Waltraud Ernst, Ilona Horwath (eds.) Gender in Science and Technology

Gender Studies

Waltraud Ernst, Ilona Horwath (eds.) Gender in Science and Technology Interdisciplinary Approaches

Published with the support of the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): PUB 103-G15

An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative ini- tiative designed to make high quality books Open Access for the public good.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 (BY-NC-ND). which means that the text may be used for non-commercial purposes, provided credit is given to the author. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Natio- nalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or uti- lized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any infor- mation storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

© 2014 transcript Verlag, Bielefeld Cover Layout: Kordula Röckenhaus, Bielefeld Typeset: Maren Lachmund English Proofreading: Matthias Müller Printed by Majuskel Medienproduktion GmbH, Wetzlar Print-ISBN 978-3-8376-2434-2 PDF-ISBN 978-3-8394-2434-6 Table of Contents

Introduction Waltraud Ernst and Ilona Horwath | 7

A. GENDER IN THE DESIGN PROCESSES OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Gendering the Technological Imagination Anne Balsamo | 19 'XH WR OLFHQVLQJ UHDVRQV WKLV FRQWULEXWLRQ LV QRW HQFORVHG LQ WKH HERRN YHUVLRQ RI WKLV SXEOLFDWLRQ

Feminist Interventions in the Design Process Els Rommes | 41

Searching for Methodology. Feminist Technology Design in Computer Science Corinna Bath | 57

Masks between the Visible and the Invisible Cecile K. M. Crutzen | 79

B. GENDER IN EPISTEMOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Homunculus in the Hormones? Rebecca Jordan Young | 111 0RWKHUKRRG DQG 6FLHQWL¿F ,QQRYDWLRQ 7KH 6WRU\ RI 1DWXUDO YHUVXV $UWL¿FLDO %DE\ )RRG LQ WKH WK &HQWXU\ Barbara Orland | 129

'LIIUDFWLRQ 3DWWHUQV" 6KLIWLQJ *HQGHU 1RUPV LQ %LRORJ\ DQG 7HFKQRORJ\ Waltraud Ernst | 147

Gender Research as Knowledge Resource in Technology and Engineering Lena Trojer | 165

C. REFLECTING UN/EQUAL CONDITIONS FOR PARTICIPATION

Can Women Engineers be ‘Real Engineers’ and ‘Real Women’? Gender In/Authenticity in Engineering Wendy Faulkner | 187

6LPLODU %XW 'LIIHUHQW" &RJQLWLYH 'LIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH Discussion of Women in Science and Technology Ilona Horwath, Nicole Kronberger, Markus Appel | 205

Gender Competence in Mathematics Teacher Education Andrea Blunck, Anina Mischau, Sabine Mehlmann | 235

Contributors | 259 Introduction

WALTRAUD ERNST AND ILONA HORWATH

:KDW UROH GRHV JHQGHU SOD\ LQ VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK DQG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI QHZ WHFKQRORJLHV" 7KLV TXHVWLRQ KDV EHHQ DVNHG IURP PDQ\ GLIIHUHQW DQJOHV 7KLV ERRN SURYLGHV PHWKRGRORJLFDO H[SHUWLVH UHVHDUFK H[SHULHQFHV DQG HPSLUL FDO UHVXOWV IURP D YHU\ G\QDPLF DQG PXOWLIDFHWHG ¿HOG IHPLQLVW VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHV ,Q HDFK RI LWV FKDSWHUV LW FRQQHFWV RQ PDQ\ OHYHOV LQ VLJKWV IURP JHQGHU VWXGLHV DQG VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHV 676  ,W DLPV WR WUDQVODWH DQG OLQN NQRZOHGJH IURP JHQGHU VWXGLHV SURGXFHG LQ WKH KXPDQL WLHV VRFLDO VFLHQFHV DQG FXOWXUDO VWXGLHV WR JHQGHU VWXGLHV LQ WKH OLIH VFLHQFHV and material sciences as well as in mathematics and engineering. But more WKDQ WKLV WKH ERRN VHHNV WR HQKDQFH NQRZOHGJH IRU WKH UHÀHFWLRQ DQG SUDFWLFH RI VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK DQG WHFKQRORJLFDO LQQRYDWLRQ E\ LQYHVWLJDWLQJ LWV PDQ\ JHQGHUHG GLPHQVLRQV ,W DLPV WR VKRZ KRZ UHÀHFWLQJ XSRQ JHQGHU LQ PDQLIROG FULWLFDO ZD\V FDQ KHOS WR RYHUFRPH JHQGHU KLHUDUFKLHV H[FOXVLRQ SUDFWLFHV stereotypes, and other epistemic, ethical, and political problems. )RU D ORQJ WLPH GLIIHUHQW JURXSV RI SHRSOH KDYH KDG PL[HG UHODWLRQV WR WHFKQRORJLFDO GHYHORSPHQWV DQG VFLHQWL¿F DGYDQFHPHQWV )RU VRPH GHFDGHV WKH VLPSOH EHOLHI LQ WKH GHPRFUDWLF SXUSRVH DQG XVH RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRO RJ\ KDV EHHQ DOVR TXHVWLRQHG E\ KLVWRULDQV RI VFLHQFH ZKR SRLQWHG RXW WKH HQWDQJOHPHQWV RI VFLHQWL¿F FRQWURYHUVLHV ZLWK SROLWLFDO VWUXJJOHV VHH IRU H[ DPSOH 6FKLHELQJHU  6HUUHV   0RUHRYHU VRFLRORJLVWV RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ GLVFXVV WKH IXQGDPHQWDO FRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQ RI VFLHQWL¿F HQGHDYRU LQ VRFLDO GHYHORSPHQWV LQFOXGLQJ FRPSOH[ VWUXFWXUHV RI SRZHU VHH IRU H[ DPSOH -DVDQRII  1RZRWQ\ HW DO   7KH\ GLVFXVV WKH FR HYROXWLRQ RI science and society and demand socially robust knowledge in the sense that UREXVWQHVV LV HQKDQFHG LI UHVHDUFK LV LPSURYHG E\ VRFLDO NQRZOHGJH 1RZRWQ\ HW DO    %XW ZKDW LV VRFLDO NQRZOHGJH" +RZ FDQ ZH GLIIHUHQWLDWH 8 WALTRAUD ERNST AND ILONA HORWATH

EHWZHHQ VRFLDO EHOLHIV RI VFKRODUV HQWHULQJ VFLHQWL¿F WKHRULHV WHFKQRORJLFDO GHYHORSPHQW RU HPSLULFDO UHVHDUFK GHVLJQV ZLWKRXW IXUWKHU WKRXJKW DQG NQRZO HGJH WKDW KDV EHHQ V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ DVVHVVHG LQ D FROOHFWLYHO\ UHÀHFWHG DQG FRQ WUROOHG ZD\" :KDW LV WKH UHOHYDQW FROOHFWLYLW\ WR GHFLGH RQ D FHUWDLQ VHW RI TXHVWLRQV /RQJLQR   " 7KHVH TXHVWLRQV EHFRPH HVSHFLDOO\ FUXFLDO ZKHQ LW FRPHV WR WKH ¿HOG RI JHQGHU VWXGLHV %HFDXVH RXU FXOWXUH KDV EHHQ VWUXFWXUHG IRU VXFK D ORQJ WLPH E\ WKLV FKDQJLQJ EXW SRZHUIXO VHW RI G\QDPLFV WKHUH LV D FDSDFLRXV PL[ RI EH OLHIV DQG LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ SUDFWLFHV DERXW JHQGHU H[SHULHQFHG E\ PDQ\ VFLHQWLVWV DQG HQJLQHHUV ZKR DUH QRW QHFHVVDULO\ DZDUH RI LWV LPSDFW RQ WKHLU SUDFWLFH RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ 7KLV ERRN ZDV ZULWWHQ HVSHFLDOO\ IRU WKRVH VWXGHQWV DQG VFKRODUV RI VFLHQFH DQG HQJLQHHULQJ ZKR DUH UHDG\ WR FRQIURQW XQUHÀHFWHG assumptions about women and men and who want to learn about methods and VWUDWHJLHV WR GHYHORS UHVHDUFK DQG LQQRYDWLRQ VHUYLQJ DOO JHQGHUV DQG HQDEOH WKHP WR FROODERUDWH RQ HTXDO WHUPV )RU WKLV SXUSRVH WKH ERRN FRYHUV D UDQJH RI WKHRUHWLFDO LQVLJKWV IURP WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI JHQGHU VH[ DQG VH[XDOLW\ WR DS SOLFDWLRQV RI JHQGHU LQ SUDFWLFHV RI HQJLQHHULQJ GHVLJQ DQG VFLHQWL¿F UHDVRQLQJ 6LQFH WKH ODVW GHFDGHV RI WKH th FHQWXU\ D ¿HOG RI NQRZOHGJH KDV HPHUJHG WKDW FRQQHFWV WKH LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ NQRZOHGJH IURP JHQGHU VWXGLHV ZLWK DQ RWKHU LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ ¿HOG RI NQRZOHGJH WKDW RI VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO VWXGLHV RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ ,Q IDFW WKHVH ¿HOGV KDYH EHHQ HQWDQJOHG IURP WKH EHJLQQLQJ IRUFLQJ VFKRODUV WR TXHVWLRQ XQGHUJLUGLQJ WKHRULHV LQ ERWK JHQGHU VWXGLHV DQG 676 5R\   7KLV ¿HOG RI IHPLQLVW VWXGLHV RI VFLHQFH DQG technology has grown rapidly as a discipline that transgresses disciplines as well as the barrier between social sciences, humanities, and cultural studies RQ WKH RQH KDQG DQG OLIH VFLHQFHV HQJLQHHULQJ DQG PDWHULDO VFLHQFHV RQ WKH RWKHU 7KLV ¿HOG KDV VKHG OLJKW RQ WKH HQWDQJOHPHQWV RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ ZLWK JHQGHUHG SRZHU UHODWLRQV DQG FXOWXUDO FRQVWUXFWLRQV RI IHPLQLQLW\ DQG PDVFXOLQLW\ $OWKRXJK LW KDV EHHQ TXLWH FRQWURYHUVLDO KRZ WR UHODWH WKH FULWLFDO LQVLJKWV LQ WKLV SRZHUIXO ¿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

dynamic, especially concerning the insight that gender is connected to other FRQVWUXFWLRQV RI SRZHU VXFK DV HWKQLFLW\ UHOLJLRQ VH[XDOLW\ GLVDELOLW\ DQG FODVV ,W LV LQ WKLV UHJDUG WKDW WRGD\ IHPLQLVW WHFKQRVFLHQFH LQYHVWLJDWHV ³WHFK nological change [a]s a contingent and heterogeneous process in which tech QRORJ\ DQG VRFLHW\ DUH PXWXDOO\ FRQVWLWXWHG´ :DMFPDQ   ZLWK JHQ GHU EHLQJ XQGHUVWRRG DV D SHUIRUPDQFH RU VRFLDO DFKLHYHPHQW ³LW LV WKH SURGXFW RI D PRYLQJ UHODWLRQDO SURFHVV HPHUJLQJ IURP FROOHFWLYH DQG LQGLYLGXDO DFWV RI LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ´   $V D FRQVHTXHQFH ³WKH PDWHULDOLW\ RI WHFKQRORJ\ DIIRUGV RU LQKLELWV WKH GRLQJ RI SDUWLFXODU JHQGHU SRZHU UHODWLRQV´   2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG :DMFPDQ SURSRVHV WKDW ³WKH SROLWLFV RI WHFKQRORJ\ LV LQWHJUDO WR D PRUH MXVW GLVWULEXWLRQ RI SRZHU LQ JHQGHU UHODWLRQV´   :H ZDQW WR FRQWULEXWH ZLWK RXU ERRN WR D EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKLV FRPSOH[ UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ gender, science, and technology. 7KH ERRN HPHUJHV DOVR IURP D VSHFL¿F ORFDO SURMHFW ³)RU )XWXUH ,QQRYD WLRQV *HQGHU LQ 6FLHQFH DQG 7HFKQRORJ\´ ZDV WKH WLWOH RI D OHFWXUH VHULHV ZH RUJDQL]HG LQ WKH ZLQWHU WHUP  DW WKH -RKDQQHV .HSOHU 8QLYHUVLW\ /LQ] -.8  $XVWULD 2XU DLP ZDV WR VKRZ KRZ JHQGHU EHFRPHV UHOHYDQW LQ QDWXUDO VFLHQFHV HQJLQHHULQJ DQG WHFKQRORJLFDO GHYHORSPHQW 7KLV FRQFHUQ HYROYHG LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI RXU LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ ZRUN HQYLURQPHQW DW WKH -.8 ZKHUH D XQLYHUVLW\ ZLGH GHYHORSPHQW IRFXV LQ WKH DUHD RI ZRPHQ¶V DQG JHQGHU VWXGLHV promotes inter and transdisciplinary research cooperations with colleagues DQG VWXGHQWV IURP WHFKQRORJ\ DQG QDWXUDO VFLHQFHV ,Q WKLV QHWZRUN ZH ZHUH DEOH WR REVHUYH DQ LQFUHDVLQJ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH UROH JHQGHU SOD\V LQ VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK RXWVLGH RI VRFLDO VFLHQFHV DQG KRZ WKLV FDWHJRU\ FDQ EH LPSOHPHQWHG LQ DFWXDO UHVHDUFK DQG GHYHORSPHQW SURFHVVHV +RZ FDQ JHQGHU LQÀXHQFH WKH VKDSH RI WHFKQRORJLHV DW DOO LI WKHVH DUH IDVKLRQHG RQ WKH EDVLV RI QHXWUDO SULQ FLSOHV ZLWK UHJDUG WR IXQFWLRQ DQG GHVLJQ" 7KH H[SHUWV FKRVHQ IRU WKH OHFWXUH VHULHV DW WKH -RKDQQHV .HSOHU 8QLYHUVLW\ /LQ] LQ $XVWULD DQG VXEVHTXHQWO\ DV DXWKRUV IRU WKLV YROXPH ZRUN ZLWK D WUDQV GLVFLSOLQDU\ DSSURDFK 7KLV PHDQV WKDW WKH\ DUH IDPLOLDU QRW RQO\ ZLWK WKHRULHV DQG HPSLULFDO UHVXOWV IURP WKH WUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\ ¿HOG RI JHQGHU VWXGLHV EXW DOVR ZLWK WKRVH RI WKH WUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\ ¿HOG RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHV 1HYHUWKHOHVV DOWKRXJK VRPH DXWKRUV KDYH DGGLWLRQDOO\ KDG LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ WUDLQLQJ DOO KDYH D IXOO VFDOH DFDGHPLF EDFNJURXQG LQ RQH RU PRUH VSHFL¿F VFLHQWL¿F GLVFLSOLQHV &RPLQJ IURP VXFK GLYHUVH GLVFLSOLQHV DV PHGLD VWXGLHV computer science, social sciences, philosophy, mathematics, history, and biol RJ\ WKH DXWKRUV GLVFXVV KRZ WR DVN TXHVWLRQV DERXW JHQGHU DQG JLYH H[DPSOHV IRU WKHLU DSSOLFDWLRQ LQ LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ UHVHDUFK GHYHORSPHQW DQG WHDFKLQJ 10 WALTRAUD ERNST AND ILONA HORWATH

7KH WRSLFV UDQJH IURP WKH GHVLJQ RI LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQROR JLHV HSLVWHPRORJLHV RI ELRORJ\ DQG FKHPLVWU\ WR WHDFKLQJ PDWKHPDWLFV DQG SURIHVVLRQDO SURFHVVHV RI HQJLQHHULQJ

7KH ¿UVW VHFWLRQ DQDO\]HV JHQGHU LQ WKH GHVLJQ SURFHVVHV RI QHZ WHFKQRORJLHV 7KH DXWKRUV LQTXLUH KRZ QHZ WHFKQRORJLHV FDQ EH GHYHORSHG WR IRVWHU HTXDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU DOO JHQGHUV :KDW UROH GRHV FXOWXUDO LPDJLQDWLRQ SOD\ LQ LQ QRYDWLRQ SURFHVVHV" ,Q DGGUHVVLQJ WKHVH LVVXHV WKH FRQWULEXWLRQV GR QRW IRFXV RQ RQH EHVW ZD\ WR JXDUDQWHH WKH EHVW RXWFRPH EXW GLVFXVV GLIIHUHQW PHWKRGV 7KH FRQWULEXWLRQV VKRZ WKDW WKHUH LV DOVR QR µRQH EHVW ZD\¶ IRU D IHPLQLVW GHVLJQ RI QHZ WHFKQRORJLHV EXW WKDW WKHUH is the possibility to take gender LQWR DFFRXQW LQ D WKHRUHWLFDOO\ UHÀHFWHG DQG PHWKRGRORJLFDOO\ V\VWHPDWLF ZD\ LQ RUGHU WR FRXQWHUDFW SUREOHPDWLF JHQGHULQJ (PSLULFDO ¿QGLQJV IURP ERWK DQDO\VHV VXJJHVW WKDW GLVUHJDUGLQJ WKH FDWHJRU\ RI JHQGHU GRHV JHQHUDOO\ QRW OHDG WR µQHXWUDO¶ WHFKQRORJLHV EXW WHQGV WR UHSURGXFH JHQGHU KLHUDUFKLHV DQG VWHUHRW\SHV 7KH DXWKRUV DVN TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH UROH RI FXOWXUH LQ WHFKQRORJL FDO LQQRYDWLRQV DQG ZKDW NLQG RI VRFLDO H[SHULHQFHV DUH LQYROYHG LQ WHFKQR ORJLFDO GHYHORSPHQWV &RQFHUQLQJ WKH GHVLJQ RI WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWLIDFWV LQ HQJLQHHULQJ DV ZHOO DV LQ LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV $QQH %DOVDPR SURPRWHV DQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI GHVLJQ SUDFWLFHV DV D ³SURFHVV RI WHFKQRFXOWXUDO LQQRYDWLRQ´ $V WKLV SURFHVV LQYROYHV KXPDQ EHLQJV WKH JHQGHULQJ RI WKH SURFHVV KDSSHQV E\ ZD\ RI WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶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¿UVW GHYHORSV D FRQFHSWXDO IUDPHZRUN IRU WKH DQDO\VLV RI WKH JHQ GHUHGQHVV RI ,&7V %\ GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ SDUWLFXODU DSSURDFKHV RI WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI JHQGHU 5RPPHV GLVFXVVHV KRZ D IHPLQLVW GHVLJQ FRXOG ORRN OLNH )LQDOO\ VKH H[SORUHV HPSLULFDO UHVXOWV RQ KRZ  (XURSHDQ FRPSDQLHV VWXGLHG LQ WKH 6,*,6 SURMHFW (8 6WUDWHJLHV RI ,QFOXVLRQ *HQGHU LQ WKH ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6RFLHW\ DFWXDOO\ WRRN JHQGHU LQWR DFFRXQW DQG HODERUDWHV WKH SURV DQG FRQV RI WKH PRVW common design methodologies. INTRODUCTION 11

7R SURYLGH D EDVLF PHWKRGRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN IRU IHPLQLVW GHVLJQ LQ FRP SXWHU VFLHQFH LV WKH REMHFWLYH RI &RULQQD %DWK %DVHG RQ HPSLULFDO DQDO\VLV RI JHQGHULQJ SURFHVVHV LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI QHZ WHFKQRORJLHV VKH GLIIHUHQWLDWHV IRXU PDLQ PHFKDQLVPV WKDW UHSHDWHGO\ OHDG WR JHQGHUHG FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWL IDFWV 'UDZLQJ RQ WKH ZRUN RI -XGLWK %XWOHU .DUHQ %DUDG DQG /XF\ 6XFKPDQ %DWK GHYHORSV D WKHRUHWLFDO IRXQGDWLRQ IRU D ³GH JHQGHULQJ´ LQ GHVLJQ SUR FHVVHV DQG SURSRVHV SDUWLFXODU WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ PHWKRGV IRU HDFK RI WKH IRXU PHFKDQLVPV WR V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ DYRLG SUREOHPDWLF ZD\V RI JHQGHULQJ ([SORULQJ WKH FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ RI PDVNLQJ DQG PDVTXHUDGH &HFLOH &UXW ]HQ GLVFXVVHV ZKDW LW PHDQV WR QHJRWLDWH KXPDQLW\ LQ FRQIURQWDWLRQ ZLWK QHZ FDSDELOLWLHV IRU FRQWURO E\ WKH GHYHORSLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV 6KH DVNV DERXW WKH PHDQLQJ RI QHZ RSSRUWXQLWLHV RI PDVNLQJ RQHVHOI ZLWKLQ ,&7 6KH GHVFULEHV RXU ZRUOG DV D PL[HG UHDOLW\ RI LQWHUDFWLRQ EHWZHHQ YLVLEOH DQG LQYLVLEOH DVSHFWV RI H[LVWHQFH 7KH DXWKRU FRQFOXGHV WKDW XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH ³JHQGHU PDVTXHUDGHV RI SDVW DQG SUHVHQW´ FDQ OHDG XV WR WKH GLVFORVXUH RI WKH PDVTXHUDGH RI KXPDQV LQ URERWV

7KH VHFRQG VHFWLRQ RI WKH ERRN GLVFXVVHV JHQGHU LQ HSLVWHPRORJLFDO IRXQGD WLRQV RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ +HUH FRQFHSWXDO TXHVWLRQV DERXW KRZ JHQGHU EHFRPHV D SUREOHP LQ VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK DUH DVNHG +RZ LV JHQGHU IUDPHG DV a phenomenon constituting epistemic problems to do research on? On which conceptual paths do cultural assumptions about women and men enter research on humans as well as on organic and non organic entities? How is it possible, as scholars and engineers, to analyze hidden assumptions about gender, to re ÀHFW RQ JXLGLQJ QRUPV DQG VWHUHRW\SHV DV ZHOO DV HYHQWXDOO\ UHGLUHFW UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV H[SHULPHQWV PHWKRGRORJLHV DV ZHOO DV PHWKRGV RI GDWD LQWHUSUHWD WLRQ" &DQ ZH LQYHQW JHQGHU GLIIHUHQWO\" &DQ ZH WKLQN RI JHQGHU DQG GLYHUVLW\ LQ ZD\V WKDW HQDEOHV VFKRODUVKLS DQG LQQRYDWLRQ HIIRUWV WR OHDG WR HPDQFLSDWRU\ DQG HPSRZHULQJ HIIHFWV IRU DOO JHQGHUV LQ D GHPRFUDWLF IXWXUH" 'LVFRYHULQJ WKH KLGGHQ DVVXPSWLRQV DERXW ZRPHQ DQG PHQ LQ WKH RUJDQL ]DWLRQ WKHRU\ RI WKH EUDLQ 5HEHFFD -RUGDQ

%DUEDUD 2UODQG¶V FRQWULEXWLRQ OHDGV XV LQWR WKH KLVWRU\ RI VFLHQFH 6KH VKRZV WKH FRQFHSWXDO PRYHV LQ WKH GLVFRXUVH RQ PRWKHUKRRG DQG EUHDVW IHHG LQJ LQ WKH FRXUVH RI WKH QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ 7KH DXWKRU DQDO\]HV LWV UHODWLRQV WR WKH SUDFWLFHV RI ZHW QXUVLQJ DQG WKH LQQRYDWLRQ RI DUWL¿FLDO EDE\ IRRG LQ FKHP LVWU\ DQG LWV DSSOLFDWLRQV LQ WKH HPHUJLQJ VFLHQFHV RI PHGLFLQH DQG SHGLDWULFV 6KH DOVR GLVFXVVHV WKH OLQN EHWZHHQ VFLHQWL¿F NQRZOHGJH DQG WKH IDVW JURZLQJ PDUNHW HFRQRP\ 6KH VKRZV KRZ WKH QHJRWLDWLRQ RI JHQGHU LV DOZD\V SUHVHQW LQ WKH GHEDWHV RQ ZKDW LV EHVW IRU ZKRP In her paper, Waltraud Ernst embarks on an epistemological discussion. 6KH DVNV LI LW PDNHV VHQVH WR XQGHUVWDQG JHQGHU DV DQ DSSDUDWXV UHDGLQJ -X GLWK %XWOHU ZLWK .DUHQ %DUDG  JHQHUDWLQJ FKDQJLQJ GLIIUDFWLRQ SDWWHUQV LQ OLIH VFLHQFHV DV ZHOO DV PDWHULDO VFLHQFHV 6KH H[SORUHV WKH SRWHQWLDO RI FRQFHLYLQJ DQG VWXG\LQJ JHQGHU DV GLIIUDFWLRQ SDWWHUQV UDWKHU WKDQ GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ women and men or other organic and non organic material entities. Drawing RQ %XWOHU¶V FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ RI JHQGHU DQG %DUDG¶V WKHRU\ RI PDWWHU WKH DX WKRU VHDUFKHV IRU DQ HSLVWHPRORJLFDO IRXQGDWLRQ RI IHPLQLVW VFLHQFH DQG WHFK nology studies. 7KH IROORZLQJ DUWLFOH E\ /HQD 7URMHU FRQQHFWV IHPLQLVW HSLVWHPRORJ\ ZLWK WKH SUDFWLFH RI VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK WHFKQRORJLFDO LQQRYDWLRQ DQG LQVWLWXWLRQ EXLOGLQJ 6KH VKRZV WKH LPSOLFDWLRQV RI GRLQJ VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ ZLWKLQ D IHPLQLVW IUDPHZRUN RI XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WHFKQRVFLHQFH DV UHODWHG WR WKH VRFLDO ZRUOG RI JOREDO SRZHU UHODWLRQV 6KH VKRZV KRZ WR RUJDQL]H LQVWLWXWLRQDO L]H DQG SUDFWLFH WHFKQRVFLHQFH GLIIHUHQWO\ LQ RUGHU WR DWWDLQ NQRZOHGJH DQG WHFKQRORJLHV ZKLFK SURYH PRUH VXLWDEOH DQG WKHUHIRUH VXVWDLQDEOH FRQFHUQLQJ HTXDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU DOO JHQGHUV LQ D JOREDO VHQVH

7KH WKLUG VHFWLRQ LV GHGLFDWHG WR UHÀHFWLQJ XQHTXDO FRQGLWLRQV IRU SDUWLFLSD tion in science and technology. How do traditional assumptions about women DQG PHQ VHW OLPLWV WR FROODERUDWLRQ LQ ¿HOGV RI HQJLQHHULQJ" +RZ GR SUHYDLOLQJ JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV LQÀXHQFH WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI LQGLYLGXDO ZRPHQ DQG PHQ LQ VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\" :KLFK UROH GR SURIHVVLRQDOV SOD\ LQ WKLV VFHQDULR DQG KRZ FDQ JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV EH RYHUFRPH LQ WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ" %DVHG RQ DQ HWKQRJUDSKLF LQYHVWLJDWLRQ RI HQJLQHHULQJ FXOWXUHV SUDFWLF HV DQG LGHQWLWLHV :HQG\ )DXONQHU H[SODLQV KRZ WKH QXPHULFDO PLQRULW\ RI ZRPHQ LQ HQJLQHHULQJ FDXVH DQ LQYLVLELOLW\ SDUDGR[ DQG DVVRFLDWHG JHQGHU LQDXWKHQWLFLW\ G\QDPLFV WKDW XQGHUPLQH WKHLU SURIHVVLRQDO PHPEHUVKLS DQG SURJUHVV LQ WKLV ¿HOG $FFRUGLQJ WR )DXONQHU HIIRUWV WR LPSURYH WKH UHSUHVHQWD WLRQ RI ZRPHQ LQ HQJLQHHULQJ DUH VXEVWDQWLDOO\ OLPLWHG E\ WKHVH G\QDPLFV 7R INTRODUCTION 13

RYHUFRPH WKHVH OLPLWDWLRQV VKH FKDOOHQJHV VWHUHRW\SHG GXDOLVPV DERXW JHQGHU DQG HQJLQHHULQJ DQG WKH ³SHUYDVLYH DQG FRPIRUWDEOH LGHRORJ\ RI JHQGHU GLI IHUHQFHV´ WR FUHDWH VSDFH IRU PRUH SOXUDO YHUVLRQV RI PDVFXOLQLWLHV IHPLQLQL WLHV DQG PRUH KHWHURJHQHRXV XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI HQJLQHHULQJ ,ORQD +RUZDWK 1LFROH .URQEHUJHU DQG 0DUNXV $SSHO H[DPLQH WKH FRP SOH[ LQWHUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ FRJQLWLYH DELOLWLHV VWHUHRW\SHV DQG VXFFHVVIXO SHUIRUPDQFH LQ WKH ¿HOG RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ 7KH DXWKRUV VXPPDUL]H WKH FXUUHQW VWDWH RI UHVHDUFK RQ JHQGHU VSHFL¿F FRJQLWLYH GLIIHUHQFHV DQG VHSD UDWH HPSLULFDO UHVXOWV IURP VWHUHRW\SLFDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV 7R WUDQVFHQG WKH FRQ VWUDLQWV RI FRPPRQ µQXUWXUH QDWXUH¶ GLVFXVVLRQV WKH\ VXJJHVW UDLVLQJ WKH TXHV WLRQ RI KRZ FRJQLWLYH VNLOOV FDQ EH GHYHORSHG DQG LQÀXHQFHG )RU WKLV SXUSRVH WKH\ SURYLGH D FRPSUHKHQVLYH UHYLHZ RI VWXGLHV WKDW VKRZV KRZ VWHUHRW\SHV DERXW JHQGHU DQG SUHYDLOLQJ DVVXPSWLRQV DERXW WKH QDWXUH RI LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG WDOHQW FDQ LQÀXHQFH LQGLYLGXDO SHUIRUPDQFH DQG VXFFHVV LQ VFLHQFH DQG WHFK nology. *HQGHU FRPSHWHQFH LQ PDWKHPDWLFV WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ LV WKH LVVXH H[SORUHG E\ $QGUHD %OXQFN $QLQD 0LVFKDX DQG 6DELQH 0HKOPDQQ 6WDUWLQJ IURP WKH ¿QGLQJ WKDW WKH µPDOH LPDJH¶ RI PDWKHPDWLFV LV DW OHDVW SDUWLDOO\ FUHDWHG LQ VFKRRO WKH\ DUJXH IRU DQ LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI JHQGHU FRPSHWHQFH LQ PDWKHPDW LFV WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ LQ RUGHU WR LQFUHDVH HTXDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU SXSLOV EH yond gender stereotyped knowledge and interest domains. With this in mind WKH DXWKRUV HODERUDWHG DQ H[HPSODU\ FRXUVH FRQFHSW LQ WKHLU LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ UHVHDUFK SURMHFW ³*HQGHU0DWKHPDWLFV´ DQG WHVWHG LW LQ VHYHUDO *HUPDQ XQLYHU VLWLHV 7KH DUWLFOH GLVFXVVHV WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW IDFHWV RI µJHQGHU FRPSHWHQFH¶ LQ WHDFKLQJ PDWKHPDWLFV DQG SURYLGHV DQ RYHUYLHZ RI WKH FRXUVH FRQFHSW

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

:H DUH JUDWHIXO WR DOO OHFWXUHUV DQG SDUWLFLSDQWV RI WKH OHFWXUH VHULHV IRU KDY LQJ MRLQHG WKLV H[SHULPHQWDO SURMHFW VRPH WUDYHOOLQJ IURP DIDU DOO WKH ZD\ WR /LQ] RWKHUV ZLOOLQJ WR GR VRPH IDU UHDFKLQJ PLQG WUDYHOOLQJ :H ZRXOG OLNH WR H[WHQG RXU VSHFLDO WKDQNV WR 1DGLD $OKDVDQL SURIHVVRU RI (QJLQHHULQJ DQG $SSOLHG 6FLHQFHV DQG GLUHFWRU RI :,6( WKH :RPHQ LQ 6FLHQFH DQG (QJLQHHU ing Program at the Petroleum Institute in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, ZKR PDGH WKH HIIRUW WR WUDYHO HYHQ VHYHUDO WLPHV WR RXU XQLYHUVLW\ DQG QRW RQO\ JDYH D OHFWXUH DERXW KHU VXFFHVV LQ UHFUXLWLQJ DQG UHWDLQLQJ ZRPHQ DV VWXGHQWV RI HQJLQHHULQJ ³%DODQFLQJ *HQGHU 3HUFHSWLRQV DQG 5HDOLWLHV 7KH &DVH RI 14 WALTRAUD ERNST AND ILONA HORWATH

WKH 3HWUROHXP ,QGXVWU\ LQ $EX 'KDEL 8$(´ EXW DOVR EURXJKW KHU VWXGHQWV WR EURDGHQ RXU VWXGHQWV¶ KRUL]RQ FRQFHUQLQJ DVVXPSWLRQV DERXW JHQGHU DQG FXOWXUH LQ PRVW YDOXDEOH ZD\V 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ ZH FDQQRW SUHVHQW KHU FRQWULEX WLRQ LQ WKLV YROXPH 0DQ\ WKDQNV WR DOO RWKHU OHFWXUHUV IRU WKHLU FRQWULEXWLRQV WR WKLV ERRN :H DOVR WKDQN RXU IRUPHU SURIHVVRU DQG LQLWLDWRU RI WKH OHFWXUH VHULHV *DEULHOOD +DXFK DQG DOO RXU FROOHDJXHV DW WKH GHSDUWPHQW RI ZRPHQ¶V DQG JHQGHU VWXGLHV DW WKH -RKDQQHV .HSOHU 8QLYHUVLW\ /LQ] IRU WKHLU VXSSRUW DV ZHOO DV WKH UHFWRUDWH RI RXU XQLYHUVLW\ IRU WKHLU IDU VLJKWHGQHVV LQ WKLV UHJDUG :H DUH DOVR JUDWHIXO IRU WKH ¿QDQFLDO VXSSRUW IRU RXU OHFWXUH VHULHV JLYHQ WR XV E\ WKH $XVWULDQ 0LQLVWU\ RI 7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ ,QQRYDWLRQ DQG 7HFKQRORJ\ WKH $XVWULDQ 0LQLVWHU IRU :RPHQ DQG &LYLO 6HUYLFH WKH :RPHQ¶V 'HSDUWPHQW DQG WKH 'HSDUWPHQW IRU (GXFDWLRQ DQG 6RFLHW\ RI WKH VWDWH JRYHUQPHQW RI 8S SHU $XVWULD WKH FLW\ RI /LQ] DV ZHOO DV WKH %XUHDX IRU :RPHQ¶V $IIDLUV RI WKH FLW\ RI /LQ] WKH $XVWULDQ &HQWHU RI &RPSHWHQFH LQ 0HFKDWURQLFV DQG VRPH SULYDWH VSRQVRUV /DVW EXW QRW OHDVW ZH ZDQW WR WKDQN 0DWWKLDV 0OOHU IRU KLV SURIHVVLRQDO SURRIUHDGLQJ RI WKH HQWLUH PDQXVFULSW DQG 0DUHQ /DFKPXQG IRU KHU PDUYHOORXVO\ WKRURXJK HGLWLQJ DQG FDUHIXO OD\RXW RI WKH PDQXVFULSW

REFERENCES

+DUDZD\ '  Simians, Cyborgs, and Women. The Reinvention of Nature. London: Free Association Books. +DUDZD\ '  Modest Witness@Second Millenium.FemaleMan© Meets OncoMouseTM: Feminism and Technoscience. New York/London: Routledge. -DVDQRII 6  7HFKQRORJLHV RI +XPLOLW\ &LWL]HQ 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ *RYHUQ ing Science. Minerva    /RQJLQR +  Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in 6FLHQWL¿F ,QTXLU\ 1HZ -HUVH\ 3ULQFHWRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV /RQJLQR +  The Fate of Knowledge. 1HZ -HUVH\ 3ULQFHWRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ Press. 1RZRWQ\ + 6FRWW 3 DQG *LEERQV 0  Re Thinking Science. Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty. Cambridge: Polity Press. 5R\ '  $VNLQJ 'LIIHUHQW 4XHVWLRQV )HPLQLVW 3UDFWLFHV IRU WKH 1DWXUDO Sciences. Hypatia. Journal of Feminist Philosophy      6FKLHELQJHU /  Nature’s Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Sci ence. Boston: Beacon Press. INTRODUCTION 15

6HUUHV 0 HG  $ +LVWRU\ RI 6FLHQWL¿F 7KRXJKW (OHPHQWV RI D +LVWRU\ RI the Sciences. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell publishers. :DMFPDQ -  7HFKQRORJ\ DV D 6LWH RI )HPLQLVW 3ROLWLFV ,Q /XFKW 3 DQG 3DXOLW] 7 HGV Recodierungen des Wissens. Stand und Perspektiven der Geschlechterforschung in Naturwissenschaften und Technik. )UDQNIXUW0 &DPSXV   :DMFPDQ -  )HPLQLVW WKHRULHV RI WHFKQRORJ\ Cambridge Journal of (FRQRPLFV   

A. Gender in the Design Processes RI 1HZ 7HFKQRORJLHV

Gendering the Technological Imagination

ANNE BALSAMO

Print version available at: http://www.transcript-verlag.de/ts2434/ts2434.php

ABSTRACT

In her essay, “Gendering the Technological Imagination,” Anne Balsamo describes the relationship between gender and the technological imagina- tion by examining some of the myths that persist about women and techno- logical innovation. She draws on insights provided by feminist epistemology to elaborate the nature of agency that unfolds during the process of devel- oping technological applications. To illustrate how the methods of herme- neutic reverse engineering are deployed in practice, and to elaborate a re- productive theory of technology, she describes the development of an inter- active multimedia documentary that was created for the NGO Forum held in China in 1995. (The NGO Forum was held in conjunction with the 4th U.N. World Conference on Women.) The multimedia documentary, called Women of the World Talk Back, served as a particular type of boundary- object that enabled the creation of several cultural constructs, including a set of identities for the designers and the audience members, as well as a set of counter narratives about the implications of the hardware and software that were used to create the work.

