, Using modern technology is primordial in determine improvement in the event skill the future to obtain competitive results at indices, following the tests used to check European level and also internationally the specific skill to assess progress (or [8, p. 34-37]. regress) made in conducting the

3. Material and Methods experiment. The duration of the research deployment

has stretched over a period of approx. eight Practice has shown that to achieve a high months. degree of skill in basketball, a period of 8- The Junior II and III samples researched 10 years of training is necessary [9, p. 27]. were divided into two groups. One group, Starting from this reality, to achieve the called witness group, continued training purpose, we have established the main exactly the same as before. A second problems and tasks arising from this, group, called experiment group, performed namely: • using this preparation for systems and What is skill and how it is manifested in methods of operation proposed by us. juniors; Observing that there were 20 in a lot of • By what methods and means can skills team players, we have formed groups, each develop through dribbling at the junior having 10 players. age. Dividing the two groups was done after To solve these problems, the tasks ranking the initial testing. The first was required are: distributed in the first group, the second in • Documentation for skills development by the second group, the third in the first strengthening the dribbling of juniors; group, the fourth in the second group and • Formulating the paper’s hypotheses; so on with all 20 players. • Selection and development of the In the experiment, we tried to operate methods and means to strengthen and with a variable (the independent variable), improve the dribble, which can develop represented by the training on the skills; strengthening and improvement of dribble Enoiu, R. et al .: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means 103 in the basketball game by means of compiled into a menu with the auto run multimedia, to see what happens to the program freeware "AutorunMaker. The variable effect (dependent variable), CD starts automatically when inserted in represented by the development of the drive. The next step is to display the coordinative ability, achieved at the end of top page, which is stationary for 15 the research. If changes occur at the seconds. One can continue pressing the accumulation level of quality, power, first button or click on the image anywhere "skill", and the psycho-motor level, then or wait 15 seconds. (Figure 1) the variable can assume that we have handled it a product changes. We can therefore say that we have established a cause-effect relationship between the two variables. This was the logic by which we designed the experiment. Thus, at the beginning of the experimental period we tested all the 20 players. This was the initial testing and found in 3 control tests made to see the skill level and degree of mastery in dribbling. At the end of the experimental Fig. 1 period we performed the same series of tests, following which we found an Next is Menu appearance (Figure 2). improvement in the results of the This menu allows browsing through the experiment group compared to the witness. CD. On the first page are some general The details of the computer application data (Area 1) and the navigation menu were carried out by a former student in the (Zone 2). final year of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport - Bogdan Cojocaru. The application on the CD "Learn to dribble" is a form of multimedia presentation of the 100 exercises proposed for learning / improving dribble. This multimedia CD was used in the experiment group for this exercise. It is in a video format and is included in a PC. Photos and graphics, sounds, video sequences are made entirely with free software available on the Internet. Fig. 2 Videos were recorded using a Canon camera and then were processed in "Windows Movie Maker" (available on To view the contents of the CD press on any computer running Windows XP). the left on "Exercises". Clicking this Images, buttons and all the graphics used button, the image that is joined will appear were edited using the free "GIMP". The (Figure 3). sound track of the film was made with the help of VST Plug-in "DrumAndBase" imported in the software Magix Music Maker. All components have been 104 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

watch a short video of 10 drills in plus. The last menu option is "Record". This world record was approved by the Guinness Book of Records in 2003 for "Most balls dribble at the same time" The application may be terminated at any time by clicking the 'X' shaped ball in the right corner.

4. Results and Discussions Fig. 3 Control Tests used were: At left are some general data and on the • dribbling between the feet on a distance right are 10 images that represent the of 35 m; buttons that launch and last exercises. If • milestone dribbling with changing you have stationed a little more on an direction; image, a description block of exercises • dribbling with two balls on the long appears next to your mouse cursor. By field. clicking on the picture it opens the movie Presentation and interpretation of data in full screen (full screen) from its own obtained from experiment (for lack of application. Each image opens about 10 space we will examine only one of three exercises, grouped by category. control tests) From the main menu, the second option Control test 1 is the "Bonus". By clicking on it you can

The difference in seconds between the initial and final testing on two groups, Table 1-2

(TI-TF) TI-TF Experiment group seconds Witness group (seconds) PO 1,9 BA 1,2 RN 1,9 AM 1,4

SO 2 MA 1,2

TO 1,8 CS 1,4

VM 2,2 IM 1,5 SM 2 CM 1,3 HE 2,1 IC 1,2 JK 1,9 UI 1 ZI 1,9 CO 1,4 BV 2,2 AS 1,3 Average 1,99 Average 1,29

Standard deviation 0,14 Standard deviation 0,14 Coefficient of 6,89% Coefficient of variance variance 11,23%

Enoiu, R. et al .: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means 105

As can be seen from the table, the From this experiment it results that the arithmetic mean of the differences group had an overall performance recorded between the initial and the final approximately 35% better than the control testing on the experiment group is 1.99, group for the first test of control. while on the control group it is only 1.29.

I ndividual time improvement of TI and TF reported in percent age points 10,0 9,5 9,3 9,0 8,9 8,9 9,1 8,5 8,2 8,0 8,1 7,7 7,5 7,5 7,0 7,1 6,8 6,5 6,4 6,0 6,0 6,0 5,8 5,5 5,2 5,0 5,1 4,7 4,5 4,6 4,3 4,0 Performance percentage percentage Performance 3,5 3,6 3,0 2,5 2,0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Player

Chart 1

From the tables above and from Chart 1 The kids involved in the experiment are it follows that the players in the more aware of the importance of experiment group had an improvement in improving coordination skills, pay greater average time by 8.16%, while the control attention to the dribble and have greater group of players had only 5.18%. willingness to work independently. Analyzing the first tests we could come Besides driving ability, moral-volitional with a partial conclusion: the application qualities have also been developed: experiment has succeeded in improving the courage, perseverance, willingness, performance of the experimental group by ambition. approximately 35% compared to the The various situations in which athletes control group, and thus the effectiveness find themselves during the game, allowing was demonstrated. the development of creativity and initiative, because you need an increased 5. Conclusions rate of application and stages that follow up rapidly, require a fast analysis. At the Based on the results obtained after using same time, the education of thinking skills the PC in the control samples and their was improved, as well as a sense of statistical interpretation, we reached the orientation in space, and mobilization of following conclusions: physical resources. Indicators for coordinative ability and The multimedia application on CD has the skill of driving have shown a real proven effective and can be used progress, based on the results of final tests. successfully in junior training. Statistical 106 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII data from research results show an 4. Cioroiu, S. Antrenamentul Pliometric improvement compared to the training în Sport. In: International Scientific received by uncompromising modern Conference - New Educational techniques. Evolutions for Sports, Management, Health Therapy and Free Time in the References European Context - BRA OV 2009. Bra ov: Transylvania University of 1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul sportiv Bra ov. modern . Bucure ti: Editura Editis, 1993. 5. Dragnea, A.; Mate-Teodorescu, S. 2. Bompa, T. Teoria i metodica Teoria sportului. Bucure ti: FEST. antrenamentului. Periodizarea . 2002. Bucure ti: Ex Ponto, 2002. 6. Enoiu, R. Baschet de la teorie la 3. Chicomban, M. Preg ătirea practic ă. Bra ov: Editura Univ. baschetbali tilor încep ători, proces Transilvania , Bra ov 2008. complex i de lung ă durat ă In: 7. Enoiu, R.S.; Oancea, V. Fotbal – International Scientific Conference - Considera Ńii asupra factorului fizic . New Educational Evolutions for Sports, Bra ov: Omnia UNI SAST, 2002. Management, Health Therapy and Free 8. Moldovan, E. Baschet . Bra ov: Editura Time in the European Context - Univ. “Transilvania” din Bra ov, 2004. BRA OV 2009. Bra ov: Transylvania 9. Popescu, V. Baschetul în America . University of Bra ov. Bucure ti: CNEFS, 1969.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

IMPROVING PUPILS' INITIATIVE- TAKING CAPABILITIES THROUGH PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS

D. FE ŞTEU 1 L. BALINT 2

Abstract. This article addresses the theme of personal and social development through physical education and sport activities. The aim is to present a possible solution to the problem of improving pupils’ ability of taking initiative in activity. We started from the assumption that taking initiative is a personal quality that is learned and could therefore be taught. The approach is based on Goldstein’s (1981) method of social learning and is different from what has been proposed so far. It is, within certain limits, similar to the way concepts are taught in schools. It is mostly based on explaining, questioning, demonstrating, reasoning, and reflecting. It could be implemented as a group activity. Its implementation presupposes the completion of a series of stages: concept learning, discrimination learning, principle learning and problem solving.

Key words : antioxidants, non-nutrition, alpha-tocopherol.

1. Improving Pupils' Social Skills

The development of qualities such as that can no longer be expected from co-operation, honesty, communication, leaders only but from ordinary people as initiative, responsibility, self-control is well. Taking initiative in tackling part of the complex process of problems in daily activity is crucial for maturation. Taking initiative is regarded the working places of the future. as important in the context of young Initiative encompasses such qualities people’s social development. Taking such as the readiness to start a first step initiative to accomplish different tasks is in a process, willingness to be involved in a quality that our society expects from its improving things around you, members. The emergence of the new confidentiality in your physical and informational society we are witnessing psychological resources, capability of at the beginning of the third millennium understanding what happens around you, shows that entrepreneurship and willingness to achieve success, readiness intrapreneurship is becoming vital to the to assume responsibility and take new working environment. Taking reasonable risks. initiative has become a personal quality

1Faculty of Enterprise & Innovation, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College. 2 Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Bra şov.

