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Offshore Wind Turbines Reliability, Availability and Maintenance Reliability,Availability Andmaintenance Offshorewind Turbines Renewable Energy Series 13 Offshore Wind Turbines Reliability, availability and maintenance Reliability, availability and maintenance and availability Reliability, Turbines Wind Offshore The development of offshore wind power has become a Peter Tavner is Emeritus Professor of pressing modern energy issue in which the UK is taking a major New and Renewable Energy at the School part, driven by the need to find new electrical power sources, of Engineering and Computing Sciences avoiding the use of fossil fuels, in the knowledge of the extensive at Durham University. He has received wind resource available around our islands and the fact that the an MA from Cambridge (1969), a PhD from Southampton (1978) and a DSc environmental impact of offshore wind farms is likely to be low. from Durham (2012) Universities. He has However, there are major problems to solve if offshore wind held senior positions in the manufacturing power is to be realised and these problems revolve around the industry, including Group Technical Director need to capture energy at a cost per kWh which is competitive of FKI Energy Technology, an international with other sources. This depends upon the longevity of the wind business manufacturing wind turbines, turbines which make up offshore wind farms. Their availability, electrical machines and drives in Europe. He has also been Principal Investigator of reliability and the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of the the EPSRC Supergen Wind Consortium maintenance, needed to achieve that availability, are essential and Sino-British Future Renewable Energy to improve offshore wind life-cycle costs and the future of this Network Systems (FRENS) Consortium. He emerging industry. is a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering This book intends to address these issues head-on and and Technology, President of the European demonstrate clearly to manufacturers, developers and operators Academy of Wind Energy and a Non- the facts and figures of wind turbine operation and maintenance Executive Director of Wind Technologies, a Cambridge University spin-out company. in the inclement offshore environment, recommending how He is a winner of the Institution Premium maintenance should be done to achieve low life-cycle costs. of the IET. Offshore Wind Turbines Reliability, availability and maintenance Tavner Peter Tavner The Institution of Engineering and Technology www.theiet.org 978-1-84919-229-3 Offshore Wind Turbines.indd 1 19/07/2012 16:03:09 IET RENEWABLE ENERGY SERIES 13 Offshore Wind Turbines Other volumes in this series: Volume 1 Distributed generation N. Jenkins, J.B. Ekanayake and G. Strbac Volume 6 Microgrids and active distribution networks S. Chowdhury, S.P. Chowdhury and P. Crossley Volume 7 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles, 2nd edition J.M. Miller Volume 8 Energy: resources, technologies and the environment C. Ngo Volume 9 Solar photovoltaic energy A. Labouret and M. Villoz Volume 10 Scenarios for a future electricity supply: cost–optimized variations on supplying Europe and its neighbours with electricity from renewable energies G. Czisch Volume 11 Cogeneration: a user’s guide D. Flin Offshore Wind Turbines Reliability, availability and maintenance Peter Tavner The Institution of Engineering and Technology Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698). † 2012 The Institution of Engineering and Technology First published 2012 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Engineering and Technology Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom www.theiet.org While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them. Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed. The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84919-229-3 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-84919-230-9 (PDF) Typeset in India by MPS Limited Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY This book is dedicated to Sarah and Charles. Behold, the sea itself And on its limitless, heaving breast, the ships; See where their white sails, bellying in the wind, Speckle the green and blue sea. Walt Whitman, put to music in the Sea Symphony by Ralph Vaughan Williams. Contents Preface xiv Acknowledgements xvi Nomenclature xvii List of abbreviations xix 1 Overview of offshore wind development 1 1.1 Development of wind power 1 1.2 Large wind farms 4 1.3 First offshore developments 6 1.4 Offshore wind in Northern Europe 7 1.4.1 Overview 7 1.4.2 Baltic Sea 8 1.4.3 UK waters 8 1.5 Offshore wind rest of the world 12 1.5.1 The United States 12 1.5.2 Asia 12 1.6 Offshore wind power terminology and economics 12 1.6.1 Terminology 12 1.6.2 Cost of installation 15 1.6.3 Cost of energy 16 1.6.4 O&M costs 18 1.6.5 Effect of reliability, availability and maintenance on cost of energy 20 1.6.6 Previous work 20 1.7 Roles 20 1.7.1 General 20 1.7.2 Regulator 20 1.7.3 Investors 20 1.7.4 Certifiers and insurers 21 1.7.5 Developers 21 1.7.6 Original equipment manufacturers 21 1.7.7 Operators and asset managers 22 1.7.8 Maintainers 22 1.8 Summary 23 1.9 References 23 viii Offshore wind turbines: reliability, availability and maintenance 2 Reliability theory relevant to offshore wind turbines 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Basic definitions 25 2.3 Random and continuous variables 26 2.4 Reliability theory 28 2.4.1 Reliability functions 28 2.4.2 Reliability functions example 29 2.4.3 Reliability analysis assuming constant failure rate 30 2.4.4 Point processes 32 2.4.5 Non-homogeneous Poisson process 33 2.4.6 Power law process 34 2.4.7 Total time on test 34 2.5 Reliability block diagrams 36 2.5.1 General 36 2.5.2 Series systems 36 2.5.3 Parallel systems 37 2.6 Summary 38 2.7 References 38 3 Practical wind turbine reliability 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Typical wind turbine structure showing main assemblies 40 3.3 Reliability data collection 40 3.4 Wind turbine taxonomies 41 3.5 Failure location, failure mode, root cause and failure mechanism 41 3.6 Reliability field data 42 3.7 Comparative analysis of that data 43 3.8 Current reliability knowledge 46 3.9 Current failure mode knowledge 47 3.10 Linkage between failure mode and root cause 47 3.11 Summary 49 3.12 References 50 4 Effects of wind turbine configuration on reliability 51 4.1 Modern wind turbine configurations 51 4.2 WT configuration taxonomy 52 4.2.1 General 52 4.2.2 Concepts and configurations 54 4.2.3 Sub-assemblies 55 4.2.4 Populations and operating experience 55 4.2.5 Industrial reliability data for sub-assemblies 56 4.3 Reliability analysis assuming constant failure rate 56 4.4 Analysis of turbine concepts 59 Contents ix 4.4.1 Comparison of concepts 59 4.4.2 Reliability of sub-assemblies 59 4.4.2.1 General 59 4.4.2.2 Generators 60 4.4.2.3 Gearboxes 63 4.4.2.4 Converters 63 4.5 Evaluation of current different WT configurations 68 4.6 Innovative WT configurations 70 4.7 Summary 71 4.8 References 72 5 Design and testing for wind turbine availability 75 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Methods to improve reliability 75 5.2.1 Reliability results and future turbines 75 5.2.2 Design 76 5.2.3 Testing 77 5.2.4 Monitoring and O&M 78 5.3 Design techniques 78 5.3.1 Wind turbine design concepts 78 5.3.2 Wind farm design and configuration 79 5.3.3 Design review 80 5.3.4 FMEA and FMECA 82 5.3.5 Integrating design techniques 86 5.4 Testing techniques 86 5.4.1 Introduction 86 5.4.2 Accelerated life testing 87 5.4.3 Sub-assembly testing 90 5.4.4 Prototype and drive train testing 90 5.4.5 Offshore environmental testing 92 5.4.6 Production testing 93 5.4.7 Commissioning 93 5.5 From high reliability to high availability 94 5.5.1 Relation of reliability to availability 94 5.5.2 Offshore environment 95 5.5.3 Detection and interpretation 95 5.5.4 Preventive and corrective maintenance 96 5.5.5 Asset management through life 96 5.6 Summary 96 5.7 References 97 6 Effect of reliability on offshore availability 99 6.1 Early European offshore wind farm experience 99 6.1.1 Horns Rev I wind farm, Denmark 99 6.1.2 Round 1 wind farms, the United Kingdom 100 x Offshore wind turbines: reliability, availability and maintenance 6.1.3 Egmond aan Zee, Netherlands 102 6.2 Experience gained 103 6.2.1 General 103 6.2.2 Environment 104 6.2.3 Access 106 6.2.4 Offshore LV, MV
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