Feminist Interventions in the Design Process

ELS ROMMES

,Q WKLV SDSHU , ZLOO ¿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discuss how the companies studied actually took gender into account: through GHVLJQLQJ IURP VWHUHRW\SHV ZLWK WKH UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ RU WKURXJK SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ , ZLOO GLVFXVV WKH SURV DQG FRQV RI HDFK RI WKHVH PHWKRG RORJLHV DQG FRQFOXGH ZLWK VRPH LGHDV RQ ZKLFK LQWHUYHQWLRQV PLJKW EH PRVW HIIHFWLYH LQ FUHDWLQJ JHQGHU VHQVLWLYH RU HYHQ µIHPLQLVW¶ SURGXFWV ,Q D ODUJH VFDOH (XURSHDQ UHVHDUFK SURMHFW FDOOHG 6WUDWHJLHV RI ,QFOXVLRQ *HQGHU LQ WKH ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6RFLHW\ 6,*,6  ZH VWXGLHG D ODUJH QXPEHU RI (X URSHDQ FRPSDQLHV DQG RUJDQL]DWLRQV WKDW GHVLJQHG ,&7V HLWKHU H[SOLFLWO\ µIRU HYHU\ERG\ LQFOXGLQJ ZRPHQ ¶ RU SDUWLFXODUO\ µIRU ZRPHQ¶1 As we were in WHUHVWHG LQ LQFOXVLRQ RI JHQGHU LQ WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ VRFLHW\ ZH LQYHVWLJDWHG WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK GHVLJQHUV WULHG WR GHVLJQ LQ DQ LQFOXVLYH ZD\ %XW ZKDW LV LW ZH

_,QDOSKDEHWLFDOVXUQDPHRUGHUWKHµZH¶DUH:HQG\)DXONQHU/HRSROGLQD )RUWXQDWL +HOHQ - *DQVPR 'HLUGUH +\QHV $SKUD .HUU 7LQH .OHLI 9LYLDQ $ /DJHVHQ /LVD /HH Roberto A. de Luca, Carol MacKeogh, Anna Maria Mangelli, Hege Nordli, Barbara 2¶&RQQRU (OOHQ YDQ 2RVW 1HOO\ 2XGVKRRUQ 3DVFKDO 3UHVWRQ (OV 5RPPHV 0DUFHOOH 6WLHQVWUD.ULVWLQ+6SLONHU,UPDYDQ6ORRWHQ-DPHV6WHZDUW.QXW+6¡UHQVHQDQG Robin Williams. 42 ELS ROMMES

DFWXDOO\ PHDQ ZLWK JHQGHU LQFOXVLYH GHVLJQ" $QG DUH WKHUH GHVLJQ PHWKRG RORJLHV ZKLFK ZLOO PRUH HDVLO\ OHDG WR JHQGHU LQFOXVLYH SURGXFWV WKDQ RWKHUV" These questions will be addressed in this chapter. 6HYHUDO UHVHDUFKHUV RI JHQGHU DQG ,&7V KDYH EHHQ FULWLFDO DERXW WKH µQRU PDO¶ GHVLJQ RI ,&7V 2QH RI WKH PDLQ SRLQWV RI FULWLFLVP KDV EHHQ WKDW GHVLJQHUV GHVLJQ IRU WKH PDVFXOLQH QRUP 2XGVKRRUQ HW DO  :DMFPDQ  :HE VWHU   +DUGZDUH DQG VRIWZDUH LQWHQGHG µIRU HYHU\ERG\¶ ZHUH DQDO\]HG WR LQYHVWLJDWH ZKHWKHU WKH\ LQGHHG ¿WWHG WKH OLYHV RI µHYHU\ERG\¶ RU ZHUH LQ VRPH ZD\V PRUH DFFHVVLEOH WR VRPH JURXSV HJ KLJKO\ HGXFDWHG PLGGOH FODVV VHOI FRQ¿GHQW DEOH ERGLHG KHWHURVH[XDO ZKLWH \RXQJ PHQ WKDQ WR RWKHUV 2QH ZD\ RI DQDO\]LQJ WKH JHQGHUHGQHVV RI ,&7V HPSOR\V WKH µOHYHOV¶ RU GLPHQVLRQV VWUXFWXUDO LGHQWLW\ DQG V\PEROLF LQ ZKLFK VRFLHW\ LV JHQGHUHG DFFRUGLQJ WR 6DQGUD +DUGLQJ DV D V\VWHPDWLF ZD\ RI VWXG\LQJ ,&7V +DUGLQJ   ,Q WKH VWUXFWXUDO GLPHQVLRQ TXHVWLRQV DUH DVNHG OLNH ZKR KDV DFFHVV WR WKH SURGXFW" :KLFK UHVRXUFHV HJ ¿QDQFLDO VRFLDO QHWZRUNV DUH QHHGHG WR KDYH RU XVH WKH SURGXFW" $V 6XVDQ /HLJK 6WDU ZRXOG VD\ TXHVWLRQ ZKR LV H[FOXGHG DQG ³FXL ERQR"´ ZKR SUR¿WV 6WDU    $QDO\]LQJ WKLV GL PHQVLRQ LQ D SURGXFW PHDQV FRPSDULQJ IHDWXUHV RI WKH SURGXFW ZLWK VWDWLVWLFDO knowledge on who is located where in society and who has access to which UHVRXUFHV VXFK DV VRFLDO HFRQRPLF RU FXOWXUDO FDSLWDO %RXUGLHX   ,Q WKH LGHQWLW\ GLPHQVLRQ RI JHQGHU TXHVWLRQV FDQ EH DVNHG VXFK DV ZKLFK VNLOOV and knowledge, which physical attributes, and which learning method should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with which symbolic means the product is marketed, and which stereotypes DUH UHSURGXFHG 7R DQDO\]H WKLV GLPHQVLRQ D FULWLFDO IHPLQLVW DQDO\VLV RI WKH SURGXFW FDQ EH PDGH WR FODULI\ ZKLFK VWHUHRW\SHV DQG IHPLQLQH DQG PDVFXOLQH connoted symbols it incorporates. $QDO\]LQJ D SURGXFW ZLWK WKH KHOS RI WKHVH VSHFL¿F WKUHH GLPHQVLRQV RI gender is just one shape a multi dimensional gender analysis can take. There DUH RWKHU ZD\V RI LQWHUSUHWLQJ WKH WKUHH GLPHQVLRQV RI +DUGLQJ DV WKHUH DUH RWKHU GLVWLQFWLRQV EHWZHHQ OHYHOV RI JHQGHU LQ VRFLHW\ VXFK DV WKRVH RIIHUHG E\ 6FRWW DQG E\ +DJHPDQQ :KLWH VHH 7RQNHQV   7KH IRXU µLQFOXVLRQ FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 43

QHHGV¶ DFFHVV PRWLYDWLRQ FDSDELOLW\ DQG YDULRXV NLQGV RI VXSSRUW ZH GLV WLQJXLVKHG LQ RXU DQDO\VLV RI WKH FDVH VWXGLHV LQ 6,*,6 RIIHU D VLPLODU NLQG RI PXOWL GLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\WLFDO WRRO 6¡UHQVHQ HW DO  FKDSWHU   (DFK RI WKHVH PXOWL GLPHQVLRQDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI JHQGHU DLPV WR RIIHU D WRROER[ WR JLYH PRUH HQFRPSDVVLQJ LQVLJKW LQWR ZKRVH ZRUOG LV UHSUHVHQWHG LQ D SURGXFW ,I WKLV ¿WV ZLWK WKH ZRUOG RI PRUH PHQ WKDQ ZRPHQ D SURGXFW FDQ EH UHJDUGHG DV GHVLJQHG IRU WKH µPDVFXOLQH QRUP¶ LW LV JHQGHU VSHFL¿F HYHQ LI LW LV VXS SRVHG WR EH D µJHQGHU QHXWUDO¶ RU µIRU HYHU\ERG\¶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terests which are associated with masculinity in society. More importantly, as UHVHDUFKHUV IURP WKH GRPHVWLFDWLRQ DSSURDFK KDYH DPSO\ VKRZQ XVHUV KDYH FRQVLGHUDEOH IUHHGRP WR DGMXVW WKH SURGXFW WR WKHLU OLNLQJ DQG WKXV UHFRQ¿JXUH LQWHQGHG SUDFWLFHV DQG PHDQLQJV RI LW %HUNHU HW DO  2XGVKRRUQ DQG 3LQFK   DOWKRXJK WKLV IUHHGRP PD\ DJDLQ EH XQHYHQO\ GLVWULEXWHG LQ VR FLHW\ ,W LV WKH LQWHQWLRQ RI WKHVH NLQGV RI VWXGLHV KRZHYHU WR VD\ WKDW LW PD\ EH PXFK KDUGHU IUXVWUDWLQJ DQG OHVV LQWHUHVWLQJ WR XVH IRU SHRSOH ZKRVH ZRUOG LV QRW UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH SURGXFW DQG WKDW VRPH QHHG WR SHUIRUP PRUH µLQFOXVLRQ ZRUN¶ WKDQ RWKHUV ,Q WKH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQV , ZLOO ¿UVW VSHFLI\ GLIIHUHQFHV DQG FRPPRQ DOLWLHV EHWZHHQ JHQGHU VHQVLWLYH DQG IHPLQLVW SURGXFWV 6XEVHTXHQWO\ , ZLOO GHVFULEH WKH PDLQ GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJLHV IRXQG LQ SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK E\ FRPSD nies who attempted to design while taking gender into account. I will conclude WKLV FKDSWHU ZLWK VRPH VSHFXODWLRQV DERXW ZKDW NLQG RI UHODWLRQV PLJKW H[LVW EHWZHHQ WKHVH GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJLHV DQG WKH NLQGV RI SURGXFWV WKH\ SURGXFH

GENDER-INCLUSIVE OR FEMINIST PRODUCTS?

Whereas designs in which no particular attention is paid to gender easily run WKH ULVN RI EHLQJ LQ VHYHUDO ZD\V JHQGHU VSHFL¿F DQG PRUH GLUHFWHG WRZDUGV PHQ &DVVHOO DQG -HQNLQV  :DMFPDQ   SURGXFWV LQ ZKLFK VSHFL¿F 44 ELS ROMMES

DWWHQWLRQ LV SDLG WR EH µJHQGHU VHQVLWLYH¶ UXQ WKH ULVN RI EHLQJ JHQGHU VSHFL¿F DQG GLUHFWHG WRZDUGV µZRPHQ¶ RU µWKH IHPLQLQH¶2 This is what happened in VHYHUDO FDVHV LQ WKH SDVW LQ ZKLFK IRU H[DPSOH DWWHPSWV ZHUH PDGH WR GHYHORS D µJDPH IRU JLUOV¶ -HQNLQV DQG &DVVHO   $OWKRXJK WKLV PLJKW EH D ZD\ WR UH YDOXH WKH IHPLQLQH DQG WR RIIHU D ZLGHU GLYHUVLW\ RI SURGXFWV LQ VRFLHW\ JHQGHU VSHFL¿F SURGXFWV PD\ EH SUREOHPDWLF IRU WKH UHDVRQV PHQWLRQHG DERYH UHTXLULQJ PRUH LQFOXVLRQ ZRUN IRU VRPH WKDQ IRU RWKHUV ,Q LWVHOI WKLV LV QRW such a big problem, as long as it is clear that it is a targeted product, rather than D SURGXFW µIRU DOO¶ 7KHUH LV KRZHYHU D ELJJHU SUREOHP UHODWHG WR JHQGHU VSHFL¿F SURGXFWV DV WKH\ PD\ UHLQIRUFH VH[ VWHUHRW\SHV VHH 5RPPHV HW DO   7KH UHLQ IRUFHPHQW RI VH[ VWHUHRW\SHV LV SDUWLFXODUO\ VDOLHQW LI SURGXFWV DUH JHQGHUHG LQ WKH V\PEROLF GLPHQVLRQ 3URGXFWV ZKLFK VLJQLI\ IRU LQVWDQFH ZLWK WKHLU FRORXUV LQ WKHLU GHVFULSWLRQ LQ WKH SLFWXUHV RI SURVSHFWLYH XVHUV RQ WKH SDFN DJLQJ RU LQ WKH ZD\ WKH\ DUH PDUNHWHG WKDW WKH\ DUH VSHFL¿FDOO\ DLPHG DW RQH RI WKH WZR VH[HV UHLQIRUFH VWHUHRW\SHV RI ZKDW PHQ RU ZRPHQ DUH VXSSRVHG WR EH SUHIHU NQRZ DQG DUH FDSDEOH RI ,QGHHG D WR\ SURGXFLQJ FRPSDQ\ LQ Sweden was asked by elementary school children and a marketing watchdog RPEXGVPDQ WR FKDQJH WKHLU FDWDORJXH WR SUHVHQW OHVV VH[ VWHUHRW\SHG SLFWXUHV RI WKHLU SURVSHFWLYH SURGXFW XVHUV3 By changing these images, i.e. their gender VSHFL¿FLW\ LQ WKH V\PEROLF GLPHQVLRQ JHQGHU WUDQVJUHVVLYH RU WUDQVIRUPLQJ SURGXFWV PD\ KDYH QRZ EHHQ FUHDWHG SURGXFWV ZKLFK FRQWDLQ FRQWUDGLFWRU\ JHQGHU VLJQL¿HUV RQ RQH RU DOO JHQGHU GLPHQVLRQV :KHWKHU WKHVH SURGXFW LP DJHV ZLOO LQGHHG KDYH JHQGHU WUDQVJUHVVLYH HIIHFWV LQ VRFLHW\ IRU H[DPSOH LQ FKDQJLQJ WR\ SUHIHUHQFHV LQ FKLOGUHQ DQG FKDQJLQJ JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV LQ VRFL ety, remains an empirical question. $Q LPSRUWDQW SRLQW RI FULWLFLVP RI VWXGLHV RQ WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK SURGXFWV DUH JHQGHUHG RU HYHQ JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SLFDO LV WKDW WKH\ SD\ WRR OLWWOH DWWHQWLRQ WR WUDQVIRUPDWLRQV RI JHQGHU $OWKRXJK WKHVH VWXGLHV FODLP WR KDYH D µFR FRQ VWUXFWLRQ¶ SHUVSHFWLYH RQ JHQGHU DQG ,&7V FORVHU DQDO\VLV UHYHDOV WKDW ZKDW LV PRVWO\ DQDO\]HG LV WHFKQRORJ\ DQG JHQGHU UHPDLQV UHPDUNDEO\ VWDEOH /DJ HVHQ  /DQGVWU|P   *HQGHU LV UHJDUGHG DV VWDWLF RU HYHQ D VWDWLVWLFDO

 _ ,Q WKHRU\ JHQGHU VLJQL¿HV PHQPDVFXOLQLW\ DQG ZRPHQIHPLQLQLW\ LQ SUDFWLFH KRZ HYHUµJHQGHUVWLFNVPRUHHDVLO\WRZRPHQ¶ %HUJ PHDQLQJWKDWLI SDUWLFXODU DWWHQWLRQ LV SDLGWRµJHQGHU¶WKLVLVRIWHQXQGHUVWRRGDVDWWHQWLRQWRZRPHQ 3 | See http://www.dw.de/neither good girls nor boys in sweden this year/a 16436045 DF FHVVHG)HEUXDU\  FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 45

YDULDEOH DQG HYHQ LQ WKH V\PEROLF GLPHQVLRQ LW LV UHJDUGHG DV GLFKRWRPRXV DQG DJDLQ VWDEOH 9DULRXV VWXGLHV KDYH DFFRPPRGDWHG WKHVH NLQGV RI FULWLFLVPV E\ IRFXVLQJ RQ WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK SURGXFWV WKHPVHOYHV LQÀXHQFH LQGLYLGXDO JHQGHU LGHQWLWLHV RU SHUIRUPDQFHV RI WKHLU XVHUV VHH IRU LQVWDQFH &RUQHOLXVVHQ IRUWKFRPLQJ FKDSWHU  /DJHVHQ  /RKDQ  6¡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ÀXLG DOVR EH VWXGLHG DV VXFK LQ SURGXFWV" $UH VRPH SURGXFWV PRUH FDSDEOH RI HYRNLQJ WUDQVIRUPDWLRQV LQ JHQ der than others? This is a question not on how technologies can accommodate GLYHUVLWLHV LQ XVHUV EXW UDWKHU D TXHVWLRQ RI KRZ WHFKQRORJLHV FDQ FRQWULEXWH WR WKH WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ RI JHQGHU LQ VRFLHW\ +HQFH LW VHHPV PRUH DSSURSULDWH WR XVH WKH WHUP IHPLQLVW UDWKHU WKDQ JHQGHU VHQVLWLYH IRU WKHVH NLQGV RI SURGXFWV 7KHVH SURGXFWV FRXOG IRU H[DPSOH EH WHFKQRORJLHV RI ZKLFK VLJQL¿HUV FRORU PDWHULDO FRVWV UHTXLUHG VNLOOV DW GLIIHUHQW GLPHQVLRQV SRLQW LQ YDULRXV GLUHF tions and/or products which contain counter stereotypical images or stories. ,Q WKH 6,*,6 UHVHDUFK ZH IRXQG VRPH H[DPSOHV RI SURGXFWV ZLWK WKH SR WHQWLDO RI EHLQJ JHQGHU WUDQVJUHVVLYH 6RPH 1RUZHJLDQ JDPH GHVLJQHUV IRU instance, designed games that combined role playing and nice packaging, be OLHYHG WR EH LPSRUWDQW WR ZRPHQ ZLWK DFWLRQ HOHPHQWV EHOLHYHG WR EH LPSRU WDQW WR PHQ ,Q RXU DQDO\VLV RI ZRPHQ¶V ZHE PDJD]LQHV 6¡UHQVHQ HW DO  FKDSWHU   ZHEVLWHV ZHUH VWXGLHG ZKLFK ZHUH ERWK µWHFKQRORJLFDO¶ DQG DW WKH VDPH WLPH ZHUH FUHDWHG DV µSODFHV IRU ZRPHQ¶ 7KHVH ZHEVLWHV WUDQVPLWWHG WKH PHVVDJH WKDW ZRPHQ FDQ VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ EH FRPSXWHU FRPSHWHQW DQG µIHPL QLQH¶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

+RZ FDQ VXFK JHQGHU WUDQVJUHVVLYH IHPLQLVW SURGXFWV EH FRQFHLYHG" $QG KRZ VKRXOG SURGXFWV EH GHVLJQHG ZKLFK DLP WR UHDFK D GLYHUVH DXGLHQFH RU ZKLFK HYHQ LQWHQWLRQDOO\ ZDQW WR LQFOXGH PRUH ZRPHQ DV XVHUV ZLWKRXW SUR ducing gender stereotypical products? To answer these questions, I will now SUHVHQW VRPH RI WKH ¿QGLQJV RI WKH GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJLHV ZH IRXQG LQ WKH SIGIS project: which design methodologies did these companies that tried to GHVLJQ µIRU HYHU\ERG\¶ RU HYHQ µVSHFL¿FDOO\ IRU ZRPHQ¶ HPSOR\" 7KH IROORZ LQJ LV D VXPPDU\ RI WKH ¿QGLQJV ZH4 SUHVHQW PRUH IXOO\ LQ 6¡UHQVHQ HW DO   FKDSWHU 

GENDER-SENSITIVE DESIGN METHODOLOGIES IN PRACTICE

:KHQ GHVLJQHUV PDNH D QHZ SURGXFW RU UHPDNH DQ H[LVWLQJ RQH WKH\ FRQVWUXFW D VFULSW ³7HFKQLFDO REMHFWV GH¿QH DFWRUV WKH VSDFH LQ ZKLFK WKH\ PRYH DQG ZD\V LQ ZKLFK WKH\ LQWHUDFW´ $NULFK   ,I WKLV GH¿QLWLRQ RI DFWRUV RU WKH GLYLVLRQ RI UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV EHWZHHQ DFWRUV DQG WKH VSDFHV LQ ZKLFK WKH RE MHFW LV VXSSRVHG WR DFW LV LQ DQ\ ZD\ JHQGHUHG ZH FDOO WKLV D µJHQGHU VFULSW¶ ,Q FRQVWUXFWLQJ WKLV VFULSW GHVLJQHUV GUDZ RQ VRPH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH LQWHQGHG XVHUV RQ LPDJHV RI WKH SUHVXPHG WDUJHW JURXS 7KLV PD\ KDSSHQ PRUH RU OHVV consciously, but one cannot really design a product without some idea about KRZ LW LV JRLQJ WR EH XVHG E\ ZKRP DQG IRU ZKDW SXUSRVH $NULFK   ,Q WKH HOHYHQ FRPSDQLHV ZH VWXGLHG ZH REVHUYHG WKUHH PDLQ SUDFWLFHV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI XVHU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV HDFK ZLWK GLIIHUHQW LPSOLFD WLRQV IRU WKH ZD\ JHQGHU LVVXHV ZHUH DSSURDFKHG ‡ 'HVLJQLQJ IURP JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV ‡ , PHWKRGRORJ\ ZKHUH GHVLJQHUV VHH WKHPVHOYHV DV W\SLFDO XVHUV DQG WKH UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ ZKHUH FRPSDQLHV GHOLEHUDWHO\ FKRVH WR LQYROYH women designers. ‡ 3DUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ ZKHUH SRWHQWLDO XVHUV ZHUH GLUHFWO\ LQYROYHG LQ WKH design process.

_,QWKLVVHFWLRQ,ZLOOXVHWKHµZH¶IRUPDVWKLVSDUWZDVZULWWHQ WRJHWKHU ZLWK :HQG\ )DXONQHUDQG.QXW6¡UHQVHQDQGEDVHGRQWKHFROOHFWLYHZRUNRIWKH SDUWLFLSDQWV LQ WKH SIGIS project. FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 47

,Q WKH IROORZLQJ ZH GHVFULEH DQG GLVFXVV WKHVH SUDFWLFHV LQ JUHDWHU GHWDLO ,Q VHYHUDO FRPSDQLHV PRUH WKDQ RQH RI WKHVH DSSURDFKHV KDYH EHHQ XVHG LQ the same project.

Designing from Stereotypes

In the companies we studied, it was clear that many designers who aimed to LQFOXGH ZRPHQ DV HQG XVHUV RI WKHLU SURGXFWV VDZ LW DV LPSRUWDQW WR GH¿QH LQ ZKDW ZD\V ZRPHQ RU JLUOV µDUH¶ GLIIHUHQW IURP PHQ RU ER\V 0DQ\ ZHUH FRQYLQFHG IRU H[DPSOH WKDW VRPH IHDWXUHV MXVW µEHORQJ¶ WR ZRPHQ¶V RU JLUOV¶ SURGXFWV µOLNH IDVKLRQ DQG EHDXW\¶ DV ZH VDZ LQ VHYHUDO RI WKH GHVLJQV IRU ZHE PDJD]LQHV +RZ DUH VXFK VWHUHRW\SHV FKRVHQ DQG LQYRNHG" In some projects, the designers started with a literature study on gender GLIIHUHQFHV XVLQJ ERRNV DQG UHSRUWV WKDW KDYH LQ IDFW EHHQ H[WHQVLYHO\ FULWL FL]HG E\ IHPLQLVWV IRU WKH ZD\ WKH\ GLFKRWRPL]H DQG QDWXUDOL]H SHUFHLYHG µELR ORJLFDO¶ GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ PHQ DQG ZRPHQ ,Q PRVW RI RXU VWXGLHV KRZHYHU ZH IRXQG D PRUH LPSUHVVLRQLVWLF DSSURDFK 'HVLJQHUV ORRNHG DW RWKHU µW\SLFDO¶ JLUOV¶ SURGXFWV OLNH JLUOV¶ PDJD]LQHV JLUOV¶ ERRNV RU JLUOV¶ IDYRXULWH WHOHYLVLRQ SURJUDPPHV WR JHW DQ LPSUHVVLRQ RI ZKDW JLUOV DQG ZRPHQ ZRXOG OLNH 5HJDUGOHVV RI WKH VRXUFH WKH PRVW FRPPRQ ZD\ RI FRQVWUXFWLQJ DQ LPDJH RI SRWHQWLDO JLUO RU ZRPDQ XVHUV RI D SURGXFW ZDV E\ WKLQNLQJ IURP VWHUHRW\SHV 7R VRPH H[WHQW WKLV UHÀHFWHG D IHOW QHHG WR FRQVWUXFW DQ LPDJH RI WKHLU IXWXUH XVHUV DV µGLIIHUHQW¶ IURP WKH DXGLHQFH WKH\ KDG WDUJHWHG EHIRUH +HQFH QR PDW WHU ZKR DFWXDOO\ ZHUH WKRXJKW WR EH WKH SUHFLVH WDUJHW JURXS DGXOW ZRPHQ RU JLUOV KLJKO\ HGXFDWHG ZRPHQ RU ZRPHQ OLYLQJ LQ GLVDGYDQWDJHG DUHDV WKH VDPH JHQHUDO EHOLHIV DERXW ZKDW ZRPHQ ZDQW WHQGHG WR UHVXUIDFH :RPHQ ZHUH UHSUHVHQWHG DV QHLWKHU LQWHUHVWHG QRU VNLOOHG LQ WHFKQRORJ\ DQG DV SUHIHU ULQJ µXVHU IULHQGO\¶ LH VLPSOL¿HG LQWHUIDFHV $QRWKHU ZLGHVSUHDG SHUFHSWLRQ ZDV WKDW ZRPHQ ZHUH QRW LQWR WHFKQRORJ\ IRU IXQ EXW WR JDLQ IURP XVHIXO DS SOLFDWLRQV ZLWKRXW ÀDVK\ SLFWXUHV DQG VXFK OLNH &RQWUDU\ WR RXU ¿QGLQJV DERXW WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI KDYLQJ IXQ ZLWK FRPSXWHUV DQG WKH ,QWHUQHW LW ZDV ZLGHO\ presumed that women saw technology mainly as a tool. In nearly all the companies we studied, such stereotypical ideas about how ZRPHQ µDUH¶ RU ZKDW WKH\ µOLNH¶ ZHUH LPSRUWDQW LQ JXLGLQJ GHVLJQ GHFLVLRQV LI QRW H[FOXVLYHO\ VR $UJXDEO\ WKHUH LV D SRVLWLYH DQG D QHJDWLYH VLGH WR GH VLJQHUV¶ LQWHUHVW LQ KRZ JLUOV µDUH¶ GLIIHUHQW IURP ER\V 2Q WKH SRVLWLYH VLGH D IRFXV RQ µZKDW JLUOV ZDQW¶ PD\ VHUYH WR VWUHQJWKHQ DQG JLYH YDOXH WR VNLOOV DQG SUHIHUHQFHV FRQVLGHUHG IHPLQLQH &DVVHOO DQG -HQNLQV  DQG LW LV D ZD\ 48 ELS ROMMES

RI FUHDWLQJ D ZLGHU GLYHUVLW\ RI JHQGHU VSHFL¿F SURGXFWV ZLWK GLIIHUHQW WDUJHW DXGLHQFHV 2Q WKH PRUH QHJDWLYH VLGH E\ GHYHORSLQJ D SURGXFW EDVHG RQ µW\SL FDO JLUOV¶ LQWHUHVWV¶ GHVLJQHUV UXQ WKH ULVN RI UHLQIRUFLQJ DQG UH LQVFULELQJ SHU FHLYHG JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV UDWKHU WKDQ FKDOOHQJLQJ JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV WKURXJK HIIRUWV DW WUDQVIRUPLQJ JHQGHU DV D QRUPDWLYH VRFLDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV WKH VWHUHRW\SH DSSURDFK PD\ HDVLO\ JLYH ULVH WR WKH GHVLJQ RI SURGXFWV WKDW DUH VSHFL¿F HJ SLQN ZHEVLWHV ZLWK XWLOLWDULDQ DLPV IRFXVLQJ VROHO\ RQ WRS LFV SUHVXPHG WR EH RI LQWHUHVW WR ZRPHQ RU HYHQ ZRUVH JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SLFDO LI VXFK VLWHV DUH H[SOLFLWO\ DGGUHVVHG WR ZRPHQ VHH 5RPPHV HW DO  IRU WKH GLIIHUHQW ZD\V LQ ZKLFK JDPHV FDQ UHLQIRUFH DQG UH LQVFULEH JHQGHU VWH UHRW\SHV  *HQGHU VSHFL¿F DQG HVSHFLDOO\ VWHUHRW\SLFDO JDPHV PD\ UHLQIRUFH WUDGLWLRQDO JHQGHU SUDFWLFHV DQG GLYLVLRQV RI WDVNV &RUQHOLXVVHQ DQG 5HWWEHUJ  +HQQLQJ HW DO  -HQNLQV DQG &DVVHO  .DIDL HW DO  7D\ ORU   0RUHRYHU VXFK GHVLJQV UXQ WKH ULVN RI QRW EHLQJ FRPPHUFLDOO\ YLDEOH DV ZH IRXQG LQ VHYHUDO FRPSDQLHV 'HVLJQLQJ IURP VWHUHRW\SHV VKRXOG DW WKH YHU\ OHDVW EH FRQVLGHUHG D SRWHQWLDOO\ ULVN\ EXVLQHVV

The (Reflexive) I-methodology

2QH RI WKH PRVW FRPPRQO\ XVHG GHVLJQ WHFKQLTXHV LQ ,&7V LV WR PDNH GH VLJQ GHFLVLRQV RQ WKH EDVLV RI GHVLJQHUV¶ RZQ SUHIHUHQFHV 7KLV LV IUHTXHQW O\ UHIHUUHG WR DV WKH µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶ HPSKDVL]LQJ WKH VXEMHFWLYH DVSHFW RI IRUPXODWLQJ XVHU UHTXLUHPHQWV $NULFK  (XURSHDQ &RPPLVVLRQ  2XGVKRRUQ HW DO   7KH , PHWKRGRORJ\ KDV EHHQ FRQVLGHUHG SUREOHPDWLF LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI JHQGHU LQFOXVLYH GHVLJQ EHFDXVH PRVW GHVLJQHUV DUH PHQ 'HVLJQHUV DOVR WHQG WR KDYH D VSHFL¿F µLQVLGHU¶ UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKHLU WHFKQRO RJ\ ZKLFK PDNHV WKHLU ZRUOG YLHZ GLIIHUHQW IURP WKDW RI PDQ\ XVHUV RI WKHLU SURGXFW 5RPPHV   +HQFH WKLV GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJ\ PD\ HDVLO\ JLYH ULVH WR JHQGHU VSHFL¿F SURGXFWV WDUJHWLQJ PRUH PHQ ,Q PRVW RI WKH HOHYHQ FRPSDQLHV ZH VWXGLHG VRPH IRUP RI , PHWKRGRORJ\ ZDV SUDFWLFHG +RZHYHU WKH FRQFHUQ IRU JHQGHU LQFOXVLRQ PDGH VHYHUDO FRP SDQLHV XVH ZKDW ZH FRQVLGHU WR EH DQ DGDSWHG YHUVLRQ RI WKH , PHWKRGRORJ\ E\ H[SOLFLWO\ PDNLQJ FKRLFHV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKH VH[ FRPSRVLWLRQ RI GHVLJQ WHDPV RU E\ VWDWLQJ XS IURQW WKDW ZRPHQ RXJKW WR NQRZ ZKDW ZRPHQ ZDQW DQG QHHG 7KLV ZH FDOO UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ :KDW NLQG RI GHVLJQ SUDFWLFHV GLG WKLV UHIHU WR" ,Q IHPLQLVW PHWKRGRORJ\ 'RQQD +DUDZD\  KDV FDOOHG IRU UHÀH[LYH approaches to science and engineering, noting that such work needs to be situ FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 49

DWHG WR EH PDGH XQGHUVWDQGDEOH DQG WKDW DOO SHUVSHFWLYHV DUH SDUWLDO &OHDUO\ E\ DGKHULQJ WR WKHVH WHQHWV WKH , PHWKRGRORJ\ PD\ EH XVHG LQ D UHÀH[LYH ZD\ 7KLV UHTXLUHV WKDW GHVLJQHUV EH DZDUH RI DQG WDNH LQWR DFFRXQW WKH ZD\V LQ ZKLFK WKHLU SDUWLFXODU SHUVSHFWLYHV DQG VLWXDWLRQ PDNH WKHP VLPLODU WR DQG GLIIHUHQW IURP WKH HQG XVHUV RI WKHLU SURGXFWV 2I FRXUVH UHO\LQJ RQ VWHUHR W\SHV LV RQH ZD\ RI GHDOLQJ ZLWK WKH VLWXDWHGQHVV RI GHVLJQHUV LQ VR PXFK DV LW DFNQRZOHGJHV WKDW WKH\ DUH GLIIHUHQW IURP WKH LQWHQGHG XVHUV +RZHYHU WR TXDOLI\ DV UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ GHVLJQHUV QHHG WR SXUVXH LQ PXFK PRUH GHSWK WKH WKLQNLQJ DQG UHÀHFWLRQ DERXW WKHLU UROHV :KDW ZH REVHUYHG LQ PDQ\ RI WKH FRPSDQLHV ZH VWXGLHG ZDV DQ\WKLQJ EXW VXFK DQ LQ GHSWK UHÀH[LYH DSSURDFK ,QVWHDG ZRPHQ ZHUH DVNHG WR MRLQ WKH GHVLJQ WHDP WR KHOS FUHDWH D SURGXFW DLPHG DW ZRPHQ ,Q DOO RI WKHVH LQVWDQFHV LW ZDV DVVXPHG WKDW ZRPHQ DUH QHFHVVDULO\ VLPLODU WR WKHLU WDUJHW DXGLHQFHV RI girls or women, and understand these potential users better than men designers ZRXOG ,Q HIIHFW WKH\ XVHG WKH UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ LQ DQ HVVHQWLDOLVW ZD\ 7KLV VDLG HYHQ ZKHUH ZRPHQ ZHUH LQYROYHG SRVLWLYHO\ LQ WKH GHVLJQ WKHLU LQÀXHQFH ZDV RIWHQ OLPLWHG +HQFH LI ZRPHQ DUH LQWURGXFHG LQ WKH GHVLJQ SUR FHVV DV D ZD\ RI LQWURGXFLQJ D UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ WKHLU SRVLWLRQ ZLWKLQ WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQDO KLHUDUFK\ DQG WKH GLYLVLRQ RI ODERXU ZLOO KDYH D PDMRU EHDU LQJ RQ KRZ PXFK WKH\ DUH DEOH WR LQÀXHQFH WKH XOWLPDWH GHVLJQ 7KHUH UHPDLQV WKH SUREOHPDWLF LVVXH RI WKH LPSOLHG HVVHQWLDOLVP LQ WKLV YHUVLRQ RI WKH UHÀ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ÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ LW LV OLNHO\ WR OHDG WR JHQGHU WUDGLWLRQDO SURGXFWV DV VRPH RI WKH GHYHORSHG ZHE PDJD]LQHV DQG FRPSXWHU JDPHV ZH VWXGLHG H[HPSOLI\ 7KLV GDQJHU FRXOG EH DYRLGHG LI GHVLJQHUV¶ UHÀH[LYLW\ ZHUH EDVHG RQ HIIRUWV WR ¿QG RXW DERXW WKH FRPSOH[LW\ DQG GLYHUVLW\ RI DFWXDO SHRSOH WKHLU SUDFWLFHV LGHQWLWLHV DQG WKH OLNH UDWKHU WKDQ RQ HVVHQWLDOLVW DVVXPSWLRQV 2QH ZD\ RI GRLQJ WKLV LV WR DFFHVV H[SHUW NQRZOHGJH DERXW JHQGHU VR WKDW GHVLJQ WHDPV FDQ OHDUQ IURP SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK RQ WKH VXEMHFW DQG XVH WKLV NQRZOHGJH WR LGHQWLI\ UHOHYDQW FRQVLGHU DWLRQV DQG UH¿QH WKHLU RZQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJV $QRWKHU ZD\ WR ¿QG RXW ZKDW JLUO 50 ELS ROMMES

DQG ZRPHQ HQG XVHUV ZDQW LV WR HQJDJH LQ SDUWLFLSDWRU\ DQG LQWHUDFWLYH GHVLJQ techniques, to which we now turn.