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The problem is that people still need to 2. Improving Social Skills through learn what taking initiative means, as Physical Education there is a widespread lack of knowledge and practice. Young people are often Education in general is expected to incapable of initiating an activity, and encourage social skills, teach moral values, many ignore the possibility of being form character, shape personality and involved in an activity that can improve improve knowledge. The educational things around them. Often, people are not factors in society work in a corroborative aware of their own physical and manner; family, school, peers, television, psychological resources and are not youth organizations, church and others, confident in their strengths. Not few all influence young people’s social people lack the drive to understand what development. In my opinion, school should the field forces are in their domain and play a leading role in enhancing young how forces act upon them. Many young peoples’ social capabilities, as school people dream of reaching success without represents for young people their local assuming responsibilities or working society. The mini-society which is school hard. Many young people do not know constitutes a somehow safe environment in what taking reasonable risks means. Too which pupils can learn and test a wide few young people experience success as a range of social behaviors related to power result of taking initiative. In the new relationships, roles, peer pressure, social informational society, more and more rules, co-operation, conflict solving, individuals are expected to manifest decision making, leadership and so on. initiative and entrepreneurial attitude. Physical education is one of the subject Initiative, responsibility and reliability are areas within school that could substantially crucial qualities in the global economy we contribute towards pupils’ personal and have just entered. In spite of the fact that social development, as activity in the gym many subjects, modules and courses is inherently social and qualitatively taught in schools or universities different from what occurs in the emphasize the need to encourage and classroom. Because movement is the develop qualities such as team-work, co- focus, many classroom formalities are operation, leadership, decision making, suspended. Within specified limits, initiative, responsibility and others, little behavior that is unacceptable elsewhere is has been done and the results are far from here permitted, or even encouraged. For being satisfactory. There seems to be no example, touching and other forms of body subject matter in the school curriculum contact, loud and often chaotic aiming at systematically teaching the vocalization and spontaneous encounters concept and working to create the specific with others are all an integral part of many associated skills. physical education activities. There are, though, many outdoor A vast literature mirrors the increasing activities providers throughout the world interest in and concern for using physical who do use specific activities to enhance education as a setting for enhancing the initiative, but their impact is limited as the socialization of young people. The trend to number of participants is still limited [7]. ground educational interventions in Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ... 109 physical education on theories from presupposes the completion of a series of psychology, sociology or ethics has stages, which can be relatively easily resulted in the employment of a wide range identified by the teacher. Fourth, the of concepts. Some of the most frequently results of its implementation can be quite used are: ‘socio-moral education' [9], accurately assessed and do not demand 'socio-moral development' [12], 'socio- sophisticated psychological tests. moral growth' [11], 'social education' [13], 'social skills' [8], 'moral growth' 4. Some Suggestions on Teaching Initiative [1], 'moral development' [4], 'value -Taking through Physical Education development' [6], 'character Lessons development' [10], 'character education' [3] and 'affective development' [2]. 1. Concept learning is the first step in learning initiative-taking. Teachers may 3. How is Initiative to Be Learned through ask pupils to express their opinions Physical Education Lessons? regarding “taking initiative”, listen carefully and then complete. Initiative is We start from the assumption that taking the readiness to take the first step in a initiative is a social process that is learned process. The opposite is being inert (a and can therefore be taught. It is generally property by which matter does not change admitted that the extent to which young or move). Some cues useful in defining the people are involved in co-operative concept are: activities strongly influences their future i. To initiate means to be willing to be ability. Involving young people in involved in improving things around initiative taking activities is certainly you. important, but equally important is that ii. To initiate means to be confident in they perceive participation as useful and your physical and psychological enjoyable. The way pupils perceive resources. initiative-taking situations determines the iii. Initiate means to understand clearly likelihood of using initiative in a task- what happens around you. solving situation. iv. To initiate means to be more willing The approach we propose to teachers to achieve success than being through this article is based on frightened by failure. Goldstein’s (1981) method of social v. To initiate means to assume learning and is different from what has responsibility and take reasonable been proposed so far. We have chosen to risks. use this model for a number of reasons: The teacher must explain that initiative first, this approach is, within certain may lead the individual to achieve limits, similar to the way concepts are success in all kinds of activity. At the taught in school. It is mostly based on same time, a team whose members act explaining, questioning, demonstrating, expressing a high degree of initiative is reasoning, and reflecting. Second, it can most likely to achieve success in solving be implemented as a group activity. In problems. The introductory part of fact, the presence of the group is lessons may be used to discuss and define essential. Third, its implementation the term. Teachers should encourage 110 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov
Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII pupils to think about the meanings and certain activities. This could be done discuss initiative. The goal of this stage is during the activity, by highlighting to bring the concept to their attention and significant behaviors, or post-activity, specify its meaning. The ability to talk when the teacher could ask pupils recall about initiative and its meaning denotes a certain behaviors and discover their good level of concept learning. (a set of significance in relation to initiative-taking. phrases such as “I’ll do that”, “I will take Some questions will direct their thoughts: care of it”, “We have to improve this”, Have they been sensible and concerned “This needs to be done”, etc.). about the team’s problems? Have they tried to understand the team’s problems? 2. Discrimination learning of initiative- Have they tried to solve the problems? Did taking is the next step and should mostly they do something to improve activity focus on improving the perceptual without being asked? Do they know what functions of consciousness and attention. their strengths are? Do they have These functions should be developed to confidence in their strengths? Did they enable the pupil to become more sensitive dare to start an activity? Did anyone and responsive to initiative-taking. This become involved in the team’s problems means helping pupils distinguish initiative- more than in his/her assignments? taking behaviors from inertial behaviors. c) Encourage pupils to take initiatives The teachers’ activity could include: within the group. Games, but individual a) Encourage pupils observe group events as well, are good opportunities in activities and focus perception toward which pupils could be demanded to actions, gestures and words that have a volunteer to accomplish different tasks, certain significance for initiative-taking. could be encouraged to take over roles Observing how some pupils try to such as team leader, advice provider, understand problems around them, how conflict solver, activity initiator and others. some propose things to be done, how some At the beginning of a series of lessons the assume tasks within a group, how some teachers may announce that in addition to come up with suggestions to improve technical skills and performance, initiative activity, how some assume certain risks to taking will be evaluated. To encourage carry on tasks, how some dare to do pupils to take initiatives over normal something others do not, how some expectations, teachers should reward those volunteer to do something without being who take initiatives. The reward could asked, all these could enhance the range from blinking an eye to tapping the perception of responsible related pupil’s shoulder, praising him/her in front behaviors. of the group and offering him/her decision b) Direct pupils’ thoughts reveal the power during a certain activity. meaning of other pupils' actions and d) Analyze pupils’ activity and express discuss them in relation to initiative. The feelings regarding the way in which those significance of behaviors during physical who took initiatives have accomplished education lessons could remain their tasks. Focusing pupils’ attention and undiscovered by pupils. In order to assist thoughts on relevant behaviors during a pupils make sense of their behavior, variety of physical activities enhances their teachers could reveal the meaning of capability of attention in discriminating Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ... 111 stimuli. Other people’s behavior is a and others. The debate should be grounded complex stimulus difficult to perceive and on examples from the groups’ own activity hard to attach correct significance to. By and refer to real situations and real people. analyzing how pupils are aware of their c) Encouraging pupils to clarify their strengths, how they try to solve problems, views and define their position regarding how they dare to start an activity, how they initiative-taking. This could be done by assume risks during games or play, how demanding pupils to recall their own they suggest new answers to problems, actions and the actions of peers that how they seek to successfully accomplish illustrate desirable and undesirable their tasks, by analyzing all this, pupils behaviors connected with specific aspects could not only better understand what of initiative-taking. taking initiative means but they could d) Organizing activities such as games, become more capable of distinguishing contests, relay races, outdoor pursuits, in relevant behaviors. By increasing their which pupils are assessed against their sensitivity to initiative-taking behaviors, involvement in the group's problems, pupils could end by better understanding willingness to take over tasks and what taking initiative means and by taking assignments, capability of organizing the initiative more often themselves. group, desire to achieve success, interest in performing, drive to take the lead in the 3. Principle learning is the integration of activity, and other elements that define competent knowledge, values and conduct. initiative-taking behaviors. Peer The aim of principle learning is to help assessment is important to be done under pupils create harmony and reciprocity the teacher’s supervision, as pupils could between what they know, what they value learn how to formulate opinions in a and how they act. Principle learning should constructive manner. be an exercise in value clarification and c) Asking pupils to formulate a set of validation in the process of personal principles that they want to follow. development. The teachers’ activity could Teachers could not talk to each consist in: individual pupil and pay attention to every a) Asking pupils to answer questions significant behavior, but frequently such as: Is it good to acknowledge your bringing the above-mentioned issues to the strengths? Is it good to use your strengths? pupils’ attention and initiating debate is Is it good to start an activity? Is it very likely to produce significant effects important to assume tasks within the on pupils. group? Is it good to try to understand what is going on around you? Is it good to create 4. Problem solving could be the next step something new? Is it good to risk solving a in teaching pupils to take initiatives. It problem in a new way? In this way pupils does not mean the achievement of correct could be determined to understand and solutions to conventional problems, but define their values related to initiative- rather the development of behaviors which taking. are useful in a world that presents b) Encouraging debate on topics such as problems demanding creative as well as endeavor, risk-taking, starting something conventional solutions. In generic terms, new, assuming difficult tasks, willingness the teacher’s helping role involves 112 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov
Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII management of the learning experience to d) Further, in helping pupils solve take place in a rewarding and effective problems, teachers could encourage pupils manner that takes account of the pupils’ to test solutions in reality. For example, a motives, values, energies and capabilities. pupil encountering problems deriving from In specific terms, the teacher could help 'low status' within the group could try to pupils to develop a strategy to solve their assume difficult tasks that the group has to personal problems caused by a lack of achieve. By assuming difficult tasks within awareness, misunderstanding, by lack of a group, one could gain support and skills or by lack of experience regarding sympathy and reach the desired status. initiative-taking. e) Equally important to testing solutions a) Teachers could firstly help pupils is evaluating consequences. We do not identify whether the problems they learn by doing, we learn by doing and encounter while interacting with peers or realizing what has come out of what we teachers have a certain connection with did. Teachers could direct pupils’ initiative-taking. Pupils might have thoughts, but they should encourage problems related to their integration within pupils to evaluate the outcomes of their a group, gaining the group’s confidence, own actions. Taking initiative should be losing the group’s support, feeling ignored seen by pupils as an effective way of by the group, losing group sympathy, solving problems. being often blamed by peers, and others. If the teachers see that the cause of such 5. Issues Related to Program problems resides in the area of initiative Implementation taking, they should point out the specific problem and help the individual define it. The method outlined here is an example b) Once the problem has been identified, of a larger strategy aiming at enhancing the teachers could assist pupils in pupils’ socialization. The effects of this evaluating the situation and formulating program were assessed. Five groups of possible solutions. This could include between fourteen and seventeen year old formulating principles for future behavior boys attended lessons in which the method that might help the individual face the was introduced through physical education problem. Pupils could be encouraged to lessons during one school year. There were formulate specific actions in specific also five control, matching groups. In order situations. For example, one could propose to assess the results of the program being more actively involved in initiating implementation, direct observation, meetings, discussions, activities within the questionnaires and socio-metric techniques group as a way to avoid being ignored by were used as part of a triangulation the group. procedure. The results show that the c) In order to help pupils follow intervention can successfully be used to principles, the teachers could discuss improve pupils’ initiative-taking abilities. possible consequences of specific The aim of this article is to encourage behaviors. By considering the teachers to use this program. By choosing consequences, pupils could choose the to implement it, teachers might add value actions they think are more appropriate to to their work, pupils might gain knowledge their purposes. and skills that can help them improve their Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ... 113 lives. PE teachers will be teaching pupils 2. Cutforth, N.; Parker, M. Promoting something that may not be taught Affective Development in Physical elsewhere in school, and the pupils' interest Education - The value of journal in physical activity might be increased; last writing. In: Journal of Physical but not least, teachers might benefit by Education, Recreation and Dance , teaching initiative-taking. September, 1996, p. 19-23. The method can be implemented within 3. Fisher, S. Developing and the existing PE curriculum. Co-operation implementing a K12 character learning activities could be part of each education program. In: Journal of lesson during a period of six months. At Physical Education Recreation and the beginning, planning is crucial and Dance 1998, 69 (2), p. 21-23 . includes proposing educational 4. Gibbons, S.; Ebbeck, V. and Weiss, M. objectives in close relation to PE’s Effects on the moral development of specific activities. children in physical education. In: Working out the plan needs Research Quarterly for Exercise and commitment. Experience shows that you Sport 1995 (66), p. 247-255. might not succeed at the beginning, but 5. Goldstein, H. Social learning and you will learn as you work. In early change. New York and London: stages you will do what you have Tavistock Publications, 1981. planned, after a while you will do what a 6. Hellison, D. and Georgiadis, A. specific situation requires. The work Teaching values through basketball. becomes more and more interesting and In: Strategies, 1992 (5), p. 5-8. more and more rewarding. Teaching 7. Humberstone, B. Outdoor Education in initiative-taking during your lessons will the National Curriculum. In: become routine: you will plan, act, Armstrong, N. (ed) New Directions in observe, listen, judge and react. Physical Education, Vol. 2; Toward a Assessing behaviors is an important National Curriculum, Champaigne , Il: part of the intervention. Taking initiative Humano Kinetics (1992), p.155-168. should be judged as effective or 8. Mc Hugh, E. Going beyond the ineffective rather than good or bad. Physical: Social Skills and Physical Offering feedback to the group or to the Education. In: Journal of Physical individual is also important and should Education, Recreation and Dance , be done in the most constructive way. April 1995, p. 18-21. 9. Miller, S.; Bredemeier, B. and References Shields, D. Socio-moral Education Through Physical Education With At- 1. Bredemeier, B.; Weiss, M.; Shields, Risk Children. In: Quest, 1997 (49), D. et al. Promoting moral growth in p. 114-129. the summer sports camp: The 10. Sage, G. Does Sport Affect Character implementation of theoretically Development in Athletes? In: Journal grounded instructional strategies . In: of Physical Education, Recreation and Journal of Moral Education, 1986 Dance 1998, 69 (1), p.15-18. (15), p. 212-220. 114 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov
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11. Solomon, G. A model for the Symposium on Research on Effective enrichment of socio-moral growth. In: and Responsible Teaching. Fribourg: Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, Switzerland , 1990. 1995, 7, (supplement), S109. 13. Underwood, M.; Williams, A. Personal 12. Solomon, D.; Watson, M.; Battistich, and social education through S. et al.: Creating a caring community; gymnastics . In: British Journal of a school based program to promote Physical Education 1991, 22 (4), children’s socio-moral development. p. 15-19. Paper presented at the International

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

FROM BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR FORCE SPECIFIC OF THE SPRINTER

Drago ş IONESCU-BONDOC 1

Abstract: At present, the importance of developing explosive muscular force in training the high performance sprinter is beyond discussion. Practical experience has been consolidated from this standpoint for more than a few decades. In exchange, the contents have considerably evolved for the last years. Initially inspired, for the greatest part, from the bar bell techniques, there have gradually appeared contents better adapted to the characteristics of the activity and, consequently, more specific .

Key words : explosive muscular force, propulsive force, flying phase, support phase, muscular chains.

1. Introduction The present paper will mainly focus on the analysis of this functional element. The objective of this presentation is to contribute to defining an assembly of Equilibration (development of the exercises aiming at developing specific muscular support pelvis –trunk) muscular force starting from a The rigidity of the connection pelvis- biomechanical analysis. trunk is determined as regards the Our attention will be directed, in the effectiveness of the support. As a matter of present case, towards the phase of running fact, the runner has to be considered as a at full speed. deformable mechanical system. At the In general, the runner’s muscular activity moment of the support, the reaction forces will be organized around three main of the soil may cause the relative drive of functional elements. certain elements of this assembly, some in relation to others. (basin-trunk).This effect Propulsion: the runner acts upon the is undesirable to the extent that it may ground through the intermediary of a totally or partially annul the dynamic effect unilateral support (on a leg) of the soil reaction, leading this way to an During the interaction ground-sole, the objective aimed at. Driving the abdominal propulsive forces are applied to the runner, dorsal-lumbar muscles may considerably and the muscular strain is maximal. The reduce the deformation of the pelvis-trunk development of the muscular force may be connection during the support phase, this deemed as a propitious means for way contributing to a better effectiveness obtaining the best efficiency of the motion. of the support. Consequently, the exercises

1Fac. EFS Univ. Transilvania of Brasov.

116 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII of developing muscular force, of the so- in the sprinters has constituted one of the called “muscular support for the assembly most important factors in achieving pelvis-trunk“, will constitute a constant performance. In settling an optimal program, element of the specific work in sprint. there have to be taken into consideration certain factors: the athlete’s chronological The dynamic equilibrium of the body in age, his/her general physical development, motion and continuity (enlacement) of the years of practicing athletics, the level of the action training, the period of training. During the support phase, the central It was noted that, over the last years, many axis of the body carries out a rotation trainers have used the same ideas and movement around the support leg. This theories. After 1977, a new system was used rotation movement has to be at the same in which exercises with dumb bells were time extremely quick forwards and stopped made, followed by multiple jumps which at the end of the support for the ended with short sprints. This system was maintenance of the general equilibrium of used by the Italian trainer Carlo Viitori, and the body during the flight (aerial) stage it is deemed to be erroneous. However, which will follow. practice has proved the contrary, the results The free segments (in the first place, the not lingering, especially after it was adopted free, osculating leg and in the second place in the USA. the arms) ensure a great part of this double The reason for this style of work is function. In the framework of the simple: so that the sportsman should development of muscular force there has to manifest an explosion, he/she has to work at be taken into consideration the muscular maximal frequency during a long period of strain which ensured the sequence of return time, also avoiding accidents. The forwards and of impending the free leg. explanation for this system is the following: The amplitude, the frequency of the when the training with dumb bells is running step and the “cycle of the step” stand executed, the contractions are concentric, for the technical indicators most frequently therefore the muscle is rarely extended or used in order to assess the effectiveness of elongated. For this purpose it was resorted to this step. The present study aims at an experimental study upon the sprinters’ specifying the modifications of the cinematic behaviour through the method of repeating parameters of the running step in connection some series of quick grazing step, on with the optimization of the frequency and/or different distances. of the amplitude during the running phase “at The research was developed from full speed“ for the sprinters, and hence January 15th to April 15 th 2007 at L.P.S. deduce the new requirements that should be Brasov. met by the muscular chains which ensure the All the eight subjects at the beginning of phase of support of the running. Eventually, the research were tested in the five events, we will infer from this analysis a series of plus the one we proposed (50 m running organizational principles for the with quick grazing step): development of the speed runner’s specific • 30 m running downward start muscular force. • 30 m running launched start • 100 m running downward start 2. Explosive Force Training in Sprinters • long jump without running start • triple jump without running start During the last 20 years, especially after • 50 m running with quick grazing step the PG years, the training of explosive force (proposed event)

Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of … 117

INITIAL TESTING

30 m 30 m 100 m Long jump triple 50 m running steps NAMESUB. a.S.j a. S. l a.S.j no running no running Nr steps time G.S. 4,32 sec 3,1 sec 11,8 sec 2,35 m 8,29 m 22 steps 8,9 S.Z. 4,35 sec 3,3 sec 12,0 sec 2,3 m 8,25 m 23 steps 9,01 B.A. 4,32 sec 3,24 sec 11,85 sec 2,35 m 8,27 m 22 steps 8,91 T.P. 4,2 sec 3,1 sec 11,5 sec 2,4 m 8,35 m 20 steps 8,89 H.I. 4,4 sec 3,3 sec 12,4 sec 2,34 m 7,93 m 23 steps 9,11 P.A. 4,3 sec 3,21 sec 11,75 sec 2,38 m 8,3 m 21 steps 8,9 C.R. 4,26 sec 3,1 sec 11,7 sec 2,4 m 8,3 m 21 steps 8,91 GHE.S. 4,2 sec 3,12 sec 11,5 sec 2,45 m 8,35 m 22 steps 8,9

FINAL TESTING 30 m 30 m 100 m Long jump triple 50 m running steps NAME SUB. a.S.j a. S. l a.S.j no running No running Nr steps no running G.S. 4,27 3,08 11,61 2,46 8,39 20 8,5 S.Z. 4,2 3,25 11,92 2,35 8,36 21 8,8 B.A. 4,28 3,21 11,63 2,41 8,39 21 8,7 T.P. 4,1 3,05 11,31 2,61 8,45 19 8,4 H.I. 4,27 3,27 12,05 2,39 8,2 21 8,8 P.A. 4,25 3,18 11,5 2,49 8,39 20 8,4 C.R. 4,2 3,07 11,45 2,5 8,4 20 8,7 GHE.S. 4,1 3,05 11,3 2,64 8,45 20 8,5

As we noted from the final testing, the - working intensity upon effort stages as program submitted for the rationalization well as the speed for going through the and standardization of the working values different distances of training; the achieved the tasks proposed by: distances and the number of repetitions - the working volume during the 4 months during the training used for the used for the development of the force, of development of one of the motric the resistance, of the motric qualities qualities mentioned. prevailing in the event.

Graphical representation of the results obtained during the initial testing and the final testing in the event of 50 meters running quick grazing step CHART SHOWING THE NO. OF QUICK GRAZING STEPS PERFORMED OVER A DISTANCE OF 50M IN THE INITIAL TESTING 24 22 20 NUMB ER OF OF ER STEPS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NUMBER OF SUBJECTS

118 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra şov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

CHART SHOWING THE NUMBER OF QUICK GRAZING STEPS PERFORMED OVER A DISTANCE OF 50M IN THE FINAL 25 TESTING 20 ER ST EP NU OF MB 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NUMBER OF SUBJECTS

Comparative table of the results obtained following the application of the operative model and the results presented in the Fischer Table, for a number of eight subjects.

"t"according to" "t"obtained in EVENTS Fischer" table research 30 m.S.l. 3,49 5,31 100 m.S.j. 3,499 4,25 Lg jump no running start 3,49 3,66 Triple with no running start 3,499 4 50 m running quick step 3,499 4,14 No steps 50 m running quick step time 2,365 2,83

Calculating the significance of the 2. Centre of Research for P.E.S.: Bazele differences between the averages of the tiin Ńifice ale antrenamentului sportiv correlated samplings, in the initial testing (11), A.T.A.M. vol. XIII. and in the final testing, “t” calculated 3. Centre of Research for P.E.S.: Ce tim seemed to be higher than the “t” present in despre vitez ă. Bucharest, 1971. the ”Fischer Table of values”, which 4. Centre of Research for P.E.S.: confirms the working hypothesis and ConŃinutul i metodica rejects the void hypothesis, with a antrenamentului sportiv contemporan . percentage of probability of 99,99%. 5. Pithip, V.; Rozumowski, U . Modelul teoretic al antrenamentului References alerg ătorului . 6. Trouillon, P. Antrenamentul în 1. Centre of Research for P.E.S.: atletism – abordarea fiziologic ă în Antrenamentul sprinterilor în sportul sportul de performan Ńă , nr.104. de performan Ńă , nr.182.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

NON – NUTRITIONAL NATURAL ANTIOXIDANTS

Alina MARTOMA 1

Abstract. Within this group are framed the substances which are found in vegetal and animal organisms, but do not represent components of human alimentation, not being edible. They are found in great quantities, especially in the vegetal regnum.

Key words : antioxidants, non-nutrition, alpha-tocopherol.

Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants

Antioxidants Sources Roles Ubiquinone (Coenzyme In all cells of the body of – participates in the chain of Q10 ) animal origin: fish electronic transport (salmon, macro, sardines), – antioxidant role in reduced form: heart and liver of bovines it protects the cellular membranes, together with vitamin E; it directly acts upon the radicals R-OO or reduces the tocopheroxyl radical to tocopherol – ubiquinolol-10, reduced form of ubiquinone-10 is a strong lipophilic AO – ubiquinolol-10 protects human LDL against lipoperoxidation much more efficiently than vitamin E; the plasmatic level of ubiquinolol represents a faithful index for the oxidative stress in vivo – CoQ 10 protects the ventricular function from lesions through ischemia-reperfusion in animals and in humans

1Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Bra ov.