User Testing and Participatory Design

$V ZH KDYH VHHQ ERWK WKH VWHUHRW\SH DSSURDFK DQG WKH UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGROR J\ LQ WKH IRUP RI GHOLEHUDWHO\ HPSOR\LQJ ZRPHQ GHVLJQHUV DVVXPH WKDW WKHUH DUH GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ PHQ DQG ZRPHQ DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ ULVN UHSURGXFLQJ WKHVH GLIIHUHQFHV WKURXJK WKH GHVLJQ RI TXLWH JHQGHU WUDGLWLRQDO DQG VWHUHRW\SL FDO SURGXFWV $UJXDEO\ WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW DOWHUQDWLYH LV WKH XVH RI WHFKQLTXHV VXFK DV WKH WHVWLQJ RI SURGXFWV RQ SRWHQWLDO XVHUV RU SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ 7KHVH WHFKQLTXHV ZKLFK KDYH VRPHWLPHV EHHQ FDOOHG µIHPLQLVW¶ VWUDWHJLHV %DOND  &DVVHOO  *UHHQEDXP  6XFKPDQ  DOORZ SRWHQWLDO HQG XVHUV VRPH GLUHFW LQÀXHQFH XSRQ GHVLJQ ZLWK WKH UHVXOW WKDW GHVLJQ GRHV QRW UHO\ VROHO\ RQ WKH LGHDV DQG EHOLHIV RI GHVLJQHUV 6HYHUDO RI WKH FRPSDQLHV ZH VWXGLHG LQYHVWHG WLPH DQG HQHUJ\ LQ LGHQ WLI\LQJ UHSUHVHQWDWLYH HQG XVHUV DQG H[DPLQLQJ WKHLU SUHIHUHQFHV 6XFK XVHU LQYROYHPHQW LQ WKH GHVLJQ SURFHVV VHHPV WR EH WKH H[FHSWLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ WKH UXOH (XURSHDQ &RPPLVVLRQ  +DGGRQ DQG 3DXO  2IIHQEHHN DQG .RRSPDQ   ,QYROYHPHQW RI SRWHQWLDO XVHUV LQ HDUO\ SKDVHV RI WKH GHVLJQ process is especially rare.5 ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W LW LV LQWHUHVWLQJ WR QRWH WKH IDLUO\ ZLGHVSUHDG XVH RI WHVWLQJ DQG VRPH NLQG RI XVHU SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ WKH FRPSDQLHV ZH KDYH EHHQ VWXG\LQJ LQ YDULRXV SKDVHV LQ WKH GHVLJQ SURFHVV 7KLV VXJJHVWV that concerns to include more girls or women result in greater than normal HQJDJHPHQW ZLWK SRWHQWLDO XVHUV SRVVLEO\ EHFDXVH RI XQIDPLOLDULW\ ZLWK WKH WDUJHW JURXS ,Q DGGLWLRQ LW VHHPV FOHDU WKDW WKH ,QWHUQHW IDFLOLWDWHV LQWHUDFWLRQ with users and user input to design, which helped the companies we studied. 1HZ ZD\V RI XVHU WHVWLQJ DQG JHWWLQJ IHHGEDFN RQ GHVLJQV KDYH EHFRPH DYDLO able. $OWKRXJK WKH LQWHUDFWLYH IHDWXUHV RI ,&7V VHHP WR EH YHU\ HIIHFWLYH LQ DO ORZLQJ XVHUV PRUH LQÀXHQFH WKRVH XVHUV WKDW JLYH IHHGEDFN LQ WKLV ZD\ DUH D VHOHFW JURXS PRUH DFWLYH HQJDJHG DQG DUWLFXODWH WKDQ RUGLQDU\ XVHUV %\ IRFXVLQJ VROHO\ RQ WKHLU QHHGV DQG ZLVKHV GHVLJQHUV UXQ WKH ULVN RI LJQRULQJ WKRVH XVHUV ZKR DUH OHVV FDSDEOH RI DUWLFXODWLQJ WKHLU GHPDQGV RU RI LJQRULQJ

_,WLVVRH[FHSWLRQDOWKDWVHYHUDODXWKRUVKDYHGHYHORSHGGHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJLHV WKDW WKH\ FRQVLGHUWREHLQQRYDWLYHEHFDXVHRIWKHHDUO\SKDVHVDQGWKHH[WHQW WR ZKLFK WKH\ LQYROYH SRWHQWLDOXVHUV VHHHJ)XOOHUWRQHWDODQG0DFND\HWDO   FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 51

potential users that are not yet using the product. This is a general problem ZLWK UHVSHFW WR SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ VWUDWHJLHV KRZ WR DFKLHYH D UHDVRQDEOH GHJUHH RI UHSUHVHQWDWLYHQHVV" 7KH FRPSDQLHV ZH VWXGLHG FRXOG SHUKDSV KDYH EHHQ PRUH FRQFHUQHG DERXW WKHVH OLPLWDWLRQV $JDLQ WKH FKDOOHQJH LV WR ¿QG RXW DERXW WKH PXOWLWXGH RI DFWXDO DQG SRWHQWLDO XVHUV WR EHFRPH PRUH VHQVLWLYH WR WKH GLYHUVLW\ RI ZLVKHV VNLOOV DQG SUHIHUHQFHV ZKLFK FRXOG HQDEOH WKHLU GHVLJQV WR LQFOXGH D ZLGHU UDQJH RI XVHUV LQ RWKHU ZRUGV WR EH PRUH JHQGHU VHQVLWLYH

WHICH DESIGN METHODOLOGIES LEAD TO GENDER-SENSITIVE PRODUCTS?

$IWHU KDYLQJ ORRNHG DW ZKLFK GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJLHV DUH PRVW FRPPRQ IRU companies that seek to design products taking gender into account, the ques WLRQ QRZ LV ZKDW FDQ EH VDLG DERXW WKH RXWFRPH RI WKHVH SURGXFWV ,W VHHPV VDIH WR DVVXPH WKDW H[SOLFLW XVHU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ WHFKQLTXHV ZLOO PRUH HDVLO\ OHDG WR JHQGHU VHQVLWLYH SURGXFWV DV SURGXFHUV RI WKHVH SURGXFWV ZLOO KDYH D PRUH QXDQFHG DQG GLYHUVL¿HG LPDJH RI ZKDW WKHLU WDUJHW JURXS LV LQWHUHVWHG LQ DQG SUHIHUV $QG ZKHUHDV WKH , PHWKRGRORJ\ PLJKW JLYH ULVH WR JHQGHU VSHFL¿F SURGXFWV WKH UHÀH[LYH , PHWKRGRORJ\ PLJKW DW OHDVW FUHDWH VRPH DZDUHQHVV RI this amongst the designers. 1HYHUWKHOHVV LW LV QRW HDV\ WR SUHGLFW WR ZKLFK NLQG RI SURGXFW D VSHFL¿F design methodology will lead. Although it seems logical to assume that the VWHUHRW\SH DSSURDFK ZLOO PRUH HDVLO\ OHDG WR JHQGHU VSHFL¿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µW\SLFDOO\ IHPLQLQH¶ ZKLFK WKH\ LQWHQGHG WR PDU ket to both girls and boys. Similarly, the web magazines which we discussed HDUOLHU ZHUH SDUWLDOO\ PDGH ZLWK WKH GHVLJQ IURP D VWHUHRW\SHV DSSURDFK ZKLOH WKH\ DOVR UHSUHVHQWHG PDVFXOLQH FRQQRWHG LQWHUHVWV DQG YDOXHV OLNH EHLQJ LQWHU ested in cars and in ICTs. ,Q D SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI JDPHV IRU FKLOGUHQ 5RPPHV HW DO   ZH GLG ¿QG WKDW WKH µIHPLQLVW YDOXHV¶ RI WKRVH WKDW DUH LQ FKDUJH RI 52 ELS ROMMES

GHVLJQLQJ SURGXFWV PD\ DIIHFW WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK SURGXFWV DUH JHQGHU VHQVL WLYH RU HYHQ JHQGHU WUDQVJUHVVLYH DV -HQNLQV DQG &DVVHO  DOVR WHQWDWLYHO\ FRQFOXGHG 7KRVH GHVLJQHUV WKDW EHOLHYHG WKDW SURGXFWV FRXOG LQÀ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¶ FKRLFHV

REFERENCES

$NULFK 0  7KH 'H 6FULSWLRQ RI 7HFKQLFDO 2EMHFWV ,Q %LMNHU : DQG /DZ - HGV Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechni cal Change. &DPEULGJH 0,7 3UHVV   $NULFK 0  8VHU 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQV 3UDFWLFHV 0HWKRGV DQG 6RFLRORJ\ ,Q 5LS $ 0LVD 7- DQG 6FKRW - HGV Managing Technology in Society, The Approach of Constructive Technology Assessment. London/New York: 3LQWHU 3XEOLVKHUV   $OOKXWWHU '  0LQG 6FULSWLQJ $ 0HWKRG IRU 'HFRQVWUXFWLYH 'HVLJQ Sci HQFH 7HFKQRORJ\ +XPDQ 9DOXHV      %DOND (  7LG\LQJ 8S /RRVH (QGV 7KHRUHWLFDO DQG 3UDFWLFDO ,VVXHV 5H ODWHG WR :RPHQ¶V 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ 7HFKQRORJLFDO 'HVLJQ ,Q 5RKUDFKHU + HG 8VHU ,QYROYHPHQW LQ ,QQRYDWLRQ 3URFHVVHV 6WUDWHJLHV DQG /LPLWD tions from a Socio Technical Perspective. 0XQFKHQ 3UR¿O 9HUODJ   %HUNHU 7 +DUWPDQQ 0 3XQLH < DQG :DUG . HGV  Domestication of Media and Technology. %HUNVKLUH 2SHQ 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV 0F*UDZ +LOO Education. %RXUGLHX 3  'LVWLQFWLRQV $ 6RFLDO &ULWLTXH RI WKH -XGJPHQW RI 7DVWH &DPEULGJH 0$ +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV &DVVHOO -  6WRU\WHOOLQJ DV D 1H[XV RI &KDQJH LQ WKH 5HODWLRQVKLS EH WZHHQ *HQGHU DQG 7HFKQRORJ\ $ )HPLQLVW $SSURDFK WR 6RIWZDUH 'HVLJQ ,Q &DVVHOO - DQG -HQNLQV + HGV From Barbie to Mortal Kombat; Gender and Computer Games. &DPEULGJH 0$ 0,7 3UHVV   FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 53

&DVVHOO - DQG -HQNLQV +  &KHVV IRU *LUOV" )HPLQLVP DQG &RPSXWHU *DPHV ,Q &DVVHOO - DQG -HQNLQV + HGV From Barbie to Mortal Kombat; Gender and Computer Games. &DPEULGJH/RQGRQ 0,7 3UHVV   &RUQHOLXVVHQ +* IRUWKFRPLQJ $ 7KHRUHWLFDO )UDPHZRUN IRU 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ ,QGLYLGXDOV¶ &RPSOH[ 5HODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK 7HFKQRORJ\ ,Q 3RZHOO . DQG /DEXVNL & HGV Gender, Bodies and Technology. &RUQHOLXVVHQ +* DQG 5HWWEHUJ -:  'LJLWDO &XOWXUH 3OD\ DQG ,GHQWLW\ A World of Warcraft Reader. Cambridge/London: MIT Press. (XURSHDQ &RPPLVVLRQ  'HVLJQ IRU $OO DQG ,&7 %XVLQHVV 3UDFWLFH $G GUHVVLQJ WKH %DUULHUV ([DPSOHV RI %HVW 3UDFWLFH %UXVVHOV '* ;,,, &( 7HOHPDWLFV $SSOLFDWLRQV 3URJUDPPH µ'HVLJQ IRU $OO¶ IRU DQ ,QFOXVLYH ,Q IRUPDWLRQ 6RFLHW\ *UHHQEDXP -  7RZDUG 3DUWLFLSDWRU\ 'HVLJQ 7KH +HDG DQG WKH +HDUW 5HYLVLWHG ,Q (ULNVVRQ ,9 .LWFKHQKDP %$ DQG 7LMGHQV .* HGV Woman, Work and Computerization. $PVWHUGDP (OVHYLHU 6FLHQFH 3XEOLVKHUV %9   +DGGRQ / DQG 3DXO *  'HVLJQ LQ WKH ,7 ,QGXVWU\ 7KH 5ROH RI 8VHUV ,Q &RRPEV 5 *UHHQ . 5LFKDUGV $ DQG :DOVK 9 HGV Technology and the 0DUNHW 'HPDQG 8VHUV DQG ,QQRYDWLRQ Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. +DIQHU . DQG 0DWWKHZ /  Where Wizards Stay up Late: The Origins of WKH ,QWHUQHW New York: Simon & Schuster. +DUDZD\ '  6LWXDWHG .QRZOHGJHV 7KH VFLHQFH TXHVWLRQ LQ IHPLQLVP DQG WKH SULYLOHJH RI SDUWLDO SHUVSHFWLYH Feminist Studies      +DUGLQJ 6*  7KH VFLHQFH TXHVWLRQ LQ IHPLQLVP Ithaca/London: Cornell 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV +HQQLQJ $ %UHQLFN $ .LOOHQ 0 2¶&RQQRU $ DQG &ROOLQV 0-  'R 6WHUHRW\SLF ,PDJHV LQ 9LGHR *DPHV $IIHFW $WWLWXGHV DQG %HKDYLRU" $GR OHVFHQW 3HUVSHFWLYHV &KLOGUHQ

/DJHVHQ 9$  ([WUHPH PDNH RYHU" 7KH PDNLQJ RI JHQGHU DQG FRPSXWHU science. Trondheim, NTNU. /DJHVHQ 9$  5HDVVHPEOLQJ JHQGHU $FWRU QHWZRUN WKHRU\ $17 DQG WKH PDNLQJ RI WKH WHFKQRORJ\ LQ JHQGHU Social Studies of Science      /DQGVWU|P &  4XHHULQJ IHPLQLVW WHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHV Feminist Theory      /RKDQ 0  0HQ PDVFXOLQLWLHV DQG µPXQGDQH¶ WHFKQRORJLHV WKH GRPHV WLF WHOHSKRQH ,Q *UHHQ ( DQG $GDP $ HGV Virtual Gender; Technology, consumption and identity. London/New York: Routledge. 2IIHQEHHN 0*9 DQG .RRSPDQ 3/  ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6\VWHP 'HYHORSPHQW )URP 8VHU 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ WR &RQWLQJHQW ,QWHUDFWLRQ $PRQJ ,QYROYHG 3DU ties. (XURSHDQ -RXUQDO RI :RUN DQG 2UJDQL]DWLRQDO 3V\FKRORJ\      2XGVKRRUQ 1 DQG 3LQFK 7  How Users Matter, The Co Construction of Users and Technologies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 2XGVKRRUQ 1 5RPPHV ( DQG 6WLHQVWUD 0  &RQ¿JXULQJ WKH 8VHU DV (YHU\ERG\ *HQGHU DQG 'HVLJQ LQ ,QIRUPDWLRQ DQG &RPPXQLFDWLRQ 7HFK nologies. 6FLHQFH 7HFKQRORJ\ +XPDQ 9DOXHV      3DFH\ $  The Culture of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 5RPPHV (  :RUOGV $SDUW ([FOXVLRQ SURFHVVHV LQ ''6 ,Q 7DQDEH 0 %HVVHODDU 39' DQG ,VKLGD 7 HGV 'LJLWDO &LWLHV ,, &RPSXWDWLRQDO DQG Sociological Approaches. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. 5RPPHV ( %RV 0 DQG *HHUGLQN -2  'HVLJQ DQG 8VH RI *HQGHU 6SH FL¿F DQG 6WHUHRW\SLFDO 7R\V ,QWHUQDWLRQDO -RXUQDO RI *HQGHU 6FLHQFH DQG Technology      6¡UHQVHQ . )DXONQHU : DQG 5RPPHV (  7HFKQRORJLHV RI ,QFOXVLRQ *HQGHU LQ WKH ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6RFLHW\. Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press. 6WDU 6/ HG  ,QYLVLEOH :RUN DQG 6LOHQFHG 'LDORJXHV LQ .QRZOHGJH Representation. $PVWHUGDP (OVHYLHU 6FLHQFH 3XEOLVKHU 6XFKPDQ /  &ORVLQJ 5HPDUNV RQ WKH th &RQIHUHQFH RQ :RPDQ :RUN DQG &RPSXWHUL]DWLRQ ,GHQWLWLHV DQG 'LIIHUHQFHV ,Q (ULNVVRQ ,9 .LWFKHQ KDP %$ DQG 7LMGHQV .* HGV Woman, Work and Computerization. Den +DDJ (OVHYLHU 6FLHQFH 3XEOLVKHUV %9   7D\ORU 7/  3OD\ %HWZHHQ :RUOGV ([SORULQJ 2QOLQH *DPH &XOWXUH Cambridge: The MIT Press. FEMINIST INTERVENTIONS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 55

7RQNHQV (  *HQGHU LQ ZHONH ODJHQ" .DQWWHNHQLQJHQ ELM GH JHODDJGH JHQGHUFRQFHSWHQ YDQ 6FRWW +DUGLQJ HQ +DJHPDQQ :KLWH HQ KXQ WRHSDVV ing in empirisch onderzoek. Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies      9HUORR 0  0XOWLSOH ,QHTXDOLWLHV ,QWHUVHFWLRQDOLW\ DQG WKH (XURSHDQ Union. (XURSHDQ -RXUQDO RI :RPHQ¶V 6WXGLHV      :DMFPDQ -  TechnoFeminism. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. :DMFPDQ -  )HPLQLVW WKHRULHV RI WHFKQRORJ\ Cambridge Journal of (FRQRPLFV      :HEVWHU -  :KDW 'R :H .QRZ $ERXW *HQGHU DQG ,QIRUPDWLRQ 7HFKQRO RJ\ DW :RUN" $ 'LVFXVVLRQ RI 6HOHFWHG )HPLQLVW 5HVHDUFK 7KH (XURSHDQ Journal of Women’s Studies     

Searching for Methodology Feminist Technology Design in Computer Science

CORINNA BATH

7KH REMHFWLYH RI WKLV DUWLFOH LV WR SURYLGH PHWKRGV IRU WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ WKDW DYRLG D SHUSHWXDWLRQ RI WKH H[LVWLQJ VWUXFWXUDO V\PEROLF JHQGHU RUGHU 0RUH RYHU E\ DLPLQJ IRU D V\VWHPDWLF DSSURDFK WR FRQFHSWXDOL]LQJ DQG EXLOGLQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV LW VHHNV WR LGHQWLI\ D IHPLQLVW PHWKRGRORJ\ LQ WKH ¿HOG RI FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH 7KH FRUH DUJXPHQW RI WKH FRQWULEXWLRQ LV WKDW PHWKRGV IRU FRXQWHUDFWLQJ SUREOHPDWLF JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV QHHG WR EH GLIIHUHQWLDWHG 7KXV WKH PDLQ SDUW RI WKH DUWLFOH LV DUUDQJHG DORQJ DQ DQDO\VLV RI JHQGHULQJ processes. %DVHG RQ D UHYLHZ RI H[LVWLQJ VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHV 676 UH VHDUFK IRXU PHFKDQLVPV DUH GHVFULEHG WKDW RIWHQ OHDG WR JHQGHUHG FRPSXWD WLRQDO DUWHIDFWV  WKH µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶ WKDW DVVXPHV WHFKQRORJ\ WR EH QHXWUDO  WKH LQVFULSWLRQ RI LPSOLFLW JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV DQG WKH JHQGHUHG GLVWULEXWLRQ RI ODERU LQWR FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV  WKH JHQGHUHG WHFKQRORJLFDO FRQFHSWV RI KXPDQ ERGLHV DQG EHKDYLRUV DQG  GHFRQWH[WXDOL]DWLRQ DQG GLVSXWDEOH HSLVWHPRORJLFDO RU RQWRORJLFDO DVVXPSWLRQV )RU HDFK RI WKHVH PHFKDQLVPV , ZLOO SURSRVH WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ PHWKRGV DGRSWHG IURP WKH ¿HOG RI FULWLFDO computing,1 DQG RXWOLQH LQ ZKLFK ZD\ WKHVH PHWKRGV FDQ DYRLG SUREOHPDWLF

_&ULWLFDOFRPSXWLQJUHIHUVWRD¿HOGWKDWFDQEHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHVHULHVRIGHFHQQLDO FRQIHUHQFHV FDOOHG FULWLFDO FRPSXWLQJ VHH %HUWHOVHQ HW DO   ZKHUH UHVHDUFKHUV DQG GHVLJQHUVIURPDYDULHW\RIFULWLFDODSSURDFKHVWRFRPSXWLQJ HJ SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ YDOXHVLQGHVLJQRUWKH*HUPDQWKHRU\RIFRPSXWHUVFLHQFHµ7KHRULH GHU ,QIRUPDWLN¶ meet. 58 CORINNA BATH

ZD\V RI JHQGHULQJ )LQDOO\ WKH SRWHQWLDO DQG OLPLWDWLRQV RI WKH PHWKRGV DQG WKH PHWKRGRORJ\ DV VXFK DUH GLVFXVVHG RQ WKH EDVLV RI IHPLQLVW WKHRU\

INTRODUCTION

'XULQJ WKH ODVW GHFDGHV WKH FRUSXV RI NQRZOHGJH DERXW JHQGHU in technology has been growing continuously. Numerous case studies show in detail how gen GHU FRQ¿JXUHV DQG LV FRQ¿JXUHG E\ WKH GHVLJQ RI WHFKQRORJ\ VHH IRU H[DPSOH Archibald et al., 2005; Cockburn, 1986; Cockburn and Ormrod, 1993; MacK HQ]LH DQG :DMFPDQ  2XGVKRRUQ DQG 3LQFK  :DMFPDQ  =RUQ HW DO   7KRXJK VHYHUDO FRPSDUDWLYH VWXGLHV DLPHG DW D FULWLFDO UHYLHZ RI WKH XQGHUO\LQJ WKHRUHWLFDO FRQFHSWV RI JHQGHU LQ WKH JHQGHU WHFKQRORJ\ OLW HUDWXUH SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ FDVH VWXGLHV HJ )DXONQHU  *LOO DQG *ULQW  :DMFPDQ  WKDW KDYH EHHQ FRQGXFWHG WKHUH LV VWLOO D ODFN RI D WKRURXJK RYHUYLHZ WKDW IRFXVHV RQ WKH processes RI JHQGHULQJ WHFKQRORJ\ $ GHHSHU XQ GHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH PHFKDQLVPV WKDW DUH DW ZRUN ZKHQ WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWHIDFWV DUH JHQGHUHG KRZHYHU LV D FUXFLDO SUHUHTXLVLWH IRU PDNLQJ VXJJHVWLRQV IRU DQ DOWHUQDWLYH GHVLJQ WKDW PLJKW EH FDOOHG IHPLQLVW ,Q RUGHU WR EH DEOH WR FKDQJH WKH GHVLJQ RI DUWHIDFWV DQG DSSO\ PRUH DSSURSULDWH GHVLJQ PHWKRGV GHVLJQHUV RI WHFKQRORJLHV QHHG WR NQRZ LQ ZKLFK VHQVH WKHLU DUWHIDFWV PLJKW EH SUREOHPDWLF 7KH JHQGHU FDWHJRU\ DQG WKHUHIRUH WKH JHQGHULQJ RI WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWH IDFWV LV KRZHYHU D VRPHZKDW LQWULFDWH VXEMHFW 6RPH WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQHUV WHQG WR LJQRUH JHQGHU )RU H[DPSOH $QQH -RUXQQH %HUJ  SRLQWHG RXW WKDW D GHVLJQHU RI VPDUW KRXVHV WKRXJKW RI WKH WDUJHW FRQVXPHUV DV µHYHU\RQH¶ ZKLOH KHU VWXG\ UHYHDOHG WKDW WKHVH DUWHIDFWV ZHUH GHVLJQHG IRU WKH WHFKQLFDOO\ LQWHUHVWHG PDOH XVHU XQG QRW IRU VXSSRUWLQJ IRU H[DPSOH KRXVHZRUN 2WKHU WHFKQLFDO GHVLJQV VXFK DV ODG\ VKDYHUV 9DQ 2RVW  RU WKH 9ROYR FRQFHSW FDU 7HPP  H[SOLFLWO\ WDNH JHQGHU LQWR DFFRXQW 7KLV DSSURDFK WR GH sign becomes problematic when gender stereotypes are built into technology, IRU LQVWDQFH ZKHQ WKH GHVLJQ PLUURUV WKH DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW ZRPHQ DUH WHFKQR logically incompetent,2 ZKLOH WKH DVVXPSWLRQ RI JHQGHU QHXWUDO WHFKQRORJ\ LV

_)RUH[DPSOH9DQ2RVW  VKRZVLQKHUKLVWRULFDOVWXG\WKDW 3KLOLSV VKDYHUV ZHUH QRW RQO\ JHQGHUHG E\ GHVLJQ HJ SLQN YV EODFN RU PHWDOOLF FRORUV EXWDOVRE\IXQF WLRQDOLWLHV :KHUHDV WKH /DG\VKDYH FDQ KDUGO\ EH RSHQHG ZLWKRXW GHVWUR\LQJ WKH GHYLFH PHQ¶V3KLOLVKDYHKDVVFUHZVWRRSHQLWDQGDGLVSOD\WKDWFRQYH\V WHFKQLFDO LQIRUPDWLRQ WRWKHXVHU9DQ2RVWFRQFOXGHVWKDW3KLOLSVVKDYHUVQRWRQO\UHÀHFWWKHJHQGHULQJRI SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 59

SDUWLFXODUO\ GLVSXWDEOH ZKHQ LW LV DVVXPHG WKDW WKH DUWHIDFW DGGUHVVHV µHYHU\ RQH¶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¿HG WKH PHFKDQLVP behind implicit gender scripts. She pointed out that designers unconsciously EDVH WKHLU GHVLJQ FKRLFHV RQ WKHLU RZQ SUHIHUHQFHV LQWHUHVWV DQG FRPSHWHQFLHV 5HIHUULQJ WR $NULFK¶V HDUO\ XVH RI WKH WHUP DUWHIDFWV WKXV RIWHQ EHFRPH ELDVHG DQG RQH VLGHG GXH WR WKH VR FDOOHG ³, PHWKRGRORJ\´ $NULFK   6R IDU WKH JHQGHU VFULSW FRQFHSW DQG LWV UHODWHG JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV VWHUHRW\SLQJ DQG µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶ VHHP WR EH D JRRG VWDUWLQJ SRLQW WR XQ GHUVWDQGLQJ JHQGHULQJ SURFHVVHV LQ WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ +RZHYHU WKH H[LVWLQJ µJHQGHU LQ WHFKQRORJ\¶ OLWHUDWXUH SURYLGHV LQVLJKWV DOVR LQWR RWKHU JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV WKDW GHI\ H[SODQDWLRQ E\ WKH VFULSW FRQFHSW 2QH JHQGHUHG LPSDFW RI WHFKQRORJLHV ZKLFK WKH VFULSW FRQFHSW FDQ KDUGO\ GHVFULEH DUH WKH VXEVWDQWLDO HIIHFWV WKDW VRPH FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV VXFK DV FRQFHSWV RI KXPDQQHVV LQ $UWL¿FLDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH HJ 6XFKPDQ  RU KXPDQ OLNH DUWL¿FLDO FKDUDFWHUV HJ :HEHU DQG %DWK  FDQ KDYH RQ WKH XVHUV¶ VXEMHFWLYLWLHV 7KH JHQ GHUHGQHVV RI WKHVH DUWHIDFWV FDQQRW EH XQGHUVWRRG PHUHO\ DV D IRUP RI VWHUHR W\SHV LH DQ DVVRFLDWLRQ RI FHUWDLQ TXDOLWLHV DQG FRPSHWHQFLHV ZLWK IHPLQLQLW\ or masculinity, since they tend to normalize gender and re establish the two VH[ V\VWHP LWVHOI 0RUHRYHU VXFK HIIHFWV DUH QRW QHFHVVDULO\ UHODWHG WR WKH GH VLJQHUV¶ YLVLRQV RI XVH DQG XVHUV WKDW DUH HVVHQWLDO IRU WKH GH¿QLWLRQ RI WKH JHQ GHU VFULSW %\ IRFXVLQJ RQ WKH GHVLJQHUV¶ user representations, gender scripts FDQ QHLWKHU H[SODLQ WKH JHQGHULQJ RI KXPDQ ERGLHV DQG EHKDYLRU QRU GRHV LW FDSWXUH PRGHOOLQJ PHWKRGV VXFK DV REMHFW RULHQWDWLRQ FODVVL¿FDWLRQV VFKHPHV RU GLFKRWRPLHV XQGHUO\LQJ WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQV 7KHVH DUWHIDFWV WKRXJK KDYH EHHQ SURYHQ WR KDYH JHQGHU SROLWLFV WRR VHH %DWK  %RZNHU DQG 6WDU  &UXW]HQ DQG *HULVVHQ   +HQFH ORRNLQJ DW FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV QRW LQ WKH QDUURZ VHQVH RI WHFKQRORJLHV DQG SURGXFWV EXW DOVR LQFOXGLQJ FRQ

WHFKQRORJLFDOFRPSHWHQFHWKH\DOVRFRQVWUXFWDQGVWUHQJWKHQWKH SUHYDLOLQJ JHQGHULQJ RI WHFKQRORJLFDO FRPSHWHQFH ³,Q RWKHU ZRUGV 3KLOLSV QRW RQO\ SURGXFHVVKDYHUVEXWDOVR JHQGHUV´ 9DQ2RVW  60 CORINNA BATH

cepts and material symbolic entities produced by those who work in com SXWLQJ UDLVHV WKH DZDUHQHVV IRU JHQGHU DQDO\VLV LQ WKH ¿HOG RI WHFKQRORJ\ ([WHQGLQJ WKH IUDPHZRUN WR JHQGHUHG WHFKQRORJLFDO FRQFHSWV DQG DVVXPSWLRQV FRQWULEXWHV SURGXFWLYHO\ WR WKH VHDUFK IRU D IHPLQLVW GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJ\ EH FDXVH FRXQWHUDFWLQJ WKH UHODWHG JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV PLJKW EH HYHQ PRUH HIIHFWLYH DQG VXEVWDQWLDO WKDQ RQO\ DYRLGLQJ JHQGHU VFULSWV ,Q WKH UHPDLQGHU RI WKLV SDSHU , ZLOO GLVFXVV IRXU FDWHJRULHV RI FRPSXWDWLRQ DO DUWHIDFWV DQG WKHLU UHODWHG JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV WKDW KDYH EHHQ LQWURGXFHG VR IDU DOOHJHG QHXWUDO WHFKQRORJLHV IRU µHYHU\RQH¶ WHFKQRORJLHV IRU WKH IHPDOH XVHU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV RI µWKH KXPDQ¶ LQ ,7 DQG DEVWUDFW FRQFHSWVEDVLF UHVHDUFK 7KLV GLVWLQFWLRQ ZLOO EH H[SORUHG IXUWKHU LQ WKH QH[W VHFWLRQ ZKLFK DUJXHV WKDW WKHUH LV D VWURQJ UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH FDWHJRULHV RI DUWHIDFWV FKRVHQ D FHU WDLQ JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVP DQG D FHUWDLQ VWUDWHJ\ RI FRXQWHUDFWLQJ WKLV JHQGHU LQJ PHFKDQLVP ,Q WKH PDLQ SDUW RI WKH SDSHU HDFK RI WKH IRXU FDWHJRULHV LV discussed in detail: it starts with the gendering mechanism that is likely to occur DQG JLYHV H[DPSOHV IURP IHPLQLVW 676 UHVHDUFK WKDW LOOXVWUDWH WKLV SURFHVV $V D QH[W VWHS D IHPLQLVW SROLWLFDO HSLVWHPRORJLFDO VWUDWHJ\ LV VXJJHVWHG WKDW PLJKW DYRLG VXFK D JHQGHULQJ )LQDOO\ SRVVLEOH WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ PHWKRGV ERUURZHG IURP FULWLFDO FRPSXWLQJ DUH LQWURGXFHG WKDW DSSHDU VXLWDEOH WR LPSOHPHQW WKH FKRVHQ VWUDWHJ\ LQ D FRQFUHWH GHVLJQ SURFHVV 7DNHQ WRJHWKHU WKHVH IRXU VHFWLRQV DLP DW D PHWKRGRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN WKDW LQWHJUDWHV V\VWHPDWLF JHQGHU DQDO\VLV based on STS research with technology design into computer science. How HYHU VXFK D SUDJPDWLF DSSURDFK FDQ RQO\ IRUP D FRPSOHWH PHWKRGRORJ\ LI LW LV UHÀHFWHG XSRQ RQ WKH EDVLV RI IHPLQLVW WKHRU\ DQG SROLWLFV 7KH SRWHQWLDO DQG OLPLWDWLRQV RI WKH WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ SURFHGXUH VXJJHVWHG ZLOO EH HYDOXDWHG LQ WKH ODVW VHFWLRQ 7KH FRQFHSWV IURP IHPLQLVW UHVHDUFK WKDW DUH QHHGHG WR JLYH WKH DSSURDFK D WKHRUHWLFDO IRXQGDWLRQ DUH LQWURGXFHG LQ WKH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQ

DE-GENDERING COMPUTATIONAL ARTEFACTS: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR COUNTERACTING GENDERING MECHANISMS

7KH PHWKRGRORJ\ SURSRVHG LQ WKLV DUWLFOH DLPV DW DYRLGLQJ WKH UHSURGXFWLRQ RI WKH H[LVWLQJ VWUXFWXUDO V\PEROLF JHQGHU RUGHU DQG UXSWXULQJ LWV IXUWKHU VWDELOL ]DWLRQ E\ WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ , FDOO WKLV REMHFWLYH µGH JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ 7KLV WHUP GRHV QRW LPSO\ WKDW WKHUH FDQ EH D JHQGHU IUHH ]RQH RU D JHQGHU QHXWUDO DUWHIDFW 6SHDNLQJ ZLWK -XGLWK %XWOHU HQWLWLHV OLNH ERGLHV SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 61