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Antioxidants Sources Roles Flavonoids - medicinal tree Ginkgo – strong AO agent in vitro , depurates • • – Biloba contains OH , O 2 , H 2O2, NO ginkgoflavonoids – in vivo were tracked the effects of the (quercetin , cumaroil, therapy with the extract Egb 761; it kemferol, diminishes platelet aggregation and glucoramnosides) stimulates the synthesi s of prostacyclin. – it protects the myocardium from lesions through ischemia -reperfusion – tonic, role in increasing intellectual capacity, tranquilizing, antitumoral, antiviral, anti-inflammatory – it diminishes the cholesterol level and the formation of uric acid – chronic treatment with ginseng raises the HDL fraction, cAMP, stimulates the biosynthesis of phospholipids and of corticosteroid hormones. 1 • – it depurates the free radicals ( O2, O 2 –, OH •, lipoperoxides, NO) – it recycles the radicals ascor- byl/t ocopheryl economizing the - rind of the maritime pine reserves of vitamin C and E tree contains pycnogenol – it amplifies the activity of AO (procyanidins) enzymes (SOD, CAT, GSH) – it stimulates endotelium-dependent vasodilatation and it inhibits platelet aggregation. – it raises resistance to physical effort through economizin g the reserves of AO, is cytoprotector, immune- modulator, anti-inflammatory, anti- edematous, it protects the skin from UV radiations, has a venotonic action in chronic venous insufficiency with static oedema – it has been proved that the ethanolic propolis extract protects mice from irradiation with γ rays – bactericide properties, bacterios tatic properties, antiseptic, cicatrisation - propolis contains the properties, haemostatic, anesthetic, natural balsam prepared anti-inflammatory properties from honey – strong antioxidant effect: 1 depuration Η 2Ο2, Ο2, lipoperoxides • – – depuration O 2 is proportional to th e degree of polymerization of the taniures Martoma, A.: Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants 121

Antioxidants Sources Roles - the oak rind contains – cumarines exercise anti- taniures inflammatory effects, through the - tea leaves, persim mon inhibition of the lipo-oxygenasic path leaves contain taninures and cyclo-oxygenasic path of the and phenylpropenoids arachidonic acid and blocks the • – (cumarines) generation of O 2 Metallothionein (MT) - ub iquitary proteins – MT are involved in numerous fixating transition metals intracellular functions: regulation of the Cd, Zn, Cu, Hg, Bi mineral homeostasis for Cu, Zn, Cd Obs. They occur under through: control upon the expression of the action of exogenous the genes for the regulation, synthesis inductive factors of SO: and functional activity of the proteins radiations, hyperoxia, (metalloproteins) and of the metal- cold, isolation, inanition, dependent transcription factors physical effort especially for Zn (Zn MT prevail in the blood); control of the absorption of Zn and Cu; deposit for essential metals such as Zn and Cu and thereby contributes to the prevention of toxicity of the metals in case of antioxidants (Bi, Co, Cu, Zn, Hg, Cd; donation of metals for water- metal-proteins in physiological conditions, a process which is facilitated by GSH; control of the hepatic metabolism of Zn and Cu; antioxidant against SRO and SRN, with direct action in vitro and indirect in vivo. – . in vivo the protective ac tion of MT has been indirectly, experimentally proved: through the supra-expression of MT in transgenic mice they offer a direct model for the physiological role of MT; through the protection offered against lesions induced by the oxidative stress in cultu res of epithelial human cells (HE) and mouse fibroblasts (C1 1D); through protection against the oxidative stress induced by radiations: ZnMT and • • CdMT are depurators of OH and O 2 –; in the protective action are involved 20 atoms SH of cysteine; the effe ct is predominantly AO against OH • and is 340-800 times superior to GSH; through the inhibition of the lipoperoxidation in erythrocytes incubated with ZnMT and CdMT 122 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov
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Antioxidants Sources Roles – in humans, there have been evinced high values of MT in the liver and in the kidneys, i n some congenital diseases such as Wilson disease and Menke disease, during the gestation and postnatal period, in some pulmonary tumours and in cardiac affections (ischemia-reperfusion lesions, cardiac hypertrophy) Superoxide-dismutase - liver, brain, lungs, – CuZnSOD plays a major role in the (SOD) hematies first antioxidant line of defence, through catalyzing the dismutation of • – CuZnSOD (SOD-1) the radicals O 2 – ant ioxidant action, ensured by the enzymatic couple SOD + CAT; both enzymes have high reaction speeds Extra-cellular CuZnSOD – pharmacological effects depending (EC-SOD or SOD-3) - plasma, lymph, synovial on the administered dose; small doses liquid have moderated protective effect upon the extension of infarct in rabbits; high doses (50 µg/kg) raise the dimension of the infarct – prevention of the formation of the chemotactic factor for neutrophils, • – the formation depending onO 2 – the modification (inversion) of the inhibiting effect of MDA upon the relaxation of the arterial wall, induced by Ach, on precontracted veins with NA) – protection of dehydrases, inhibition of the formation of metHb through • – the anions of O 2 , inhibition of the peroxidation PUFA – anti-apoptotic role (SOD exercises an indirect anti-apoptotic effect, through the inhibition of the apoptotic effect of H 2O2 – rise of the production of NO on the endothelial level of its activity – role upon the neurobehavioral functions; EC-SOD was involved in the learning process: in mice, the phenotypic expression of the genotypic alt erations of the production of EC-SOD is characteristic for spatial learning and memory Martoma, A.: Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants 123

Antioxidants Sources Roles – daily administration ameliorates inflammatory cutaneous reactions – SOD is involved in: allergy, cancer, cardiovascular and arteriosclerosis ischemic lesions, infectio ns with Helicobacter pylori, infections with viruses, genetic diseases (Down syndrome), neurodegenerative diseases: Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington disease, Prion disease; cataract Catalase (CAT) - liver – detoxification H 2O2 – role in growth and development – oxidation of ethanol – tumour protection evinced through experimental studies – inhibition of apoptosis – CAT has been involved in cancer, infections with viruses, genetic diseases: chronic granulomatous disease, diabetes, cataract • 1 Glutathione (GSH) - liver – important depurator of OH and O2 – regulation of the cellular sulphydryl redox status – role in growth and development – regulation of the metabolism of the leukotrienes and PG – immune function – it is involved in viral, neuro degenerative, pulmonary diseases Ceruloplasmin – protein of acute phase, with an anti- inflammatory role, against SRO liberated by the macrophages and as inhibitor of the reactions mediated by SRO, through blocking the formation of hydroxylanions and of lipoperoxides – it fixes Cu ions and prevents reinitiating the reactions – it acts as feroxidase, transforming Fe 2+ into Fe 3+ Melatonin (ML) – the protective determinant role of ML in oxidative stress may be: – primary, direct, as direct depurator • OH ; seconda ry, indirect through: stimulating effect upon GSH-Px, 124 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov
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Antioxidants Sources Roles

which decomposes H 2O2; stimulating effect upon SOD, 1 inhibiting the formation of O2 and H2O2; inhibitor of lipoperoxidation – anti-apoptotic effect proved through the reduction of the DNA fragmentation – inhibitor of 5-lipooxigenase, enzyme involved in the synthesis of the leukotrienes – it suppresses the NOS activity, probably through coupling the calmodulin – favorable effects in neurodegenerative diseases, protective effects towards paraquat and CCl 4, ionizing radiations – potential remedy for HIV due to the inhibiting action against NF-kB induced by the cytokines, mitogens and ionizing reactions – it inhibits the LDL oxidation at supra-physiological concentrations – favourable effects upon cardiac arrhythmia , the nefrotoxicity induced by cyclosporine A and gentamicin – favourable influences upon the cellular and humoural immune response Estrogens – it inhibits the peroxidation of fats (lipids: estrona 11, estradiol 12 and 2- OH-E213) – 17 β-estradiol has AO activity at physiological concentrations – the administration at supra- physiological concentrations reduces the lipoperoxidation lesions in the myocardium and in the skeletal muscle both in vitro and in vivo Polyamines - liver: putresce ine, – antilipoperoxidating action through spermidine, spermine the capacity to fix on the membranal phospholipid – spermine stabilizes α-tocopherol l, carotenoids – anti-inflammatory action (it chelates the metals, it inhibits the proliferation of lymphocytes , diminishing the secretion of IL-2

Martoma, A.: Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants 125

Antioxidants Sources Roles – high affinity for Fe, protecting the tissues in inflammatory processes – anti-radiation action – anti-mutageneous action (protector effect of spermine upon DNA exposed to SO) – useful in neurodegenerative diseases, they prev ent the toxicity of the paraquat α-lipoic acid - it was evinced in the – depuration effect of the free radicals form of lipoil-lysine in (OH •, HOCl, chelation of the different natural sources, transition metals, especially Fe and especially in vegetal stuff: Cu) spinach > flower buds of – regeneration of other AO ( C vitamin, broccoli > tomatoes > α-tocopherol, GSH, ubiquinolol) peas and Brussels – inhibition of NF-kB activation, with cabbage > rice bran; in favorable effects in HIV, animal tissues, lipoil- arteriosclerosis, diabetes lisine has been evinced in – lipoate presents in clinics a special bovines, in kidneys > importance as tiol regenerator and heart > liver > spleen > redox modulator agent; it intervenes brain > pancreas > lungs in producing energy and in reducing equivalents – it has been evinced that the treatment with lipoate selectively facilitates the death of the cancerous cells through intensifying the inductible activity of capsase 3, the protease of death – the unique property of the lipoate is metabolic AO • – Adenosine – it inhibits the production of O 2 by the human neutrophils in culture with FMLP – protective against lesions with postischemic re-oxygenation Nicotinamide – prolonged ingestion of the nicotinic acid leads to the rise of NAD + in the circulating lymphocytes, dete rmining resistance to the oxidative aggression Lactoferrin - human secretions (milk, – protein fixating the Fe ions, is an saliva, tears, nasal endogeneous acid AO on the level of secretions) the mucous membranes Arginine – it is the precursor of NO – Argin ine ameliorates the reperfusion lesions after the ischemia of the myocardium • – – inhibits the liberation of O 2

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Antioxidants Sources Roles • – Potassium – it inhibits the generation of O 2 by monocyit-macrophage cells and PMN circulation Copper – organic complexes of Cu, they have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti- diabetic, anticonvulsive, anti- ulcerous, anti-carcinogeneous effects

References 5. Olinescu, R.; Gruia, M.I. and Mih ăescu, Gh. De ce i cum 1. Biasi, F.; Chiarpotto, E.; Poli, G. îmb ătrânim . Bucure ti: Editura Molecular basis of antioxidants. In: Int. Cermaprint, 2004. Acad. Biomed. Drug&Re s. Basel, 1994, 6. Sies, H. Oxidative stress. In: Oxidative vol. 7, p. 138-143. stress. Oxidants and antioxidants . Sies 2. Bonorden, W.R.; Pariza, M.W. H. (Ed). Acad. Press, 1991, p.15-25. Antioxidant nutrients and portection 7. Tache, S. Antioxidan Ńii endogeni. In: from free radicals . In: Raven Press , Antioxidan Ńi i terapie antioxidant ă. 1994, p. 19-47. Dejica D. (red.). Cluj-Napoca: Casa 3. Dejica, D. Antioxidan Ńi naturali. In: CărŃii de tiin Ńă , 2001, p. 23-70. Antioxidan Ńi i terapie antioxidant ă. 8. Tache, S. Capacitatea antioxidant ă a Dejica D. (sub red.). Cluj-Napoca: Casa organismului. In: Antioxidan Ńi i CărŃii de tiin Ńă , 2001, p. 105-148. terapie antioxidant ă. Dejica D. (red.). 4. Olinescu, R. Radicali liberi în Cluj-Napoca: Casa C ărŃii de tiin Ńă , fiziopatologia uman ă. Bucure ti: Editura 2001, p. 71-104. Tehnic ă, 1994.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

PHYSICAL DEFICIENCIES AND HYDRO- KINESTHETIC THERAPY IN THEIR CORRECTION

1 2 E. MOLDOVAN S. CIOROIU

Abstract: This paper is meant to offer more information about the beneficial effects of kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics in the treatment of scoliosis, a treatment which should be followed by swimming in a constant and systematic manner. In the case of those who suffer of scoliosis, swimming should be practiced for several years in order to have a good effect. In swimming, the patient shall practice various arts of swimming, namely: backstroke, bras and butterfly. This is an excellent active way of self-control and rebalancing of the backbone and of the pelvis, and sustains the harmonious development of the chest.

Key words: physical deficiencie s, hydro-kinesthetic therapy.

1. Introduction desk, during the execution of certain professional abilities etc.), as well as Physical deficiencies are being studied differences between the development of not only because they are quite frequent, the bone support - the vertebral column but especially related to the consequences and the muscles-ligaments support, they have on the body. The emergence of determined by permanentization. Thus, vertebral deviations before starting vertebral deviations at school age cause, attending school requires special besides aesthetic inconveniences investigation of the vertebral column, (asymmetry of the shoulders and of the establishing both the etiology of the shoulder blades, of the thorax and of the vertebral deviations and particularly their abdomen), also functional troubles evolution, taking into consideration that (especially of the vertebral column that their prognosis is more serious if they highly depends on the function of the emerge at a younger age. internal organs in the thorax and abdominal Vertebral deviations found in school inlets [4, p. 87-90]. age children are considered as vertebral Accordingly, the specialty literature statics imbalances, accompanied by underlines the need to precociously track changes of the minimal vertebral down vertebral deviations by initial and structure, which in time determine and timely check-ups that are mandatory cause the emergence not only of statics carried out at all levels of education. disorders of the intra-thorax viscera, but Physical deficiencies are acquired also aesthetic changes of the body. pathological aspects of the human body, Vertebral deviations found at school age determined by genetic factors or by are faulty positions (habitual at the work microbial factors or that emerged as a

1 Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 2 Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 128 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII consequence of defective, incorrect organize special moments of kinesics positions of vertebral statics, walking, prophylaxis including 3-5 corrective and global or segmental posture in daily straightening exercises during the class or attitudes (orthostatism, sitting, at the even special corrective lessons. writing desk, walking). A physical - Group III includes pupils with average deficiency represents a change from the deficiencies, showing stationary or slow normal of the form and function of the evolution of morphological and functional musculoskeletal system that negatively faults, which are partially corrected or stay influences the body and that may totally or the same according to the functional test. segmentarily change the body form or its Most of the average deficiencies are functions. Physical deficiencies are the segmentary. These children are not result of a hypo or of a hyper-function, of exempted from physical education either, an imbalance or of the non-coordination of but only from certain exercises and moves the musculoskeletal system functions. that might aggravate the existing Pathological physical deficiencies are deficiency. They shall not take part in determined by structural changes of the contests. The pupils showing average elements making up the musculoskeletal deficiencies shall follow a special life system [6, p. 56-58]. regime where the most important are the - Adrian N. Ionescu described four corrective physical exercises. By groups of pupils classified on the grounds conforming both at school and at home to of the seriousness of the deficiency. the recommendations of the physician and - Group I includes children without any of the physical education teacher related to physical, organic or mental deficiencies, educating a correct posture of the body with a harmoniously developed body, with depending on the physical deficiencies a good nutrition condition, having a correct found: rational alternation of work and posture of the body and of its segments. resting time, as well as performing certain All these pupils execute the tasks exercises daily, such deficiencies may stipulated in the physical education partially remedy, their evolution may be curriculum and take part in all forms of stopped or they may be eradicated, up to physical exercise at school. their complete rectification. - Group II includes pupils with minor - Group IV includes pupils with physical deficiencies (deficient attitudes) accentuated deficiencies residing in that may concern the whole body or only pathological changes that are in an certain segments and that, by the execution advanced evolutionary stage. Such pupils of the corrective move – functional test, are exempted from the physical education are corrected and hyper-corrected (correct class, yet we organize special lessons with = partial remedy of the global or segment them in order to correct their physical deficiency is carried out; hypercorrect = deficiencies. Systematic and organized when we obtain not only the position practice of corrective physical exercises by rectification, but also the opposite aspect these individuals is required both to of the deficiency). These children do not provide normal bringing up, good psycho- show weight troubles or marks of organic motive ability, and to correct the existing or mental diseases. They are not exempted deficiencies, to prevent the compensating from physical education and, on the ones etc. It is highly important that the contrary, they are recommended additional teacher of physical education, being aware exercises to remedy those deficiencies. of the differential characteristics of these Consequently, it would be advisable to groups, should correctly appreciate the Moldovan, E. et al.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesthetic Therapy in … 129 biological value of a group. The large therapy by swimming must be symmetrical number of deficiencies found in schools is and practiced for several years. They must explained by the non-differentiation of the swim backstroke, breaststroke or butterfly minor deficiencies that are deficient stroke styles. This is an excellent active way attitudes, without changes in the tissues’ of self-controlling and re-balancing the structure, from the average and the shoulder girdle and the pelvic girdle, of re- accentuated deficiencies. Taking this balancing the vertebral column and of classification into consideration, we may directing the proportioned development of divide physical deficiencies into the thorax. Breathing gymnastics in water is deficiencies of first, second and third executed as swimming or as special degree (according to groups II, III and IV). programs of breathing moves, It is true that sometimes the differentiation 10-15 minutes, the patient being in water between the minor deficiencies and the up to the chin, with stretched lower limbs average ones is not an obvious one, and touching the pool with the tip of the especially as far as the transition forms are toes [5, p. 67-69]. Inhaling and exhaling concerned. At the same time, we would shall be simultaneous with the arms like to emphasize the importance of moving up, to the lateral, with or without acknowledging such deficiencies for the inflexion, symmetrically or asym- harmonious development of teenagers and metrically), with moves of the head and of youngsters. Found in due time, properly the neck (flexions – extensions). As well, guided and monitored, minor and average the level of the water in the pool may deficiencies may be corrected. Denying lower, so that the water reaches the line of their existence is a big mistake, as big as the shoulders (the underarms). In such the one of not correcting them or circumstances, to the moves of the upper disregarding them. Only by knowing the limbs and of the head we add slow flexions biological and medical data of all pupils and extensions of the body. The suppleness may the teacher of physical education of the vertebral curvatures balances the establish the possibilities of the pupil’s girdles, stimulates the self-control of the integration in the physical education deficient position and favors the process, decide and apply the most development of the thorax symmetry, as appropriate measures to prevent and to well as the increase of the vital capacity correct physical deficiencies. [2, p. 145-148]. The main motivation of The issue of finding, preventing and the paper is the high frequency of vertebral remedying physical deficiencies existing deviations, especially of scoliosis type in children represents a permanent ones, in pupils aged between 7 and 18 concern for both parents and teachers years. Such deviations are asymptomatic in involved in their bringing up and the first stage – the attitude stage that may education. be found only on the occasion of a rigorous This paper deals with the possibility medical check-up. The pain occurring in that the complex treatment of scoliosis maintaining certain positions or the (kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics) is permanent pain in the vertebral area associated with symmetrical aquatic noticed by teenagers determines the procedures and moves, in a systematic ascertaining of the already advanced and continuous manner, with the aim of scoliosis. Scoliosis, the physical deficiency considerably improving curative results. with multiple preventive, therapy- As far as people suffering from scoliosis corrective, recovery and social are concerned, the hydro-kinesthetic implications - represents an incompletely 130 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII solved issue [3, p. 112-114]. "Idiopathic 2. Hypothesis of the Paper scoliosis" or "scoliosis disease" as well as "congenital scoliosis" still do not have We start from the assumption that causal therapeutic solutions, as scholars are associating kinesthetic therapy with the still searching for the most efficient specific means of swimming we may solutions possible. Wishing to obtain a obtain visible results in remedying correct, aesthetic attitude of the child, scoliosis in school age children. Tasks of parents appeal to the orthopedists. Yet we the Paper: the following tasks of the study must understand that not all physical derive from this purpose: deficiencies are exclusively solved by – demonstrating the importance of the medicine, most of them may be corrected study related to the physical deficiencies also by doing therapy physical exercise of school age children; [2, p. 145-148]. – selecting the specialty bibliographic Scoliosis is the deviation from the material; normal of the vertebral column, in all the – demonstrating the efficiency of the three planes: sagital, horizontal and proposed exercise complexes and mostly frontal. Not found, not treated in attaining the objectives related to the an appropriate manner and neglected, it evaluation and comparison of the initial may become a serious, severe problem, and final deviation values of the studied with several negative effects on the form scoliosis; of the body, of the position of the upper – highlighting the need of hydro- and lower limbs, as well as on the kinesthetic therapy in the treatment of operation of the thorax internal organs scoliosis; [1, p. 88-89]. The study does an – demonstrating the efficiency of the applicative research to develop the field proposed exercise complexes and of hydro-kinesthetic therapy of physical attaining the objectives related to the deficiencies by means of specific evaluation and comparison of the initial swimming. Research is intended to adapt and final deviation values of the studied the means of swimming to the recovery scoliosis; of the potential physical deficiencies, – selecting the teenagers making up the establishing new directions to diversify experimental group; the recovery programs, elaborating – composing exercise complexes for the complex exercise systems to improve the medical gymnastics lesson, in the results related to the correction of kinesthetic therapy gym (by the physical deficiencies, a direction in specialist in kinesthetic therapy) and of which we shall study the relationship the special exercises for the pool. between hydro-kinesthetic therapy and The Research Methods were: analysis of the specific means of swimming from the the specialty literature, pedagogic point of view of remedying physical observation, conversation method, tests deficiencies, studies meant to elaborate method, graphic method. appropriate programs in the field of The methods of analyzing specialty kinesthetic therapy necessary to train literature – a method by which we obtained specialists in the field. data related to the results obtained by other researchers in the field of that particular theme. This method implied the search for bibliographic sources, consulting them,

Moldovan, E. et al.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesthetic Therapy in … 131 information selection, processing and The research was especially interpretation. substantiated on: Studying school documents – especially - the personalized study of the subjects; of the medical record sheet of each pupil - establishing the objectives of the where we found data on the causes that kinesthetic therapy and hydro- determined the installation of the physical kinesthetic therapy program; deficiency, on its severity. - the study and elaboration of the The method of the case study – as a recovery programs; research method, resides in the analysis - going through the proposed complexes and debate of a proposed case, of a pupil in together with the subjects; our case. The feature of this method is that - comparing the initial parameters to the it allows a direct confrontation with the final ones. real circumstances, considered as representative for a class of phenomena; 3. Steps of the Research the circumstances serve as premises for inductive knowledge. Its functionality is 1. Theoretical documentation by exploring revealed both in the process of acquiring the specialty literature. new theoretical information as well as in 2. The contact with the kinesthetic the study of concrete situations. In order to therapist. collect data for each pupil, we used the 3. The study and the elaboration of the study of the medical record sheet, recovery programs. anthropometrical data in accordance with 4. The direct contact with the subjects of the hypotheses of this paper. the experimental group. The mathematical – statistics method – 5. The registration of the initial data. we used it to express quality relations from 6. Providing the best conditions to carry the quantity point of view. The data out the lessons and their content at the supplied by this method helped us establish swimming pool together with the other the progress made in remedying the two specialist collaborators, swimming physical deficiencies. instructors. The execution of the experiment: we 7. Initial and final testing included 8 children in the research who 8. Data registration and interpretation. represented the experimental sample; these The programs elaborated during the cases were selected after the examination recovery classes and the methodology of of 102 pupils of secondary school. The elaborating the programs related to term of the experiment was of 10 months. scoliosis remedy had the following The subjects included in the experimental objectives: group had two classes per week in the - correcting physical deficiencies, kinesthetic therapy gym (60 min) and two scoliosis and stopping its evolution; classes at the Olympic Swimming Pool of - ensuring correct body posture; Brasov (50min). The research includes the - ensuring harmonious physical data of the subjects related to: identity, development and a correct body anamnesis, clinical examination, posture; anthropometrical examination. - improving control and adjustment of Specific measurements: Thorax the breathing cycle; imbalance, cervical, thorax, lumbar arrows, - improving static and dynamic right hemi-thorax, radiological balance; examination. 132 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

The achievement of such objectives was plane, all through the academic year and possible by implementing special programs during the physical education classes of the to prevent and remedy the deviations of the children with potential physical lumbar column in the anterior-posterior deficiencies.

Data related to the studied experimental group (initial testing) Table 1

No. Full Length of the Weight Vital Thorax perimeter/ Value indexes of the name lower limb cm kg capacity Inhalation / scoliosis deviation (cm) exhalation cm

Right Right cervical dorsal lumbar

1 88 88,5 50 2500 82/88,5/79 0,3 0,5 1, 0 2 82 82,5 50 2450 81/84,5/79 0,2 0,5 0 , 8 3 89 89,5 51 2550 86/92/81,5 0,2 0 , 8 1 4 82 81,5 50 2550 74/81,5/69 0 , 5 1,0 0.7 5 87,5 87 52 2600 75/81/69 0,8 0,8 1,3 6 81,5 82 49 2450 78,5/83/74,5 0,8 0,5 0,8 7 61,5 61 47 2350 63 / 68 / 60 0,3 0,3 1,1 8 86,5 87 53 3200 75,5/79/72,5 0 , 2 0,7 0,7

Data related to the studied experimental group (final testing ) Table 2

No. Full Length of the Thorax perimeter/ Value indexes of the name lower limb Weight Vital Inhalation / scoliosis deviation (cm) cm kg capacity exhalation cm Righ Left cervical dorsal lumbar t 1 87,5 8 52 2400 81,5/86,5/77,5 0,3 1,2 2 2 81,5 8 50 2300 80/83/78 0,2 0,9 1,3 3 88 8 55 2500 85/90/80 0,2 1,4 2,0 4 82 8 53 2500 73/80/69 0,5 1,8 1,5 5 87,5 8 55 2600 74/77,5/68 1,0 1,8 2,3 6 81 8 48 2300 77/82/73 1,3. 1,0 1,8 7 61 6 47 2250 62 / 67 / 58 0,9 1,2 2,1 8 86 8 55 3150 73 / 78 / 70 0,8 1,5 1,7

4. Conclusions examination, in which the teachers of physical education should take part. It is necessary to find such deviations as In the correction of the physical early as possible and this may be achieved deficiencies, the teacher of physical by medical examination of the whole class education plays an important part, by of pupils, each beginning of the academic organizing the methodical forms of year, thus using the somatoscopic interfering in the prevention and remedy of Moldovan, E. et al.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesthetic Therapy in … 133 vertebral column physical deficiencies in The examination of a child suffering collaboration with the medical room of the from scoliosis must include: school. • identification data; The identification of the physical • anamnesis; deficiencies must be as early as possible • measurements; and the treatment means should be set as • radiological examination; fast as possible to obtain the maximum The treatment must be complex: possible correction. • orthopedic, A major physical deficiency may • kinesthetic, prevent the future adult from exerting a • electrotherapeutic certain trade (connection of the flat foot – • physiotherapeutic. trade with long-term standing up, scoliosis It was proven that swimming plays a with rotation – asymmetric sports). particularly important part. Also, in certain conditions, physical A high percentage of children aged deficiency (scoliosis with thorax gibbosity between 11 - 15 years have this type of or accentuated kyphosis) may generate deficiency, out of which, according to the conduct disorders or psychopathy. The studies, 71 % are girls. Educating a correct benefits obtained from associating attitude of the body must start even from kinesthetic therapy means with aquatic the early ages of childhood and must be gymnastics on the human body are the maintained all life long. following: The outcome depends on the precocity of - joint release; the deficient attitude, on the choice of the - reinforcement of the kinesthetic remedy means and especially on the system; therapy factors used to obtain a correct - training of the breathing muscles; posture. - training of the bloodstream;

- fortification and relaxation of the body; 5. Practical Methodic Recommendations - improvement of the tactile sense;

- improvement of balance and of We would like to propose kinetic coordination. exercises grouped in complexes that turned The association of melotherapy with out to be efficient among teenagers. kinetic means makes children participation We would recommend swimming that be a better, more active and more meets certain particularly valuable motivated one. The sports stressing and qualities from the point of view of straining the body in a harmonious and scoliosis treatment: it is executed in symmetrical manner have beneficial conditions of maximum release of the effects on scoliosis, especially in the vertebral column; starting phase, while their prophylactic
it represents a type of excellent valence is essential. breathing gymnastics; Scoliosis shows as a deviation from
it develops all muscles by equal normal of the vertebral column, not only in strain, the symmetry of the girdles the frontal plane, but also in the sagital and and of the body / we recommend horizontal planes. Not treated, they may symmetric swimming styles and the become a serious and severe problem, with complexes from the previously multiple negative effects on the body, the presented examples. upper and lower limbs as well as on the operation of certain internal organs.

134 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

References 4. Dimitriu, V. Studiul dezvolt ării fizice la colari printr-un sistem de 1. Cioroiu, S. No Ńiuni elementare de propor Ńii. Acad. de t. Medicale, kinetologie i masaj . Bra ov: Editura 1979. Universit ăŃ ii “Transilvania” din 5. Enoiu, R.S. Manual pentru înv ăŃ area Bra ov, 2003. înotului. Bra ov: Editura Universit ăŃ ii 2. Codrun, M. Kinetologia medical ă. „Transilvania” din Bra ov, Bucure ti: Editura Axa, 1999. 2006. 3. Codrun, M.; Cirla, L. 6. Ionescu, A. Cre terea i dezvoltarea. Hirdokinetoterapia în afec Ńiunile Bucure ti: Editura Stadion, 1970. reumatice. Bucure ti: Editura Printech, 1999.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

BIOMECHANICS IN SPORT

Florentina NECHITA 1

Abstract: This paper highlights the continuing modernization of the driving technique, and the optimization of the technical preparation of biomechanical parameters in the 110 meter fence race. Through this monitoring technical faults in the event can be objectively established .

Key words: technical, biomechanics, parameters.

1. Introduction athlete’s dynamics within this motric action. Using biomechanical modeling of Today we are talking more about the the step over a fence contributes to modernization of the driving technique, obtaining an optimal technique and about the optimization and rationalization therefore the optimal yield. Without using of the means of training. Optimizing the such a study the objective (i.e. the preparation of technical parameters improvement of the fence-crossing through determining the biomechanics of technique) cannot be achieved. fence races occupies a conspicuous place In the biomechanics of the step over the in current scientific research fence every system or subsystem must be The biomechanical model reflects in the analyzed in anatomic-physiological terms specific training, in the methodology of in normal conditions. The modeling of this action, enables the functional anatomy, stage is done by determining the elements physiology and biochemistry of biological of the locomotive apparatus, each discovery, and discovers the causes of component of the joint and muscular mechanical phenomena. system, and contributing in this way to the Another purpose of biomechanical elaboration of the biomechanical model of models is to find objective mistakes fence-crossing. The cinematic phase of occurring during the driving performance, action can be determined only after the in "crossing fences”, to discover the elaboration of this model, and for mechanical causes and their effects in the determination on a very high precision ownership of the rational technique in a scale one must resort to identifying the rational fence race. Through these instruments, apparatuses and techniques biomechanical parameters there can be for determining the biomechanical indicated the measures to be taken in order elements that can be used in our country. to obtain a proper technique and different For example, for the segments’ movement methodological indications that should are observed the joints, muscles, their contribute to this purpose. moments of inertia by means of regression In crossing fences, the biomechanism equations, models and measurements, and investigated is the movement of the in kinematics it is aimed at the execution athlete’s body, the manner of crossing times, the movement, the speed, the fences, the cinematic performance and the contraction of body segments in space

1 Transilvania University of Bra ov. 136 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII using a stopwatch, measuring gadgets, said that running on flat technique may filming flat and three-dimensional, computer influence the crossing of fences in the race. simulation – the “moving” device. Besides getting the horizontal speed, So, after their registration, the individual another important role is played by the analysis of each cinematic and muscular tension of the muscular chain biomechanical parameter is done. triple extension in the lower limbs, both imprinting a flight path as quick as 2. Biomechanical Analysis of the Step possible. The general trajectory of the over the Fence in the Event of a 110 athlete’s center of gravity when he is over Meter Fence Race the fence is traced from soil to soil contact. This way its length and height depend on Running over fences is a complete and the speed of the mass center and the independent motric activity, which is impulse angle. repeated cyclically and which constitutes The speed the athlete gets from the start the projection of the body through triple moment reduces when jumping over the muscle extensions, starting with the fence occurs, because there is a small loss contraction of muscles in the lower limb of speed when touching the ground (the under impulse, and ending with its contact sole braking foot at ground level), and to with the ground beyond the fence. these losses there are added some other The important characteristic in the event losses, the results of CGG oscillations of of fence crossing is the rapidity and the body. But fence race horizontal speed, scraping during jumping over fences. The maintained as close to the maximum as trajectory of the athlete’s body during possible, allows the athlete a more efficient flight over the fence is a parabola. The crossing of the fence and a more favorable smooth trajectory of the parabola depends depreciation to resume the acceleration, in on the lower limb angle of detachment terms of kinetic energy gained. during the impulsion phase and on the If at the moment of jumping the horizontal velocity of the body during the trajectory of the body is high, this entails a flight. It should be noted that the shape and decrease in high speed gained from size are standard, a fact which allows us to running on flat, or if the athlete is running, determine more precisely the parameters this time a slight jump over a fence involved in the act. involves a sudden upsurge of CGG and The fence race technical scheme includes vertical default, including the loss of the following: horizontal velocity and the corresponding - Start and acceleration from the start; adaptation of the renewal of the - Crossing fences; acceleration after the fence only through - Running between fences; additional effort. - The run from the last fence to the finish This should be avoided, and therefore line. one should focus on the development of The start in the race is made from down, biomechanical models, which contribute which gives athletes the opportunity to more efficiently to the technique of speed up in the first 13.72m. to the first stepping over the fence. fence and to cross it; at this moment, The most effective passage over the besides the force that the foot imprints fence requires a waiver of the body’s CGG upon the soil there is also the horizontal and the trajectory of other components speed, an inertial speed which is imprinted involved in the action to perform on a on the body during the flat run. It can be smooth curve. Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport 137