FDQQRW HVFDSH RQJRLQJ SURFHVVHV RI JHQGHU VLJQL¿FDWLRQ DQG UHVLJQL¿FDWLRQ %XWOHU   -XGLWK /RUEHU DUJXHV WKDW XVLQJ PRUH WKDQ WZR SRODUL]HG FDW HJRULHV RI VH[ VH[XDOLW\ DQG JHQGHU PDNHV UHVHDUFK PRUH DFFXUDWH 7KH WHUP ‘de JHQGHULQJ¶ UHIHUV WR KHU SROLWLFDO JRDO RI JRLQJ EH\RQG ELQDULHV /RUEHU    ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W LW LV UDWKHU PHDQW DV DQ DWWHPSW WR FKDOOHQJH WKRVH GHVLJQHUV ZKR DVVXPH WKDW WKHLU DUWHIDFWV ZHUH JHQGHU QHXWUDO EHFDXVH LW SRV WXODWHV WKDW WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWHIDFWV ZHUH DOUHDG\ EHIRUHKDQG LQ VRPH ZD\V JHQ GHUHG 7KH WHUP LV DOVR FKRVHQ DV D FRXQWHUSRLQW WR VRPH UHFHQW LQLWLDWLYHV WKDW LQWHQG WR µJHQGHU¶ WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWHIDFWV E\ FRQVLGHULQJ ZRPHQ¶V LQWHUHVWV RU GHPDQGV LQ WKH GHVLJQ DQG WKXV SURGXFLQJ D QHZ HVVHQWLDOLVP VHH HJ %KUHU DQG 6FKUDXGQHU   µ'H JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ LV WKHUHIRUH DQ LQWHUYHQWLRQ RQ VHYHUDO OHYHOV $V VXFK LW UHTXLUHV D WKHRUHWLFDO IRXQGDWLRQ ,W KDV DOUHDG\ EHHQ PHQWLRQHG WKDW WKH JHQGHU VFULSW FRQFHSW ZKLFK LV RI WHQ XVHG WR FDSWXUH WKH FRQFUHWH SURFHVVHV RI JHQGHULQJ WHFKQRORJ\ LV QRW VXI ¿FLHQW WR GHVFULEH FHUWDLQ JHQGHULQJ SURFHVVHV RI FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV )RU LQVWDQFH LW FDQQRW EH DSSOLHG WR FRQFHSWV RI KXPDQ EHKDYLRU RU RQWRORJLFDO DQG HSLVWHPRORJLFDO DVVXPSWLRQV LQ WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ EHFDXVH RI LWV IRFXV RQ XVHU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ 7R XQGHUVWDQG WKH JHQGHULQJ RI DUWHIDFWV RQ VXFK D FRQFHSWXDO OHYHO , SURSRVH DSSO\LQJ %DUDG¶V FRQFHSW RI µSRVWKXPDQLVW SHU IRUPDWLYLW\¶ %DUDG   %DUDG GHVFULEHV SRVWKXPDQLVW SHUIRUPDWLYLW\ DV D PDWHULDOLVW DQG SRVWKXPDQLVW UHZRUNLQJ RI -XGLWK %XWOHU¶V QRWLRQ RI SHUIRU PDWLYLW\ %XWOHU    %XWOHU GHYHORSHG WKLV QRWLRQ ZLWKLQ WKH FRQWH[W RI IHPLQLVW WKHRUL]LQJ RI WKH ERG\ E\ VWDWLQJ WKDW VH[ LV D PDWHULDOL]DWLRQ RI gender norms that is contested at all times. Barad agrees to the procedural FKDUDFWHU RI JHQGHULQJ DQG WKH UHOHYDQFH RI H[LVWLQJ VRFLDO QRUPV WKDW FKDQJH GXULQJ WKH SURFHVV +RZHYHU VKH FULWLFL]HV WKDW %XWOHU XQGHUVWDQGV PDWWHU LH WKH ERG\ DV D SDVVLYH SURGXFW RI GLVFXUVLYH SUDFWLFHV UDWKHU WKDQ FRQFHLYLQJ LW DV DQ DFWLYH DJHQW SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ WKH SURFHVV RI PDWHULDOL]DWLRQ %\ FRQWUDVW SRVWKXPDQLVW SHUIRUPDWLYLW\ LV ³D UREXVW DFFRXQW RI WKH PDWHULDOL]DWLRQ RI DOO ERGLHV µKXPDQ¶ DQG µQRQ KXPDQ¶ DQG WKH PDWHULDO GLVFXUVLYH SUDFWLFHV E\ ZKLFK WKHLU GLIIHUHQWLDO FRQVWLWXWLRQV DUH PDUNHG´ %DUDG    2Q WKLV EDVLV WKH JHQGHULQJ RI DUWHIDFWV FDQ EH FRQFHSWXDOL]HG DV D FR PDWHULDOL]DWLRQ RI PDWWHU RU FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV UHVSHFWLYHO\ DQG JHQGHU 7KLV FRQFHSW DOORZV IRU D GHVFULSWLRQ RI WKH JHQGHULQJ RI VRIWZDUH DSSOLFDWLRQV LQIRUPDWLRQ V\VWHPV DQG XVHU LQWHUIDFHV EXW DOVR WKH JHQGHULQJ RI FRQFHSWV DQG DVVXPS tions in technology design, modelling methods, and basic research. ,Q KHU FRQFHUQ WR GH HPSKDVL]H WKH GLVFXUVLYH DQG OLQJXLVWLF DVSHFWV ZLWKLQ IHPLQLVP DQG ZLWKLQ 676 UHVHDUFK %DUDG VWUHVVHV WKH UHOHYDQFH RI ³WDNLQJ 62 CORINNA BATH

PDWWHU VHULRXVO\´ %DUDG    3RVWKXPDQLVW SHUIRUPDWLYLW\ LV IUDPHG E\ KHU ³HSLVWHP RQWR ORJLFDO´ WKHRU\ RI ³DJHQWLDO UHDOLVP´ %DUDG D E  WKDW VKH GHYHORSHG E\ GUDZLQJ RQ DV ZHOO DV IXQGDPHQWDOO\ FULWLFL]LQJ DQG IXUWKHU GHYHORSLQJ WKH DFWRU QHWZRUN WKHRU\ SDUWLFXODUO\ WKH YHUVLRQ RI WKH IHPLQLVW WHFKQRVFLHQFH UHVHDUFKHU 'RQQD +DUDZD\ $ORQJ WKLV OLQH RI WKLQNLQJ %DUDG FRQFHLYHV WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ KXPDQV DQG QRQ KXPDQ DUWHIDFWV DV D FRPSOH[ DQG KHWHURJHQHRXV QHWZRUN RU K\EULG ZLWKRXW SUHVXPLQJ HVVHQ WLDO GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ KXPDQV DQG DUWHIDFWV +RZHYHU VKH VWUHVVHV WR NHHS in mind that this relation between human and non humans is always asymmet ULF ³$JHQWLDO UHDOLVP DFNQRZOHGJHV WKH DJHQF\ RI ERWK VXEMHFWV DQG REMHFWV without pretending that there is some utopian symmetrical wholesome dia ORJXH RXWVLGH RI KXPDQ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ´ %DUDG E 7KLV ZRXOG QRW PHDQ WKDW DXWKRUVKLS OLHV LQ WKH KDQG RI KXPDQV RQO\ RQ WKH FRQWUDU\ ³WKH ZRUOG NLFNV EDFN´ %DUDG    $JHQWLDO 5HDOLVP WKHUHIRUH FRQFHQWUDWHV RQ ³UHDO FRQVHTXHQFHV LQWHUYHQWLRQV FUHDWLYH SRVVLELOLWLHV DQG UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV RI LQWHUDFWLQJ ZLWK WKH ZRUOG´ %DUDG D   /XF\ 6XFKPDQ  WUDQVODWHV %DUDG¶V DFFRXQW IURP SK\VLFV WR FRPSX WDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV $JDLQVW WKH EDFNJURXQG RI $UWL¿FLDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH D ¿HOG WKDW VKH VWXGLHG WKRURXJKO\ VKH DOVR FDOOV IRU DFNQRZOHGJLQJ WKH VSHFL¿F DJHQF\ RI KXPDQV LQ SURFHVVHV RI PXWXDO FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ RI KXPDQV DQG WHFKQRORJLHV ZLWKRXW UHLWHUDWLQJ WUDGLWLRQDO KXPDQLVW QRWLRQV RI DXWRQRPRXV KXPDQ DJHQF\ ZKLFK HVVHQWLDOL]HG GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ KXPDQ DQG PDFKLQHV 0RUHRYHU VKH WDNHV %DUDG¶V FRQFHUQ D VWHS IXUWKHU E\ HPSKDVL]LQJ WKLV QRWLRQ RI DFFRXQW ability that also includes boundary making between humans and machines. ³7KH DFFRXQWDELOLW\ LQYROYHG LV QRW KRZHYHU D PDWWHU RI DXWKRUVKLS LQ DQ\ VLPSOH VHQVH EXW UDWKHU D SUREOHP RI XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH HIIHFWV RI SDUWLFXODU DVVHPEODJHV DQG DVVHVVLQJ GLVWULEXWLRQV IRU EHWWHU DQG ZRUVH WKDW WKH\ SHU IRUP´ 6XFKPDQ   ,Q WKLV LQVWDQFH VKH UHIHUV WR %DUDG ³:H DUH UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH ZRUOG LQ ZKLFK ZH OLYH QRW EHFDXVH LW LV DQ DUELWUDU\ FKRRV LQJ EXW EHFDXVH LW LV VHGLPHQWHG RXW RI SDUWLFXODU SUDFWLFHV WKDW ZH KDYH D UROH LQ VKDSLQJ´ %DUDG   6XFKPDQ DUJXHV WKDW DQ DV\PPHWULFDOO\ distributed agency between humans and the non human implies understand LQJ UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV DV DOVR EHLQJ DV\PPHWULFDOO\ GLVWULEXWHG ³$JHQFLHV DQG DVVRFLDWHG UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV UHVLGH QHLWKHU LQ XV QRU LQ RXU DUWHIDFWV EXW LQ RXU LQWUD DFWLRQV 7KH TXHVWLRQ IROORZLQJ %DUDG LV KRZ WR FRQ¿JXUH DVVHPEODJHV LQ VXFK D ZD\ WKDW ZH FDQ LQWUD DFW UHVSRQVLEO\ DQG JHQHUDWLYHO\ ZLWK DQG WKURXJK WKHP´ 6XFKPDQ   SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 63

µ'H JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ LV EDVHG RQ WKLV EURDG WKHRUHWLFDO account opened up by Barad and Suchman. It aims at taking agencies and re VSRQVLELOLWLHV LQ VRFLR PDWHULDO DVVHPEODJHV RI KXPDQV DQG DUWHIDFWV VHULRXVO\ µ'H JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ LV LQVSLUHG E\ 6XFKPDQ¶V  VXJ JHVWLRQ RI PDNLQJ µDFFRXQWDEOH FXWV¶ DV D VWUDWHJ\ RI DQDO\VLV DQG LQWHUYHQWLRQ &KRRVLQJ IRXU FKDUDFWHULVWLFDOO\ SUREOHPDWLF JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV DQG WKHLU UHODWHG DUWHIDFWV DV D VWDUWLQJ SRLQW KHUH VKRXOG EH VHHQ DV D IRUP RI SUHSDUDWLRQ IRU FXWWLQJ D FRQFUHWH QHWZRUN RI KXPDQV DQG DUWHIDFWV LQ D UHVSRQVLEOH ZD\ +RZHYHU HYHU\ GHVLJQ SURFHVV UHTXLUHV D WKRURXJK DQDO\VLV RI WKH JHQGHU ing at work. The approach that will be proposed in this paper also applies the VHFRQG VWUDWHJ\ WKDW 6XFKPDQ  VXJJHVWV µH[SDQGLQJ WKH IUDPHV¶ :KLOH VKH SURSRVHV WR GLVHQFKDQW WKH HIIHFWV E\ ]RRPLQJ RXW WR D ZLGHU YLHZ DQG H[SOLFDWLQJ WKH KLGGHQ ODERU DQG FRQWLQJHQFLHV µGH JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ DLPV WR PRYH IRUZDUG IURP JHQGHU DQDO\VLV WRZDUGV IHPLQLVW GHVLJQ ,W LV DUJXHG WKHUH WKDW HDFK FDWHJRU\ RI DUWHIDFWV QRW RQO\ FRUUHODWHV ZLWK D certain gendering mechanism, but requires a certain political epistemological SRVLWLRQLQJ WRZDUGV JHQGHU 7KLV PHDQV WKDW GHVLJQHUV KDYH WR GHFLGH ZKDW NLQG RI FKDQJH LQ WKH VWUXFWXUDO V\PEROLF JHQGHU RUGHU WKH\ LQWHQG WR DGGUHVV ZKHQ DLPLQJ WR FRXQWHUDFW WKH LGHQWL¿HG JHQGHULQJ LQ WKHLU GHVLJQV 0\ VXJJHVWLRQ IRU WKLV SDUW LV PDLQO\ ERUURZHG IURP IHPLQLVW WKHRU\ DQG SROLWLFV ZKLFK GLVWLQJXLVKHV VWUDWHJLHV VXFK DV DFKLHYLQJ JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ DF NQRZOHGJLQJ GLIIHUHQFHV RU GHFRQVWUXFWLQJ JHQGHU VHH IRU LQVWDQFH *LOO DQG *ULQW  0DDVV HW DO  :DMFPDQ   :KLOH WKHVH DSSURDFKHV JHQ erally conceptualize gender or the gender technology relationship, my idea is to translate such strategies into technology design and its gendering. For LQVWDQFH IHPLQLVW WKHRU\ LQWHUSUHWV WKH JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ DSSURDFK OLEHUDOLVP as aiming to get more women into computer science and engineering, whereas , VXJJHVW DQDO\]LQJ ZKHWKHU DUWHIDFWV VKRXOG SURGXFH JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ E\ GH VLJQ +HQFH , SURSRVH WR GHWHUPLQH D JRDO DV D ¿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

VKRXOG VXSSRUW LVVXHV DVVLJQHG WR WKH IHPDOH UHDOP DV PXFK DV WKRVH WUDGLWLRQ DOO\ FRQVLGHUHG DV PDVFXOLQH 7KLV PHDQV WKDW WKHVH DUWHIDFWV FDOO IRU D JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ DSSURDFK LQ RUGHU WR RYHUFRPH JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV DQG KLHUDUFKLHV 7KH WKLUG FDWHJRU\ RI DUWHIDFWV WKDW FRQWULEXWH WR LGHQWLW\ EXLOGLQJ RU HYHQ PRUH FKDQJLQJ VXEMHFWLYLWLHV LQGLFDWHV WKDW WHFKQRORJ\ VKRXOG HQDEOH XVHUV WR TXHVWLRQ DQG UHÀHFW RQ WKH H[LVWLQJ ELQDU\ VH[ DQG JHQGHU V\VWHP 7KXV D GHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVW DSSURDFK VHHPV WR EH D JRRG FKRLFH KHUH LQ RUGHU WR DYRLG D IXUWKHU QRUPDOL]DWLRQ RI H[LVWLQJ JHQGHU SDWWHUQV 0DQ\ JHQGHUHG FRQFHSWV RI WKH IRXUWK FDWHJRU\ UHTXLUH D UH FRQWH[WXDOLVDWLRQ EHIRUH FULWLFDO DQG LQWHUYHQ WLRQLVW VWUDWHJLHV FDQ EH DSSOLHG ,W GHSHQGV RQ WKH FRQWH[W UHYHDOHG ZKHWKHU WKH alternate design should rather aim at changes in epistemological or ontological DVVXPSWLRQV RU ERWK DQG LI WKLV UHIHUV WR RQH RI WKH JRDOV PHQWLRQHG DERYH ,Q WKH IROORZLQJ IRXU VHFWLRQV WKH IRXU FDWHJRULHV RI DUWHIDFWV LQWURGXFHG are described in detail. For each gendering mechanism I will propose technol RJ\ GHVLJQ PHWKRGV IURP WKH ¿HOG RI FULWLFDO FRPSXWLQJ

ALLEGED NEUTRAL TECHNOLOGY AND THE ‘I-METHODOLOGY’

Designers assume many technologies to be neutral, but a closer analysis re YHDOV EDUULHUV LQ XVH $Q H[DPSOH RI WKHVH NLQGV RI DUWHIDFWV DUH HDUO\ VSHHFK UHFRJQLWLRQ V\VWHPV LQ $UWL¿FLDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH WKDW ZHUH VDLG WR QRW KDYH EHHQ FDSDEOH RI UHFRJQL]LQJ IHPDOH YRLFHV VLQFH WKH GHVLJQHUV GLG QRW WKLQN DERXW WKH IDFW WKDW DGDSWLQJ WKH WHFKQRORJ\ WR PDOH YRLFHV FRXOG H[FOXGH IHPDOH XV HUV $ PRUH VHULRXV FDVH VWXG\ VKRZV WKDW HYHQ LI GHVLJQHUV H[SOLFLWO\ DLP WR EXLOG WHFKQRORJ\ µIRU HYHU\RQH¶ WKH\ DUH VWLOO LQ GDQJHU RI H[FOXGLQJ FHUWDLQ XVHUV E\ GHVLJQ (OV 5RPPHV UHYHDOHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH 'LJLWDO &LW\ $PVWHUGDP DV D GHVLJQ IRU KHJHPRQLF PDVFXOLQH LQWHUHVWV 2XGVKRRUQ HW DO  5RPPHV   6KH GLVFRYHUHG WKDW GHVLJQHUV XQGHUPLQHG WKHLU RZQ DJHQGD µ;6DOO¶ SURQRXQFHG µDFFHVV IRU DOO¶ E\ XVLQJ WKH µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶ D IRUP RI LPSOLFLW XVHU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ 7KH\ XQFRQVFLRXVO\ DVVXPHG WKDW XVHUV ZRXOG KDYH WKH VDPH WHFKQLFDO HTXLSPHQW NQRZOHGJH DQG VNLOOV WKH VDPH SUHIHUHQFHV DQG LQWHUHVWV DQG WKXV VHH WKHPVHOYHV DV UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV RI WKH XV HUV 6LQFH WKH\ RIWHQ IRUP D KRPRVRFLDO SUHGRPLQDQWO\ PDVFXOLQH JURXS WKH\ actually inscribe this gendered background and knowledge, their concerns and attitudes into the technology. SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 65

7KH H[DPSOH RI WKH HDUO\ VSHHFK UHFRJQLWLRQ V\VWHPV UHIHUV WR D PRUH RU OHVV ELRORJLFDO JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFH ,W LV DUJXHG WKDW WKHVH DUWHIDFWV FRXOG QRW EH XVHG E\ ZRPHQ EHFDXVH RI WKHLU KLJKHU SLWFKHG YRLFH 5RPPHV LQ FRQWUDVW GUDZV RQ VRFLR HFRQRPLF IDFWRUV WR GHPRQVWUDWH WKDW WKH 'LJLWDO &LW\ Amsterdam was gendered. Designers did not question essential, but gendered SUHUHTXLVLWHV VXFK DV DFFHVV WR WKH ODWHVW JHQHUDWLRQ RI FRPSXWHUV D FHUWDLQ H[SHULHQFH LQ WKH XVH RI WKH ,QWHUQHW DQG WKH WULDO DQG HUURU VWUDWHJ\ $V $QQH -RUXQQH %HUJ SRLQWHG RXW VXFK D VWUXFWXUDO H[FOXVLRQ RI ZRPHQ DQG RWKHU µRWKHUV¶ IURP WKH XVH RI FHUWDLQ WHFKQRORJLHV FDQ DOUHDG\ RFFXU RQ WKH OHYHO RI SUREOHP GH¿QLWLRQV WKDW XQGHUOLH WHFKQRORJLFDO VROXWLRQV %HUJ   +HU VWXG\ RI VPDUW KRXVHV LOOXVWUDWHV WKDW WKH GHVLJQHUV ZHUH QRW DZDUH RI KRXVH ZRUN WKDW LV WUDGLWLRQDOO\ DVVLJQHG WR WKH IHPDOH UHDOP 7KH LQWHUYLHZV UHYHDOHG that they implicitly assume the customer to be a man interested in technology, QRW XQOLNH WKH VWHUHRW\SH RI WKH FRPSXWHU QHUG $OO WKHVH H[DPSOHV LOOXVWUDWH WKH QHHG IRU WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ PHWKRG RORJLHV WKDW WDNH LQWR DFFRXQW D YDULHW\ RI XVHUV +HQFH WKH REMHFWLYH ZKHQ IDFLQJ DOOHJHG QHXWUDO WHFKQRORJLHV VKRXOG EH WKH LQFOXVLRQ RI GLYHUVH XVHUV HTXDO DFFHVV DQG XVDELOLW\ 7KH PHWKRGRORJLHV VRXJKW DIWHU VKRXOG VWULYH IRU WKH DFNQRZOHGJHPHQW RI GLIIHUHQFHV IRU H[DPSOH SK\VLFDO DQG VRFLDO JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV EXW DOVR LQ WHUPV RI HWKQLFLW\ UDFH QDWLRQ FODVV DJH DQG RWKHU categories. 6HYHUDO VXE¿HOGV RI FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH DOUHDG\ KDYH D ORQJ WUDGLWLRQ RI GH YHORSLQJ PHWKRGV RI WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ WKDW DLP WR DYRLG WKH µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶ Ergonomics, socio technical systems design, and human computer interaction IRFXV RQ JHWWLQJ WR NQRZ WKH XVHU LQ RUGHU WR EXLOG WHFKQRORJLHV IRU XVH DQG WKH UHDO XVHU LQVWHDG RI H[SHFWLQJ WKDW XVHUV ZLOO DGDSW WR DOUHDG\ H[LVWLQJ WHFK QRORJ\ VHH IRU LQVWDQFH 'L[ HW DO  1LHOVHQ   ,Q WKH FDVHV RI WKH 'LJLWDO &LW\ $PVWHUGDP DQG WKH VPDUW KRXVHV GHVLJQHUV FRXOG KDYH FRQGXFWHG usability tests to realize that their products do not match the skills, interests, DQG SUHIHUHQFHV RI WKH WHFKQRORJ\¶V HQYLVLRQHG WDUJHW JURXS 2XGVKRRUQ HW DO   $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH ¿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

RI IHPDOH XVHUV LQ WKH GHVLJQ SURFHVV VHHPV WR EH D ZD\ RI SUHYHQWLQJ WHFK QRORJLVWV IURP UHSHDWLQJ WKH PLVWDNHV RI WKH µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶

TECHNOLOGIES FOR ‘THE FEMALE USER’, STEREOTYPES AND THE GENDERED DIVISION OF LABOR

$ VHFRQG FODVV RI WHFKQRORJLHV FRQWDLQV WKRVH ZKLFK DUH EXLOW IRU VSHFL¿F XV ers, e.g. women as customers, or to support women in their workplaces, but ZKLFK LQ HIIHFW FRGLI\ JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFH DQG UHLQIRUFH WKH WUDGLWLRQDO JHQGHU KLHUDUFK\ ([DPSOHV RI WKLV NLQG DUH WKH URXQG GLDORJXH ER[ IRU IRQW VHOHFWLRQ GHVLJQHG E\ WKH JUDSKLF GHVLJQHU $DURQ 0DUFXV IRU ZKLWH $PHULFDQ ZRP HQ ZKLFK LV EXLOW XSRQ WKH DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW IHPDOHV ZRXOG SUHIHU FXUYLOLQHDU VKDSHV 0DUFXV   RU WKH HDUO\ ZRUG SURFHVVLQJ VRIWZDUH -HDQHWWH +RI mann analyzed, which assumed secretaries to be permanent beginners and by GHVLJQ GH¿QHG WKHP DV WHFKQLFDOO\ XQVNLOOHG XVHUV +RIPDQQ   2WKHU FDVH VWXGLHV IRU LQVWDQFH LQ WKH ¿HOGV RI QXUVLQJ DQG FDOO FHQWUH VHUYLFH ZRUN VKRZ WKH ODFN RI NQRZOHGJH RQ µLQYLVLEOH ZRUN¶ VLQFH WKHVH VRIWZDUH V\VWHPV ZHUH PRGHOOHG LQ D ZD\ WKDW IDLOV WR DGHTXDWHO\ VXSSRUW WKH ZRUNÀRZV E\ WHFKQRORJLFDO PHDQV IRU H[DPSOH 0DDVV DQG 5RPPHV  :DJQHU   6LQFH µLQYLVLEOH ZRUN¶ LV RIWHQ GRQH E\ ZRPHQ 6WDU   LW LV SDUWLFXODUO\ WKHLU ZRUN WKDW UHPDLQV XQGHUYDOXHG VLQFH GHVLJQHUV HLWKHU LJQRUH LWV LPSRU WDQFH IRU WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ DV D ZKROH RU LWV FRPSOH[LW\ 'HVLJQ IRU ZRPHQ REYLRXVO\ ULVNV FHOHEUDWLQJ VWHUHRW\SHV DERXW µZRPHQ¶ WKHLU SUHIHUHQFHV VNLOOV DQG ZRUN ZKLFK VKRXOG EH DYRLGHG $ GH JHQGHULQJ PHWKRGRORJ\ WKHUHIRUH KDV WR DLP DW DWWULEXWLQJ HTXDO FRPSHWHQFLHV WR IH PDOH DQG PDOH XVHUV DQG XSJUDGLQJ ZRPHQ¶V ZRUN +HQFH GHVLJQHUV VKRXOG VWULYH WR LQVFULEH JHQGHU HTXDOLW\ LQWR WHFKQRORJLHV LI WKH\ DUH GHVLJQHG IRU IHPDOH XVHUV IRU LQVWDQFH DW ZRPHQ¶V ZRUNSODFHV DV RSSRVHG WR WKH FDVH RI WHFKQRORJLHV IRU JHQHUDO XVH ZKHUH WKH\ VKRXOG EHFRPH DZDUH RI JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV DQG WKH GLYHUVLW\ RI XVHUV $V DOUHDG\ PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH ODWWHU FDW HJRU\ RI WHFKQRORJLHV XVHU WHVWV VHHP WR EH D XVHIXO WRRO IRU UHFRJQL]LQJ WKDW VRIWZDUH DQG XVHU LQWHUIDFHV GR QRW ¿W WKH LQWHQGHG UHDO XVHU ,Q WKH H[DPSOH RI WKH URXQG GLDORJ ER[ LW ZDV GHPRQVWUDWHG WKDW UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH JHQGHU DOO WHVW SHUVRQV SUHIHUUHG D VTXDUHG DQG D[LDOO\ V\PPHWULFDO OD\RXW RI WKH GLDORJ ER[ DQG VWURQJO\ GLVOLNHG WKH µIHPDOH¶ XVHU LQWHUIDFH 7HDVOH\ HW DO   7KXV SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 67

WKH JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SH WKDW ZRPHQ OLNH FXUYLOLQHDU IHDWXUHV ZKLOH PHQ SUHIHU VTXDUHG RQHV ZDV FOHDUO\ GLVSURYHQ +RZHYHU LI ZH ZDQW WR PRYH IURP DQDO\VLV WR DQ DOWHUQDWLYH GHVLJQ IRU WKH FDVHV PHQWLRQHG DERYH LW LV QRW HQRXJK WR UHPDLQ DW WKH OHYHO RI DLPLQJ WR PDS VRFLDO UHDOLWLHV RI ZRUN OLIH DQG XVH DV EHVW DV SRVVLEOH DV LW LV RIWHQ assumed in computer science modelling, since such approaches tend to re SURGXFH WKH H[LVWLQJ VWUXFWXUDO V\PEROLF JHQGHU RUGHU +HQFH LI WHFKQRORJLHV QHHG WR EH GHVLJQHG IRU D SUHGRPLQDQWO\ IHPDOH JURXS RI XVHUV LW WDNHV PRUH WKDQ RQO\ DSSO\LQJ XVHU FHQWUHG GHVLJQ PHWKRGV DQG HYDOXDWLQJ XVDELOLW\ )RU D GH JHQGHUHG GHVLJQ RI VXFK WHFKQRORJLHV DQ H[SOLFLW SROLWLFDO SRVLWLRQLQJ IRU those who are structurally discriminated against seems necessary. The most well known research to support workplace democracy and establish better ZRUNLQJ FRQGLWLRQV IRU ZRUNHUV DQG HPSOR\HHV WKURXJK WKH XVH RI WHFKQRORJ\ LV WKH 6FDQGLQDYLDQ WUDGLWLRQ RI SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ HJ %MHUNQHV DQG %UDW WHWHLJ   )ROORZLQJ WKLV DSSURDFK D YDULHW\ RI PHWKRGV ZHUH GHYHORSHG DQG WHVWHG VXFK DV IXWXUH ZRUNVKRSV GHVLJQ JDPHV DQG SURWRW\SHV VHH IRU LQVWDQFH *UHHQEDXP DQG .\QJ   7KH DLPV DQG JXLGHOLQHV WR µGHVLJQ IRU VNLOO¶ DQG µGHVLJQ IRU WHFKQLFDO HPSRZHUPHQW¶ ZHUH DOUHDG\ VXFFHVVIXOO\ DSSOLHG LQ ZRPHQ¶V ZRUNSODFHV VXFK DV QXUVLQJ RI¿FH ZRUN RU FDOO FHQWUH VHUYLFH ZRUN VHH 0DDVV DQG 5RPPHV  :DJQHU   6LQFH VWUDWHJLHV DJDLQVW GHVNLOOLQJ GHJUDGLQJ RU OHDUQLQJ WR DGDSW DQG WR SURJUDP VRIWZDUH LQ FHUWDLQ FRQWH[WV ZRUN DJDLQVW WKH WUDGLWLRQDO JHQGHU KLHUDUFK\ WKHVH SDUWLFL SDWRU\ GHVLJQ DSSURDFKHV FDQ EH UHJDUGHG DV GH JHQGHULQJ PHWKRGRORJLHV LI WKH\ DUH HQKDQFHG E\ D FULWLFDO DZDUHQHVV RI WKH JHQGHUHG SDWWHUQV LQ VRFLHW\ and symbolism.

REPRESENTATION OF ‘THE HUMAN’ IN IT AND THE PERPETUATION OF GENDER NORMS

$ WKLUG FDWHJRU\ RI JHQGHUHG WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWHIDFWV LQFOXGH WKRVH WKDW UHS UHVHQW FHUWDLQ DELOLWLHV FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RU HYHQ WKH QDWXUH RI µWKH KXPDQ¶ EXW DFWXDOO\ QRUPDOL]H JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SLFDO EHKDYLRU 3HUVXDVLYH H[DPSOHV DUH KXPDQ OLNH PDFKLQHV WKDW H[SOLFLWO\ GLVSOD\ KXPDQ ERGLHV DQG KXPDQ EHKDY LRU VXFK DV DQWKURSRPRUSKLF VRFLDEOH URERWV RU HPRWLRQDO VRIWZDUH DJHQWV 7KH ERGLO\ DSSHDUDQFH RI WKHVH DUWHIDFWV EXW DOVR WKHLU FRQFHSWV RI DFWLRQEHKDYLRU DQG LQWHUDFWLRQFRPPXQLFDWLRQ ZHUH H[SRVHG DV LQWULQVLFDOO\ SHUPHDWHG E\ JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV HJ 'UDXGH  :HEHU DQG %DWK   68 CORINNA BATH

$JDLQVW D IXUWKHU FRQVROLGDWLRQ RI WKHVH JHQGHULQJV D GH JHQGHULQJ PHWK RGRORJ\ VKRXOG DLP WR GH FRQVWUXFW WKH ELQDU\ VH[ DQG JHQGHU V\VWHP 7KLV PLJKW EH DFFRPSOLVKHG E\ DUWHIDFWV WKDW RIIHU XVHUV DQG GHVLJQHUV WKH SRVVLELOLW\ WR JDLQ DQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI JHQGHU DQG WHFKQRORJ\ DV VRFLDO FRQVWUXFWLRQV DQG LQVWDEOH FRQVWDQWO\ SHUIRUPHG DQG QHJRWLDWHG FDWHJRULHV $ GHVLJQ SKLORVRSK\ WKDW ³DOORZV XVHUV WR HQJHQGHU WKHPVHOYHV WR DWWULEXWH WR WKHPVHOYHV D JHQ GHUHG LGHQWLW\ RI DQ\ RQH RI D QXPEHU RI VRUWV WR FUHDWH RU SHUIRUP WKHPVHOYHV WKURXJK XVLQJ WHFKQRORJ\´ &DVVHOO   LV µXQGHUGHWHUPLQHG GHVLJQ¶ :KLOH &DVVHOO¶V LGHDV ZHUH SULPDULO\ GLUHFWHG DW HQFRXUDJLQJ JHQGHU LGHQWLW\ IRUPDWLRQ LQ FRPSXWHU JDPHV IRU FKLOGUHQ WKDW WUDQVFHQG JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV ³WHFKQRORJ\ DV H[SHULHQFH´ 0F&DUWK\ DQG :ULJKW  LV DQ H[SHULPHQWDO DFFRXQW DGGUHVVLQJ µIHOW OLIH¶ 5RRWHG LQ SKHQRPHQRORJ\ WKLV WKHRUHWLFDO DS SURDFK VHUYHV DV D EDVLV IRU VRPH EURDGHU GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJLHV µ'HVLJQ IRU H[SHULHQFH¶ 6HQJHUV  6HQJHUV HW DO   DV RSSRVHG WR GHVLJQLQJ H[ SHULHQFH LQWR DQ DUWHIDFW IRFXVHV QRW RQO\ RQ WKH VXEMHFWLYH H[SHULHQFHV HJ VHQVXDO HPRWLRQDO FRPSRVLWLRQDO VSDWLR WHPSRUDO RI WKH XVHUV EXW DOVR RSHQV XS VSDFH IRU SRWHQWLDOLW\ DQG PHDQLQJIXOQHVV LH D SOXUDOLW\ RI SURFHVVHV WKDW FRQVWUXFW PHDQLQJ DQG ZKLFK VKRXOG QRW EH FORVHG RU VSHFL¿HG E\ GHVLJQ µ5H ÀHFWLYH 'HVLJQ¶ JRHV RQH VWHS IXUWKHU LQ VWDWLQJ WKDW ³UHÀHFWLRQ VKRXOG EH D FRUH GHVLJQ RXWFRPH RI +&,3´ 6HQJHUV HW DO    5HÀHFWLRQ LQ WKLV FDVH LV WR EH XQGHUVWRRG DV FULWLFDO UHÀHFWLRQ WKDW UHQGHUV XVHUV DZDUH RI XQFRQVFLRXV DVSHFWV RI H[SHULHQFH 7KH PHWKRGRORJ\ FRQVLVWV RI SULQFLSOHV DQG VWUDWHJLHV ZKLFK FRPELQH WKH DQDO\VLV RI WKH ZD\V WHFKQRORJ\ UHÀHFWV DQG SHUSHWXDWHV XQ FRQVFLRXV FXOWXUDO DVVXPSWLRQV VXFK DV WKH SROLWLFV RI UDFH JHQGHU DQG HFRQ RP\ ZLWK WKH GHVLJQ EXLOGLQJ DQG HYDOXDWLRQ RI FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV WKDW UHÀHFW DOWHUQDWLYH SRVVLELOLWLHV ,W DLPV DW SURYLGLQJ VXSSRUW IRU VHOI UHÀHFWLRQ 7R P\ PLQG WKLV DSSURDFK FRXOG EH SURGXFWLYHO\ XVHG WR UDLVH DQ DZDUHQHVV RI JHQGHU VWHUHRW\SHV LQWHUQDOL]HG E\ XVHUV GHVLJQHUV DQG DUWHIDFWV

FORMALISMS, ABSTRACT CONCEPTS, AND BASIC RESEARCH: DE-CONTEXTUALIZATION AND OBJECTIVISM

$ IRXUWK FDWHJRU\ RI FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV LQFOXGHV DOJRULWKPV IRUPDO RE MHFWV DQG FRQFHSWXDO DSSURDFKHV LQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH WKDW FDQ EH VDLG WR KDYH

_+&,VWDQGVIRU+XPDQ&RPSXWHU,QWHUDFWLRQ SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 69