2.1. The Impulsive Phase before the a balance through the basin that offers Fence swing movements. The optimal flexural angle in which the At this time, the athlete’s body detaches triple extension attains the best from the ground due to muscle performance is given by the flexible thigh contractions, the triple extension of the which can be increased to 145 degrees up lower limbs; to obtain a minimal path from to contact with the thorax, but this angle CGG over the fence, the explosive force of varies from sport to sport depending on the these muscles must be used through the segment’s size, weight, muscular mass and coordination of partial impulses, so that the length etc. This angle is very important contraction of the muscle groups that because the determination of a fence perform lower limb extension and jumping technique depends on it. planetary flexion should occur at the same time. If the contraction does not 2.2. The Fence Crossing Moment synchronize the path segments will be held on the vertical force due to the braking At this time the jumping foot executes a force, and will spend for recovery the combined movement represented by kinetic energy obtained from the ground flexing the knee and regulated thigh impulse. abduction followed by its flexural basin to This way, the CGG trajectory is achieved avoid reaching the fence and make the foot due to the force of muscle contraction in cross the fence. Within this movement the lower limb, followed by the there occurs the triple flexion chain of acceleration force of the leading leg and abductors and side rotaries of the thigh. the swing of the upper limbs. This force of Besides the work of the feet, the upper contraction makes a horizontal projection limbs coordinate movements with the legs, of the CGG, a projection that has to be having the role to ensure equilibrium in the grazing over fences and quick because of phase of flight over the fence. the composition of the horizontal velocity In this action, the intensity of muscular of flat running forces that occur at the activity is reduced, but has a well defined impulse moment. role at the moment of landing and in the During the ground impulse, the inferior preparation for acceleration. limb executes an attack motion on the thigh flexing muscles of the basin, with the 2.3. The contact Phase of the Foot with role of lifting the inferior limb. If this the Ground after Jumping the Fence waiver must have an optimal angle, the attack leg can be found in the first phase of This is the phase of landing and return to flex knee joint which then extends through acceleration, in which the contact of the a rigorous shank motion forward, a athlete’s body with the running track is movement which is achieved by femoral made through libratory foot (foot quadriceps. remedies). This phase is intended to After separation from the ground, the cushion the contact with the ground, to thigh motion is done in the coxo-femoral reduce the flight speed and to resume joint as a result of the positioning of the acceleration. motor muscles and thigh muscles. The At this time the braking force is the thigh muscles are designed to maintain the body’s force because it turns the motor in vertical position of the torso and to provide an elastic spring; this involves the 138 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII elasticity and strength of joints, tissues and training content, achieving and even the running track. outrunning the objectives of training and The lower limbs are slightly flexed on performance. the thigh, when the speed reduction is So, through practical contribution, achieved by antagonistic muscle groups specialists can access instruments with (the triple extension), which transforms the objective value of correctness in sports foot into a spring and then produces the technique and increased opportunities to impulse that gives the start to those three compare the determined athletes to their steps between the fences. model of biomechanical fence run. The specific biomechanism of jumping over the fence implies the muscular groups References and muscular chains representing a dynamic effort. 1. Burc ă, I. Identificarea biomecanic ă a probelor de alergare i trecere peste 3. Conclusions Garduri. Bra ov: Publishing House of „Transilvania” University of Bra ov, Considering biomechanical parameters 2008. in monitoring the fence crossing technique, 2. Donskoi, D. Biomecanica. Moscova: the following must be taken into account: Fizkultura and Sport Publishing - Given the high level of performance House, 1971. events at senior international level and the 3. Iliescu, A. Biomecanica exerci Ńiilor poor one at home, it is necessary at least on fizice. Bucure ti: Publishing House of the juniors’ level to move to the the National Council for Physical establishment of biomechanical models, Education and Sport, 1968. ensuring the achievement of such 4. Iorga, S.; Bărbuceanu, M. performance. Biomecanica Sportiv ă. Pite ti: - Depending on the biomechanical models, Publishing House of the University of competition results will evidence that Pite ti, 2003. during a relatively short experiment we will be able to work on modeling effective

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE OPTIMIZATION OF STRENGTH CONVERSION TRAINING IN JUNIOR SPRINT EVENTS

C. SCURT 1 G. ZANFIRESCU 2

Abstract : The conversion phenomenon, one of the major factors of high- performance physical training methodology, has been carefully monitored. It is known that with age speed stabilizes at a maximum value. For a certain stage, the increase or stability depends on the gradual development of other parameters such as strength, endurance, coordination, flexibility. We assume that the junior stage is a very fertile period in creating the pre-conditions of high performance progress, with direct reference to high-speed explosive power training which is specific to senior sprinters.

Key words : optimization, conversion training, sprint, juniors.

1. Present Situation decline become evident. Well trained athletes show adaptations that are The current strength training of junior demonstrated by good synchronization sprinters is of crucial importance for between a motor activity and a warm-up acquiring top performance. Practice has pattern while, in our opinion, the greatest undoubtedly demonstrated that during challenge resides in physiological puberty, the characteristic lability of the adaptation, which is a critical moment for processes taking place in young sprinters’ power display and consists in setting free a bodies is frequently a source of surprises maximum of muscular fibers in a very (even accidents) as a consequence of short time. misunderstood correlations between motrical qualities. Another reason for 2. Research Hypothesis undertaking the present study is the high variability of performance results and Assuming an integrative image of long- frequent „staleness” occurrences. term strength training through poly-athletic This age offers good prospects for workouts, we will create the approach progress but there are equally certain risks conditions without any negative involved. Practice has demonstrated that consequences on the strength training for muscular adaptation requires a long time, juniors, by careful training management measurable in years of training. Logical, during the conversion stage. perseverant training will result in good This will have a significant influence on adaptation to sports activity, overcoming sport shape by improving results in major trial constraints which become more performance competitions restrictive, as performance staleness or

1 Transilvania University of Bra ov. 2 C.S.S. Media . 140 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

2.1. Research Aim practical application of data during the training period. The research aims to obtain improved Remarkably, strength was approached only quality parameters in junior sprinter training within the context of the qualities system, in order to optimize strength training during never separately. The level of maturity was the conversion stage, characteristic of the pre- considered along with the impossibility of competition or competition period. applying through workouts at this level, given the risk of physically overstressing the 2.2. Research Tasks subject and determining him to refuse a prospective increased stress. - Data analysis based on technical The athlete mentioned the mental stress literature regarding training optimization in she experienced during the training and the sprint events; fact that she had to be aware of as many - Determining the variation of dynamic motions as possible against a background strength indicators in the pre-competition of extreme strain and fatigue. Another period; remarkable aspect which was also worked - Preparing the strength training on was muscular coordination – “the program in the conversion period; agonist – antagonist interplay and the - Assessing the sport shape level onset capacity of contracting and relaxing them in order to obtain the top level for the consciously if possible”. These major competition. considerations helped both trainer and athlete to gain a clear view on placing and 2.3. Organizing and Conducting the distributing the means over the year plan – Research including the strength ones. Based on the fundamental laws of strength For this research, we chose to undertake a training, a good anatomical adaptation was case study. The subject of this study was the acquired for training, especially through athlete Zanfirescu Maria Ana, member of the articulation mobility exercises (knee, ankle, national junior group, Balkan junior II vice- hip), stretching and fortifying exercises for champion in 4 x 100 m relay (Bar, Serbia these ligaments and tendons. A special 2008). attention was granted to strength in the In the individual events she obtained the midsection of the body (pectorals, following results: abdominals, pelvis, dorsal, thigh).
400 m flat – 59.00 –III rd place N. Ch. J II Also, special attention was granted to – indoor; achieving the support for ensuring future
100 m flat – 12.30 –II nd place N. Ch. J II load increase. The methodical indications – outdoor; provided by the FRA during a conference
200 m flat - 25.57 – Int. Ch.; of the Senior National Group, the
400 m flat – 56.65 – G.P.J II – outdoor. participations and discussions with trainers With strict reference to strength were extremely useful for the trainer. We exercises, the trainer presented us his consider the great importance of the views regarding the approach of this bio- principle “Train the movement, not the motrical characteristic based on several muscle”. This methodical vision is genetic prerequisites and the already essential in athletic training for superior existing motrical endowment. Considering classifications. “Not all that’s new applies the morpho–functional features of 15-17 to me” – is another reasoning which was year old girls, strength training is at the helpful in understanding balance in terms same time interesting and challenging. The of constructing a coherent, long-term, training was based on the study of training plan. The training plan was specialized scientific materials and the constructed over two macro-cycles: Scurt, C. et al.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength .. 141

Table 1

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul Aug. Sep. Training I Competition I T Training II Competition II T AA FMx Conv. Maint. AA FMx Conv. Maint. Compensation to P to P

Dominant energy systems: anaerobic, Limitative factors: reaction power, start alactacid, lactacid. power, acceleration power, power endurance. Energy generation: 80% alactacidic, Training objectives: maximum strength, 20% lactacidic, reaction power, start power, acceleration Energy supplier: phosphocreatine. power, power endurance.

Table 2

Date Oct Nov Dec Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul Aug Sep. Periodiz. Training. I Competition I T Training II Compet. II T Periodiz 5 AA 6FMx 4 10 Maint 2 AA 5 FMx 4 9 Maint 6 Competi- of Conve Power Conve Power tion strength rsion improv, rsion improv, to P Specific to P Specific Power Power Periodiz A.L A.L. Alactacid A.L. A.L. Alactacid Games of Alactacid Alac- Alactacid Tolerance Sports energy O2 tacid to lactate system O2

3. Main Objectives (pre-competition stage) Factor correlations: physical – technical training in order to increase traveling Gradual entry into competition stress velocity by conversion of power into (especially in week 5-6) maximum speed Increase of general physical condition Modeling by mental training indicators and proportional increase of Stress level: 80 – 95 % speed indicators Volume: 2 - 1 ½ x event

Precompetition Stage (May-June) Table 3

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 1 5-6 series x 2 min Pliometry 9x8 Power: lying leg Speed Pliometry: Cross- ATM recovery fences lift (4x15) 2x (30, 60, 80, penta jump 6x country pull-ups (4x3) 120m) boxes10x3 jumps P=10min (70cm →max) 2 Special exs. Indoors dorsals: Recovery: Rep. Pliometry: Competition 6-8 x 3 x 200 90% 5x40; 20kg: 5x20 swim 200m fences (9x8) – assessment p=7-10’ abdomen: 5x12, 300m 100m(achiev 15 g ed 12.80) 3 A1: long light A1:reh. A1: light run Pliometry:. Walking Competition A2:10x30m slope A2:indoors or A2:technical boxes 10x3 (warm-up) (without P=3-5min slopes object.) 4 Rehearsals 2x120 Pliometry: 10x6 Starts Break or light Warm-up for School N.Ch. p=2min fences (40cm) run competition (achieved boxes10x3 200m- 25.70) 142 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

4. Main Objectives (competition period)

Conversion of power into maximum Recovery and alimentation factors speed at the beginning of the period. become a priority. The physical training indicators decrease Exploitation of intellectual capacity in contrast with quality indicators of work indicators (attention and concentration) intensity. through mental training. Prevalence of pliometric exercises for Stress level: 85-98%; explosive force. Volume: 1½-1 x event.

Table 4 Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 1 5-6 series x 2 min Pliometry 9x8 Power: lying leg Speed Pliometry: penta Cross-country ATM recovery fences lift (4x15) 2x (30, 60, 80, jump 6x pull-ups (4x3) 120m) boxes10x3 jumps P=10min (70cm →max) 2 Special exerc. for Indoors dorsals: Recovery: swim Rehears. Pliometry: fences Competition – technique 5x20 20kg: back: 200m (9x8) assessment 100m 6-8 x 3 x 200 5x20 300m (achieved 12.80) 90% p=7-10’ abdomen: 5x12, 15 kg 3 A1: long light A1:rehears A1: light run A2: Pliometry:boxes Walking Competition A2:10x30m slope A2:indoors or technical 10x3 (worm-up) (without obj.) P=3-5min slopes 4 Rehearsals 2x120 Pliometry: 10x6 Starts Break or light run Warm-up for School N.Ch. p=2min fences (40cm) competition (achieved 200 boxes10x3 m- 25.70) 5 Spec. tech exerc Isotonic 3x200m p= 1min 50m light run+ Pliometry. Fartlek 6-8 x; starts 6x dynamic: 20 85-90% 50m accel run Penta jump 4x 60-70% pool 80% grass p.s.r. 90-98% depth jump 2x250 m90% Slope run 3-5x 2x400m 60cm p=7-10’ or 50m 90% p= p=10min 6-8x 10 p=5min 1x500m + 7min vol. can be 1x150m p=5- modif. dep. on 7min subject condition 6 Training. model Pliometry: 10x6 2x120m 85-90% Tonus. abd., Specific.compet 400mp 400m: fences(40cm) p=15min back pull-up warm-up 3-4 200mp - (Fc=110-120/min acc.run : 6- bend starts (Sunday □ٱ□ 5x80m 82-90% boxes 10x3 p=80m mL (40-60 cm) 8x80m

In the pre-competition and competition 60 m running sequences. If the recorded period, when the athlete is running at times on the fractions (in the case of 150- nearly maximum speed, were introduced 200 m rehearsals) are close, it can be exercises which stimulate both anaerobic considered that the speed increase for the capacity and the tolerance to lactate using endurance mode is good. If the time rehearsals of 60, 100, 150 m. The velocity recorded on the last fraction is longer (by of the movement can be monitored by 0.25”) this can indicate a non-adaptation or calculating the difference between the 30- an error in effort distribution. To correctly Scurt, C. et al.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength .. 143 determine the athlete’s capabilities the 150 m and 100 m times. The differences trainer can impose an evaluation test in occur depending on the technique used, order to redirect the training towards manual or electronic timing (0.27”-0.50”) performance improvement. but also on the start technique used. The The evaluation test was achieved by results of the initial test were recorded recording the times for 50, 100,150, 200 during the training while the final test m. The time difference between the 200 results were recorded for the standard run and the 150 m run should not exceed events during competitions. by more than 0.25s the difference between Table 5

EVENT 100m 200m 400m 30m 50m 80m 150m 300m 350m INITIAL TEST 12.8 26.3 60.0 4,8 6.9 10.2 20.2 42.1 51.0 20 - 25 April FINAL TEST 12.5 25.8 58.1 4,6 6.6 9.8 19.7 40.6 49.2 14 May COMPETITION 12.37 25.57 56.65 WITH STAKE

DINAMICA REZULTATELOR

TEST INI łIAL TEST FNAL CONCURS CU MIZ Ă PROGRESUL

100m 200m 400m 30m 50m 80m 150m 300m 350m PROBELE

5. Conclusions passion in order to approach the development of this quality so 1. By examining the steadily ascending intensely desired by adolescents. curve of the athlete’s performance, 3. In the absence of a thorough study which was subject of the case study, and coherent teaching, training can we can conclude that the training, degenerate producing negative particularly the strength one, was effects. correctly coordinated. 4. Strength training can improve 2. Strength, a biomedical quality performance dynamics in a normal characteristic in humans, has become athlete condition, even in staleness or a dimension of human personality. decline moments. Therefore it is probably one of the most coveted qualities. It requires

144 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Recommendations References

The proportional distribution of training 1. Baroga, L. Educarea calit ăŃ ilor fizice methods during the conversion stage is combinate. Bucure ti: Editura Sport given by the following formula: Turism, 1984. - Strength trainings: 6-isotonic: 2. Bompa, T. Periodizarea 7-pliometric antrenamentului sportiv, planuri - Speed and technical trainings: 20. The stiin Ńifice pentru for Ńă i condi Ńia fizic ă greater amount of energy is reserved pentru 20 de discipline sportive . for technical and tactical training while Bucure ti: Editura Tana, 2006. much less is left for power training 3. Dragnea, A.; Mate Teodorescu, S. - A strictly individualized load in Teoria sportului . Bucure ti: Editura strength trainings, the selection of FEST, 2002. means in accordance with the athlete’s 4. Dr ăgan I. (coord.). Selec Ńia i characteristics orientarea medico-sportiv ă. Bucure ti: - Power and speed level evaluation Editura Sport Turism, 1989. through proposed events. 5. Ra Ńă , B. C. Alergarea de vitez ă– biomecanic ă i metodic ă. Ia i: Editura PIM, 2008. 6. Tudor, V.; Cri an, I. For Ńa aptitudine motric ă. Bucureti: Editura BREN, 2007.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

STUDY OF DYNAMICS OF CERTAIN MOTRICAL CAPACITY INDICATORS IN 12-14 YEAR OLD CHILDREN OVER ONE ATHLETICS COMPETITION YEAR

C. SCURT1 M. ZANFIRESCU 2

Abstract: Sports training is a dynamic and flexible process. Since it requires the participation of both trainer and athlete it calls for an integrative approach of the training process by correlating age characteristics with training methodology requirements. The validity of developing psycho-motrical qualities in 10-14 year old children is the rationale for the analysis of certain aspects that the specific to this age. We propose to assess the effectiveness of our training methods in terms of a providing strong basis for ensuring the young athlete a specialized training, along with the means used for a good basic physical training.