JHQGHU SROLWLFV $EVWUDFWLRQ IRUPDOL]DWLRQ DQG FODVVL¿FDWLRQ SURGXFH WKH LP SUHVVLRQ RI REMHFWLYLW\ DQG D QHXWUDO UHVHDUFK VXEMHFW +HUH LW VHHPV SUREOHP DWLF WKDW WKHVH SURFHVVHV LQHYLWDEO\ HQWDQJOHG ZLWK FRPSXWHU VFLHQWLVWV¶ ZRUN GLVJXLVH H[SOLFLW DQG LPSOLFLW GHFLVLRQV PDGH LQ WKH SURFHVV RI WHFKQRORJ\ GH VLJQ ZKLOH WKH\ LQ HIIHFW HVWDEOLVK KLHUDUFKLHV RI NQRZOHGJH JHQGHUHG FODV VL¿FDWLRQV RU GLFKRWRPLHV 6WULNLQJ H[DPSOHV RI WKLV NLQG RI JHQGHULQJ PHFKD QLVP DUH WKH PDWKHPDWLFDO WRROV XVHG WR WUDQVIRUP UDZ GDWD IURP D FRPSXWHU WRPRJUDSK LQWR FRORUHG SLFWXUHV RI WKH EUDLQ ,W KDV EHHQ VKRZQ .DLVHU HW DO  WKDW GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH DOJRULWKP DQG WKUHVKROG FKRVHQ JHQGHU GLI IHUHQFHV RI WKH EUDLQ DSSHDU RU GR QRW DSSHDU 7KXV IRUPDOL]DWLRQ LV QRW LQQRFHQW $ ¿HOG ZKHUH WKLV KDV DOVR EHHQ GHPRQVWUDWHG LV WKH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI NQRZOHGJH )RU LQVWDQFH &<& D NQRZOHGJH EDVHG V\VWHP ZKLFK UHFHLYHG D KXJH DPRXQW RI UHVHDUFK IXQGLQJ RYHU  \HDUV GXULQJ WKH V LQ WKH 86 DLPHG WR FRGLI\ FRPPRQ VHQVH NQRZOHGJH +RZHYHU RQO\ GHFODUDWLYH NQRZO edge has been taken into account, whereas procedural knowledge has been ignored. Alison Adam and Catherine Sherron complain that the knowledge, ZKLFK LV H[FOXGHG IURP IRUPDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ FRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK WKH NQRZO HGJH WKDW LV WUDGLWLRQDOO\ DVVLJQHG WR WKH IHPDOH UHDOP $GDP  6KHU URQ   0RUHRYHU &<& DVVXPHV D XQLYHUVDO VXEMHFW RI NQRZOHGJH &RQ WUDU\ WR IHPLQLVW LQVLJKWV LQWR WKH VLWXDWHGQHVV RI DOO NQRZOHGJH HJ +DUDZD\   LW LV WDNHQ IRU JUDQWHG WKDW DOO NQRZHUV VKDUH WKH VDPH UHDOLW\ ³EH WKH\ D SURIHVVRU ZDLWUHVV D VL[ \HDU ROG FKLOG RU HYHQ D ODZ\HU´ /HQDW DQG *XKD  DFFRUGLQJ WR $GDP    5HFHQW IRUPDOL]DWLRQ SURMHFWV VXFK DV WKH 6HPDQWLF :HE RU /LQNHG 2SHQ 'DWD HQFRXQWHU VLPLODU SUREOHPV VHH %DWK   $QRWKHU H[HPSOL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH FDWHJRU\ RI IRUPDOLVPV DEVWUDFW FRQ cepts, and basic research are dichotomies that underlie computational concepts WKDW PLJKW EH V\PEROLFDOO\ JHQGHUHG VXFK DV WKH GXDOLVPV RI PLQG DQG ERG\ RU UDWLRQDOLW\ DQG HPRWLRQDOLW\ $WWHPSWV WR RYHUFRPH WKHVH GLFKRWRPLHV HJ LQ DUWL¿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µ0LQG 6FULSWLQJ¶ $OOKXWWHU  LV DQ DSSURDFK WR LGHQWLI\ SUHVXPSWLRQV DQG JHQGHU VFULSWV LQ WKH SURFHVV RI GHVLJQLQJ WHFKQRORJ\ 7KH WHFKQLTXH LV 70 CORINNA BATH

EDVHG RQ )ULJJD +DXJ¶V ³PHPRU\ ZRUN´ WKDW XVHV RQH SDJH ORQJ WH[WV ZULW WHQ E\ JURXS PHPEHUV WR GHFRQVWUXFW VKDUHG H[SHULHQFHV DQG DVVXPSWLRQV UH ÀHFWLQJ VRFLHWDO VWUXFWXUHV +DXJ   ³0LQG 6FULSWLQJ´ WUDQVIHUV WKLV LGHD ZKLFK RULJLQDWHG LQ WKH FRQVFLRXVQHVV UDLVLQJ JURXSV RI WKH V WR SUHVHQW JURXSV RI WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQHUV $OOKXWWHU   ³9DOXH 6HQVLWLYH 'HVLJQ´ )ULHGPDQ DQG .DKQ  LV D PHWKRG WKDW DLPV WR LQVFULEH FHUWDLQ GHVLUHG YDOXHV VXFK DV HTXLW\ GLYHUVLW\ DQG LQFOXVLRQ LQWR WHFKQRORJLFDO DUWHIDFWV ,W FRQWDLQV WKUHH OHYHOV RI LQTXLU\ HPSLULFDO WHFKQRORJLFDO DQG PRVW QRWDEO\ FRQFHSWXDO VWXGLHV WKDW DUH EDVHG RQ PRUDO SKLORVRSK\ DQG HWKLFV +RZHYHU WKH PHWKRG ZDV DOUHDG\ DSSOLHG WR FRPSXWHU JDPH GHVLJQ E\ IHPLQLVW VFKRO DUV HJ )ODQDJDQ HW DO   3DUWLFXODUO\ LQ RUGHU WR XQGHUPLQH RU UHVROYH dichotomies that are gendered in western traditional thought and connected to WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ ³&ULWLFDO 7HFKQLFDO 3UDFWLFH´ $JUH  FDQ EH D KHOSIXO WRRO 7KLV PHWKRG VXJJHVWV DQDO\]LQJ GHVLJQHUV¶ GLVFRXUVHV LQ RUGHU WR LGHQ WLI\ NH\ PHWDSKRUV DQG WKHQ WR LQYHUW WKHVH WHUPV ,W UHVXOWV LQ EULQJLQJ LQ WKH PDUJLQ WR WKH FHQWHU RI WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ )RU LQVWDQFH $JUH DQG &KDS PDQ  GHYHORSHG D V\VWHP LQ ZKLFK WKH PRGHO RI DEVWUDFW FRJQLWLRQ WKDW ZDV GRPLQDQW LQ $UWL¿FLDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH GXULQJ WKH V ZDV UHSODFHG E\ D VLWXDWHG DFWLRQ DSSURDFK WKDW LPSOHPHQWHG 6XFKPDQV¶ WKHRUHWLFDO DFFRXQW $Q RWKHU WHFKQLTXH WR TXHVWLRQ DQG FKDQJH FRQFHSWV RI EDVLF UHVHDUFK LQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH DUH LQWHUYHQWLRQLVW ODERUDWRU\ VWXGLHV $V D IRUP RI DQWKURSRORJLFDO LQTXLU\ FRPPRQO\ XVHG LQ VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHV 676 ODERUDWRU\ VWXGLHV DUH LQWHUYHQWLRQLVW DV VXFK +RZHYHU DSSOLHG WR WKH FRQWH[W RI EDVLF UHVHDUFK LQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH WKLV PHWKRG FDQ EH H[SOLFLWO\ JXLGHG E\ IHPLQLVW JRDOV LQ GHVLJQ VXFK DV WKH RQWRORJLFDO DQG HSLVWHPRORJLFDO µGH JHQGHULQJ RI FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ 7KLV KDV EHHQ H[SORUHG E\ RZQ UHVHDUFK LQ WKH ¿HOG RI DQWKURSRPRUSKLF VRIWZDUH DJHQWV VHH IRU H[DPSOH :HEHU DQG %DWK   +HQFH WKHUH DUH DOUHDG\ D IHZ WHFKQLTXHV WKDW VHHP SURPLVLQJ WR XVH LQ RUGHU WR UH FRQWH[WXDOL]H IRUPDO REMHFWV DQG UHSODFH TXHVWLRQDEOH RQWRORJLFDO DQG epistemological assumptions in basic research in computer science.

CRITICAL AND FEMINIST RE-READING OF THE METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

The approach that has been roughly presented in the last sections aims at a EDVLF PHWKRGRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN IRU IHPLQLVW WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ LQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH ,W SURYLGHV D EURDG VSHFWUXP RI PHWKRGV KHOSIXO IRU µGH JHQGHULQJ SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 71

FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ 7KH VXJJHVWLRQV DUH EDVHG RQ D WKRURXJK DQG V\VWHP DWLF DQDO\VLV RI JHQGHULQJ SURFHVVHV ,W FDQ KRZHYHU RQO\ EHFRPH D PHWKRG RORJ\ LI LW LV FULWLFDOO\ UH UHDG IURP WKH IHPLQLVW WKHRU\ SHUVSHFWLYH LQWURGXFHG DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ DQG HYDOXDWHG LQ SUDFWLFH 7KLV VHFWLRQ GLVFXVVHV WKHRUHWLFDO WUDSV DQG SRVVLEOH HPSLULFDO LPSURYHPHQWV RI WKH IRXU VWUDQGV :KHQ WHFKQRORJLHV DUH FUHDWHG µIRU HYHU\RQH¶ GHVLJQHUV RIWHQ LQVFULEH WKHLU RZQ PHQWDO PRGHOV LQWR WKH WHFKQRORJ\ 7R DYRLG D JHQGHULQJ RI WKH DUWH IDFWV UHVXOWLQJ IURP VXFK DQ µ, PHWKRGRORJ\¶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proach to design. ,QVFULELQJ JHQGHUHG LPDJHV RI XVH XVHUV DQG WKH GLYLVLRQ RI ODERU LQWR FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV ZDV LGHQWL¿HG DV D VHFRQG JHQGHULQJ PHFKDQLVP WKDW RIWHQ RFFXUV LQ WKH GHVLJQ RI WHFKQRORJLHV LQWHQGHG IRU IHPDOH XVHUV 7R FRXQ teract stereotypes and gendered hierarchical patterns in such processes, partic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¶V ZRUN DQG FRP SHWHQFLHV )URP D IHPLQLVW SHUVSHFWLYH WKLV PHDQV WKDW WKH VWUDWHJ\ WHQGV WR UH HVVHQWLDOL]H JHQGHU ,W LV DOVR SUREOHPDWLF VLQFH LW DLPV WR PDNH DVSHFWV RI ZRUN YLVLEOH WKDW VKRXOG UDWKHU EH KLGGHQ IURP D SROLWLFDO SHUVSHFWLYH VHH IRU 72 CORINNA BATH

H[DPSOH %RZNHU DQG 6WDU   7KXV WKH SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ DSSURDFK WRR QHHGV D VHFRQG UHÀHFWLRQ ZKHQ DGDSWHG IRU GH JHQGHULQJ SXUSRVHV 7KH WKLUG GH JHQGHULQJ VWUDWHJ\ DGGUHVVHG UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV RI µWKH KXPDQ¶ in IT, which tend to normalize gender stereotypes. In order to deconstruct not RQO\ VXFK JHQGHUHG DVVXPSWLRQV LQVFULEHG LQWR WKH DUWHIDFWV EXW DOVR WKH XQ GHUO\LQJ ELQDU\ VH[ DQG JHQGHU V\VWHP LW ZDV SURSRVHG WR FRPELQH µUHÀHFWLYH GHVLJQ¶ DQG µGHVLJQ IRU H[SHULHQFH¶ ZLWK LQVLJKWV RI FXUUHQW JHQGHU VWXGLHV %RWK RI WKHVH GHVLJQ DSSURDFKHV DUH EDVHG RQ D FRQVWUXFWLYLVW HSLVWHPRORJ\ 7KH\ IXUWKHUPRUH FRPELQH WHFKQRORJ\ GHVLJQ ZLWK FULWLFDO VRFLDO WKHRU\ 7KHVH PHWKRGV FDQ WKHUHIRUH HDVLO\ EH FRQQHFWHG ZLWK FXUUHQW IHPLQLVW WKHRU\ DQG GHFRQVWUXFWLYLVW DSSURDFKHV +RZHYHU WKH\ KDYH VR IDU QRW EHHQ DSSOLHG DV GH JHQGHULQJ VWUDWHJLHV %H\RQG WKDW LW LV DQ RSHQ TXHVWLRQ ZKHWKHU µUHÀHF WLYH GHVLJQ¶ DQG µGHVLJQ IRU H[SHULHQFH¶ FDQ EH DSSOLHG WR D EURDGHU VFRSH RI WHFKQRORJLHV 6LQFH WKH ¿UVW WZR W\SHV RI DUWHIDFWV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV SDSHU WHQG WR HVVHQWLDOL]H JHQGHU GHFRQVWUXFWLYLVW DSSURDFKHV PLJKW DOVR EH SURPLVLQJ PHWKRGV WR DYRLG WKH JHQGHULQJ RI VXFK WHFKQRORJLHV ,W KDV WR EH H[SORUHG ZKHWKHU WKHUH DUH PRUH VXLWDEOH WHFKQLTXHV WR GHFRQVWUXFW WKH ELQDU\ VH[ DQG gender system by technology design in these cases. 7KH PHWKRGV SURSRVHG WR DYRLG WKH JHQGHULQJ RI IRUPDO REMHFWV DQG ED VLF UHVHDUFK LQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH QHHG IXUWKHU HPSLULFDO HYDOXDWLRQ 0RVW RI WKHVH PHWKRGV UHTXLUH HLWKHU D SUDFWLFDO LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ WR H[SORUH ZKHWKHU WKH\ FDQ VHUYH DV D GH JHQGHULQJ VWUDWHJ\ RU ZKHWKHU WKH\ ZHUH RULJLQDOO\ GH YHORSHG IRU JXLGLQJ VRIWZDUH GHYHORSPHQW DQG QRW IRU UHYHDOLQJ SUREOHPDWLF presumptions in technological concepts. It is the question whether they can EH WUDQVIHUUHG WR IRUPDOLVPV DEVWUDFW FRQFHSWV DQG EDVLF UHVHDUFK DQG ZKDW WKH\ FDQ FRQWULEXWH WR UH FRQWH[WXDOLVLQJ DUWHIDFWV FRXQWHUDFWLQJ GLVSXWDEOH HSLVWHPRORJLFDO DQG RQWRORJLFDO DVVXPSWLRQV LQ WKH GHVLJQ SURFHVV RU UHVROY ing traditional dichotomies in basic technological concepts. Particularly in this DUHD WKHUH LV QHHG IRU IXUWKHU UHVHDUFK RQ GH JHQGHULQJ PHWKRGV

,Q VXPPDU\ WKLV SDSHU LQWURGXFHG D V\VWHPDWLF DSSURDFK WR IHPLQLVW WHFKQRO RJ\ GHVLJQ ,W SUHVHQWHG D VWDUWLQJ SRLQW IRU D JHQHUDO PHWKRGRORJ\ WR FRXQ WHUDFW WKH JHQGHULQJ RI FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV WKDW JRHV IDU EH\RQG H[LVWLQJ VXJJHVWLRQV ZKLFK VR IDU KDYH EHHQ HLWKHU UHVWULFWHG WR VRIWZDUH DSSOLFDWLRQV or to problematic guidelines. The proposed de gendering approach takes into DFFRXQW WKH FRPSOH[ JHQGHULQJ SURFHVVHV ZKLFK PLJKW RFFXU LQ WKH ¿HOG RI FRPSXWLRQDO DUWHIDFW GHVLJQ ,W FODUL¿HV IRU ZKDW FDVHV ZHOO NQRZQ GHVLJQ PHWKRGV IURP WKH ¿HOG RI FULWLFDO FRPSXWLQJ VXFK DV SDUWLFLSDWRU\ GHVLJQ DUH SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 73

likely to support de gendering processes. ‘De gendering computational arte IDFWV¶ IXUWKHUPRUH VXJJHVWV GHVLJQ PHWKRGV IRU WKRVH DUWHIDFWV WKDW KDYH UDUHO\ EHHQ DGGUHVVHG LQ RUGHU WR DYRLG JHQGHULQJ E\ HDUOLHU PHWKRGV ,Q FULWLFDOO\ UHFRQQHFWLQJ WKLV DSSURDFK ZLWK IHPLQLVW WKHRU\ ZH VKRXOG EH FDXWLRXV QRW XVH it as a simple recipe. It has been argued that analyzing the gendering and aim LQJ DW D µGH JHQGHULQJ RI FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ QHHGV D FDUHIXO WKHRUHWLFDO EDFNJURXQG LQ RUGHU WR DYRLG ZHOO NQRZQ VKRUWFRPLQJV VXFK DV HVVHQWLDOL]LQJ JHQGHU RU WHFKQRORJ\ RU IDOOLQJ LQWR WKH WUDS RI WHFKQRORJLFDO GHWHUPLQLVP 1HYHUWKHOHVV LW UHTXLUHV IXUWKHU GLVFXVVLRQ ZKHWKHU WKH DUWHIDFWV WKDW KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSHG DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH SURSRVHG PHWKRGRORJ\ FDQ LQ WKH HQG EH µEHWWHU¶ RU µOHVV JHQGHUHG¶ WKDQ WKRVH GHYHORSHG RXWVLGH RI WKLV IUDPHZRUN :K\ GRHV GHVLJQ DQG SDUWLFXODUO\ GHVLJQ IRU GH JHQGHULQJ PDWWHU" 1XPHURXV 676 FDVH VWXGLHV KDYH VWUHVVHG WKDW GHVLJQHUV¶ LQWHQWLRQV GR QRW QHFHVVDULO\ UH sult in a use that was intended. Users rather adopt technologies in their own way EH LW DORQJ GHVLJQHUV¶ FRQFHSWV DQG VFULSWV RU DJDLQVW WKHP VHH IRU LQVWDQFH 2XGVKRRUQ DQG 3LQFK   , ZRXOG FRXQWHU WKDW WKHVH LQVLJKWV KDYH DOUHDG\ EHHQ LQFOXGHG LQ WKH PHWKRGRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN WKHRUHWLFDOO\ EXW DOVR E\ WKH SURFHGXUH WKH FRQFHSW RI SRVWKXPDQLVW SHUIRUPDWLYLW\ WDNHV LQWR FRQVLG HUDWLRQ WKDW JHQGHU VLJQL¿FDWLRQ DQG UH VLJQL¿FDWLRQ LV FRPSOH[ VLWXDWHG DQG historically continuously changing. The actual gendering processes are neither SUHGLFWDEOH QRU FRQWUROODEOH IRU WKH IXWXUH XVH RI DQ DUWHIDFW *HQGHU LV DV ÀXLG DQG XQVWDEOH DV DUWHIDFWV DUH +RZHYHU GHVLJQ LV QRW DUELWUDU\ 2Q WKH FRQ WUDU\ LW KDV DV 6XFKPDQ  DQG %DUDG D E  HPSKDVL]H µUHDO FRQVHTXHQFHV¶ VHH DOVR 9DQ GHU 9HOGHQ DQG 0|UWEHUJ   2Q WKLV EDVLV µGH JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWDWLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ FDOOV IRU D UHVSRQVLEOH KDQGOLQJ RI WKH GHVLJQ VLWXDWLRQ ZKHUH WKH XVH RI WKH DUWHIDFWV FUHDWHG LV QRW IRUHVHHDEOH 6LQFH WKH IXWXUH XVH FDQQRW EH HPSLULFDOO\ UHVHDUFKHG LW WDNHV LQWR DFFRXQW WKRVH JHQ GHULQJ PHFKDQLVPV WKDW KDYH DOUHDG\ EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG LQ HDUOLHU 676 VWXGLHV DQG DLPV WR DYRLG WKHP LQ IXWXUH GHVLJQV +RZHYHU SUDFWLFDOO\ VSHDNLQJ WKH DS SURDFK SURSRVHG QHHGV HPSLULFDO H[DPLQDWLRQ 7KLV HYDOXDWLRQ PLJKW UHVXOW LQ IXUWKHU UH¿QHPHQW DQG HQKDQFHPHQW RI WKH PHWKRGRORJ\ +HQFH WKH FKDOOHQJH LV QRZ WR ZRUN ZLWK WKH PHWKRGRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN RI µGH JHQGHULQJ FRPSXWD WLRQDO DUWHIDFWV¶ LQ RUGHU WR JDLQ PRUH H[SHULHQFH ZLWK LW 74 CORINNA BATH

REFERENCES

$GDP $  $UWL¿FLDO .QRZLQJ *HQGHU DQG WKH 7KLQNLQJ 0DFKLQH Lon don: Routledge. $JUH 3  &RPSXWDWLRQ DQG +XPDQ ([SHULHQFH Cambridge: Cambridge 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV $JUH 3 DQG &KDSPDQ '  3HQJL $Q ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI D 7KHRU\ RI $F WLYLW\ 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH 6L[WK 1DWLRQDO &RQIHUHQFH RQ $UWL¿FLDO ,QWHO ligence. 6HDWWOH   $NULFK 0  8VHU 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQV 3UDFWLFHV 0HWKRGV DQG 6RFLRORJ\ ,Q 5LS $ 0LVD 7 DQG 6FKRW - HGV Managing Technology in Society. Lon GRQ1HZ

%DWK &  6HPDQWLF :HE DQG /LQNHG 2SHQ 'DWD 9RQ GHU $QDO\VH ]XP Ä'LIIUDFWLYH 'HVLJQ³ ,Q %DWK & 0HLVVHU + 7ULQNDXV 6 HW DO HGV Ge VFKOHFKWHU ,QWHUIHUHQ]HQ :LVVHQVIRUPHQ 6XEMHNWLYLHUXQJVZHLVHQ 0D terialisierungen. 0QVWHU /,7 9HUODJ   %HUJ $-  $ JHQGHUHG VRFLR WHFKQLFDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ 7KH VPDUW KRXVH ,Q :DMFPDQ - DQG 0DF.HQ]LH ' HGV The Social Shaping of Technology, 2nd HGQ %XFNLQJKDP 8.3KLODGHOSKLD 2SHQ 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV   %HUWHOVHQ 2: %RXYLQ 1 .URJK 3* DQG .\QJ 0 HGV  Critical Com SXWLQJ %HWZHHQ 6HQVH DQG 6HQVLELOLW\ 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH th decennial FRQIHUHQFH RQ 1HZ

)ODQDJDQ 0 1LVVHQEDXP + 'LDPRQG - DQG %HOPDQ -  $ 0HWKRG IRU 'LVFRYHULQJ 9DOXHV LQ 'LJLWDO *DPHV 6LWXDWHG 3OD\ DiGRA ’07 7RN\R -3 6HSWHPEHU     $YDLODEOH DW KWWSYDOXHVDWSOD\RUJ"SDJH LG  DFFHVVHG  6HSWHPEHU   )ULHGPDQ % DQG .DKQ 3  +XPDQ 9DOXHV (WKLFV DQG 'HVLJQ ,Q -DFNR - DQG 6HDUV $ HGV The human computer interaction handbook. Mahwah, 1- /DZUHQFH (UOEDXP $VVRFLDWHV   *LOO 5 DQG *ULQW .  The Gender Technology Relation. Contemporary 7KHRU\ DQG 5HVHDUFK ,QWURGXFWLRQ London/Bristol: Taylor & Francis. *UHHQEDXP - DQG .\QJ 0 HGV  Design at Work. Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. +DUDZD\ '  6LWXDWHG .QRZOHGJHV 7KH 6FLHQFH 4XHVWLRQ LQ )HPLQLVP DV D 6LWH RI 'LVFRXUVH RQ WKH 3ULYLOHJH RI 3DUWLDO 3HUVSHFWLYH Feminist Studies      +DXJ )  (ULQQHUXQJVDUEHLW HLQ /HLWIDGHQ ]XU 0HWKRGH ,Q +DXJ ) HG 9RUOHVXQJHQ ]XU (LQIKUXQJ LQ GLH (ULQQHUXQJVDUEHLW Hamburg: Ar JXPHQW   +RIPDQQ -  :ULWHUV WH[WV DQG ZULWLQJ DFWV ,Q :DMFPDQ - DQG 0DF.HQ ]LH ' HGV The Social Shaping of Technology, 2nd Ed. Buckingham, UK/ 3KLODGHOSKLD 2SHQ 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV   .DLVHU $ .XHQ]OL ( DQG 1LWVFK &  'RHV VH[  JHQGHU LQÀXHQFH ODQ guage processing? 1HXUR,PDJH 22, Supl.1. Abstr. No MO39. /RUEHU -  8VLQJ *HQGHU WR 8QGR *HQGHU $ IHPLQLVW GHJHQGHULQJ PRYH ment. Feminist Theory      /RUEHU -  Breaking the Bowls: Degendering and Feminist Change. New York: W.W. Norton. 0DDVV 6 DQG 5RPPHV (  8QFRYHULQJ WKH LQYLVLEOH ,Q =RUQ , 0DDVV 6 5RPPHV ( HW DO HGV *HQGHU 'HVLJQV ,7 :LHVEDGHQ 96 9HUODJ   0DDVV 6 5RPPHV ( 6FKLUPHU & HW DO  *HQGHU 5HVHDUFK DQG ,7 &RQ VWUXFWLRQ &RQFHSWV IRU &KDOOHQJLQJ 3DUWQHUVKLS ,Q =RUQ , 0DDVV 6 5RPPHV ( HW DO HGV *HQGHU 'HVLJQV ,7 :LHVEDGHQ 96 9HUODJ   0F&DUWK\ - DQG :ULJKW 3  7HFKQRORJ\ DV ([SHULHQFH Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 0DF.HQ]LH ' DQG :DMFPDQ ' HGV  The Social Shaping of Technology, 2nd (G %XFNLQJKDP3KLODGHOSKLD 2SHQ 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV 0DUFXV $  +XPDQ FRPPXQLFDWLRQ LVVXHV LQ DGYDQFHG 8,V Communica tions of the ACM      1LHOVHQ -  8VDELOLW\ (QJLQHHULQJ 6DQ )UDQVFLVFR 0RUJDQ .DXIIPDQQ SEARCHING FOR METHODOLOGY 77

2XGVKRRUQ1DQG3LQFK7 HGV   How Users matter. The Co-Construc- tion of Users and Technology. Cambridge/London: MIT Press. 2XGVKRRUQ15RPPHV(DQG6WLHQVWUD0  &RQ¿JXULQJWKH8VHUDV (YHU\ERG\6FLHQFH7HFKQRORJ\ +XPDQ9DOXHV  ± 3UHHFH-5RJHUV<DQG6KDUS+  ,QWHUDFWLRQ'HVLJQ%H\RQG+XPDQ &RPSXWHU,QWHUDFWLRQ New York: John Wiley & Sons. 5RPPHV(  *HQGHU6FULSWVDQGWKH,QWHUQHWEnschede: Twente Uni- YHUVLW\ 6HQJHUV3  7KHHQJLQHHULQJRIH[SHULHQFH,Q%O\WKH00RQN$2YHU- EHHN.HWDO HGV )XQRORJ\)URP8VDELOLW\WR(QMR\PHQW Dordrecht: .OXZHU± 6HQJHUV3%RHKQHU.*D\*HWDO  ([SHULHQFHDVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ&+, 2004 :RUNVKRS&URVVGUHVVLQJDQGERUGHUFURVVLQJH[SORULQJH[SHULHQFH PHWKRGV DFURVV GLVFLSOLQHV $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZVIXFDaUZDNNDU\ FKLBZRUNVKRS DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  6HQJHUV3%RHKQHU.6KD\'HWDO  5HÀHFWLYH'HVLJQ,Q%HUWHOVHQ2 %RXYLQ1.URJK3*HWDO HGV Between Sense and Sensibility. Proceed- LQJV RI WKH th GHFHQQLDO FRQIHUHQFH RQ &ULWLFDO &RPSXWLQJ 1HZ

9DQ2RVW(  0DWHULDOL]HG*HQGHU+RZ6KDYHUV&RQ¿JXUHWKH8VHUV¶ )HPLQLQLW\DQG0DVFXOLQLW\2XGVKRRUQ1DQG3LQFK7 HGV The Co-Con- struction of Users and Technology.&DPEULGJH0$0,73UHVV± :DJQHU,  :RPHQ¶VYRLFH7KHFDVHRIQXUVLQJLQIRUPDWLRQV\VWHPV$, 6RFLHW\  ± :DMFPDQ -   Feminism confronts technology. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. :DMFPDQ-  )URP:RPHQDQG7HFKQRORJ\WR*HQGHUHG7HFKQRVFLHQFH ,QIRUPDWLRQ&RPPXQLFDWLRQ 6RFLHW\  ± :HEHU-DQG%DWK&  µ6RFLDO¶URERWV µHPRWLRQDO¶VRIWZDUHDJHQWV,Q =RUQ,0DDVV65RPPHV(HWDO HGV *HQGHU'HVLJQV,7 Wiesbaden: 969HUODJ± =RUQ , 0DDVV 6 5RPPHV ( HW DO   *HQGHU 'HVLJQV ,7 Wiesbaden: 969HUODJ Masks between the Visible and the Invisible

CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

³7KHZRUOGPHQDUHERUQLQWRFRQWDLQVPDQ\WKLQJVQDWX- UDODQGDUWL¿FLDOOLYLQJDQGGHDGWUDQVLHQWDQGVHPSLWHUQDO DOORIZKLFKKDYHLQFRPPRQWKDWWKH\DSSHDUDQGKHQFHDUH meant to be seen, heard, touched, tasted and smelled, to be SHUFHLYHGE\VHQWLHQWFUHDWXUHVHQGRZHGZLWKWKHDSSURSUL- ate sense organs. Nothing could appear, the word ‘appear- DQFH¶ZRXOGPDNHQRVHQVHLIUHFLSLHQWVRIDSSHDUDQFHVGLG QRWH[LVW±OLYLQJFUHDWXUHVDEOHWRDFNQRZOHGJHDQGUHDFWWR ±LQÀLJKWRUGHVLUHDSSURYDORUGLVDSSURYDOEODPHRUSUDLVH ±ZKDWLVQRWPHUHO\WKHUHEXWDSSHDUVWRWKHPDQGLVPHDQW IRUWKHLUSHUFHSWLRQ´ $UHQGW

7KHZRUGVµPDVN¶µPDVNLQJ¶DQGµPDVTXHUDGH¶DUHPHWDSKRUVIRUGLVFXVVLQJ GHVFULELQJDQGDQDO\]LQJWKHYLVLEOHDQGLQYLVLEOHDFWLQJRIKXPDQDQGQRQ KXPDQDFWRUV7KHPDVNKDVIRUDORQJWLPHEHHQDV\PEROIRUWKHLQWHUSUHWD- WLRQDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHYLVLEOHDQGLQYLVLEOHDQGLVDSRZHUIXOGHYLFHIRU KXPDQH[SHULHQFHDQGWUDQVIRUPDWLRQLQPDQ\FXOWXUHV,WVWLOOOLYHVVWURQJO\ ZLWKLQRXUVRFLHWLHVZKHUHWKHPL[LQJRIUHDOLW\DQGYLUWXDOLW\ZLOOFRQWLQXHWR increase. 0DVNVDUHGHYLFHVIRUKLGLQJFRQVHUYLQJWUDQVIRUPDWLRQDQGPHGLDWLRQ JLYLQJKXPDQVWKHSURWHFWLRQWKH\QHHG0DVNVKDYHEHFRPHDGXDOLVWLFPHDQV RIFRQFHDOPHQWDQGKLGLQJEXWDOVRRIOLEHUDWLRQGLVFORVXUHDQGUHYHDOPHQW 7KH\DOZD\VRIIHUWKHRSSRUWXQLW\RIXQPDVNLQJGLVUXSWLQJWKHPHQWDOLQYLV- 80 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

LELOLW\RIRXUVHOIWKHRWKHUVDQGWKHGDLO\OLIHZHDFWLQ,QWKHPDVNLQJJHQGHU aspects play a crucial role. /RRNLQJWRWKHGLIIHUHQFHVDQGUHVHPEODQFHVZLWKPDVNLQJLQWKHDWUHLQ ULWHVDQGLQGDLO\OLIH,IRUPXODWHGTXHVWLRQVOLNH³:KRKDVWKHULJKWWRSUHVHQW PDVNVDQGWRWXUQRWKHUVLQWRDQDXGLHQFH"´7KHFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQDVSHFWVRI DXWKHQWLFLW\DQGSULYDF\ZLOOLQWHQVLI\EHFDXVHWKHPDVNVLQRXUPL[HGUHDOLW\ FUHDWHIUDJPHQWHGSDUWLDOLGHQWLWLHVUHIHUULQJWRKXPDQDQGQRQKXPDQDFWRUV $VWKHPDVTXHUDGHEHFRPHVDVWDJHIRUGLVFXVVLQJIHPLQLQLW\WKHPDVTXHUDGH ZLOOJLYHXVWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRQHJRWLDWHKXPDQLW\LQFRQIURQWDWLRQZLWKWKH super robots humankind wants to create.

INTERACTION

,QWHUDFWLRQLVDQH[FKDQJHRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVEHWZHHQDFWRUV6SHDNLQJJHV- turing, writing, making, designing are actions in which actors present them- VHOYHVWRRWKHUDFWRUVERWKKXPDQDQGQRQKXPDQ$OODFWLQJRIDFWRUVLVD UHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHPVHOYHVLQDZRUOGRIRWKHUDFWRUVDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHDQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKDWZRUOG(YHU\LQWHUSUHWDWLRQDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQZLOOLQÀX- HQFHIXWXUH LQWHU DFWLRQV1RWRQO\WKHDFWXDOEHKDYLRUEXWDOVRWKHDFWLRQV ZKLFKDUHQRWH[HFXWHG DFWLRQVLQGH¿FLHQWPRGH DUHSUHVHQWDEOHDQGLQWHU- SUHWDEOHEHFDXVHWKHVHDEVHQWDFWLRQVDOVRLQÀXHQFHWKHSURFHVVVLQFHWKH\ FRPSULVHWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIEHLQJH[SHFWHGRUPLVVHG &UXW]HQ± ±  ,QWHUDFWLRQLVDQRQJRLQJSURFHVVRIPXWXDODFWLRQVIURPVHYHUDODFWRUV LQDVSHFL¿FVLWXDWLRQRUDVHULHVRIVLWXDWLRQV,WLVDSURFHVVRIFRQVFLRXVO\ and unconsciously constructing meaning through repeated interpretation and UHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHDFWRUVZKLFKLVDOZD\VVLWXDWHGLQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQLWVHOI DQGLWGHSHQGVRQWKHKRUL]RQVDQGWKHEDFNJURXQGVRIWKHDFWRUVDQGWKHLU UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVLQYROYHGDQGWKHVSHFL¿FLQWHUDFWLRQ$OODFWRUVKXPDQDQG QRQKXPDQ ³DUH SDUW RI WKH ZRUOG LQ LWV RQJRLQJ LQWUDDFWLYLW\ >@ KXPDQ SUDFWLFHVKDYHDUROHWRSOD\DVSDUWRIWKHPDWHULDOFRQ¿JXUDWLRQRIWKHZRUOG LQLWVLQWUDDFWLYHEHFRPLQJµ+XPDQV¶DUHSDUWRIWKHZRUOGERG\VSDFHLQLWV G\QDPLFVWUXFWXUDWLRQ´ %DUDG± 7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIPHDQLQJ RFFXUV LQ WKH G\QDPLFV RI WKH DFWRUV¶ DFWLQJ LQ WKHLU DFWLRQV9LVLELOLW\ DQG LQYLVLELOLW\IRUHDFKRWKHUZLOOLQÀXHQFHWKHERUGHUVDQGWKHPDWHULDOLW\RIWKH DFWRUVLQYROYHG MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 81

Visibility and Invisibility

³/LWHUDWXUHPXVLFWKHSDVVLRQVEXWDOVRWKHH[SHULHQFHRI WKHYLVLEOHZRUOGDUH>@WKHH[SORUDWLRQRIDQLQYLVLEOHDQG WKHGLVFORVXUHRIDXQLYHUVHRILGHDV7KHGLIIHUHQFHLVVLP- SO\ WKDW WKLV LQYLVLEOH WKHVH LGHDV >@ FDQQRW EH GHWDFKHG IURPWKHVHQVLEOHDSSHDUDQFHVDQGEHHUHFWHGLQWRDVHFRQG SRVLWLYLW\>@:LWKWKH¿UVWYLVLRQWKH¿UVWFRQWDFWWKH¿UVW SOHDVXUHWKHUHLVLQLWLDWLRQWKDWLVQRWWKHSRVLWLQJRIDFRQ- WHQWEXWWKHRSHQLQJRIDGLPHQVLRQWKDWFDQQHYHUDJDLQEH FORVHGWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDOHYHOLQWHUPVRIZKLFKHYHU\ RWKHUH[SHULHQFHZLOOKHQFHIRUWKEHVLWXDWHG7KHLGHDLVWKLV OHYHOWKLVGLPHQVLRQ,WLVWKHUHIRUHQRWDGHIDFWRLQYLVLEOH like an object hidden behind another, and not an absolute LQYLVLEOHZKLFKZRXOGKDYHQRWKLQJWRGRZLWKWKHYLVLEOH 5DWKHULWLVWKHLQYLVLEOHRIWKLVZRUOGWKDWZKLFKLQKDELWV WKLVZRUOGVXVWDLQVLWDQGUHQGHUVLWYLVLEOHLWVRZQDQGLQ- WHULRUSRVVLELOLW\WKH%HLQJRIWKLVEHLQJ´ 0HUOHDX3RQW\

VisibilityIRUKXPDQVUHSUHVHQWVHYHU\WKLQJWKDWKXPDQVFDQGLUHFWO\RULQGL- UHFWO\SHUFHLYHZLWKWKHLUVHQVHVKHDULQJVHHLQJIHHOLQJVPHOOLQJDQGWDVW- LQJ$UWL¿FLDODFWRUVKDYHVHQVRUVDQGRWKHULQSXWSRVVLELOLWLHVWRVLPXODWHWKH VHQVHVRIKXPDQV +XPDQV KDYH GHYHORSHG DQG XVHG D ZLGH UDQJH RI YLVXDO KDSWLF DQG DFRXVWLFLQVWUXPHQWVIRUDWWHQGLQJDFHUWDLQGHJUHHRIYLVLELOLW\VXFKDVPLFUR- VFRSHVELQRFXODUVDQG¿UHDODUPV,QWKH*UHHNWKHDWUHWKHPDVNZDVDWRRO WRPDNHWKHDFWRUVPRUHYLVLEOHWRDOORIWKHDXGLHQFHDQGWRPDNHWKHDFWRUV¶ YRLFHVDXGLEOH7KHPDVNVKDGDVPDOOPHJDSKRQHOLNHFRQWUDSWLRQFRQFHDOHG LQWKHPRXWKRIWKHPDVN7KHPDVNQRWRQO\HQKDQFHGWKHVHQVHRIVHHLQJD IDFHEXWDOVRHQKDQFHGWKHYRLFH 9HUYDLQDQG:LOHV  9LVLELOLW\RIDKXPDQRUDUWL¿FLDODFWRUIRULWVHQYLURQPHQWFDQEHGH¿QHG DVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIXQYHLOLQJLWVLQWHUDFWLRQV &UXW]HQDQG+HLQ  7KLV XQYHLOLQJ GRHV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ QHHG WR EH GRQH E\ RQH SHUVRQ LW FDQ DOVREHDFKLHYHGE\VRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQVLQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQLWVHOIZLWKLQKXPDQ HQYLURQPHQWVVXFKDVµKRXVH¶µQHLJKERXUKRRG¶µZRUN¶µKRPHODQG¶DQGRI FRXUVHWKHWKHDWUH,QYLVLEOHDFWLQJLQLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKDUWL¿FLDOGHYLFHVRFFXUV ZKHQXVHUVGXULQJWKHLQWHUDFWLRQGRQRWSHUFHLYHWULJJHUVIRUFULWLFDOO\UHÀHFW- 82 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

LQJDQGGHYHORSLQJHPRWLRQVDERXWWKHUHDG\PDGHDUWL¿FLDODFWLQJSUHVHQWHG ³>@0RVWRIUHDOLW\LVKLGGHQIURPGLUHFWVHQVRU\H[SHULHQFHDQGPXVWEH adumbrated and conceptualized or imagined in our encounter with reality.” /DXJKOLQ  $Q DUWL¿FLDO DFWRU¶V LQYLVLELOLW\ IRU KXPDQV LV XQOLPLWHG 0DUF :HLVHU  DUJXHVIRUDQ³LQYLVLELOLW\RIWKHWRRO´WKDWLWVKRXOG³QRWLQWUXGH´ LQWR RXU ³FRQVFLRXVQHVV´ WKDW LW VKRXOG GLVDSSHDU IURP RXU DZDUHQHVV WKH IRFXVVKRXOGEH³WKHWDVNDQGQRWWKHWRRO´$WRROPLJKWEHYLVLEOHLQLWVHOIEXW LWZLOOEHLQYLVLEOH³DVDSDUWRIDFRQWH[WRIXVH´7KLVPHDQVWKDWWKHDFWLYLW\ SHUIRUPHGZLWKWKHWRROVKRXOGEHREYLRXVWKHWRROLWVHOIVKRXOGQRWEHWKH FHQWUHRIRXUDWWHQWLRQ+HDVNVZKDWNLQGRILQWHUIDFHWKLVWRROVKRXOGKDYH DQGVXJJHVWV³PRYLQJWRIXOOERG\VHQVLQJDQGLQWHUDFWLRQ´DQG³E\PD[LPDO- O\XWLOLVLQJDOORIRXUERG\¶VLQSXWDQGRXWSXWFKDQQHOV´ :HLVHU 6R DFFRUGLQJWRKLPDQGWKRVHWKDWVKDUHKLVYLHZWKHYLVLELOLW\RIKXPDQDFWRUV WRDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVVKRXOGLQFUHDVHPRUHDQGPRUH+RZHYHUWKHLQWHUDFWLRQRI KXPDQVZLWKDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVVKRXOGEHPHQWDOO\LQYLVLEOHIRUKXPDQV

Mental, Physical, and Methodical Invisibility

,QYLVLELOLW\FDQEHFODVVL¿HGLQPHQWDOSK\VLFDODQGPHWKRGLFDOLQYLVLELOLW\ &UXW]HQDQG+HLQ 3K\VLFDOLQYLVLELOLW\RIDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVIRUKXPDQV RFFXUV EHFDXVH PDQ\ GLVWULEXWHG GHYLFHV DUH KLGGHQ LQ RXU HQYLURQPHQW$ FRQWLQXRXVSURFHVVRIPLQLDWXUL]DWLRQPDNHVLWLPSRVVLEOHWRUHFRJQL]HWKHP 1RWIHHOLQJWKHLUSUHVHQFHQRWVHHLQJWKHLUIXOO LQWHU DFWLRQDORSWLRQVEXW RQO\VRPHGHVLJQHULQWHQGHGIUDFWLRQDORXWSXWPDNHVLWLPSRVVLEOHWRXQGHU- VWDQGWKHFRPSOHWHDUVHQDORIWKHLUSRVVLEOHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV7KH\FDQRQO\EH SK\VLFDOO\YLVLEOHLQWKHHIIHFWVRIWKHLUDFWLRQZKLFKFDQWDNHSODFHLQRXU absence. ,QRXUGDLO\OLIHDORWRIWKLQJVWRROVDQGHYHQKXPDQDFWRUVDUHPHQWDOO\ LQYLVLEOH0HQWDOLQYLVLELOLW\RFFXUVZKHQGRPHVWLFDWHGDUWL¿FLDOSURGXFWVDUH WDNHQIRUJUDQWHGZKHQWKH\DUHWKRXJKWRIDVDQDWXUDOSDUWRIRXUGDLO\OLIH DQGEHFRPHDSDUWRIRXUURXWLQHV7KHHYLGHQWDQGFRQWLQXRXVDYDLODELOLW\RI DUWL¿FLDOSURGXFWVFDXVHVWKHLUGLVDSSHDUDQFHLQWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIRXUHQYLURQ- PHQW7KHKXPDQVLQVXFKHQYLURQPHQWVFDQDOVREHFRPHPHQWDOO\LQYLVLEOH LIWKH\DFWDFFRUGLQJWRWKHH[SHFWDWLRQVRIGHVLJQHUVDQGXVHUVLQVSLUHGE\WKH WUDGLWLRQVDQGUXOHVRIRXUVRFLHW\3HRSOHREVHUYHGE\LQWHOOLJHQWFDPHUDVDUH PHQWDOO\YLVLEOHIRUWKHDUWL¿FLDODFWRULQWKHIRUPRIVRIWZDUHRQO\LIWKH\DFW RXWVLGHWKHUDQJHRIQRUPDOEHKDYLRU MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 83

+XPDQDFWRUVFDQH[SHULHQFHRWKHUDFWRUVDVµDFWDEOH¶LIWKHVHDFWRUVSUHV- HQWWKHPVHOYHVLQDZD\ZKLFKLVLQWHUSUHWDEOHIURPWKHLURZQH[SHULHQFHV That does not mean that this is the intended interpretation because each actor KDVDSHUVRQDOKRUL]RQRIH[SHULHQFHVDQGH[SHFWDWLRQV3K\VLFDOYLVLELOLW\LV DQHFHVVDU\FRQGLWLRQRIDFWDELOLW\6RKXPDQVFDQSHUFHLYHWKHSHUIRUPDQFH RIWKHQRQKXPDQDFWRUDQGKXPDQVFDQJLYHPHDQLQJWRWKHPE\GUDZLQJ WKHPLQWRWKHLULQWHUDFWLRQV$VRXQGFDQEHSK\VLFDOO\YLVLEOHEXWXQWLOJLYLQJ PHDQLQJWRLWIRULQVWDQFHDVPXVLFLWZLOOQRWEHDFWDEOH$FWDELOLW\UHTXLUHV WKHPHQWDOYLVLELOLW\RIDQLQYLVLEOHPHDQLQJ Usually humans cannot always say what they really do because it is un- FRQVFLRXV±WKH\GRQRWUHÀHFWRQLWDQGFDQQRWGHVFULEHLW7KHGHWDLOVRIHY- HU\GD\ZRUNEHFRPHVHFRQGQDWXUHDQGLQYLVLEOH %H\HUDQG+ROW]EODWW  0HQWDOLQYLVLELOLW\LVQRWRQO\QHJDWLYH+XPDQVUHTXLUHDORWRIREYLRXV- QHVVLQWKHLUOLYLQJZRUOGLQRUGHUWRGHDOZLWKGDLO\OLIH7KDWLVSUHFLVHO\ WKHZD\ZHORYHRXUHQYLURQPHQWEHFDXVHRXUDGDSWDWLRQWRRXULQWHUDFWLRQDO ZRUOGVLQYROYHVDORWRIHIIRUWWRPDNHLWZRUN+XPDQVKDYHWRDFFRPSOLVK WKDWDGDSWDWLRQ7KHHYLGHQWDQGFRQWLQXRXVDYDLODELOLW\RIWHFKQRORJ\FDXVHV LWVGLVDSSHDUDQFHLQWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIRXUHQYLURQPHQW+XPDQVLQWHJUDWHWKH ready-made technological acting in their routine acting, accepting it without UHÀHFWLRQDQGHPRWLRQV0HQWDOLQYLVLELOLW\FDQEHVHHQDVDSUHFRQGLWLRQIRU WKHVWDELOL]DWLRQRIXVHDQGWKHGRPHVWLFDWLRQRIWHFKQRORJ\DQGKDUPRQLRXV OLYLQJEXWLWVKRXOGQRWEHDIUR]HQ¿QDOVWDWHRIWKHKXPDQDFWRUVLQDFRP- munity. 7KHSK\VLFDODQGPHQWDOYLVLELOLW\RIDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVWRKXPDQDFWRUVLV OLPLWHGZLWKLQWKHWHFKQLFDOFRQVWUDLQWVRIWKHLUFRQVWUXFWLRQLWFDQEHGHWHU- PLQHGSXUSRVHIXOO\E\GHVLJQHUVWKURXJKWKHLPSOHPHQWHGGDWDPRGHOVSUR- FHVVLQJ IXQFWLRQDOLW\ DQG WKH FKRVHQ VHQVRUV DQG DFWRUV ,Q WKH IXWXUH RXU SK\VLFDOERG\UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVDQGPRYHPHQWVZLOOEHXQFRQVFLRXVO\WKHFDXVH RI DFWLRQV DQG LQWHUDFWLRQV LQ RXU WHFKQRORJLFDO HQYLURQPHQW 7HFKQRORJ\ UHVLGHVLQWKHSHULSKHU\RIRXUDWWHQWLRQDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVFRQWLQXRXVO\ZKLV- SHULQJLQRXUEDFNJURXQGREVHUYLQJRXUGDLO\EHKDYLRU3HRSOHEHFRPHWKH REMHFWVRIWKHRQJRLQJFRQYHUVDWLRQVRIDUWL¿FLDODJHQWVWKDWDUHSURYLGLQJXV ZLWKVHUYLFHVZLWKRXWGHPDQGLQJDFRQVFLRXVHIIRUWRQRXUEHKDOIRUZLWKRXW LQYROYLQJXVLQWKHLULQWHUDFWLYLWLHV7KHDUWL¿FLDODJHQWVWKDWKXPDQVDUHDO- ORZHGWRSHUFHLYHZLOOIDNHHPRWLRQVDQGREYLRXVQHVVLQWKHLUDFWLQJWRVHGXFH us into interacting. 0HWKRGLFDOLQYLVLELOLW\DQGYLVLELOLW\DSSHDUWKURXJKWKHDVVXPSWLRQVRI WKH PDNHUV HPEHGGHG EHIRUHKDQG LQ WKH UHDG\PDGH DFWLQJ RI WKH DUWL¿FLDO 84 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

product. The interpretation and representation work has been accomplished SDUWO\EHIRUHWKHSURGXFWLVUHDG\PDGHDQGWKHDFWLRQVRIWKHDUWL¿FLDODFWRU WDNHSODFH7KHZD\DQDUWL¿FLDODFWRUFDQLQWHUSUHWDQGUHSUHVHQWGHSHQGVQRW RQO\RQWKHDFWLYLW\IURPWKHKXPDQEXWDOVRRQWKHUHDG\PDGHDFWLQJZKLFK is constructed. ,ISHRSOHDFWDFFRUGLQJWRDUHDG\PDGHVFULSWZLWKLQDSUHSDUHGVHWWLQJ DQGIUDPHWKHQWKHLUDFWLQJLVPHWKRGLFDOO\YLVLEOHDQGEHFRPHVPRVWO\PHQ- WDOO\ LQYLVLEOH IRU WKHPVHOYHV RWKHU DFWLQJ SRVVLELOLWLHV DUH PDGH LQYLVLEOH 7KLVPHWKRGLFDOLQYLVLELOLW\VKDSHVDQGOLPLWVWKHLQWHUDFWLRQDOVSDFHVLQZKLFK XVHUVFDQDFWDQGLWZLOOLUUHYRFDEO\PDNHVROXWLRQVXQLPDJLQDEOHGHVSLWHWKHLU PDNHDELOLW\7KLVLVHYHQPRUHWUXHDVWKLVPHWKRGLFDOLQYLVLELOLW\LVDPHQWDO LQYLVLELOLW\RQEHKDOIRIWKHPDNHUVRIDUWL¿FLDOSURGXFWV7KHLUVFULSWVDQGDV- VXPSWLRQVDUHIUR]HQLQWKHVWUXFWXUHVRIPRGHOOLQJPHWKRGVWKDWDUHHPEHGGHG LQWKHLUVRIWZDUHGHYHORSPHQWWRROV &UXW]HQDQG+HLQ  %DVHGRQP\GH¿QLWLRQYLVLELOLW\DQGLQYLVLELOLW\RI DUWL¿FLDO DFWRUVDUH QRW RSSRVLWLRQDO EHFDXVH HYHU\ DFWLQJ SURGXFHV WUDFHV LQ RXU HQYLURQPHQW 7KH DFWRUV DUH QRW VLPSO\ µYLVLEOH¶ RU µLQYLVLEOH¶ 0DXULFH 0HUOHDX3RQW\  VDLGWKHUHDOZD\VVWD\VVRPHWKLQJLQYLVLEOHLQWKHKHDUWRIWKHYLVLEOH 3HRSOHQHHGWKHLUVHQVHVDQGWKHLUERG\EHIRUHDUULYLQJDWDYLVLRQ$FWDEOH DFWRUVDUHDOZD\VSDUWO\YLVLEOHDQGLQYLVLEOH+RZHYHUWKHDFWLQJRIKXPDQ DQGQRQKXPDQDFWRUVLVPRVWO\RQO\YLVLEOHLQLWVHIIHFWVWKH\DFWEHKLQGWKH VFHQHV:HFDQQRWVHHWKHDUWL¿FLDODFWRULQDVHUYLFHFDOOKRZHYHUE\IROORZ- LQJWKHLQVWUXFWLRQVZHFDQJHWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQZHQHHG 7KHVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHYLVLEOHDQGWKHLQYLVLEOHLVDGLDORJXHVSDFHZKHUH KXPDQDFWRUVFDQGHVLJQWKHLURZQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV,WLVDVSDFHRIFRQÀLFWVEXW DOVRDVSDFHRIDGYHQWXUHVZKHUHKXPDQVFDQSOD\ZLWKWKHFRQWUDGLFWLRQVRI OLYLQJLQDZRUOGZLWKDUWL¿FLDODFWRUV$FFRUGLQJWR+HLGHJJHUWKHHVVHQFHRI WHFKQRORJ\LVWKDWLW³XQFRQFHDOV´ZKDWEHFDPHREYLRXVPDNLQJLWPHQWDOO\ YLVLEOHDQGSHUFHSWLEOHDJDLQ +HLGHJJHU± ,QWKHLQWHUDFWLRQVEH- tween human and non-human actors there is always a play in progress between YLVLEOHDQGLQYLVLEOH

Identity and Visibility

The identityRIDQDFWRUSUHVHQWHGWRRWKHUDFWRUVLVWKHPHDQLQJRWKHUDFWRUV JLYHWRWKHDFWRU¶VSHUIRUPDQFH³6RFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQLVDQHJRWLDWLRQRILGHQWL- WLHVEHWZHHQSHRSOHLQDJLYHQHQYLURQPHQW´ %R\G 7KHPHDQLQJV RWKHUDFWRUVJLYHWRWKHDFWRU¶VSHUIRUPDQFHVFRQVWUXFWVWKHVRFLDOLGHQWLWLHVRI MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 85

DQDFWRU$FFRUGLQJWR'DQDK%R\GKXPDQVGRDORWRIVHOIPRQLWRULQJDQG VHOIPDQDJHPHQW WR FRQWURO ³WKH LPSUHVVLRQV WKDW RWKHUV PLJKW SHUFHLYH WR FRQYH\WKHDSSURSULDWHLQIRUPDWLRQDWWKHDSSURSULDWHWLPH´7KHLGHQWLWLHVRI KXPDQVDUHDOZD\VIDFHWVRIWKHSHUVRQDOLQWHUQDOLGHQWLWLHVDQGSXEOLFVRFLDO identities they comprise; identity is a dynamic process anticipating and chang- LQJLQWKHLUVHYHUDOLQWHUDFWLRQDOZRUOGV³$VSHRSOHHQJDJHVRFLDOO\WKH\SURM- HFWDVSHFWVRIWKHLULQWHUQDOLGHQWLW\LQWRDVRFLDOLGHQWLW\IRURWKHUVWRSHUFHLYH %DVHGRQWKHVLWXDWLRQSHRSOHRQO\SUHVHQWDSDUWLFXODUIDFHWRIWKHLULQWHUQDO LGHQWLW\IRUFRQVLGHUDWLRQ´ %R\G 3HUVRQDOLQWHUQDOLGHQWLW\LVQRWDFORVHGGHFLVLYHZKROH+XPDQLGHQWLWLHV DUHQRW¿[HGWKH\DUH³LQKHUHQWO\XQVWDEOHGLIIHUHQWLDWHGGLVSHUVHGDQG\HW VWUDQJHO\FRKHUHQW´ TXRWHRI9LFN\.LUE\LQ%DUDG ,QWKHLULQWHU- DFWLRQDFWRUVFDQGHYHORSQHZLGHQWLWLHVFKDQJHWKHLULGHQWLWLHVDQGDOWHUQDWH between them. Internal identities can be partly masked by the social identi- WLHVKXPDQVSUHVHQW+RZHYHUWKHXVHGPDVNVZLOODOZD\VLQVRPHZD\UHIHU WRDQGFRQQHFWWKHLQWHUQDOLGHQWLWLHVDQGWKHVRFLDOFRQWH[WV+XPDQVFDQQRW WRWDOO\VHSDUDWHWKHLULQWHUQDOLGHQWLWLHVIURPWKHLUVRFLDOLGHQWLWLHV$UWL¿FLDO DFWRUVFDQRQO\SUHVHQWWKRVHIDFHWVRIWKHLQQHUVHOIZKLFKDUHSUHSODQQHGE\ WKHGHVLJQHUVDQGRQO\ZKHQWKH\UHFHLYHDGHTXDWHLQSXWVIURPWKHLUHQYLURQ- ment to do so. ,GHQWLW\ZLOODOZD\VUHPDLQDYHU\YDJXHFRQFHSWEXWDFFRUGLQJWR$QVHOP Strauss

³LGHQWLW\LVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHIDWHIXODSSUDLVDOVPDGHRIRQHVHOI±E\ RQHVHOI±DQGE\RWKHUV(YHU\RQHSUHVHQWVKLPVHOIWRWKHRWKHUVDQG WR KLPVHOI DQG VHHV KLPVHOI LQ WKH PLUURUV RI WKHLU MXGJPHQWV 7KH PDVNVKHWKHQDQGWKHUHDIWHUSUHVHQWVWRWKHZRUOGDQGLWVFLWL]HQVDUH IDVKLRQHGXSRQKLVDQWLFLSDWLRQVRIWKHLUMXGJPHQWV7KHRWKHUVSUHVHQW WKHPVHOYHVWRRWKH\ZHDUWKHLURZQEUDQGVRIPDVNDQGWKH\JHWDS- SUDLVHGLQWXUQ´ 6WUDXVV 

,QWKLVVHQVHLQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQKXPDQDFWRUVDQGDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVFDQJLYH WKHKXPDQDFWRUDVSHFL¿FLGHQWLW\:HVSHDNRIXVHUVEHFDXVHRIWKHLUVSHFL¿F LQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK,QIRUPDWLRQDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\ ,&7 ,GHQWLW\ LVQRWUHVWULFWHGWRRQO\KXPDQDFWRUV:HDOVRVSHDNRIWKHLGHQWLW\RIDUWH- IDFWVFRPSDQLHVDQGFRPPXQLWLHV7KHVRFLDOLGHQWLW\RIDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVFDQ EHLQWHUSUHWHGDVWKHLUDFWDEOHIXQFWLRQDOLW\7KHLULQWHUQDOLGHQWLW\FDQEHKLG- GHQE\WKHVXUIDFHRIWKHLUDSSHDUDQFHWKHµVRFLDODQGKXJJDEOH¶ORYHUHWXUQ- 86 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

LQJSHWURERWVKDYHDIDFHWKH\PRYHWKHLUH\HVWKH\PDNHJHVWXUHVKRZHYHU WKHLULQWHUQDOLGHQWLW\LVDPDFKLQHH[HFXWLQJDVRIWZDUHGHSHQGLQJRQWKHLQSXW DQGWKHIHHGEDFNWKHPDFKLQHFDQUHFHLYHZLWKLWVVHQVRUV

Identity as a Mask in the Theatre of Daily Life

7KHRULJLQDOXVHRIWKHZRUGpersonGHULYHVIURPSHUVRQD±WKHPDVNVZRUQ E\ FKDUDFWHUV LQ *UHHN WUDJHGLHV ³$V D WRRO RI LPSHUVRQDWLRQ WKH PDVN LV FRQVLGHUHGWREHDFRQYHQWLRQZKLFKHQDEOHVWKHDFWRUWRVHSDUDWHKLPVHOIIURP DSDUWLFXODUL]HGFRPPXQDOLGHQWLW\LQRUGHUWREHFRPHDV\PEROLFLPDJHRID PRUHXQLYHUVDOFRQGLWLRQ´ 0LWFKHOO *RIIPDQKDVXVHGWHUPVIURPWKHWKHDWUHFRQWH[WWRDQDO\]HWKHLGHQWLW\ FRQFHSWWKHYLVLEOHKXPDQLGHQWLW\LVDSHUIRUPDQFHRIHYHU\GD\VRFLDODFWLYL- WLHVLQZKLFKVLWXDWLRQDOO\DSSURSULDWHEHKDYLRUVDUHVHWXSRQWKHIURQWVWDJH ³>@WKDWSDUWRIWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VSHUIRUPDQFHZKLFKUHJXODUO\IXQFWLRQVLQ DJHQHUDODQG¿[HGIDVKLRQWRGH¿QHWKHVLWXDWLRQIRUWKRVHZKRREVHUYHWKH SHUIRUPDQFH´ *RIIPDQ DQGVLWXDWLRQDOO\LQDSSURSULDWHDFWLQJZLOO WDNHSODFHµEDFNVWDJH¶RXWRIVLJKW$WWKHIURQWKXPDQDFWRUVHVWDEOLVKWKHLU VRFLDOLGHQWLW\$WWKHIURQWWKHVWDQGDUGL]DWLRQRIUROHVZLOOPDNHWKHSHUVRQ µDFWDEOH¶2WKHUKXPDQDQGQRQKXPDQDFWRUVFDQXQGHUVWDQGWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶V DFWLQJEHFDXVHRILWVQRUPDOL]HGPHDQLQJ7KHVHOIDVDVRFLDOLGHQWLW\LVWKH PDVNWKHLQGLYLGXDOZHDUVLQVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQVEXWLWLVDOVRWKHKXPDQEHLQJ behind the mask who decides which mask to wear:

³$FRUUHFWO\VWDJHGDQGSHUIRUPHGFKDUDFWHUOHDGVWKHDXGLHQFHWRLP- SXWHDVHOIWRDSHUIRUPHGFKDUDFWHUEXWWKLVLPSXWDWLRQ±WKLVVHOI±LV DSURGXFWRIDVFHQHWKDWFRPHVRIIDQGLVQRWDFDXVHRILW7KHVHOI WKHQDVDSHUIRUPHGFKDUDFWHULVQRWDQRUJDQLFWKLQJWKDWKDVDVSHFL¿F ORFDWLRQ>@LWLVDGUDPDWLFHIIHFWDULVLQJGLIIXVHO\IURPDVFHQHWKDWLV presented, and the characteristic issue, the crucial concern, is whether it ZLOOEHFUHGLWHGRUGLVFUHGLWHG´ *RIIPDQ± 

Between a mask and its wearer there is a continuous interaction; the wearer an- imates the mask and the mask animates the wearer. Role playing is not mask- LQJWKHµWUXHSHUVRQ¶EXWSHUIRUPDQFHVZLOOWUDQVIRUPKXPDQVLQWRSHUVRQV /DZOHU± $FFRUGLQJWR,DQ+DFNLQJ³WKHUROHVDUHQRWJOLGLQJ VXUIDFHVWKDWFRQFHDOWKHWUXHSHUVRQ7KHUROHVEHFRPHDVSHFWVRIWKHSHUVRQ VRPHPRUHRZQHGVRPHPRUHUHVHQWHGEXWDOZD\VDQHYROYLQJVLGHRIZKDW MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 87

the person is. [...] Some roles become not only habitual, but almost an integral SDUWRIWKHERG\´ +DFNLQJ 

The Theatre as a Metaphor for Virtual Worlds

$V0DJJLH&RRSHUDQG,YRU%HQMDPLQPHQWLRQHGDOUHDG\LQWKHGHVLJQ RIYLUWXDOZRUOGVDQGWKHYLUWXDOZRUOGLWVHOILVDQDORJRXVWRDWKHDWUHDQGLWV creation:

³$SODFHZKHUHVRPHWKLQJZLOOKDSSHQDQGZKLFKPXVWEHGHVLJQHGDQG staged and peopled to suit that which will take place there. The design DQG FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH LQDQLPDWH HOHPHQWV RI YLUWXDO ZRUOGV LV WKHQ DQDORJRXVWRWKHGHVLJQDQGFRQVWUXFWLRQRIVHWVVFHQHU\SURSHUWLHVWR WKHORFDWLRQDQGFRQWHQWVRIDQHQYLVLRQPHQW´ &RRSHUDQG%HQMDPLQ  

Brenda Laurel and Anna Swartling also compared the interaction between de- VLJQHUVXVHUVDQGWHFKQRORJ\ZLWKDWKHDWUHSOD\%UHQGD/DXUHOIRFXVHGRQ KXPDQLQWHUDFWLRQE\FRPSDULQJVRIWZDUHZLWKWKHDWUH

³,QWKHDWULFDOWHUPVDSURJUDP RUDFOXVWHURILQWHUDFWLQJSURJUDPV LV analogous to a script, including its stage directions. [...] Its interesting SRWHQWLDOOD\QRWLQLWVDELOLW\WRSHUIRUPFDOFXODWLRQVEXWLQLWVFDSDFLW\ WRUHSUHVHQWDFWLRQLQZKLFKKXPDQVFRXOGSDUWLFLSDWH>@IXQFWLRQDO- LW\FRQVLVWVRIWKHDFWLRQVWKDWDUHSHUIRUPHGE\SHRSOHDQGFRPSXWHUV ZRUNLQJLQFRQFHUWDQGSURJUDPVDUHWKHPHDQVIRUFUHDWLQJWKHSRWHQ- WLDOIRUWKRVHDFWLRQV´ /DXUHO±

,Q/DXUHO¶VFRQFHSWRIVRIWZDUHWKHUHLVWKHUHVWULFWLRQRIKXPDQDFWRUVWRRQO\ SOD\³LQWKHLQWHUIDFH´ /DXUHO LQWKHVDPHZD\DVWKHQRQKXPDQ DFWRUVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHIRUPDOVRIWZDUHVFULSW

³,QDWKHDWULFDOYLHZRIKXPDQFRPSXWHUDFWLYLW\WKHVWDJHLVDYLUWXDO world. It is populated by agents, both human and computer-generated, DQGRWKHUHOHPHQWVRIWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDOFRQWH[W>@7KHWHFKQLFDO magic that supports the representation, as in the theatre, is behind the VFHQHV´ /DXUHO  88 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

$QQD6ZDUWOLQJ  KDVXVHGWKHWKHDWUHPHWDSKRUWRPDNHYLVLEOHWKHLGHR- ORJLFDOHOHPHQWVQRWRQO\ZLWKLQLQIRUPDWLRQV\VWHPDFTXLVLWLRQEXWDOVRZLWK- in human computer interaction research. She presents theories, analyses and DUJXPHQWVLQWKHIRUPRIDWKHDWULFDOVFULSW+HUIRFXVZDVRQSRZHUVWUXFWXUHV DQGWKHZD\VFRPPRQVHQVHLVFRQVWUXFWHGZLWKLQWKHGLVFRXUVHVRILQIRUPD- WLRQV\VWHPVGHYHORSPHQW 7KH VWDJH WKHRU\ RI *RIIPDQ LV RIWHQ XVHG WR DQDO\]H DQG GHVFULEH WKH LQWHUDFWLRQVLQVRFLDOQHWZRUNV1LNNL6DQQLFRODVVHHVWKH³GUDPDWXUJ\GHP- RQVWUDWHGHYHU\GD\ZLWKLQWKHRQOLQHFKDWQHWZRUNV6HYHUDOVFULSWVIRUWKH VWDJHLWVHOIEHLQJLQWHUQHWFKDWKDYHEHHQZULWWHQE\WKHPHGLDDWWUDFWLQJGLI- IHUHQWDXGLHQFHVDQGSHUIRUPHUV´ 6DQQLFRODV  ,QP\UHZULWLQJRIWKHRQWRORJ\RIWKH2EMHFW2ULHQWHG 22 DSSURDFKLQ VRIWZDUHGHVLJQ &UXW]HQ&UXW]HQDQG*HUULVVHQ ,XVHGWKH WKHDWUHPHWDSKRUWRJLYHWKHVRIWZDUHXVHUVDSRVLWLRQRIDXWKRUDQGGLUHFWRU LQDQDUWL¿FLDO2%-(&7VSOD\7KH2%-(&7LVWKHEDVLFXQLWLQDGHVFULSWLRQ RIDQ2%-(&7ZRUOGZKLFKIXQFWLRQVDVD6&5,37IRUDQµLQWHUDFWLRQSOD\¶ RIFRRSHUDWLQJ2%-(&7V7KH2%-(&7VDUHGHVFULSWLRQVRI52/(V$SHUIRU- PDQFHRIDQ2%-(&7ZRUOG±WKHH[HFXWLRQRIDVRIWZDUHSURJUDP±LVOLNH WKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIDWKHDWUHSOD\7KHLPDJLQDWLRQRIWKHDXWKRUVRIVXFK2E- ject Oriented theatre scripts comes to reality by creating ROLE- and ACTOR- types and by instantiating ACTORs which act according to their SCRIPT. The XVHUDVDGLUHFWRURUDXWKRUFRXOGFUHDWHQHZ$&7257<3(VIURPWKHDYDLO- DEOHSUHVHQWDWKDQG52/(VDQGE\DJJUHJDWLRQFKDQJHWKHSHUIRUPDQFHLQ new plays. +RZHYHULQWKH2EMHFW2ULHQWHGVRIWZDUHWKH2%-(&7VDUHPRVWO\PDVNHG 7KHEHKDYLRURIWKH2%-(&7LVFRQWDLQHGLQWKHPHWKRGVRIWKH2%-(&7V 7KHFRYHULQJXSRIGDWDW\SHVDQGPHWKRGVLVFDOOHGHQFDSVXODWLRQ,WUHIHUV to an object concept that is placed as an abstraction mask on reality. Through that mask we can see reality as closed units with hierarchical relations and SODQQHGLQWHUDFWLRQZKHUHWKHXVHUDFTXLUHGWKHUROHRIDFKRUXVPHPEHUZLWK DVWDQGDUGL]HGPDVNOLNHWKHWUDJLFFKRUXVLQ*UHHNWKHDWUH 0LWFKHOO  DQGZKHUHWKHVRIWZDUHGHVLJQHUKDVWKHSRZHUWRORRNEHKLQGWKHPDVNRI encapsulation. Susan Leigh Star has unmasked the making and modelling pro- FHVVRIRXUWHFKQRORJLFDOHQYLURQPHQWVE\VD\LQJWKDWWKHVHPDVNVZLOOWHPSHU ³WKHFOXWWHURIWKHYLVLEOH´DQGWKDWWKHPDVNVDUHDEVWUDFWLRQV³WKDWZLOOVWDQG TXLHWO\FOHDQO\DQGGRFLOHO\IRUWKHQRLVRPHPHVV\DFWLRQVDQGPDWHULDOV´ 6WDU  MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 89

THE MASK

0DVNVDUHDQGZLOOEHZRUQDQGXVHGLQRXUHYHU\GD\OLYHVDWWKHWKHDWUHDQG LQYLUWXDOOLIH7KHPDVNLVDSRZHUIXOV\PERODQGGHYLFHIRUKXPDQH[SHUL- HQFH DQG WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ PDQ\ FXOWXUHV ,W VWLOO OLYHV VWURQJO\ ZLWKLQ RXU FXUUHQWFXOWXUHDQGLWZLOOOLYHLQRXUIXWXUHFXOWXUHVDQGVRFLHWLHVZKHUHWKH PL[LQJRIUHDOLW\DQGYLUWXDOLW\ZLOOLQWHQVLI\,QWKHLUIXQFWLRQDOLW\DQGDS- SHDUDQFHVPDVNVSDUWLFLSDWHLQD³FKDLQRIUHIHUHQFHZKLFKWXUQVRXWQRWWR WHUPLQDWHLQVRPH¿[HGUHIHUHQW´(YHU\XVHGPDVN³EHDUVDVHULHVRILPSULQWV IURPSUHYLRXVPDVNLQJV´DQG³VHHPVWRLQYRNHDQHQGOHVVVHULHVRIUHIHUHQFHV WKDWOHDYHVDWUDFH´ :LV]QLHZVNLDQG&R\QH 7KHVHWUDFHVDUHWKH RSSRUWXQLWLHVWRPDNHWKHLQYLVLEOHYLVLEOHDJDLQ 7KHPDVNHGSHUIRUPHUJRHVEDFNIDUHDUOLHUWKDQDQ\WKLQJUHFRJQL]DEOH DV WKHDWUH ,Q ULWHV WKH PDVN ZDV YHQHUDWHG LW ZDV DQG VWLOO LV XVHG IRU WKH HPERGLPHQWRIWKHVSLULWWREHFRQVXOWHGDQGIRUWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIGHVLUHG HYHQWV0DVNVKDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUWKHH[DOWDWLRQRIWKHLQGLYLGXDODQGWKH UHYHDOPHQWRIWKHSRZHURIWKHJRGFDSWXUHGLQLWVYHU\HVVHQFH7KHPDVN HIIHFWVFKDQJH

³>@QRWRQO\ZLWKLQWKHZHDUHUEXWDOVRRXWVLGH±LQWKHZRUOGKHFRQ- WDFWHG7KHSULPLWLYHPDVNDOORZHGRQHUHDOLW\WREHVXSSODQWHGE\DQ- RWKHUDVLWJUDQWHGLWVZHDUHUWKHSRZHUDQGIUHHGRPWRSHUIRUPXQFRQ- YHQWLRQDODFWV>@$VDGHYLFHRIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQLWHQDEOHGLWVZHDUHU WRWUDQVFHQGRQHUHDOLW\DQGH[SHULHQFHDQRWKHUUHDOLW\RIKLVRZQFUH- DWLRQ´ 0LWFKHOO± 

7KHFKDQJHRIDSSHDUDQFHE\PDVNLQJFDQKDYHSXUSRVHVRISURWHFWLRQPDNH EHOLHYHVRFLDODFFHSWDQFHGLVJXLVHDPXVHPHQWRUUHOLJLRXVGHYRWLRQ

The Mask as a Hiding Device

A mask will always conceal; masking means cloaking or disguising. The PHDQLQJRIPDVTXHUDGHLQ&RPSXWHU6FLHQFHLQWHUPVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQVVH- curity issues is a disguise. It is seen as an attack where the attacker pretends WREHDQDXWKRUL]HGXVHURIDV\VWHPLQRUGHUWRJDLQDFFHVVWRLWRUWRJDLQ JUHDWHUSULYLOHJHVWKDQKHLVDXWKRUL]HGIRU$PDVTXHUDGHPD\EHDWWHPSWHG WKURXJKWKHXVHRIVWROHQORJLQ,'VDQGSDVVZRUGVWKURXJK¿QGLQJVHFXULW\ gaps in programs, or through bypassing the authentication mechanism. Once 90 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

WKHDWWDFNHUKDVEHHQDXWKRUL]HGIRUHQWU\KHPD\KDYHIXOODFFHVVWRWKHRU- JDQL]DWLRQ¶VFULWLFDOGDWDDQG GHSHQGLQJRQWKHSULYLOHJHOHYHOKHSUHWHQGVWR KDYH PD\EHDEOHWRPRGLI\DQGGHOHWHVRIWZDUHDQGGDWDDQGPDNHFKDQJHV WRQHWZRUNFRQ¿JXUDWLRQDQGURXWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQ1 $µ7URMDQKRUVH¶LVDQH[DPSOHRIVRIWZDUHPDVNHGDVDGHVLUDEOHJDGJHW IRUWKHXVHUVXFKDVDJDPHRIWHQDSDWKIRUYLUXVHVRURWKHUPDOLFLRXVFRGHV WREHVPXJJOHGLQWRDFRPSXWHUV\VWHP+RZHYHULWDFWXDOO\KLGHVDSURJUDP to steal passwords and acquire remote access to the computer system and per- IRUPYDULRXVRSHUDWLRQV +LGLQJKDVQRWDOZD\VDQHJDWLYHPHDQLQJ:HXVHVHYHUDOPDVNVIRUSUR- WHFWLRQVXFKDVWKHJDVPDVNVYLUXVDQGVXQSURWHFWLRQPDVNVVSRUWPDVNV DQGVRRQ)RUXVHUVRIFRPPHUFLDOSODWIRUPVPDVNLQJKDVEHFRPHDXVHIXODFW WRKLGHWKHLULGHQWLW\H%D\DFFRXQWXVHUVDUHKLGGHQEHKLQGWKHPDVNVRIWKHLU SVHXGRQ\PV³0RVWRIWKHVHXVHUVEX\DQGVHOORQH%D\IRUIXQ)RUWKHPLWLV MXVWDQHZSDUWRIWKHLUOLIHDQHZSDUWLDOLGHQWLW\>@WKHSVHXGRQ\PLVXVHG WRFRQFHDOWKHWUXHLGHQWLW\RIWKHSHUVRQLHLWDFWVDVDSULYDF\HQKDQFLQJ WRRO´ -DTXHW&KLIIHOOHHWDO 7KH³EXEEOHV´FRQFHSWRI/DXUHQW%HVOD\DQG+DQQX+DNDODDPRGHOIRU ³LQIRUPDWLRQDOLPPXQHVSDFHV´ZLWKWZRVLGHGFRQGLWLRQDOERUGHUVIDFLOLWDWHV WKHPDQDJHPHQWRIDQDSSURSULDWHLQIRUPDWLRQDOGLVWDQFHIURPRWKHUKXPDQV DQGIURPQRQKXPDQDFWRUV

³$EXEEOHLVDWHPSRUDU\EXWZHOOGH¿QHGVSDFHWKDWFDQEHXVHGWR OLPLWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQFRPLQJLQWRDQGOHDYLQJWKHEXEEOHLQWKHGLJLWDO GRPDLQ>@$EXEEOHFDQEHFUHDWHGZKHQHYHULWLVQHFHVVDU\IRUSHU- sonal, community or global use. The bubbles can be shared between LQGLYLGXDOVRUJURXSV´ %HVOD\DQG+DNDOD± 

7KHEXEEOHLVDSURWHFWLRQPDVNWRUHDOL]HWKHLQWHJULW\RILQIRUPDWLRQLQVLGH the bubble.