Key words : indicators, dynamics, motrical capacities, competition year, children.

1. Present Situation children’s organism and improve their motrical behavior. The lack of basic physical training by using adequate action means, as well as of 3. The Objectives data on maximum stress level indicators, generate early abandon of performance • Determining the influence of the action athletics and in some cases are limiting the systems, considering the variability in access to performance sports due to the athlete’s development in terms of inappropriate basic physical training. psycho-motrical aptitudes. • The extent to which the level of the 2. Paper Hypothesis physical training could be a criterion for selecting the envisaged discipline in We assumed that an adequate the athletics discipline system. rationalization (selection, dosing, • Assessing the effectiveness of working sequencing) of the main means of action with models and the training programme which have a major influence on the level algorithms in the present case. of polyvalent and poly-athletic training can • Recording the dynamics of some ensure the basis of future performances specific parameters of physical and while systematic and methodical actions technical athletic training progress rate during the competition year can modify the interpretation . structural and functional parameters of the 1 Transilvania University of Bra ov. 2 C.S.S. Media . 146 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Research Aim good learning efficiency, parental relationships. Development of an effective model for The compulsory medical inspection was the poly-athletic training in the initial stage provided at least twice each semester. It and orientation toward a presumed provided useful information on the chosen specialty for children (aged 10-14). physiological level. The somatic data were During one year of poly-athletic training, used in monitoring the nutritional we monitored a sample of 16 children, condition and its variations. The accurate aged 10-14 from a beginner group from planning was made in accord with the CSS Media . The selection criteria were: requirements of curricula standards and health condition, training frequency, norms for this class of children. discipline at work, movement motivation,

Components of the Training Module Table 1

COMPONENTS LEARNING ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNING UNITS UNITS SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN SPEED MOTRICAL MOBILITY QUALITIES STRENGTH ENDURANCE F-R COMBINED PERMANENT ASSIGNMENT WALKING BASIC RUNNING MOTRICAL JUMP SKILLS TOSS BALANCE APPLICATIVE CRAWL COURSES UTILIZABLE CUMB MOTRICAL STAIR CUMB SKILLS PULL UP PUSH UP SPEED RUNNING ENDUR. RUNNING CROSS CROSS HURDLE R. RELAY RACE RELAY LONG JUMP HIGH JUMP OINA TOSS MED. BALL TOSS GIMNASTICS ACROB. & JUMPS BASKET B., SPORTS HAND B COMPLEMENTARY GAMES SOCCER OTHER SWIMMING COMPENSATING SPORTS

Scurt, C. et al .: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity … 147

Table 2

TRAINING DAYS, TOTAL 281 days TRAINING HOURS, TOTAL 453 hours (2½ hours/days) BREAK DAYS 18 TOTAL KM/9 months 1.000 km MAIN MEANS Light running 20% Recovery running 5% Flat ground accelerated running 25% Constant speed running 10% Variable speed running 10%

RUNNING Cross country running 10% Accelerated uphill running 5% Running technique exercises 15% Standing long jump 960 rep Jump step running 1.440 rep Hop step running 1.440 rep JUMPS JUMPS Various jumps 3.000/TOTAL Medicine ball toss 3.840 SS SS TO Oina ball toss 1.220 Abdominal exercises 21.600

R R Back exercises 21.600

POWE Pull-up exercises 5.400 ARTICULAR MOBILITY 35 HOURS, 7% of the total of MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY training hours

We provided initial and final tests and surprising results. We selected a numbers the progress obtained was recorded. of 4 representative test events for a study At the end of the initiation and period extending over one competition promotion period, a number of 6 subjects year in order to monitor the children’s showed real aptitudes for prospective evolution in time and obtain a practical performance. confirmation of the theory in this field. One of them clearly distinguished The evolution of metrical skills was himself, as he was a national level monitored over a period of 9 months performer. The physical stress level (with without programming any break. Five little exceptions) was almost the same training sessions per week of 1,5-2 hours during each training session. each were carried out. Although not all The effect of adaptation to physical volume and especially intensity parameters stress materialized in the children’s health could be observed, the obtained stress level condition and performance. The was 75-80 % of its maximum. multilateral and poly-athletic training were The first test included the four events priorities over the entire year. during the first week of October. The final We found out that work with children at test was accomplished in the last week of this level enables interesting studies with June, study year 2007-2008. 148 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

The test included following events: Oina ball toss with 3-5 take-off steps: – Speed running 50 m flat, standing start; – 2 trials (explosive arms strength); – 2 trials (traveling velocity); – 600 m running (endurance); – Standing long jump: 2 trials (legs – Anthropometric data: explosive strength); • Height (cm) • Body weight (kg)

The statistical data interpretation is presented in the following table: Table 3

Extreme Average R.p. Event Test ±S C.V.% Performance W %>M %

Speed Running Endurance Running

• For speed running, initial testing Initial testing has shown that has shown an average deviation of individual values deviate from the 0.3%. 11 of the 16 cases evolved central value by 24 seconds, only 2 cases with normal distribution, only 5 are exceptions. Homogeneity is average. cases were exceptions. Final testing yielded a deviation of 10.2 • After final testing, the average seconds from the central value. 13 cases deviation is equally 0.3% but only have normal distribution, 3 cases are 12 cases lay within the admissible exceptions. limits. Homogeneity is good. The The progress rate is 13.7%. The progress rate is 8.04%. The percentage of subjects above average has number of results better than or increased by 6.2%. equal with average increase by 6.3%. Scurt, C. et al .: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity … 149

Standing Long Jump level of development, at this age speed precedes strength and endurance. • After initial testing the 13 cases are There is a significant correlation between within normal limits, 3 are exceptions. strength and endurance development Homogeneity is good. levels, at this age. • After find testing, 12 cases have After studying metrical capacity normal distribution, 4 cases are indicator dynamics in child athletes, it exceptions. Homogeneity is good. The resulted that the employed means, methods progress rate is 8.3%. and methodical orientation were adequate

resulting in motrical and physical Oina Ball Toss development improvement.

Systematic work and adequate • After initial testing, 13 cases have methodology over the entire competition normal distribution, 3 cases are year are the warranty of significant exceptions. Homogeneity is average. • After final testing, the dispersion improvements in all structural and degree has increased, cv =31%, functional parameters of the child’s Homogeneity is absent and result organism, with positive effects on general increase is non-uniform. The progress motricity. rate is 20%. The significant increase is Recommendations due to the acquired technical elements.

There is a positive correlation although The annual training cycle extending over negligible, between endurance and speed 11 months, around 280 days will become a (r=0.15), the affirmation accuracy of the constant in our training plans already affirmation is 30%, low, random providing motivation by enabling 13-14 correlation. year old children to participate in junior There is a positive correlation between N.C. finals according to FRA standards. endurance and strength (r=0.52), accuracy During the winter training period, the of affirmation is 95%, good correlation. application courses should be included in Somatic indicators improved by 2% for the trainer’s planning’s as their dynamicity waist and 3% for weight. and attractiveness compensate for the low The muscle mass has grown a little level of effort characteristic to indoor compared with skeleton length. The activity period. working programme had no negative The action means should be properly effects on the age’s specific nutrition tried and dosed in order to ensure indicators. polyvalent training levels capable to The comparison was made using the simplify orientation to an envisaged event. indicators provided by the Institute for Working with patterns must be adapted School Hygiene in 1992. to the level of each training group (initiation, beginners, advanced) since it is Conclusions helpful in systematic monitoring of the training level and the way it is tolerated by The study has ascertained that not all child athletes . psycho-motrical qualities have the same

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References 3. Dragnea, A.; Mate Teodorescu, S. Teoria sportului . Bucure ti: Editura 1. Baroga, L. Educarea calităŃ ilor fizice FEST, 2002. combinate . Bucure ti: Editura Sport 4. Dr ăgan I., (coord.). Selec Ńia i Turism, 1984. orientarea medico-sportiv ă. Bucure ti: 2. Bompa, T. Periodizarea Editura Sport Turism, 1989. antrenamentului sportiv, planuri 5. Ra Ńă , B. C. Alergarea de vitez ă– stiin Ńifice pentru for Ńă i condi Ńia fizic ă biomecanic ă i metodic ă. Ia i: Editura pentru 20 de discipline sportive . PIM, 2008. Bucure ti: Editura Tana, 2006. 6. Tudor, V.; Crian, I. For Ńa - aptitudine motric ă. Bucure ti : Editura BREN, 2007.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

CONSIDERATIONS ON SPECIFIC RESISTANCE IN A SOCCER GAME

Gabriel SIMION 1

Abstract: In these pages we have tried to emphasize the quality of driving and resistance and to underline the most important issues related to the specific resistance of a soccer game. Soccer is one of the most complex sports games, seeking quality driving, mental and technical merit, but especially a perfect mixture between all these. Modern competitive soccer claims overall resistance (as basic physical fitness). In the preparation of soccer players specific training methods should be based on modelling the requirements of preparing a competitive game.

Key words: soccer, resistance, specific resistance.

Soccer - generally considered the most work done in the state of repressing popular sport in the world - may owe its fatigue” [1, p. 332]; appeal to simplicity as well as the skill and - “The ability to work for a relatively cunning required in the fast-paced intrigue long duration and with a relatively high of the game. Played at a professional level intensity, maintaining constant indices of all over the world as well as by serious optimal effectiveness” [4, p.47]; amateur teams, or for pure entertainment, - “The ability to make efforts for a long soccer is a regular pastime for over 240 time without reducing efficiency” million people in over 200 countries [13, p.169]; worldwide. The Soccer World Cup, held - “Resistance refers to the time required every four years, pits the top teams in the for an individual to run with certain world against each other and draws intensity” [3, p.92]; enormous audiences for both the stadium - The ability to perform high intensity games and television. work longer; In literature resistance is defined by - Maintaining working capacity during multiple formulations, all expressing the long-term efforts by defeating the same kind of issue: phenomenon of fatigue, and a high tempo - “The ability to cope with fatigue caused of restoring the body after tiring it; by physical effort, without a decline over - The ability to do any activity for a long the actions of those potential movements time without reducing its effectiveness; of work necessary to achieve the - The psychophysical ability of the objectives” [14, p.206]; performer’s body to cope with fatigue by - “The ability to perform mechanical specific activity. work of certain intensity for a long time From these definitions come off a few without lowering the efficiency of the key elements which characterize the driving quality, namely:

1 Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 152 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

- Time (duration) effort, which can be physiological functions involved in the determined in advance, but on the basis of effort, to demand high capacity, showing work done and efficiency; when fatigue as a syndrome. In extremis, fatigue determined in a time unit, it must be maximum is equivalent to exhaustion. carried out in a certain way; In the production of fatigue after - Effectiveness as a constant business muscular exertion, the following processes driver throughout; take place: - Rapid recovery after the effort made. - During muscle contractions, a Work for the development of resistance transmission pulse occurs from the is still a battle to delay as much as possible receptive muscle, which alters the the appearance of the fatigue phenomenon nervous system and device drivers; in an effort of certain intensity, being - Muscle contractions cause alterations in aware that fatigue is the main factor the chemical composition of the muscle limiting the emergence of resistance over tissue, leading to a request of the time. interested receptor; The phenomenon of physical and mental - Metabolism products spread into the fatigue of the organism appears naturally blood, changes of the body's internal following efforts of various types, intensity environment influence, in turn, the and volume. central nervous system; Fatigue is the transient activity produced - The state of excitation of nerve cells in by prolonged or excessive effort, the muscle activity cannot remain characterized by a decreased functional untainted; potential of the body and a subjective - In the muscle function are amended also sensation feature. Fatigue, as a replication endocrine glands. of complex and hyper-complex effort, Intense muscle activity is related to the breaks homeostasis by altering potential of functions to return to previous biochemical processes, favoring the levels, and the level above. transition to a new state of adaptation, The first installation of fatigue is higher than earlier. Fatigue is thus a factor signalled by specific phenomena such as stimulating the functional and emotional sweating and involuntary tension of the resources. mimic. But these phenomena do not Fatigue is a phenomenon accompanying preclude the possibility of continuing the necessary training, and at the same effort, through an increased willingness on time a prerequisite for enhancing sports the initial intensity. Therefore, this state is performance. In fact, it is only the called physiological phase offset fatigue. repetition of efforts that produces By continuing the effort, the subject phenomena causing fatigue processes, decompensates in second-stage fatigue - overcompensation, and finally an where, with every effort of will he cannot adaptation of the organism. Training, on maintain the same intensity of effort, the one hand, must produce those states in reducing it gradually to a total cessation of adapting fatigue, and on the other hand, activity. These phenomena are manifested must avoid being extreme. differently from one person to another, A. Gage demonstrated by computer depending on individual resistance, which simulation that fatigue is the body's acute is determined in turn by the following response to physical effort. At low and factors: moderate demand capacity the answer is increased due to the activation of the Simion, G. : Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game 153