The Mask as a Conservator

0DVNVDFTXLUHWKHLUPHDQLQJIURPWKHLUDSSHDUDQFHDQGWKURXJKWKHZHDUHUV¶ DFWLRQVDQGWKURXJKWKHDFWLRQVWKH\SURYRNH0DVNVDUHDOZD\VIXQGDPHQ-

1_6HHKWWSVHDUFKVHFXULW\WHFKWDUJHWFRPV'H¿QLWLRQVLGBJFLKWPO DF- FHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 91

WDOO\GRXEOHLQIXQFWLRQVLJQL¿FDWLRQDQGH[SHULHQFHVHUYLQJVLPXOWDQHRXVO\ DVWRROVIRUGLVJXLVHFRQQHFWHGZLWKSRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHPHDQLQJVEXWDOVR DV PDUNHUV RI LGHQWLW\ ,Q WKH 5RPDQ WKHDWUH WKH PDVN ZDV VWDQGDUGL]HG WR VWHUHRW\SHV³,WZDVDPLUURUIRUKXPDQIRLEOHVDQGSHFXOLDULWLHV´,QWKH&RP- PHGLDGHOO¶$UWHWKHFKDUDFWHUVSHUIRUPHGE\WKHDFWRUVZHUHFDOOHGPDVNV,Q DPDVNW\SHDFWRUVSRUWUD\HGHVVHQWLDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFEHKDYLRUDOSDWWHUQVDVDQ DEVWUDFWLRQIURPWKHEHKDYLRULQUHDOOLIH 0LWFKHOO±  +XPDQVSUHVHQWWKHPVHOYHVZLWKIRUPDOPDVNVXQLIRUPVUREHVDQGZLJV WRSURYRNHD³SUHIHUUHGUHDGLQJ´ +DOO 2RIWKHLUVRFLDOLGHQWLW\DQGDFW- LQJ7KH\DFWDVPHQWDOO\LQYLVLEOHSHUVRQV7KHEDUULVWHU¶VDQGPDJLVWUDWH¶V UREHVWUDQVIRUPDODZ\HULQWRDQDGYRFDWHDQGWKHSHUVRQEHKLQGWKDWUREH VKRXOGEHFRPHPHQWDOO\LQYLVLEOHZKHQGRLQJWKHMRE6XFKPDVNVFUHDWHPH- WKRGLFDOYLVLELOLW\DQGLQYLVLELOLW\WRREHFDXVHWKH\LQKDELWDQDFWLQJVFULSW 7KHDYDWDUVDQGKXPDQRLGURERWVZHDUHFRQIURQWHGZLWKWU\WRFRQVHUYH KXPDQYDOXHV(YHQLQVWLWXWLRQDODFWRUVPDVNEHKLQGVFUHHQEDVHGKXPDQRLGV HTXLSSHGZLWKH[SUHVVLRQRIµVLPXODWHG¶HPRWLRQVDQGHPSDWK\ 6RPHPDFKLQHVDUHPDVNHGDVµVRFLDODQGKXJJDEOH¶ORYHUHWXUQLQJSHW URERWV7KH\KDYHDIDFHWKH\PRYHWKHLUH\HVWKH\PDNHJHVWXUHV:HKHDUD ORWRIDUWL¿FLDOYRLFHVVLPXODWLQJWKDWZHDUHWDONLQJWRUHDOSHUVRQV,QRXUUHDO- LW\ZHLQWHUDFWZLWKDQLPDOOLNHURERWVIRUHQWHUWDLQPHQWDQGWKHUDS\:HVHH VWDQGDUGL]HGDYDWDUVLQWKHZHEWU\LQJWRRYHUWUXVWXVZLWKDVLPXODWHGFDUH

³+XPDQRLGVRFLDOURERWVVHUYHDVµSURVWKHWLFH[WHQVLRQV¶RIKXPDQLQ- GLYLGXDOVE\DFWLQJDVWKHLUVXUURJDWHVLQVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQ6WDQGLQJLQ SUR[\IRUEDQNWHOOHUVVKRSDVVLVWDQWVWHOHSKRQHRSHUDWRUVWRXUJXLGHV KRXVHPDLGVDQGSOD\PDWHVWRQDPHEXWDIHZKXPDQRLGVRFLDOURERWV LQWHUDFW ZLWK KXPDQV DV KXPDQV DQG RQ EHKDOI RI KXPDQV´ =KDR 

_6WXDUW+DOO  DUJXHGWKDWWKHGRPLQDQWLGHRORJ\LVLQVFULEHGDVWKHµSUH- IHUUHGUHDGLQJ¶LQDPHGLDWH[WEXWWKDWWKLVLVQRWDXWRPDWLFDOO\DGRSWHGE\UHDGHUV,Q VRFLDOVLWXDWLRQVZKHUHWKHUHDGLQJWDNHVSODFHSHRSOHFDQ³>@DGRSWGLIIHUHQWVWDQFHV µ'RPLQDQW¶UHDGLQJVDUHSURGXFHGE\WKRVHZKRVHVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQIDYRXUVWKHSUHIHUUHG UHDGLQJµQHJRWLDWHG¶UHDGLQJVDUHSURGXFHGE\WKRVHZKRLQÀHFWWKHSUHIHUUHGUHDGLQJWR WDNHDFFRXQWRIWKHLUVRFLDOSRVLWLRQDQGµRSSRVLWLRQDO¶UHDGLQJVDUHSURGXFHGE\WKRVH ZKRVHVRFLDOSRVLWLRQSXWVWKHPLQWRGLUHFWFRQÀLFWZLWKWKHSUHIHUUHGUHDGLQJ´ &KDQ- GOHU  92 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

,QWKHVHLQWHUDFWLRQSOD\VEHWZHHQKXPDQVDQGPDFKLQHVWKHYLVLEOHFRYHURI WKHURERWVDQGDYDWDUVPDVNQRWRQO\WKHPDFKLQHFKDUDFWHURIWKHVHWKLQJV EXWWKH\UHSUHVHQWDOVRWKHYDOXHVRIWKHKDELWVRIKXPDQVZHOLNHWRLQWHUDFW ZLWK7KH\PLPLFWKHZRUOGZHKDYHORVW(YD*XVWDYVVRQDQG%DUEDUD&]DU- QLDZVNDFRQFOXGHGWKDWLQ³EXVLQHVVRQWKHQHW´DPDMRULW\RIWKHXVHGDYDWDUV DUHIHPDOHV7KHLUMRELV³WRDVVLVWFXVWRPHUVE\JLYLQJDGYLFHDQGGHOLYHULQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ´7KH\DUHWKHPDVNRIWKHEXVLQHVVEHKLQGWKHPUHSUHVHQWLQJWKH EXVLQHVVDVFDULQJDQGKHOSIXO7KH\IXO¿OQRWRQO\WKHGHVLJQHUV¶GUHDPEXW DOVRWKDWRIWKHFRQVXPHUV

³9LUWXDOZRPHQPXFKPRUHWKDQOLYLQJPRGHOVDQGPDFKLQHVFDQEH FUHDWHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUGHVLJQHUV¶ZLVKHV$QGHYHQLIGHVLJQHUVDUH QRWDOZD\VPHQWKH\WHQGWRUHFUHDWHWKHPDOHGUHDPRIDZRPDQ>@D VHOIUHSOLFDWLQJFLUFOHVHHPVWREHLQSODFHVXEVHTXHQWYHUVLRQVRI:HE Women perpetuate the same projection, and we perpetuate the same UHFLSURFDWLRQSHUFHLYLQJWKHFRPSDQLHVWKDWSURGXFHWKHPDVEHLQJLQ- VHQVLWLYHDQGFKDXYLQLVWLF´ *XVWDYVVRQDQG&]DUQLDZVND 

)RUWXQDWHO\WKHUHLVDOVRDFRXQWHUPRYHPHQWRIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQWRWKLVFRQYHU- sation masking.

The Mask as a Transformation Device

For hiding our identity and representing another identity the mask has become WKHV\PERORIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ .HDWV 0DVNVJLYHKXPDQVWKHRS- SRUWXQLW\WRIUHHWKHPVHOYHVIURPWKHLUVRFLDOLGHQWLWLHV7KHPDVNFRQIHUVWKH IUHHGRPRIDQRQ\PLW\DQGRIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ,QFDUQLYDOZHXVHWKHPDVNWR LQWHUDFWZLWKRWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHVRFLHW\RXWVLGHWKHERXQGVRILGHQWLW\DQG HYHU\GD\FRQYHQWLRQ

³7KHPDVNVVHUYHGDQLPSRUWDQWVRFLDOSXUSRVHRINHHSLQJHYHU\FLWL- ]HQRQDQHTXDOSOD\LQJ¿HOG0DVNHGDVHUYDQWFRXOGEHPLVWDNHQIRU DQREOHPDQ±RUYLFHYHUVD6WDWHLQTXLVLWRUVDQGVSLHVFRXOGTXHVWLRQ FLWL]HQVZLWKRXWIHDURIWKHLUWUXHLGHQWLW\EHLQJGLVFRYHUHG DQGFLWL]HQV FRXOGDQVZHUZLWKRXWIHDURIUHWULEXWLRQ 7KHPRUDOHRIWKHSHRSOHZDV MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 93

PDLQWDLQHGWKURXJKWKHXVHRIPDVNV±IRUZLWKQRIDFHVHYHU\RQHKDG YRLFHV´3

$QGURJ\QHFORZQVOLNH3LHUURWUHSUHVHQWHGDUHEHOOLRQDJDLQVWVRFLHW\³7KH\ EOXUUHGWKHUHDOLW\RIWKHGLYLVLRQRIJHQGHUDQGFDOOHGLQWRTXHVWLRQDOOWKHDW- WULEXWHVWKDWZHUHDSSRUWLRQHGWRZKDWZDVPDOHDQGZKDWIHPDOH´ .UHXLWHU  7KHFRORXUHGEDODFODYDPDVNVXVHGE\WKHIHPDOHSXQNEDQG3XVV\ 5LRWKDYHEHFRPHWKHV\PEROVIRUUHEHOOLRQDQGDFU\IRUWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRI VRFLHW\LQWRDFRORXUHGVRFLHW\LQZKLFKGLYHUVLW\LVSRVVLEOH³:KHQ,¶PLQ DPDVN,IHHODOLWWOHELWOLNHDVXSHUKHURDQGPD\EHIHHOPRUHSRZHU,IHHO UHDOO\EUDYH,EHOLHYHWKDW,FDQGRHYHU\WKLQJDQG,EHOLHYHWKDW,FDQFKDQJH the situation.”47KH*X\)DZNHVPDVNWKHLFRQRIWKH$QRQ\PRXVPRYHPHQW DVVRFLDWHGZLWKFROODERUDWLYHLQWHUQDWLRQDOKDFNWLYLVPLVWKHV\PEROIRUWKH VWUXJJOHEHWZHHQWKHYLVLELOLW\DQGLQYLVLELOLW\DVSHFWVRIWKH,QWHUQHWDQGE\ KLGLQJWKHLUSHUVRQDOYLVLELOLW\PDVNVWKH\VWDUWQHJRWLDWLRQSURFHVVHVPDNLQJ WKHLQYLVLEOHYLVLEOH$FFRUGLQJWR*DEULHOOD&ROHPDQ$QRQ\PRXVKDVVXF- ceeded in spreading its messages:

³$OWKRXJK FORDNHG DQG YHLOHG PDQ\ RI WKHLU DFWLRQV VHHN WUDQVSDU- HQF\IURPWKHVWDWHDQGFRUSRUDWLRQVDQGDOVRRIWHQVWULNHDWOHJLVOD- WLRQ±FRS\ULJKWVWDWXWHVVXUYHLOODQFHELOOV±VHHQWRWKUHDWHQ,QWHUQHW IUHHGRPV,WGHSHQGVRQDVSHFWDFXODUYLVLELOLW\DQGLQYLVLELOLW\LWLV HYHU\ZKHUH\HWGLI¿FXOWWRSLQGRZQ,WWKULYHVRIIDG\QDPLFWHQVLRQ between cool and hot, openness and secrecy, pranks and seriousness, DQGSUHGLFWDELOLW\DQGXQSUHGLFWDELOLW\´ &ROHPDQ

8VLQJ WKH PDVN RI D SVHXGRQ\P ZDV DOUHDG\ SUDFWLVHG LQ WKH th century. 5HDGHUVRIWKHSHULRGLFDOAthenian MercuryZKLFKFRQVLVWHGRQO\RIDQRQ\- PRXVOHWWHUVRIUHDGHUVDQGWKHDQVZHUVWRWKRVHOHWWHUVFRXOGSDUWLFLSDWHLQGH- EDWHVWKURXJKSVHXGRQ\PRXVOHWWHUVWRWKHHGLWRU(VSHFLDOO\IHPDOHZULWHUVRI OHWWHUVRUSRHPVFRXOG³E\SDVVQRWLRQVRIPLGGOHFODVVSURSULHW\´EHKLQGWKLV

3 | 6HHKWWSZZZPDVNLWDOLDFRPPDVNKLVWRU\KWP DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU DQG KWWSHQZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL9HQHWLDQBPDVN9HQHWLDQBFDUQLYDOBPDVNV DFFHVVHG6HS- WHPEHU  4_$VWDWHPHQWRI6SDUURZDPHPEHURI3XVV\5LRWTXRWHGLQDQDUWLFOHRI&DUROH&DG walladr, The Observer-XO\$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZJXDUGLDQFRXNZRUOG MXOSXVV\ULRWSURWHVWYODGLPLUSXWLQUXVVLD" DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  94 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

YLUWXDOPDVN³7KHSURWHFWLRQRIIHUHGE\DSVHXGRQ\P>@PDGHWKHPIHHOIUHH WRMRLQLQDQXQLQKLELWHGSXEOLFGLVFXVVLRQZKLOHWKH\WKHPVHOYHVUHPDLQHG VDIHO\KLGGHQLQWKHLURZQSULYDWHVSKHUHV´,WZDVDOVRSRVVLEOHWRDGYHUWLVH XQGHUDSVHXGRQ\PIRUSULYDWHRUFRPPHUFLDOWUDQVDFWLRQV +H\O  %HKLQGWKHPDVNKXPDQVDUHIUHHWRH[SUHVVMR\SDLQRUDQJHUZLWKRXW VRFLDOUHVWUDLQWV:LWKYLGHRJDPHVKXPDQVFDQWUDQVIRUPWKHPVHOYHVLQWRH[- FHOOHQWVSRUWVSHUVRQVIRUJHWWLQJWKHSK\VLFDOFRQVWUDLQWVRIWKHLUERG\0DVNV DUHWKHDWWULEXWHVRIWKHWHPSRUDOUHDOLW\LQYLUWXDOZRUOGV³7KHSHUIRUPHULV GH¿QHGDQHZE\WKHPDVNDQGLVWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRDGHLW\DGHPRQRUVRPH XQLYHUVDOVXSHUKXPDQW\SHRUFRQYHUVHO\LQWRDQH[DJJHUDWHGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RIDVXEKXPDQLPSXOVH´ 6KHSSDUG  ,QWKHVHYLUWXDOZRUOGVPDVNVFUHDWHQHZIRUPVRIEHLQJZLWKHDFKRWKHU

³$WWKHHQGRIWKHFRXUVHZHKDGDQLQIRUPDOVRFLDOPHHWLQJLQDYLUWXDO ZRUOGFDOOHGµ7KH9LUWXDO0,7+RXVH¶7KHWZRRIXVVWD\HGDQGWDONHG ORQJDIWHUWKHRWKHUVKDGOHIW:HWDONHGDERXWYHU\VHULRXVDQGSHUVRQDO LVVXHVDQGIHOWFRPIRUWDEOHLQGRLQJVRGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWZHNQHZ YHU\OLWWOHDERXWHDFKRWKHU:HDWWULEXWHWKLVWRWKHZD\WKHDYDWDUZRUNV as a mask that shields the person behind it and in this way tends to make WKHSHUVRQPRUHRSHQ´ -DNREVVRQDQG3RSGDQ 

7KHYLUWXDOZRUOG6HFRQG/LIHKDVHYROYHGIURPLQWLPDWHH[SOLFLWRIWHQSRUQR- JUDSKLFH[SUHVVLRQVWR³FRQWHQWWKDWLVPHUHO\LQWLPDWHURPDQWLFDIIHFWLRQDWH EXWQRWRYHUWO\VH[XDO´ %DUG]HOODQG%DUG]HOO  *HQGHUVZDSSLQJZDVRQHRIWKH¿UVWSKHQRPHQRQVLQWKH,QWHUQHW$P\ %UXFNPDQ    VDZ JHQGHU VZDSSLQJ DV DQ LGHQWLW\ ZRUNVKRS LQ ZKLFKWKHYLUWXDOUROHSOD\LQJZDVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRGLVFRYHUVHYHUDODVSHFWV RIRQH¶VRZQLGHQWLW\$OUHDG\LQWH[WEDVHGFKDWHQYLURQPHQWVKXPDQVXVHG QLFNQDPHVWREHUHOHDVHGIURPWKHLUXVXDOVRFLDOLGHQWLWLHVDQGWRSUHWHQGDQG SHUIRUPWREHDQRWKHU,WZDVWKH³SDUDGR[LFDOFRPELQDWLRQRIERWKDQRQ\PLW\ DQGLQWLPDF\>@6RPHLQGLYLGXDOVDUHDOUHDG\OLYLQJSDUWRIWKHLUGDLO\OLIHLQ WKHVHFKDWPRGHVDGRSWLQJHLWKHUDJHQGHUIUHHLGHQWLW\RUSOD\LQJDUROHDVD PHPEHURIWKHRSSRVLWHJHQGHU´ 'DQHW  $FFRUGLQJWR6KHUU\7XUNOH³WKH,QWHUQHWKDVEHFRPHDVLJQL¿FDQWVRFLDO ODERUDWRU\IRUH[SHULPHQWLQJZLWKWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGUHFRQVWUXFWLRQVRIVHOI WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]H SRVWPRGHUQ OLIH ,Q LWV YLUWXDO UHDOLW\ ZH VHOIIDVKLRQ DQG VHOIFUHDWH´ 7XUNOH 6KHZDVLQWKRVHHDUO\GD\VDOVRYHU\GRXEW- IXODERXWWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKH,QWHUQHW,QKHURSLQLRQWKH:::ZDVWKH MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 95

PDWHULDOL]DWLRQRIWKHSRVWPRGHUQZLVKIRUGLIIHUHQFHV6KHIHDUHGDOVRWKHORVV RIWKHERGLO\H[SHULHQFHV

³>@9LUWXDOH[SHULHQFHPD\EHVRFRPSHOOLQJWKDWZHEHOLHYHWKDWZLWK- LQLWZH¶YHDFKLHYHGPRUHWKDQZHKDYH0DQ\RIWKHSHRSOH>@FODLP WKDWYLUWXDOJHQGHUVZDSSLQJ>@HQDEOHVWKHPWRXQGHUVWDQGZKDWLW¶V OLNHWREHDSHUVRQRIWKHRWKHUJHQGHU>@%XWDV,KDYHOLVWHQHGWRWKLV ERDVW P\ PLQG KDV RIWHQ WUDYHOOHG WR P\ RZQ H[SHULHQFHV RI OLYLQJ LQDZRPDQ¶VERG\7KHVHLQFOXGHZRUU\DERXWSK\VLFDOYXOQHUDELOLW\ IHDUVRIXQZDQWHGSUHJQDQF\DQGLQIHUWLOLW\¿QHWXQHGGHFLVLRQVDERXW KRZPXFKPDNHXSWRZHDUWRDMRELQWHUYLHZDQGWKHGLI¿FXOW\RIJLY- LQJDSURIHVVLRQDOVHPLQDUZKLOHGRXEOHGRYHUZLWKPRQWKO\FUDPSV 6RPHNQRZOHGJHLVLQKHUHQWO\H[SHULHQWLDOGHSHQGHQWRQSK\VLFDOVHQ- VDWLRQV´ 7XUNOH 

3OD\LQJZLWKLGHQWLW\XVLQJWKH,QWHUQHWVHHPVWREHERGLOHVV+RZHYHUWKLV IRUJHWWLQJRIWKHSK\VLFDOERG\¶VH[LVWHQFHRFFXUUHGDOUHDG\LQDQFLHQW*UHHN WKHDWUH0DVNVZHUHXVHGIRUWKHSRUWUD\DORIYDULRXVVWRFNFKDUDFWHUVEHLW WKH0LVFKLHYRXV6ODYHWKH,GOH6RQRUWKH$QJU\)DWKHU7KH\ZHUHQRWD GLVJXLVHEXWDWUDQVIRUPDWLRQWRRO7KHDFWRURQWKHVWDJHH[SUHVVHVDFKDUDFWHU HPERG\LQJWKHOLIHDQGWKHUHODWHGHPRWLRQVRIKLVPDVN 0DGXUDP  7KHERGLHVRIWKHPDVNZHDULQJKXPDQVZHUHRQO\VHHQDVLQVWUXPHQWV DFWLQJOLNHDQLQWHUQDOFORFNZRUN³7RWKLVH[WHQWWKHPDVNDQGFRVWXPHDUH WKHFKDUDFWHUDQGWKHDFWRUPHUHO\WKHPHFKDQLVPWKDWJLYHVWKHPWHPSRUDU\ PRWLRQ´ 0LWFKHOO 6HYHUDOFKDUDFWHUVZHUHSHUIRUPHGE\DVLQJOH DFWRUHVSHFLDOO\PDOHDFWRUVFRXOGWUDQVIRUPWKHPVHOYHVLQWRIHPDOHFKDUDF- WHUV7KHZHDUHUVRIWKHPDVNVHSDUDWHGWKHPVHOYHVIURPWKHLUNQRZQLGHQWLW\ presented by their own body by the masks representing symbolic images with DXQLYHUVDOFKDUDFWHU 0LWFKHOO +LGLQJEHKLQGDPDVNJLYHVKXPDQV WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ IRU ³VHWWLQJ DVLGH VRFLDO WDERRV DQG IUHHO\ SDUWLFLSDWLQJ´ LQ LQWHUDFWLRQSOD\VTXHVWLRQLQJWKHUXOHVDQGURXWLQHVRIVRFLHW\6RWKH³PDVN LQYLWHVFXULRVLW\SURYLGLQJRFFDVLRQIRUWKHZRUNLQJVRIVHGXFWLRQ´ &R\QHHW DO±  6RHYHQLQWKHIXQFWLRQRIKLGLQJWKHPDVNUHYHDOVDVZHOODVFRQFHDOV PDNLQJWKHERG\SK\VLFDOO\LQYLVLEOHDQGPDNLQJRXUGDLO\DFWLQJPHQWDOO\ YLVLEOHDJDLQ:LWKPDVNHGLQWHUDFWLRQVKXPDQVWUDQVIRUPWKHPVHOYHVDQGWKH ZRUOGVWKH\LQWHUDFWLQ%XWLQWKHPDVNLWVHOIDUHIHUHQFHWRDKXPDQERG\LV mostly present; alternated or swapped. 96 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

The Mask as a Mediator

7KHPDVNLVDPHGLDWRUEHWZHHQWKHLQQHUVHOIRILWVZHDUHUVWKHZRUOGWKH\ OLYHLQDQGWKHZRUOGVWKH\FDQQRWUHDFK$VWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\6FDQGLQD- YLDQSDLQWHU(JLO-DFREVRQIDPRXVIRUKLVPDVNSDLQWLQJVZURWHWRKLVELRJ- UDSKHU3HU+RYGHQDNN

³7KHPDVNKDVH[LVWHGIRUPLOOHQQLDDVDQH[SUHVVLRQLQPDQ\ZLGHO\ GLIIHULQJFXOWXUHV,WFDQEHSULPLWLYHRUVRSKLVWLFDWHG$OOPRRGVFDQ EHH[SUHVVHGWKURXJKLW>@:KHQHYHU,WKLQNRIWKHPDVNLWLVQRWWR FRQFHDORUWRIULJKWHQEXWWRH[SUHVVLQQHUDQGRXWHUH[SHULHQFHVDQGWR IUHHWKHVHH[SHULHQFHVDQGSDVVWKHPRQ7KHH\HVORRNLQZDUGVWU\LQJ to recognize something, and look outward to unite it with its surround- LQJV,WLVLQZDUGWXUQHGVHOIUHFRJQLWLRQDQGRXWZDUGWXUQHGOLEHUDWLRQ IRUWKH'UDPDVHHNLQJWKHZKROHDSRHWLFV\QWKHVLV´ 0XVVDUL ± 

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and Followers we need.

THE THEATRE AND THE MASKS IN OUR VIRTUAL WORLDS

The Masquerade World

,IZHGH¿QHDPDVTXHUDGHZRUOGDVDVRFLDOJDWKHULQJRIDFWRUVZHDULQJPDVNV WKHQWKHLQWHJUDWLRQDQGPL[LQJRIWKHYLUWXDODQGUHDOZRUOGVDUHPDVTXHUDGHV :HDUHOLYLQJPRUHDQGPRUHLQDQDUWL¿FLDOWKHDWUHSOD\ZLWKSODQQHGVFULSWV and human and non-human actors disguised behind masks. Actors are wearing MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 97

VHYHUDOPDVNVDVDOUHDG\PHQWLRQHGIRUSURWHFWLRQIRUKLGLQJDQGIRUUHSUH- VHQWDWLRQ:HDUHGHDOLQJZLWKDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVZHDULQJWKHPDVNVRIKXPDQV DQGKXPDQVZHDULQJYLUWXDODQGUHDOPDVNV5HDOLW\LVLQ¿OWUDWHGZLWKVHQVLQJ FRPSXWLQJWUDQVPLWWLQJDQGDFWLQJKDUGZDUH7KHDFWLQJRISHRSOHZLOOEH SUHFHGHGDFFRPSDQLHGDQGIROORZHGE\WKHLQYLVLEOHDQGYLVLEOHDFWLQJRI DUWL¿FLDOLQWHOOLJHQWWRROVDQGHQYLURQPHQWV±DQGWKHLUSURYLGHUV 0L[HGUHDOLW\LVDZRUOGRIIUDJPHQWHGSDUWLDOLGHQWLWLHVUHIHUULQJWRKX- man and non-human actors. Persons can create many identities and identities FDQEHVKDUHGE\PDQ\SHUVRQVRUSUHVHQWDFRPPXQLW\RIDFWRUV$QQDPDULD 6GH5RVDFDOOVWKLVVHOIEDSWLVP 'H5RVD 7KLVULWXDOLVWKHVWDUWRIDQ DGYHQWXUHLQZKLFKKXPDQVFDQGLVFRYHUWKDWWKHLUERG\LVµRQH¶EXWWKHLUVHOIV DUHIUDJPHQWHGDV9LWDQJHOR0RVFDUGDWKHSURWDJRQLVWLQ/XLJL3LUDQGHOOR¶V QRYHOOne, None and a Hundred Thousand (Uno, Nessuno e Centomila) dis- FRYHUHGGXULQJDQLOOQHVV$IWHUKHZDVFXUHGKHZDVIUHHIURPKLVSDVW+H ZDVQRORQJHUOLYLQJLQKLPVHOIEXWLQHYHU\WKLQJDURXQGDQGRXWVLGHKLP,Q WKLVVHQVHWKHXVDJHRIVHYHUDOLGHQWLWLHVLQWKH,QWHUQHWFRXOGEHDGLVHDVHWKDW GLVUXSWVWKHLPDJHRIRXUVHOI±RUDUHZHDOUHDG\H[SHULHQFLQJWKHKHDOLQJ" ,Q WKH PL[HG UHDOLWLHV LQWHUDFWLRQ KDV EHFRPH DQ LQWHUDFWLRQ EHWZHHQ masks:

³2QWKH,QWHUQHWLWFDQEHKDUGWRNQRZLIWKHHQWLW\ZHDUHLQWHUDFWLQJ ZLWKLVRIÀHVKDQGEORRGRURQO\GLJLWDO:HDUHQRZIDFLQJDFRPSOH[ UHDOLW\ERWKLQWKHµUHDO¶ZRUOGDQGLQWKHLQIRUPDWLRQVRFLHW\:HKDYH to deal with subjects acting behind masks.” The masks are the actors in RXUPL[HGUHDOLW\³,QIURQWRIWKHPDVNZHKDYHWKHLGHQWLW\´ -DTXHW &KLIIHOOHHWDO 

7KHSOD\ZLWKLGHQWLW\LQPL[HGUHDOLW\KDVEOXUUHGWKHFRQFHSWRIDQRI¿FLDO XQLTXHDQGOHJDOLGHQWLW\LQWKHV\VWHPRIVWDWHVDQGFRXQWULHV,QWKDWV\VWHP ZHDUHUHJLVWHUHGE\RXUELUWKPDUULDJHVVH[DQGGHDWK+XPDQDFWRUVFDQ DFWRQO\KDYLQJWKHVHLGHQWLW\GRFXPHQWV(QWHUDQGOHDYHDFRXQWU\EX\DQG VHOOKDYHDOHJDOMRE7KHRI¿FLDOLGHQWLW\GRFXPHQWVDUHWUDQVSDUHQWPDVNV ZKLFKUHIHUWRRXURI¿FLDOVWDWXVDQGZLOOOLQNXVZLWKWKHDFWLYLW\RIWKHSDVW DQG WKH ULJKWV DQG GXWLHV RI WKH SUHVHQW +RZHYHU WKH XQLTXHQHVV RI LGHQ- WLW\LVGLVVROYHGE\WKHXVHRIHOHFWURQLFPHGLD³3HRSOHKDYHPDQ\LGHQWLWLHV QRZDGD\V DQG VRPH LGHQWLWLHV PD\ DOVR EH VKDUHG E\ GLIIHUHQW SHUVRQV RU HYHQE\WKLQJV´ -DTXHW&KLIIHOOHHWDO 7KHVWDWHKDVDOUHDG\ORVW WKHH[FOXVLYHSRZHURIUHJLVWUDWLRQDQGSURGXFWLRQRILGHQWLW\GRFXPHQWV,W 98 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

RQO\SURGXFHVµÀHVKDQGEORRG¶LGHQWLWLHVOLQNLQJWKHPWRDPDWHULDOERG\E\ HQKDQFLQJWKHDPRXQWRIELRPHWULFDOGDWDLQWKHLGHQWLW\GRFXPHQWV6RLWFDQ RQO\WLHULJKWVDQGGXWLHVWRWKDWPDWHULDOERG\6WDWHDQGFRXQWULHVDUHDZDUHRI WKLVORVVDQGDUHSURGXFLQJODZVIRUXQPDVNLQJWKHUHDODQGWKHYLUWXDOSHUVRQV IRUELGGLQJWKHEXUNDDQGWKHFRYHULQJRIKHDGDQGIDFHDQGHQFU\SWLQJ,QWHUQHW communication.5+XPDQVZLOOEHFRQIURQWHGZLWKTXHVWLRQVOLNH

³$UHWKHPDVNVLQRXUPL[HGUHDOLW\UHDOO\UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIWKHGHYLO as was thought in the Middle Ages? Should we listen to the authority OLNHWKHFOHULFDODXWKRULWLHVLQWKH0LGGOH$JHVZKRZDQWWRIRUELGRXU PL[HGUHDOLW\PDVNV"2UDUHWKHVHDXWKRULWLHVWKHPVHOYHVWKHHYLOIRUFHV ZKRZDQWWRSRVVHVLGHQWLW\DQGXQPDVNRXULQWHUDFWLYLWLHV"´ 0LWFKHOO 