- The capacity of the central nervous speed, strength as force, resistance in the system to coordinate the activity of the regime of detention, etc.; locomotive and vegetative functions; - Depending on the nature of the effort: - Aerobic capacity, aerobic potential constant resistance and variable resistance which enables the production of energy in in the effort; the presence of oxygen and anaerobic - Depending on the duration of the effort: capacity; long-term strength (with effort over 8 - The adaptation to effort of the minutes), average resistance time (effort cardiovascular and respiratory systems and 2-6 minutes) and short-lasting resistance. of all body functions; (effort between 45 seconds and 2 minutes); - The energy and oxidative metabolism - Depending on the energy sources and of the muscle, notably the fact that in the effort: resistance of the aerobic load muscle cells there can be distinguished times are from 3-5 minutes to several three sources of energy to ensure muscle hours, of anaerobic resistance in the load contractions: alactacid anaerobic energy, duration of 7-60 seconds, and mixed lactacid anaerobic energy, and aerobic resistance-types with variable durations energy; and intensity. - Strength of will in sport – which is an Aerobic resistance develops during the important component in training speed, transition period and the initial phase of demanding the athletes in particular when training using uniform and stable they have to make an effort in conditions conditions with a moderate intensity from of fatigue, or when the level of fatigue the average. As a consequence, the cardio- increases as a result of prolonged activity; respiratory system of athletes improves athletes command nervous centres to progressively. Along with the adaptation to continue or even intensify the effort; training, the work load should increase, in - Book speed of athletes. particular the volume of training. There Moreover, development of resistance is must be a transition from aerobic achieved only through efforts that lead to resistance specified by the pace of activity the appearance of fatigue and attempts to and specific rhythmic exercises. overcome fatigue and continue the effort As a general line, the following are after it. significant in training to develop aerobic Oancea V. says: “Resistance depends on resistance: many factors, including speed, muscle - Intensity of training below 70% of the strength, technical skills in the maximum speed; the intensity can be implementation of effective actions, the measured by performance time on a certain ability to use one’s potential economically, distance, the speed in meters per second or physiological and psychological conditions heart rate (training stimuli that do not at the time of that effort.” increase heart rate more than 130 beatings Regarding the forms of manifestation of per minute do not develop significant resistance, the author believes that a aerobic capacity); systematic classification is appropriate: - The duration of a stimulus in isolation - Depending on the participation share of (a repetition) should differ from 60-90 muscle groups: general strength, specific seconds to 3-10 minutes; strength (specific) and local resistance; - Calculate the rest breaks so that the - Depending on how they are combined next stimulus can produce favourable with other driving qualities: resistance as changes in the period from the previous work (45-90 sec.) Aerobic resistance for 154 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII the rest should not exceed 3-4 minutes 2-5 min. develop requirements in aerobic (usually work may start when the heart rate sports teams. decreases to 120 BPM); Resistance specific games can be - Normally work during a rest break is developed using the method of reduced in intensity to stimulate biological determination, where training will be restoration. calculated so as to correspond to specific Anaerobic resistance is an important physical or psychological characteristics, physiological advantage. Most of the and tactical game, respectively. development of anaerobic resistance is The development of resistance has a cyclical and of high intensity. series of specific variants: The preparation for anaerobic resistance - “The distance: distance less than the presumes the following: sample equal to the sample distance with - The intensity of the situation may be tactical tasks, longer than the distance of limited to the maximum sub-maximal, the sample; even if the training intensity is varied; for - The speed intensity of playing: faster the development of resistance the than the speed of the game, as fast as the anaerobic intensities of 90-95% should speed of the game, slightly less, or less predominate; than the intensity of the game”. - The duration of work must fall between Football is one of the most complex 5 and 120 seconds, depending on the sports games, seeking quality driven, intensity used by athletes; mental and technical merit, but especially a - The break after a rest-activity must be perfect mix of their own. sufficiently long to compensate for the Modern competitive football claims oxygen debt, which can be 2-10 minutes; it overall resistance (as basic physical is recommended to divide the total number fitness). Even if we refer to the simple of repetitions in some repetitious series of parameters of the game, 90 minutes of 4-6 each, with the most between long- effort over 10-12 km, with many jumps, range in order to oxidize lactic acid; processes, etc., resistance comes in clear - Up to halftime the activity must be evidence. Although the general feature of active, easy and relaxing; the game is determined by movements in - The number of repetitions must fall executions and speed, one should not below the lower average. forget that a pronounced degree of fatigue In sports games in particular, the prevents the recovery potential. After 60- development of resistance is a complex 70 minutes of a game, even the faster or task because sports games are more technical players cannot cope with combinations of aerobic and anaerobic competition requirements unless they have components. To support the three energy good physical training. systems used in sports games, exercises are The characteristic energy of the effort is proposed for specific intensified energy classified by most authors into anaerobic systems such as: types. Following complex measurements - High intensity exercise with a duration made during the game on different of 5-15 sec. alactacid system calls; positions in different games, these data - High intensity exercises, with a have been reconsidered, increasing the duration of 20-90 sec. lactacid calling share of aerobic processes. They even system; reached proportions of 40%, which is - Years of continuous average intensity / explainable by the multitude of game high duration equal to or longer than Simion, G. : Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game 155 situations where there are movements at Rehearsal exercises or longer exercises moderate speeds. lay stronger emphasis on the aerobic Resistance considerations: component of the game. – Resilience is a basic quality developed Shorter repetition on the other hand is at a high level, enabling players to specific of the game because the speed is perform all technical and tactical closer to the game speed. Multiple procedures in the game without visible repetitions of these exercises have the effort and without a decline in effect of lateral development and power of efficiency and precision; will. – Performance in sports games is The total work can be 20-30 minutes achieved by superior mixed aerobic and with breaks of 3-5 minutes, depending on maintained at a high level through the distance between the intensity and appropriate training; repetition. – Football strength is not only general, The training model is considered as a but appears as a combination of speed variant of repetitive training, since a player and force structure and, because of the repeats several times in training actions game demands, as particular, specific; characteristic of the game (and here comes – The football game presumes resistance the training model). in the following cases and situations: There are several training models: resistance during a whole game, training models for the training of specific resistance required by the physical, energy or momentum of the game and technical, tactical action of a game, complex training models. resistance required by several actions, Training models for the training of a resistance related to prolonged or specific energy consumption rate or a repeated efforts of speed, resistance to specific application offer an advantage for repeated efforts to force the player to players according to the specific rhythms continue execution, technical resistance of a game. to the psycho-emotional demands of the Note that at the beginning types of game; technical and tactical exercises and lactic- – One must work at least 20 minutes for alactic are used, in the middle especially the effort to be incentive (to have the aerobic type is used, and in late years endurance characteristics). for both the lactic and aerobic systems. In the current literature there are The first part of the training consists of references to specific training methods for several short rehearsals performed with sports games, based on modelling the great intensity (which requires both the requirements of preparing the competitive lactic and the alactic); the means of game in question. training uses aerobic exercise, and the I believe that it would be referred to closing of new uses repetition of short considerations relating to new approaches duration, to shape the intensity increased at in the current practice of sports games. the end of the game. Players do the Method rehearsals may be used in games repetition at a high degree of fatigue, and sports such as football by making where the lactic and aerobic systems are repeated requests for longer or shorter much prompted. distance than in tactical manoeuvres during There are other possible variations, such a major game of football, which aims to as the use of fast rhythms at the beginning develop resistance to a specific game. of each part of the lesson, or imposing a fast pace and strong side of each lesson. 156 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

When lessons are organized, the training 2. Apolzan, D. Fotbal – 2010 . Bucure ti: model must take into account several factors F.R.F. Publishing House, 1998. such as volume of work, speed, rest intervals, 3. Bompa, T.O. Teoria i metodologia the number of repetitions, individual antrenamentului. Bucure ti: Ex. Ponto peculiarities and characteristics of the game Publishing House, 2002. of soccer. This method is shown in pre- 4. Cârstea, Gh. Teoria i metodica competition and competition periods. educa Ńiei fizice si sportului. Bucure ti: When taking into account the technical, Editura Universul, 1993. tactical and physical game, a complex 5. Cern ăianu, C. Fotbal. Manualul training model can be organized that may antrenorului profesionist. Bucure ti: require capacity building and driving the Roteck Pro Publishing House, 2000. necessary physiological football game. 6. Cojocaru, V. Fotbal de 6 la 18 ani. In the game of football are recommended Metodica preg ătirii. Bucure ti: the following distances and intensities of A.N.E.F.S. Publishing House, 2002. the activities performed: 7. Colibaba, E.D.; Bota, I. Jocuri sportive.
Sprint 30 m to 100%; Teorie i metodic ă. Bucure ti: Aldin
Running steps to 30-50 m high at 70%; Publishing House, 1998.
Heat resistance of 50-400 m low 8. Dragnea, A. Măsurarea i evaluarea în intensity; educa Ńie fizic ă i sport . Bucure ti.
Acceleration – deceleration to Sport Turism Publishing House, 10-20 m, 80-100%; 1984.
Starts-stops on the 5-15 m, 9. Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv. 70-100%; Bucure ti: Didactic and Pedagogic
Variations of the direction changes at Publishing House, 1996. 50-100 m. 5-20%; 10. Nicu, A. Antrenamentul sportiv modern .
5-10 jump over simple obstacles Bucure ti: Editis Publishing House, 25-40 cm high. 1993. In modern practice, the preparation of 11. Oancea, V. Fotbal. Curs de sports requires a huge volume of daily, specializare. Bra ov: Transilvania monthly, yearly training, requiring full University Publishing House, 1996. body resistance. Phenomena that occur in 12. Oancea, V. Fotbal. Considera Ńii the body during exercise or subsequent asupra factorului fizic . Bra ov: Omnia resistance effects are profound, easy to S.A.S.T. Publishing House, 2002. dose, measurable techniques using both 13. Prescorni Ńă , A. Antrenamentul sportiv: simple and complex investigation. o viziune integrativ ă. Bra ov: Editura Universit ăŃ ii „Transilvania”” din References Bra ov, 2006. 14. iclovan, I. Teoria antrenamentului 1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul sportiv sportiv. Bucure ti: Editura I.E.F.S., modern . Bucure ti: Editura Editis, 1993. 1985.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

MORPHO-FUNCTIONAL AND PSYCHIATRIC ASPECTS OF CHILDREN AT THE AGE OF 10-14 YEARS

Drago TOH ĂNEAN 1

Abstract: This paper refers to the particularities of somatic, functional and psychiatric development of children aged 10-14 years. The morpho- functional changes that take place during the preadolescence period are essential, displaying themselves through the intensity of growth, especially physical growth, which is characterized by a superior rhythm in comparison with other periods of ontogenetic development. This period is characterized by intensified growth (especially in stature) with the obvious development of secondary sexual characteristics. This is the site of the mental age of the ontogenetic stage of shaping individuality and human conduct .

Key words: growth, development, stages, maturation, adaptation.

Middle school age, between 10 and 14, is the expression of the quantitative one of the most important steps of phenomena regarding the body’s growth in development in which start the size and its segments. Development transformations that will ultimately lead to gathers the qualitative processes of the the organism’s maturation. During this evolution and consists of the functional period we may find a combination of differentiation of the tissues, the functional certain characteristics that are part of the perfection of the apparatus and the systems junior high process along with others that, within the organism [7]. in one way or another, prefigure those Growth dominates – first of all the characteristics of teenagers. The morpho- superior and inferior limbs grow and functional changes that take place during afterwards the thorax and the pelvis. All in the preadolescence period are essential, all, the average growth in height is displaying themselves through the intensity between 3-4 cm and 6-7 annually. At the of growth, especially physical growth, age of 11-12 the girls overgrow the boys a which is characterized by a superior bit, being taller, but between 13 and 14 rhythm in comparison with other periods years old this difference fades away. The of ontogenetic development. The entire growth in height is accompanied by a gain process of development can take different in weight, and the process of calcification shapes, but regardless of these, it does not is intense. Thus, the facial part of the brain take place proportionally and is not is developed, the process of calcification in produced instantaneously at all the body’s the bones of the hands is finalized and the segmental levels . Growth can be defined as growth of the permanent denture occurs.

1 Transilvania University of Bra ov. 158 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

The adjustment of the growth process is at the age before puberty the muscular being influenced by the extra hypothalamic fibers are relatively larger than those of existence of certain somatostatine adults and the tendon portions are shorter. secretions (STH) at the hypothalamic level, At the beginning of the period they are still and the receptors of the adrenergic thin, have a big nucleus and are relatively hormones stimulate the STH secretion, rich in karyoplasms and water. Among whereas the noradrenergic hormones them one can find a great amount of inhibit this stimulation; the free fat acids, conjunctive tissue. The muscular tonus is with the help of the ventral median lower for children at the age before nucleus, have a positive action on the STH; puberty in comparison with the adult’s, the priogenical substances have a positive which favors a better execution of the joint action with the help of the thermo- movements, but aggravates the execution adjusting hypothalamic nucleus. The laws of certain smooth movements segregated of normal growth and development, stated by precision [7]. by [5, p. 300], are as follows: the unequal The neuromuscular excitability is lower and asymmetrical growth law of tissues at junior high children in comparison with and organs; the different rhythm law of adults, the cronaximetric values being growth and development; the proportion higher. The speed in reaction and law; the alternance law; the opposite sex execution is very good, but the strength is law of growth and development. Growth is still weak, due to the reduced muscular generally uniform [1, p. 536] becoming mass. At the age of 10 the girls manage to really accelerated at the end of the period; achieve over 87% of the speed they will it mainly occurs in the elongation of the develop at the end of their physical and inferior limbs, which generates a severe functional (17 years old) growth and fragility of the child’s body. Up to the age development, whereas the boys 75% of the of 10, the differences in growth of children speed they will develop at the end of the of opposite sex are not big; starting with growth period. this age, the girls proceed to growth The heart reacts strongly to effort, but acceleration due to puberty. Between 9-11, uneconomically; the coronary irrigation is for girls, and 11-12, for boys, this period rich, the control mechanisms are still weak represents an active proliferation, which till the age of 7, are poorly developed and leads to the incubation of the apophasis, of more proper as far as easy solicitations are the sesamoidal bones as well as the concerned. The heart has a globule shape, finalization of the medullar cavity, a stage the transversal diameter is longer than the that continues along with puberty. longitudinal diameter and the atriums are If at the age of 8 years old the muscular bigger than the ventricles. The heart’s mass represents approximately 27.2% of transversal diameter is proportionally the entire body mass, at the age of 15 it longer than that of the adult’s. The growth increases to 32.6%. Along with the of the longitudinal diameter occurs at a development of the muscular mass the slow pace, until puberty. At the age of 7 force increases also, having a boost the circumference of the right ventricle is 2 between 13 and 14 years old. For children cm bigger than that of the left ventricle.

Toh ănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14 159

Fig. 1. Growth dynamics of the muscle mass from 8 to 15 years

At the age of 8 the weight of the heart is of the organism, both in rest and in relative of 96.0 g. For children before the age of intense efforts. puberty the vascular net is relatively well Thus, the amplitude of the respiratory developed. The fast development of the movements increases on average from 230 elastic type arteries simplifies the ml of air current volume at the age of 11, myocardium’s task. At the age of 9 the up to 300 ml air at the age of 13, and up to cardiac frequency at rest is an average 350 ml air at the age of 15. Nevertheless, a 90-96/minute and 88-91/minute at the age decrease in the respiratory frequency is of 10; 87-88/minute at the age of 11 and recorded from 22 breathings/minute at the 80/minute at the age of 13. This age of 11, to 20 breathings/minute at the tachycardia present in the first years of age of 13, and to18 breathings/minute at school represents a significant burden for the age of 15. The vital capacity (VC) the myocardium, given the energetic and marks a great leap in the puberty period. relatively important consumption of At the age of 11, the child’s VC is maintaining a high cardiac rhythm of rest somewhere between 2000-2200 ml air. In and the weak economical (metabolic) the first stage of puberty (10-13 years old) efficiency of sustaining this. When it the annual increase of the vital capacity is comes to effort the situation is far more up to 250 ml air for girls and up to 300 ml precarious since the volume of the heart is air for boys. In the second stage of puberty, smaller, any excess of blood irrigation to the vital capacity develops quickly, the the respective muscles claiming a annual increase of this parameter reaching considerable boost of the cardiac values of 400-500 ml air at the age of 14- frequency, which has a negative impact on 15, thus, at the end of the stage reaching an the functional efficiency of the average of 3500 ml air [4, p. 43-54]. myocardium, which poorly handles intense In accordance with the characteristics of solicitations for a long period of time. the morphological development, a The respiratory apparatus undergoes a decreased capacity of functional resistance very important development as well, and a decreased adaptation to the cardio- acquiring new functional capacities, being vascular and respiratory apparatus is capable of ensuring a better oxygen supply observed as far as intense physical effort is concerned.

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The great organic and somatic During this period, there are obvious transformations, common at this age, are changes not only in the way the child accompanied by proper transformations in memorizes, but also in what he memorizes. the mental life as well. He often tries to put his memory to work At the age of 10, the age that marks the calling upon different cultural fields end of junior high and the beginning of the (music, film, sport), the memory capacity middle stage, the relief of the brain cortex to this extent being really high. Storing the is being finalized, the intellectual logic is gradually achieved after 12 years. capacities are approaching a very high This form of storage schemes operate with level and the entire superior nervous logic. Evocation of memory, which is still activity is developing quickly. required, develops at ages 12-14. Motor- Psychologically speaking, the child shows verbal memory develops in puberty, in a good mental balance, dealing addition to visual memory (situation) and successfully with school tasks and verbal memory, continuing to be extracurricular activities. Intellectually particularly active. speaking, he is still shaped by the concrete, The sensory-perceptual evolution assimilating knowledge without browses a significant route for mental manifesting a critical spirit. development and adaptation activities. At this age, all mental processes undergo Given the process of biological an ascendant development, notable maturation, sensitivity is also restructured modifications being achieved. Thus, the by erotic functions. The phenomenon is voluntary attention is being developed, and most obvious in visual, auditory and tactile the involuntary attention is being modified, sensitivity. Perceptual experience is under becoming more efficient. The the influence of development orders, and preadolescent can concentrate and can be observations constitute associations attentive longer (approximately 2 hours), leading him to express what he feels. He often making efforts of correction and self learns to observe, be attentive to education as far as attention is concerned. everything that surrounds him, to show Moreover, the memory has an important interest in knowledge and thereby growth rhythm after the age of 10. stimulate complex functions intellect.

Fig. 2. Dynamic growth in the amplitude of respiratory movements at ages 11, 13 and 15 [4]

Toh ănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14 161

The development of perception allows a sometimes think themselves, so it is good for wider spatial and temporal orientation. In them to check out situations to make sure general, perceptual experience is enriched they are safe before they go off on their own. gradually. Because eleven or twelve year olds may In terms of thinking, it is still concrete be making first efforts at independence this (12 years). The student specifically can change their relationship with parents. enriches his comments, and not his Boys may move away from a close knowledge. After 12 years of age relationship with their mothers and girls significant changes occur in the structure who have had a good relationship with of thinking. The learning process as a way their fathers may become a little to solve problematic situations is emotionally distant with them” [9]. complicated. The critical spirit develops Some researchers believe that children causing the young to validate values in of 10-12 years can manifest defensive comparison with no value and show behaviors especially in overpopulated explicit attitudes towards ignorance and environments. Yet, young people at this incompetence. Although more mature and age tend to develop independent attitudes industrious girls do not exceed the in relation to their family, but it is intellectual development of boys, they are important for members to offer significant more compared to some comprehension of affective support in a discreet manner [3]. the failure of peers or adults. They often School and learning requirements lead to excel in matters involving complex verbal changes in personality. There is a structure of expression, while boys are better at science needs, interests, preferences and skills as a and technology. Operations and thinking result of the discovery by the child of the skills are in the process of strengthening importance to obtain the best results in his the power of the intellect as rich, complex activity. A particularly important role in and abstract information. Knowledge of child development has, on the one hand, the this becomes more diverse and complex. It social development of relationship creates a habit of frequently used schemes, characteristics, and on the other hand, images, symbols and concepts of receiving influences in the personality transparency understanding complex structure of the new experiences and situations and strategies of expression. knowledge. A social relationship bears the As I said previously, the child has a good hallmark of social life as a whole, as well balance mentally, but he may feel as school and family life. Social life is moments of fatigue, headaches, irritability, lived with a greater intensity than in any or restlessness. There is an alternation other stage of life. Groups for the game, between moments of voice, exuberant for learning activities or any other form of conduct, and times of fatigue, apathy, action, have a high stability and become laziness. The child may become conflicting more uniform, relatively constant criteria, or less active, may take breaks to relax that but especially based on age and sex extend too much even if he has not made [8, p. 163-183]. too great an effort. In another vein, and to conclude, one “Although eleven and twelve year olds can say that the process of development may start wanting to do things more and human growth occurs in steps, stages independently, and they do need to stretch and periods that characterize the entire their wings a little bit, they are certainly not course of life. By growth and development as capable of dealing with the world as some we understand a dynamic complex of of them would have you believe or as they biological processes undergone by the

162 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII human organism in its evolution to 3. Evans, G. The Effects of the Physical maturation. Growth is a quantitative Environment on Children’s process of cellular reproduction concerning Development . Available at: the body’s gaining in weight, volume and http://www.parenting.cit.cornell.edu size, whereas development represents a Accesed in 12.04.2009 qualitative process of cellular 4. Firea, E. Particularit ăŃ ile somato- differentiation; in other words we are func Ńionale, psihice i motrice la copii, talking about functional modifications and în perioadele prepubertar ă i qualitative improvements that mark a pubertar ă, i valorificarea lor în perfection and adaptation of the domeniul sportiv// Culegere de apparatuses and the systems within the materiale tehnico-metodice. Bucure ti: organism, a complex evolution and a F.R.F. coala de antrenori, 2002. coordinate integration of them in a whole. 5. Ionescu, A. Despre atitudinea corect ă Given the above, I think that it is very a corpului. Bucure ti: Editura important for coaches to take into account the U.C.F.S., 1961. physical and psychological changes that 6. Maziu, V.; Nicu, A.; Foc ă neanu, Al. children pass through, and adapt their Poten Ńialul biometric al popula Ńiei methods of sports training to age peculiarities. colare cls. I-IV . Bucure ti: C.C. E.F.S. 1972, p. 5-90. References 7. Verza, E. Psihologia vârstelor . Bucure ti: Editura Hyperion, 1993. 1. Baciu, C. Anatomia func Ńional ă i 8. Verza, E.; Verza, F.E. Psihologia biomecanica aparatului locomotor (cu vârstelor . Bucure ti: Editura aplica Ńii în E.F.S.). Bucure ti: Editura ProHumanitate, 2000. Sport- Turism, 1977. 9. http://www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/He 2. Demeter, A. Bazele fiziologice ale althTopicDetails.aspx?p=114&np=122 educa Ńiei fizice colare . Bucure ti: &id =1865 . Accesed in 13.04.2009. Editura Sport –Turism, 1982, p. 15-80.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS INSTITUTIONS

Ioan TURCU 1

Abstract: The path followed by this thesis is supposed to cover succinctly most of the concepts and components of performance management in physical education and sports institutions – brought to light by the greatest specialists in this field – from a new perspective of modern organization management and a society based on knowledge. The society based on knowledge is an essential element of the “outer environment” of organization management and is carrying specific opportunities and threats, while knowledge resources are considered the key constituent of the “inner environment” of organization management.

Key words: management, physical education and sport, strategy, organization, performance.

More than 20 years ago, under the name profoundness of actions or cultural of informational society, the real flow of experience. The intelligence based on goods and services started to be replaced knowledge and professional competence by the flow of information with the help of which is analyzed through the assimilation virtual economy. Nowadays this economy of new abilities and knowledge indicates a appears under the name of “society of personal life of high quality, able to knowledge”, having the continuous contribute to the development of the improvement of the human part as the national and local community” [5]. main factor in the progress of humanity. The whole world is changing in order to As presented in the UNESCO report achieve high performances. Change is ”Higher Education in a Learning Society”, certainly the axis for the whole mankind of we can say that ”the societies formed at the 21 st century. We notice that the present and in the near future become more phenomenon of change, even if it is often and more societies of knowledge and controversial, is becoming more important learning. Production, transmission and every day. The organizations that will application of knowledge in any domain of succeed on this “journey” of transformation activity are means of raising productivity. are the organizations of the future – which At the same time, if there is no continuous will of course derive from classical learning, the personal adaptability or the organizations having the ability to challenge individual way of living becomes of poor the future and to hold up against it. Change is quality in content and performance, and a permanent “journey” of the whole modern the quality of life decreases in terms of organization, while the manager is the guide economic standards, of diversity and – the key factor in the attempt to change.

1 Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Bra ov. 164 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

Therefore, the managers of the future must knowledge comes with a series of mutations own a series of qualities, knowledge, skills, at the level of society: mass production is de- and behaviors common to the employees and massified; the mass market is segmented specific of the management. We offered a down to “atoms”; the relative homogeneous general presentation about them and society becomes heterogeneous; the social- underlined the great importance they play political and economic life that once was from the point of view of the performances centralized becomes decentralized; the achieved by the organization and its problems of life which appear minor are management. becoming global; the social-economic life, The major programs for change must relatively stable and stationary, is initially be guided by the head manager, who accelerating. Under these circumstances we will also use the power of change in order to are stressing the important role of implement the programs. This power of knowledge as the main resource for modern change could offer the new technologies or organization and a fundamental resource conditions for legislative changes, for the creation of value. The revolution of privatization, free trade etc. Many times a cognizance leads to the expansion of combination of these factors calls for a knowledge frontiers and decisively marks the fundamental reorganization of the activity evolution of all components of the global field. All these changes raise questions about system. The acquiring, the ownership and the strategy, while the answers to these questions capitalization of knowledge are becoming impose much more than the redesigning of the keys to a modern society. the organization processes; it is necessary to The fortune and the power of the future reinvent the organization itself. society will be based mainly on intangible The change into a post-capitalistic society intellectual resources and on the knowledge widens the spectrum of scientific approaches capital. The acquiring of fortune won’t be in the field of value and its capacity to rise on possible without the rational combination of the whole front of scientific research and the the production factors, where the passing to a society based on knowledge. As “knowledge” factor will play the leading a result, the change – the element of role, being capable of substituting the others transition to a society based on knowledge – without completely replacing them. The is the name of the game that involves acquired fortune will modify its structure in everyone in the 21 st century. It is not favor of the created super-symbolic goods. surprising that in some cases the progress is Traditional resources are exhaustible, finite slowing down. The change starts with the in time, while knowledge is unlimited and ones that hold the power of decision and the inexhaustible at all levels, and continuously initiative – the managers in general – it grows if used . stimulates the executants and it never ends, The society based on knowledge is an no matter how good the global economy is. essential element of the “outer environment” The civilization that has just arrived – of organization management, and it carries based on knowledge – brings a new genuine specific opportunities and threats, while way of life based on: diversified resources knowledge resources are considered the key that are interchangeable and easy to replace; constituent of the “inner environment” of production methods that replace the outdated organization management. The managerial present fabrication systems; training systems strengths and/or weaknesses end with a based on the capacities and virtues of the success or failure of the managerial task of individual versus the ones based on the the organization which operates in the group. The new civilization based on context of the emerging of three global Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and … 165 processes: the globalization of the economy, the activity of physical education and the managerial revolution and the society sports. based on knowledge [4, p. 118]. In this society of knowledge and learning The doctoral thesis entitled Performance we observe that the world’s leading Management in Institutions of Physical orientation is towards performance. It is Education and Sports is written in the performance that really and highly context of the predictable mutations of the evaluates all kinds of resources, being the 21 st century (change, globalization, most efficient and certain way to achieve organization and management based on this goal. knowledge) and distinguishes in the Based on the same theory, the following conceptual part between the main is confirmed about the activity of physical characteristics of the intellectual capital, education and sports: which represents the creational engine  the managerial act must be for performance in the modern sports streamlined on a social scale; organization:  concrete criteria are needed in order
the mobility of the intellectual to distinguish between values; capital is much higher than that of  strategic management is becoming tangible assets; more important every day (the
the value of the intellectual capital adaptation of strategic management mostly depends on the capacity to depending on the possibilities, use it efficiently and to motivate objectives, needs and applying the people involved; individual strategic management –
the value of the intangibles will get in every sports branch, elaborating a higher and higher in the value strategy for performance of a content of the future capital; minimum of four years).
the multiplication capacity of the The respondents also confirmed the intellectual capital is much higher necessity of management in the activity of than other capitals; physical education and sports. More so,
the investments in intellectual this management must be realized as a capital generate a series of other subsystem of general management. Its investments; object consists of the functions, the
the intellectual capital has a operations and the subsystems applied in specific circuit (with its help we the activity of physical education and understand the economic sports. mechanism that permits adding In order achieve performance, the value to knowledge with an management of the modern organization economic finality). must consider three distinctive forms: There are plenty of reasons why the efficiency and effectiveness; completing management concept needs to be the strategic objectives; creating value. introduced in physical education and Therefore, performance is the way to sports. The majority of respondents satisfy both the needs of the internal confirm that the future world is based on environment and those of the external knowledge. Therefore it is obvious that the environment by finding a perfect leading features of the contemporary world combination of efficiency and (change, economy, organization and effectiveness. The latter measures what is management based on knowledge), and the being done, while the efficiency shows us knowledge capital have a great impact on how it is being done; it is not the same if 166 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII an institution generates a smaller or a Before initiating any research we must greater value in its attempt to achieve its determine a set of presumptions which in goals. This value appears in diverse forms, the end will be proved right or wrong. We sometimes tangible and sometimes not, get started from the following hypotheses: and is delivered to the clients, 1. The subgroups of the research sample shareholders, employees and partners. The offer diverse information from the more value is being produced by one point of view of the problematic and institution, the longer the period of time solutions in the field of physical will be for investment in the competitive education and sports. battle. 2. By processing the information we Performance is the object and the subject observe a large number of statements of management, and therefore we are regarding the things that are not witnessing a fundamental interest of functional and a smaller number management in performance. regarding the possible solutions. Performance is the starting point for 3. Regarding the managerial solutions in competitiveness, and therefore performance the field of physical education and must become the basic philosophy for the sports, we observe mainly theoretical modern organization and for its management explanations to the detriment of [1, p. 79], [2, p. 63]. practical solutions. Although semantically performance is 4. The collection of data offers per widely accepted and utilized, from a ensemble valuable and original practical and theoretical point of view the literature for the extraction of viable concept is poorly defined and has major solutions in the problematic of consequences on multiple levels [3, p. 9]. physical education and sports. Because of a mixture of interdisciplinary The reasons for choosing this topic for approaches, a miscellaneous research the thesis entitled Performance methodology was necessary in regard to: Management in the Institution of Physical the study of a general and a special Education and Sports are: bibliography concerning the theoretical
I am working in this field; I am a and practical status needed for the lecturer at the Faculty of Physical elaboration of a scientifically founded Education and Sports of Transilvania thesis; referring to the bi-dimensional University in Bra ov, chief assistant at and/or tri-dimensional – past, present, the Department of Theoretical Subjects future – while elaborating concepts and and Collective Sports; phenomena from the general to the
the sports activity has a deep particular or from the particular to the managerial character anywhere and no general; the questionnaire method for the matter how it is being practiced; elaboration of a selective scientific
management plays an important role in research. the contemporary world; Our research is based on an exploratory-
the activity of physical education and descriptive investigation which serves our sports is re-evaluated at governmental goal the most and allows the gathering of and institutional levels, and under the information from significant groups from circumstances of an in-depth study one the point of view of their contribution to can find possibilities for managerial identifying the problems and the solutions promotion on the steps of the from the field of physical education and hierarchy. sports. Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and … 167

The research goal is to integrate the 6. The concept of performance in the institutions of physical education and activity of physical education and sports in the economic-social structure of sports and its role in the contemporary the country in the context of European world. integration and the internationalization of 7. The specificity of the management for organizations. sports performance and its role in The main objective of the research is to completing the mission of physical identify the present problems in the field of education and sports institutions. physical education and sports and to find 8. The material resources of physical possible solutions to get over them. education and sports institutions and Starting from unity through diversity, the the role of financial management in four subgroups of participants acquiring and administrating those (beneficiaries of the sports activity, funds. professors, managers and postgraduates in 9. The systemic approach to physical management) all bring complementary education and sports in the general information which will outline a whole on context of education and civilization. two different levels: problematic and 10. The need to edit a handbook and solutions. produce a specialty like the In order to achieve the goals and general management of physical education objectives of this thesis we set a number of and sports. specific objectives resuming the opinions All these opinions form a large of those questioned regarding the spectrum, but we made a selection of four following aspects: categories of respondents involved in one 1. Positioning the institutions of physical way or another in the topic of the thesis. education and sports in the gear of the The first group of respondents, the Romanian society. beneficiaries, solves problem situations 2. The role of the management in the on a pragmatic level by anchoring the contemporary world and its impact on state of affairs from the field of physical the management of physical education education and sports to reality without and sports institutions. passing them through the filter of 3. Predictable mutations in the experience in this specialty. They will contemporary world and their impact offer great value to the research because on the management of physical change is very important at this level. education and sports institutions: the Their opinion counts. necessary assimilation and adaptation We are asking from the second group of to change. respondents, from the educational system, 4. Elements of general management to handle problem situations and to solve involved in the management of them practically with the person as the physical education and sports beneficiary. institutions and their impact on The third group, the managers, is creating a new segment of expected to offer solutions by respecting management. the equation costs-benefits referring to 5. The economic, organizational and the modalities of modernization. They managerial impact based on aim for the investment system. knowledge in the management of The fourth group, the postgraduates in institutions for physical education and the field of management, who show a large sports. 168 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Bra ov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII spectrum of interests and preoccupations, institutions of physical education and and who use the newest sources of sports under the major impact of the theoretical and practical accumulation of predictable mutations of the 21 st century – material, will offer dynamic points of view change, globalization, economy, and interactive visions. knowledge-based management and The results of this research stand as a organization – and offers solutions along reference point not only for the institutions these coordinates to some of the problems involved in the analyses but for all the by proposing improvement for the factors involved or interested in this managerial activity and by bringing problematic, and who believe that it is arguments for some of the theories. After important to offer professional education saying all this we do not consider the to the people involved in the activity of subject closed and we admit that there are physical education and sports, and to those some problems that require subsequent who do performance management in detailed research. institutions of this type. All these objectives are the foundation of References the doctoral thesis entitled Performance Management in the Institution of Physical 1. Bogdan, I. Managementul afacerilor Education and Sports, which is built on interna Ńionale . Sibiu: Editura consulting a vast bibliography, part of which Universit ăŃ ii „Lucian Blaga”, 2007. (60%) was published after the year 2000. 2. Bogdan, I. Managementul eficien Ńei The path followed by this thesis is investiŃiilor. Bucure ti: Editura supposed to cover succinctly most of the Universitar ă, 2004. concepts and components of performance 3. Herciu, M. Managementul financiar management in physical education and al firmei viitorului . Sibiu: Editura sports institutions – brought to light by the Continent, 2005. greatest specialists in this field – from a 4. Nicolescu, O. Economia, organiza Ńia new perspective of modern organization i managementul bazate pe cuno tin Ńe. management and a society based on Bucure ti: Editura Economic ă, 2006. knowledge. 5. http://www.edu.ro/index.php/articles/t The thesis delimits the essential ext/8417 coordinates of performance management in

AUTHORS INDEX

A N Albulescu, E...... 81 Nechita, F...... 135 Nire teanu, L...... 37 B Balint, L...... 107 P Beldean, L...... 9 Pepelea, R...... 41 Bostan, M...... 17 Petrescu, A. R...... 45 Petrescu, C. F...... 49 C Pop, C...... 55 Cioroiu, S. G...... 85, 127 Chicomban, M...... 93 R Rucsanda, M...... 61 D Demenescu, V. L...... 21 S Scurt, C...... 139, 145 E Simion, G...... 151 Enoiu, R...... 101 Enoiu, R. S...... 101 T Toh ănean, D...... 157 F Turcu, I...... 163 Fe teu, F...... 107 Filip, I...... 27 ł łuŃu, C...... 67 I Ionescu-Bondoc, D...... 115 V Vârlan, P.M...... 73 M Martoma, A...... 119 Z Măniu Ń, P. M...... 31 Zanfirescu, G...... 139 Moldovan, E...... 85, 127 Zanfirescu, M...... 145