0DVNLQJWKHÀHVKDQGEORRGZLOOEHFRPHRQHRIWKHPDLQVWUDWHJLHVIRUKLGLQJ DQGSURWHFWLRQ$OWHULQJ¿QJHUSULQWVDQGZHDULQJDFDSDQGVXQJODVVHVLQDQ HQYLURQPHQWZLWKFDPHUDVLVDSURWHFWLRQDJDLQVWIDFHUHFRJQLWLRQ$QRWKHU VWUDWHJ\ LV PDVNLQJ WKH OLQN EHWZHHQ WKH ERG\ DQG RXU YLUWXDO LQWHUDFWLRQV UHGXFLQJWKHDPRXQWRILQIRUPDWLRQWKDWZLOOEHGLVFORVHGLQRXURQOLQHLQWHU- DFWLRQHJVHQGHUDQRQ\PLW\ UHPDLQLQJXQLGHQWL¿DEOHWRWKHFRPPXQLFDWLQJ SDUW\ DQGXQOLQNDELOLW\ WKHLQDELOLW\WRGHWHUPLQHWKDW\RXDUHFRPPXQLFDWLQJ ZLWKDSDUWLFXODUUHFHLYHU  5RPDQRVN\HWDO± +RZHYHUFDQZH DYRLGWKDWLQWKHIXWXUHPDVNVDUHLQWHUDFWLYHDUWL¿FLDOLQWHOOLJHQWGHYLFHVOLQN- LQJWKHPVHOYHVZLWKWKHSK\VLFDOERG\RIWKHLUZHDUHUV" ,QWKHVHPL[HGPDVNZRUOGVWKHUHZLOOEHDFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQDVSHFWVRI DXWKHQWLFLW\DQGSULYDF\$WWKHHQGRIWKH0LGGOH$JHVDFFRUGLQJWR&KULV- WRSK+H\O  WKHPDVNEHFDPHLQ/RQGRQDGHYLFHIRUFUHDWLQJDSULYDWH VSKHUHLQSXEOLF,WZDVFRPPRQIRUZRPHQWRZHDUDPDVNLQSXEOLFDVD SURWHFWLRQRIWKHLUSULYDF\DQGUHSXWDWLRQIURPXQLQYLWHGH\HV7KHPDVNLQL- WLDOO\EHORQJHGWRWKHZLQWHUDFFHVVRULHVIRUSURWHFWLRQRIWKHIDFHDQGEHFDPH DYDLODEOHDWDQ\WLPHRIWKH\HDUWRFRQIHUYDU\LQJGHJUHHVRIDQRQ\PLW\,WV VL]HLQFUHDVHGIURPWKHKDOIPDVNWRDPDVNFRYHULQJWKHHQWLUHIDFH0DVNV were worn in special places such as London parks and theatres. With the mask, ZRPHQFRXOGHVFDSHIURPWKHUROHWKH\SOD\HGLQHYHU\GD\OLIH7KHVHPLRWLF

5_6HHIRULQVWDQFHWKHFRPPHQWRI&KDUOLH6DYDJHLQWKHDUWLFOH³867ULHVWR0DNH,W Easier to Wiretap the Internet”, New York Times6HSWHPEHU$YDLODEOHDWKWWS ZZZQ\WLPHVFRPXVZLUHWDSKWPO DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 99

IXQFWLRQRIWKHVHPDVNVZDVWRGHQRWHWKDWSHRSOHPLJKWDSSURDFKHDFKRWKHU PRUHIUHHO\WKDQHOVHZKHUH

³7KHPDVNDVVXPHGDGLDOHFWLFIXQFWLRQRIUHSHOOHQWDQGLQYLWDWLRQLWV PHVVDJHZDVERWKµ,FDQ¶WEHVHHQ,DP±DWOHDVWQRWLRQDOO\±QRWKHUH DWDOO¶DQGµORRNDWPH,DPZHDULQJDPDVNPD\EH,DPDERXWWRDEDQ- GRQWKHUROH,QRUPDOO\SOD\¶2QHRIWKHPDVN¶VSDUDGR[LFDODWWUDFWLRQV ZDVWKDWLWFRXOGERWKHQGDQJHUDQGSURWHFWRQH¶VUHVSHFWDELOLW\2QWKH RQHKDQGZHDULQJDPDVNRQHPLJKWDOORZRQHVHOIWRGRWKLQJVZKLFK ZRXOGRWKHUZLVHEHXQWKLQNDEOH´ +H\O

(QFU\SWLQJWH[WXDODFWLRQVLQWKH,QWHUQHWLVDSURWHFWLRQDJDLQVWXQDXWKRUL]HG UHDGLQJDQGLQ¿OWUDWLRQ+XPDQVLQWKHVHPL[HGUHDOLWLHVDUHRYHUORDGHGZLWK LQIRUPDWLRQDQGLQYLWDWLRQVWRDFW&UHDWLQJPDVN¿OWHUVVXFKDVµ3HRSOH

The Audience of the Mask

,QWKHWKHDWUHWKHPDVNLVQRWRQO\XVHGIRUDQDHVWKHWLFWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRI WKHDFWRUVEXWDOVRIRUWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHDXGLHQFHZKHQLWGHFLGHVWR EHOLHYHLQWKDWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ³%\HQJDJLQJZLWKWKHPDVNSHUIRUPHUWKHDX- GLHQFHVKDUHVLQWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQDQGLQWKLVZD\LVDEOHWREHWUDQVIRUPHG WKHPVHOYHV´ .RHUQHU $PDVNLVDFWDEOHEHFDXVHWKHZHDUHUDQGWKH DXGLHQFHJLYHPHDQLQJWRWKHPDVNLWFRQQHFWVWKHZHDUHUZLWKLWVDXGLHQFH 0DVNLQJLVLQWKHWKHDWUHDQGLQRXUPL[HGUHDOLW\³>@DVRFLDOO\FRQVWUXFWHG DFW0DVNLQJZLOOQRWZRUNDVGLVFXVVHGLIWKHUHLVQRVKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJ>@ EHWZHHQWKHZHDUHUDQGDXGLHQFHDERXWZKDWPDVNLQJVRFLDOO\PHDQV´ .LP 100 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

 ,QWKDWXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHDXGLHQFHFDQXQGHUWDNHDGRPLQDQWQH- JRWLDWHGRUDQRSSRVLWLRQDOUHDGLQJRIWKHPDVNHGSHUIRUPDQFH +DOO  7KHIROORZHUVLQ)DFHERRNDUHSHUKDSVWKHSDVVLYHDXGLWRULXPIRUZKLFKWKH SHUIRUPDQFHLVDFWDEOHLQVXFKDZD\WKDWWKH\XQGHUWDNHWKHSUHIHUUHGUHDGLQJ $ORWRIFRPPHUFLDOFRPSDQLHVMXVWIRUWKDWUHDVRQµPDVNDQGSOD\¶WKHUROH RIDIULHQG 'R ZH KDYH WKH IUHHGRP WR FKRRVH RXU UHDGLQJ SRVLWLRQ" ,Q WKH PL[HG PDVNHGZRUOGVSRZHUUHODWLRQVZLOOXQGHQLDEO\H[LVWEHWZHHQWKHPDVNHGSHU- IRUPHUVDQGWKHDXGLHQFH$SHUIRUPDQFHZLWKPDVNVFDQDUWLFXODWHDQXQHTXDO UHODWLRQEHWZHHQPDVNHGSHUIRUPHUVDQGDXGLHQFH+LGLQJEHKLQGDQDYDWDU PDVNWUDQVIRUPVDQDFWRULQWRDQDQRQ\PRXVREVHUYHUDSRVLWLRQZKLFKQRU- PDOO\LVUHVHUYHGIRUWKHDXGLHQFH³)UHHGRPWRJD]HDQRQ\PRXVO\LQDGDUN- HQHGDXGLWRULXP7KHPDVNHGSHUIRUPHULVDOORZHGWRREVHUYHIURPEHKLQGD VKHOWHULQJFRYHU´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³:KRKDVWKHULJKWWRSUHVHQW PDVNVDQGWRWXUQRWKHUVLQWRDQDXGLHQFH"´ 7RNLQTXRWHGLQ'H-RQJ  7KHSOD\HUDXGLHQFHUHODWLRQVKLSVLQWKHPDVNSHUIRUPDQFHUHÀHFWRUOH- gitimize social relationships but also produce them. Anonymous and Pussy 5LRWSURGXFHYLVLEOHDXGLHQFHVDQGHQJDJHWKHPLQWKHLUXQPDVNLQJDFWLYLWLHV ³7KHULJKWWRSUHVHQWPDVNVDQGWRWXUQRWKHUVLQWRDQDXGLHQFHLVLWVHOIVXEMHFW WRQHJRWLDWLRQ´ 'H-RQJ +RZHYHUDVGH-RQJKROGVWKHDXGLHQFH LVPRVWO\LQWKHGLVDGYDQWDJHGSRVLWLRQRIEHLQJXQDEOHWRFRQWHVWRUTXHVWLRQ the player-audience relationship. MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 101

Masking as a Sign of Humanity

-RDQ5LYLHUHGHVFULEHGLQKHUHVVD\RI:RPDQOLQHVVDV0DVTXHUDGH, a SURIHVVLRQDOZRPDQKDYLQJVXFFHVVLQKHUMRE³7KLVZRPDQH[SHULHQFHGDQ[- LHW\DIWHUHDFKSXEOLFDSSRLQWPHQWDQGVRXJKWUHDVVXUDQFHIURPIDWKHU¿JXUHV DPRQJKHUFROOHDJXHVSULPDULO\WKURXJKLQDSSURSULDWHÀLUWLQJDQGVHGXFWLYH EHKDYLRXU´ 5LYLHUHTXRWHGLQ5RELQVRQ 5LYLHUHGHGXFHG³:RP- DQOLQHVV WKHUHIRUH FRXOG EH DVVXPHG DQG ZRUQ DV D PDVN ERWK WR KLGH WKH SRVVHVVLRQRIPDVFXOLQLW\DQGWRDYHUWWKHUHSULVDOVH[SHFWHGLIVKHZDVIRXQG WRSRVVHVVLW´ 5LYLHUHTXRWHGLQ5RELQVRQ 7KLVPDVNZDVXVHGIDU PRUHDVDGHYLFHIRUDYRLGLQJDQ[LHW\WKDQDVDSULPDU\PRGHRIVH[XDOHQMR\- PHQW &KRZDQLHFHWDO  /XFH,ULJDUD\VDZWKHPDVNRIIHPLQLW\DVDQHFHVVDU\NH\WRHQWHULQD ZRUOG³RIYDOXHVWKDWLVQRWKHUV´

³7KH EHOLHI IRU H[DPSOH WKDW LW LV QHFHVVDU\ WR EHFRPH D ZRPDQ D µQRUPDO¶RQHDWWKDWZKHUHDVDPDQLVDPDQIURPWKHRXWVHW+HKDV RQO\WRHIIHFWKLVEHLQJDPDQZKHUHDVDZRPDQKDVWREHFRPHDQRU- PDOZRPDQWKDWLVKDVWRHQWHULQWRWKHPDVTXHUDGHRIIHPLQLQLW\>@ DQGLQZKLFKVKHFDQµDSSHDU¶DQGFLUFXODWHRQO\ZKHQHQYHORSHGLQWKH QHHGVGHVLUHVIDQWDVLHVRIRWKHUVQDPHO\PHQ´ ,ULJDUD\ 5RELQVRQ± 

$FFRUGLQJWR/XFH,ULJDUD\LWLVDQDOLHQDWHGIDOVHYHUVLRQRIIHPLQLW\GHYHO- RSHGRXWRIWKHDZDUHQHVVRIZRPHQWRFRPIRUWPDQ¶VGHVLUHIRUKHUWREHKLV RWKHU7KHPDVNLVWKHIUDPHPDGHE\PDQ¶VGHVLUH ,ULJDUD\  $FFRUGLQJWR5DIDHO&DSXUURURERWVFDQEHVHHQDOVRDVDPDVNRIKXPDQ GHVLUH³2XUORYHDIIDLUZLWKWKHPRSHQVDGRXEOHELQGUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWLQ- FOXGHVWKHZKROHUDQJHRIKXPDQSDVVLRQVIURPLQGLIIHUHQFHWKURXJKLGHDOL]D- WLRQXQWLOULYDOU\DQGYLROHQFH´5RERWVDUHWKHPDVNVLQZKLFKZHFDQGLVFXVV ³WKHKXPDQQHVVRIKXPDQLW\>@URERWVDUHWKHEDGDQGWKHJRRGFRQVFLHQFHRI RXUVHOYHV´,QWKHURERWPDVNKXPDQVUHGH¿QHRXULGHQWLW\EXWDOVRWKHLGHQ- WLW\RIWKHKXPDQZHZDQWWRSRVVHVVDQGZHZDQWWREH &DSXUUR ,Q WKDWGHVLUHZHJRDVIDUDVSRVVLEOHJRLQJLQWRWKHFUHDWLRQRIDUWL¿FLDOKXPDQV It is this same longing that the mask represents in the theatre in the tribal rites, WU\LQJWRUHDFKDJRGDQGHYHQEHLQJDJRG 102 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

7KHUHDUHDOUHDG\DORWRIPDVNHGSULHVWVOLNHIXWXULVW5D\.XU]ZHLODQ DGYRFDWHRIWKHWUDQVKXPDQLVWPRYHPHQWVZKRKDYHSXWRQWKHPDVNVRIWKH JRGDQGJLYHQWKHLUYLVLRQRIWKHIXWXUHRIKXPDQV

³$IXWXUHSHULRGGXULQJZKLFKWKHSDFHRIWHFKQRORJLFDOFKDQJHZLOO EHVRIDVWDQGIDUUHDFKLQJWKDWKXPDQH[LVWHQFHRQWKLVSODQHWZLOOEH LUUHYHUVLEO\DOWHUHG:HZLOOFRPELQHRXUEUDLQSRZHU±WKHNQRZOHGJH VNLOOVDQGSHUVRQDOLW\TXLUNVWKDWPDNHXVKXPDQ±ZLWKRXUFRPSXWHU power in order to think, reason, communicate, and create in ways we FDQVFDUFHO\HYHQFRQWHPSODWHWRGD\7KLVPHUJHURIPDQDQGPDFKLQH FRXSOHGZLWKWKHVXGGHQH[SORVLRQLQPDFKLQHLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGUDSLG LQQRYDWLRQLQJHQHUHVHDUFKDQGQDQRWHFKQRORJ\ZLOOUHVXOWLQDZRUOG where there is no distinction between the biological and the mechanical, RUEHWZHHQSK\VLFDODQGYLUWXDOUHDOLW\´ .XU]ZHLO 

2IFRXUVHWKHVHSUHGLFWLRQVDUHRYHUORDGHGE\VWDWHPHQWVWKDWWHFKQRORJ\³RI FRXUVH´ZLOOEHIRUWKHEHQH¿WRIKXPDQNLQG³7KHVHGHYHORSPHQWVZLOOKHOS RYHUFRPHSROOXWLRQDQGSRYHUW\SURYLGHYDVWO\H[WHQGHGORQJHYLW\DQGHQ- KDQFH KXPDQ LQWHOOLJHQFH´ .XU]ZHLO    +RZHYHU KH LV SUHSDULQJ KXPDQVIRUOLYLQJLQDZRUOGWKDWZLOOQRWORQJHUEHWKHLUV7KHZRUOGFRXOG become occupied by super cyborgs in which human intelligence will be con- VLGHUHGDVVXERUGLQDWHWRDUWL¿FLDOLQWHOOLJHQFH $UHWKHDSSHDUDQFHVRIPDVNVLQRXUPL[HGUHDOLW\VLJQVRIDPDVTXHUDGH RI KXPDQLW\"$UH ZH FRPIRUWLQJ WKH ZLVKHV DQG GHVLUHV RI WKH WHFKQRORJ\ VKDPDQV"2UDUHZHKHDOLQJRXUVHOYHVIURPWKHWUDXPDVLQUHDOOLIH"(PRWLRQ- DOLW\DQGVRFLDELOLW\DUHLQDSSURSULDWHTXDOLWLHVWRDWWDFKWRDUWL¿FLDOGHYLFHV +RZHYHUZK\DUHVRPDQ\GHVLJQHUVEXV\PDNLQJPRGHOVRIKXPDQHPRWLRQV WRPLPLFWKHPLQURERWVDQGDYDWDUV",VLWWKHH[FOXVLRQRIKXPDQHPRWLRQV LQRXUVHOYHVDQGRWKHUKXPDQV"&DQZHEHWWHUGHDOZLWKSUHSDUHGFRQWUROODEOH emotions?

CONCLUSION

7KHPDVNLQJLQPL[HGUHDOLW\KDVDOUHDG\EHORQJHGWRRXUFXOWXUHIRUDORQJ WLPH+XPDQVQHHGWKHPDVTXHUDGHIRUGLVUXSWLQJWKHLUPHQWDOLQYLVLELOLW\EH- cause it MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 103

³XQVHWWOHVDQGGLVUXSWVWKHIDQWDV\RIFRKHUHQWXQLWDU\VWDEOHPXWXDOO\ H[FOXVLYH GLYLVLRQV ,W UHSODFHV FODULW\ ZLWK DPELJXLW\ FHUWDLQW\ ZLWK UHÀH[LYLW\ DQG SKDQWDVPLF FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI FRQWDLQPHQW DQG FORVXUH ZLWKFRQVWUXFWLRQVWKDWLQUHDOLW\DUHPRUHPHVV\GLYHUVHLPSXUHDQG LPSHUIHFW´ 7VHsORQ 

/RRNLQJWRWKHGLIIHUHQFHVDQGUHVHPEODQFHVZLWKPDVNLQJLQWKHDWUHLQULWHV DQGLQGDLO\OLIH,IRUPXODWHGTXHVWLRQVRQWKHPDVNLQJLQRXUPL[HGUHDOLW\E\ ZDONLQJEDFNRQWKHWUDFHVRIPDVNVDQGORRNLQJDWWKHLULPSULQWV :LV]QLHZVNL DQG&R\QH ,OHDUQHGWKDWKXPDQVKDYHDOZD\VOLYHGLQDPDVNHG VRFLHW\DQGWKDWPDVNLQJLVDQDFWLQWKHVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHLQ¿QLWHDQG¿FWLWLRXV SROHVRIWRWDOLQYLVLELOLW\DQGYLVLELOLW\³,QWKLVRVFLOODWLRQEHWZHHQDFRQFHDOLQJ DQGUHYHDOLQJRQHFDQFRPSUHKHQGSUDFWLFDOGLIIHUHQFHVZKLFKEULQJVXVFORVHU WRWKHQDWXUHRILGHQWLW\DQGFRPPXQLW\´ :LV]QLHZVNLDQG&R\QH  +RZDQGZKDWWKHPDVNUHYHDOVGHSHQGVRQWKHSURGXFHUWKHZHDUHUWKHDXGL- HQFHWKHLQWHUDFWLRQDQGWKHFRQWH[WVLWXDWLRQWKHPDVNLVXVHGLQ *MHUWVRQ ± 7KHJHQGHUPDVTXHUDGHVRISDVWDQGSUHVHQWFDQOHDGXVWRWKHGLVFORVXUH RIWKHPDVTXHUDGHRIKXPDQVLQURERWVDQGDYDWDUVLQWKHIXWXUHRIPL[HGUHDOLW\ 7KHSKHQRPHQRQRIWKHPDVNHVWDEOLVKHVDQDFWLYH¿HOGRISOD\EHWZHHQ QRWLRQVRISUHVHQFHDQGDEVHQFHRILQYLVLELOLW\DQGYLVLELOLW\$PDVNKDVDO- ZD\VWZRVLGHVWKHYLVLEOHLQWKHPDVNDQGWKHLQYLVLEOHEHKLQGWKHPDVN 7KHLVVXHVRIYLVLELOLW\DQGLQYLVLELOLW\DUHQRWRQO\WRDVNZKRDQGZKDWLV YLVLEOH EXW ZKR VHHV ZKDW DQG ZKR FUHDWHV LQYLVLELOLWLHV LQ RXU GDLO\ OLYHV UHDOL]LQJWKDWKXPDQDQGDUWL¿FLDODFWRUVZHDUPDVNVWRKLGHIURPXQZDQWHG LQWHUSUHWDWLRQVDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVDQGWRHQKDQFHVSHFL¿FDIIRUGDQFHV0DVNV DUHWKHLGHQWLWLHVUHDG\PDGHIRULQWHUSUHWDWLRQ:HKDYHWRGHDOZLWKKXPDQ DQG DUWL¿FLDO VXEMHFWV DFWLQJ EHKLQG PDVNV$OO WKHVH PDVNV DUH LQWHUDFWLQJ DQGGHPDQGIRULQWHUSUHWDWLRQ2QO\LQWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHLUQHJRWLDWLRQV FRQÀLFWVDQGDJUHHPHQWVFDQZHWU\WRXQGHUVWDQGWKHLQWHUDFWLRQVRIPDVNV RULQWKHZRUGVRI&ODXGH/pYL6WUDXVVDPDVNH[LWVQRWLQLVRODWLRQWKHUHDUH DOZD\VRWKHUPDVNVE\LWVVLGH³$PDVNLVQRWSULPDULO\ZKDWLWUHSUHVHQWVEXW ZKDWLWWUDQVIRUPVWKDWLVWRVD\ZKDWLWFKRRVHVQRWWRUHSUHVHQW>@DPDVN GHQLHVDVPXFKDVLWDI¿UPV,WLVQRWPDGHVROHO\RIZKDWLWVD\VRUWKLQNVLWLV VD\LQJEXWRIZKDWLWH[FOXGHV´ /pYL6WUDXVV 0DVNVDOZD\VJLYH XVWKHRSSRUWXQLW\RIXQPDVNLQJGLVUXSWLQJWKHPHQWDOLQYLVLELOLW\RIRXUVHOI WKHRWKHUVDQGWKHGDLO\OLIHZHDUHDFWLQJLQ$QGKDYLQJDPDVNRXUVHOYHVLW ZLOOJLYHXVWKHSURWHFWLRQZHQHHG6WLOOZHKDYHWRDVN:KRDUHWKHSURYLGHUV RIWKHPDVNVDQGZKRZLOOGRWKHXQPDVNLQJ" 104 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

REFERENCES

$UHQGW+  The Life of the Mind: Thinking. London: Secker & Warburg. %DNHU$  0LFNRU.HLWK%OHQGHG,GHQWLW\RIRQOLQHURFNIDQV,GHQWLW\ LQWKHLQIRUPDWLRQVRFLHW\ ,',6 6SHFLDO,VVXH6RFLDO,GHQWLW\RQWKHZHE   ± %DUDG .   3RVWKXPDQLVW 3HUIRUPDWLYLW\ 7RZDUG DQ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ RI How Matter Comes to Matter. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society   ± %DUG]HOO-DQG%DUG]HOO6  )($785(,QWLPDWHLQWHUDFWLRQVRQOLQHUHS- UHVHQWDWLRQDQGVRIWZDUHRIWKHVHOI,QWHUDFWLRQV  ± %HVOD\/DQG+DNDOD+  'LJLWDO7HUULWRU\%XEEOHV,Q.LGG37 HG  (XURSHDQ9LVLRQVIRUWKH.QRZOHGJH$JH±D4XHVWIRU1HZKRUL]RQVLQWKH ,QIRUPDWLRQ6RFLHW\&KHVKLUH+HQEXU\± %H\HU+DQG+ROW]EODWW.  0DNLQJFXVWRPHUFHQWHUHGGHVLJQZRUNIRU teams. Communications of the ACM  ± %R\G'  Faceted id/entity: Managing representation in a digital world. 8QSXEOLVKHGPDVWHU¶VWKHVLV&DPEULGJH0$0DVVDFKXVHWWV,QVWLWXWHRI Technology. %UXFNPDQ$  ,GHQWLW\:RUNVKRS(PHUJHQW6RFLDODQG3V\FKRORJLFDO3KH- QRPHQDLQ7H[W%DVHG9LUWXDO5HDOLW\$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZFFJDWHFK HGXaDVESDSHUVLGHQWLW\ZRUNVKRSUWI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  %UXFNPDQ$  *HQGHU6ZDSSLQJRQWKH,QWHUQHW3URFHHGLQJVRI,1(7 µ5HVWRQ 9$ 7KH,QWHUQHW6RFLHW\$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZFFJDWHFK HGXaDVESDSHUVJHQGHUVZDSSLQJW[W DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  &DSXUUR5  (WKLFVDQG5RERWLFV$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZFDSXUURGH HWKLFVDQGURERWLFVKWPO DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  &KDQGOHU '   0DU[LVW 0HGLD 7KHRU\ $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZDEHU DFXNPHGLD'RFXPHQWVPDU[LVPPDU[LVPKWPO DFFHVVHG6HSWHP- EHU  &KRZDQLHF83KLOOLSV8DQG5\WN|QHQ0  ,QWURGXFWLRQ,Q&KRZ- DQLHF83KLOOLSV8DQG5\WN|QHQ0 HGV 0DVTXHUDGHDQG)HPLQLQLW\ (VVD\VRQ5XVVLDQDQG3ROLVK:RPHQ:ULWHUV Newcastle, UK: Cambridge 6FKRODUV3XEOLVKLQJ± &ROHPDQ*  $QRQ\PRXV)RUWKFRPLQJLQ:LHGHPDQQ&DQG=HKOH6 HGV 'HSOHWLRQ'HVLJQ$*ORVVDU\RI1HWZRUN(FRORJLHV;0/DE ,1&  $YDLODEOH DW JDEULHOODFROHPDQRUJGRF$QRQ\PRXV*ORVVDU\1HW ZRUN(FRORJLHVSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 105

&RRSHU 0 DQG %HQMDPLQ ,   'UDPDWLF ,QWHUDFWLRQ LQ 9LUWXDO :RUOGV $YDLODEOH DW KWWSP\ZHEWLVFDOLFRXNLEHQMDPLQHQYLVQKWPO DFFHVVHG 6HSWHPEHU  &R\QH53DUN+DQG:LV]QLHZVNL'  'HVLJQ'HYLFHV:KDW7KH\5HYHDO and Conceal. .ULWLVFKH %HULFKWH =HLWVFKULIW IU .XQVW XQG .XOWXUZLVVHQ- schaften±$YDLODEOHDWKWWSFLWHVHHU[LVWSVXHGXYLHZGRFGRZQOR DG"GRL  UHS UHS W\SH SGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  &UXW]HQ &.0   ,QWHUDFWLH HHQ ZHUHOG YDQ YHUVFKLOOHQ (HQ YLVLH RS informatica vanuit genderstudies. Dissertation. Heerlen: Open Uni- YHUVLW\ RI WKH 1HWKHUODQGV $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZFHFLOHFUXW]HQGH 'RZQORDGV'LVVHUWDWLH,QWHUDFWLHHHQZHUHOGYDQYHUVFKLOOHQSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  &UXW]HQ&.0  ,&75HSUHVHQWDWLRQVDVWUDQVIRUPDWLYHFULWLFDOURRPV,Q .UHXW]QHU*DQG6FKHOKRZH+ HGV Agents of Change. Virtuality, Gender and the Challenge to the Traditional University. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, ± &UXW]HQ&.0DQG*HUULVVHQ-)  'RXEWLQJWKH2%-(&7:RUOG,Q%DO- ND(DQG6PLWK5 HGV Women, Work and Computerization: Charting a Course to the Future.%RVWRQ.OXZHU$FDGHPLF3UHVV± &UXW]HQ &.0 DQG +HLQ +:   ,QYLVLELOLW\ DQG 9LVLELOLW\ WKH 6KDG- RZVRIWKH$UWL¿FLDO,QWHOOLJHQFH,Q9DOOYHUGX-DQG&DVDFXEHUWD' HGV  +DQGERRNRI5HVHDUFKRQ6\QWKHWLF(PRWLRQVDQG6RFLDEOH5RERWLFV1HZ $SSOLFDWLRQVLQ$IIHFWLYH&RPSXWLQJDQG$UWL¿FLDO,QWHOOLJHQFH Hershey: ,*,*OREDO± 'DQHW%  7H[WDV0DVN*HQGHUDQG,GHQWLW\RQWKH,QWHUQHW&RQIHUHQFH RQ 0DVTXHUDGH DQG *HQGHUHG ,GHQWLW\ 9HQLFH ,WDO\  )HEUXDU\ ±  $YDLODEOH DW KWWSSOXWRPVFFKXMLDFLOaPVGDQHWPDVNKWPO DF- FHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  'H-RQJ)  7UDMHFWRULHVRID0DVN3HUIRUPDQFHWKH&DVHRIWKH6HQHJD- lese Kumpo. Cahiers d’études africaines  ± 'H5RVD$6  One, no-one, one hundred thousand ... and the virtual self, the nickname as the indicator of the multiple identity of the members of two ,WDOLDQFKDWOLQHV$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZHXURSKGHXKWPOBRQGD VVSGIB¿OHVOHFWXUHVGHURVDQLFNQDPHVMFPFSGI DFFHVVHG  6HSWHPEHU   *MHUWVRQ*:  7KH0DVNDQGWKH0DVTXH$YDLODEOHDWKWWSVFKRODUVKLS ULFHHGXELWVWUHDPKDQGOH3') DFFHVVHG6HSWHP- EHU  106 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

*RIIPDQ (   7KH 3UHVHQWDWLRQ RI 6HOI LQ (YHU\ 'D\ /LIH. New York: Doubleday. *XVWDYVVRQ(DQG&]DUQLDZVND%  :HE:RPDQ7KH2QOLQH&RQVWUXF- WLRQRI&RUSRUDWHDQG*HQGHU,PDJHVOrganization  ± +DFNLQJ ,   %HWZHHQ 0LFKHO )RXFDXOW DQG (UYLQJ *RIIPDQ EHWZHHQ GLVFRXUVHLQWKHDEVWUDFWDQGIDFHWRIDFHLQWHUDFWLRQ(FRQRP\DQG6RFLHW\   ± +DOO6  (QFRGLQJ'HFRGLQJ,Q+DOO6HWDO HGV Culture, Media, Lan- guage./RQGRQ+XWFKLQVRQ± +HLGHJJHU 0   Die Technik und die Kehre. 6WXWWJDUW9HUODJ*QWKHU Neske. +H\O &   A passion for privacy: Untersuchungen zur Genese der EUJHUOLFKHQ3ULYDWVSKlUHLQ/RQGRQ±0QFKHQ2OGHQERXUJ :LVVHQVFKDIWVYHUODJ +H\O&  :KHQWKH\DUHYH\O¶GRQSXUSRVHWREHVHHQ,Q(QWZKLVWOH- DQG:LOVRQ( HGV Body Dressing.2[IRUG%HUJ± ,ULJDUD\/  7KLVVH[ZKLFKLVQRWRQH,WKDFD1<&RUQHOO8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV -DNREVVRQ0DQG3RSGDQ9/  How we became net friends, and what we learned from it.$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZLQIRUPDWLNXPXVHaPMVRQ ¿OHVQHWBIULHQGVKLSSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  -DTXHW&KLIIHOOH '2 %HQRLVW ( +DHQQL 5:HQJHU)DQG =ZLQJHOEHUJ +  9LUWXDO3HUVRQVDQG,GHQWLWLHV,Q5DQQHQEHUJ.HWDO HGV The )XWXUH RI ,GHQWLW\ LQ WKH ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6RFLHW\ %HUOLQ 6SULQJHU 9HUODJ ± .HDWV3$  Using Masks for Trauma Recovery: a Self-narrative.$YDLO- DEOHDWKWWSVFLUFOHXEFFDELWVWUHDPKDQGOHXEFB SGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  .LP+  6HULRXV/HLVXUH3DUWLFLSDWLRQDQG([SHULHQFHLQWRXULVP$X- thenticity and Ritual in a Renaissance festival.$YDLODEOHDWKWWSUHSRVLWRU\ WDPXHGXKDQGOH DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  .RHUQHU (   Voicing an Other: Utilizing Puppetry and Pageantry for Community-based Spectacle in America.$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZWDNH\ FRP7KHVLVBSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  .UHXLWHU$'  Morphing moonlight: Gender, masks and carnival may- KHP7KH¿JXUHRI3LHUURWLQ*LUDXG(QVRU'RZVRQDQG%HDUGVOH\$YDLO- DEOH DW KWWSHWGXRYVDF]D(7'GEWKHVHVDYDLODEOHHWG XQUHVWULFWHG.UHXLWHU$'SGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  MASKS BETWEEN THE VISIBLE AND THE INVISIBLE 107

.XU]ZHLO 5   5HLQYHQWLQJ +XPDQLW\7KH )XWXUH RI 0DFKLQH+XPDQ Intelligence. Futurist  ± .XU]ZHLO5  0HUJHURI0DQDQG0DFKLQHVDesign News   /DXJKOLQ &'   5HYHDOLQJ WKH +LGGHQ 7KH (SLSKDQLF 'LPHQVLRQ RI Games and Sport. Journal of Ritual Studies   ±$YDLODEOHDW KWWSZZZELRJHQHWLFVWUXFWXUDOLVPFRPGRFVUHYHDOLQJBWKHBKLGGHQUWI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  /DXUHO%  Computers as Theatre. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. /DZOHU 6   ,GHQWLW\ VRFLRORJLFDO SHUVSHFWLYHV Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. /pYL6WUDXVV&  The Way of the Masks.9DQFRXYHU7RURQWR'RXJODVV and McIntyre. 0DGXUDP'  An Analysis of Votive Masks at Malloura$YDLODEOHDW KWWSZZZGDYLGVOLIHFRPVFKRRODDS$$3BSDSHUSGI DFFHVVHG  6HS- WHPEHU  0HUOHDX3RQW\0  The visible and the invisible: followed by working notes.(YDQVWRQ,/1RUWKZHVWHUQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 0LWFKHOO0$  7KH'HYHORSPHQWRIWKH0DVNDVD&ULWLFDO7RROIRUDQ([- amination of Character and Performer action.$YDLODEOHDWKWWSUHSRVLWRULHV WGORUJWWXLUELWVWUHDPKDQGOHSGI DFFHVVHG 6HSWHPEHU  0XVVDUL0  7KH0DVNVRI(JLOO-DFREVHQThe Journal of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study  ± 5LYLHUH-  :RPDQOLQHVVDVD0DVTXHUDGH,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI3V\- cho-Analysis± 5RELVRQ+  5HDGLQJ$UW5HDGLQJ,ULJDUD\7KH3ROLWLFVRI$UWE\:RP- en. New York: I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd. 5RPDQRVN\6$FTXLVWL$+RQJ-&UDQRU/)DQG)ULHGPDQ%  3ULYDF\ SDWWHUQVIRURQOLQHLQWHUDFWLRQV3URFHHGLQJVRIWKH&RQIHUHQFHRQ Pattern Languages of Programs2FWREHU±3RUWODQG 2UHJRQ  $YDLODEOHDWKWWSSRUWDODFPRUJFLWDWLRQFIP"LG  DFFHVVHG 6HSWHPEHU  6DQQLFRODV 1   (UYLQJ *RIIPDQ 'UDPDWXUJ\ DQG 2Q/LQH 5HODWLRQ- ships. Cybersociology Magazine&\EHUVH[DQG&\EHU5RPDQFH$YDLO- DEOH DW KWWSZZZF\EHUVRFLRORJ\FRP¿OHVBBVDQQLFRODVKWPO DF- FHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  108 CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN

6KHSSDUG:$  5HYHDOLQJPDVNVH[RWLFLQÀXHQFHVDQGULWXDOL]HGSHUIRU- mance in modernist music theatre.%HUNHOH\DQG/RV$QJHOHV8QLYHUVLW\ RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV 6WDU6/  ,QYLVLEOH:RUNXQG6LOHQFHG'LDORJXHVLQ.QRZOHGJH5HSUH- VHQWDWLRQ,Q(ULNVVRQ,9.LWFKHQKDP%$DQG7LMGHQV.* HGV Women, Work and Computerization: Understanding and Overcoming Bias in Work DQG(GXFDWLRQ$PVWHUGDP(OVHYLHU6FLHQFH3XEOLVKHUV± 6WUDXVV$/  0LUURUV PDVNVWKHVHDUFKIRULGHQWLW\ New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. 6ZDUWOLQJ$  The good person in information systems development: A UHÀH[LYHLQYHVWLJDWLRQRI+&,LQWKHDFTXLVLWLRQSURFHVV$YDLODEOHDWKWWS ZZZFVFNWKVHXWELOGQLQJIRUVNDUDYKDQGOLQJDUGRNWRU6ZDUWOLQJ $QQDSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  7VHsORQ(  0DVTXHUDGHDQG,GHQWLWLHV(VVD\VRQ*HQGHU6H[XDOLW\DQG Marginality. London: Routledge. 7XUNOH6  /LIHRQWKH6FUHHQ,GHQWLW\LQWKH$JHRIWKH,QWHUQHW New York: Simon & Schuster. 7XUNOH6  9LUWXDOLW\DQGLWV'LVFRQWHQWV6HDUFKLQJIRU&RPPXQLW\LQ Cyberspace. The American Prospect  ±$YDLODEOH DW KWWSZHE PLWHGXVWXUNOHZZZSGIVIRUVWZHESDJH679LUWXDOLW\DQGLWV GLVFRQWHQWVSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  9HUYDLQ&DQG:LOHV'  7KH0DVNVRI*UHHN7UDJHG\DV3RLQWRI'HSDU- WXUHIRU0RGHUQ3HUIRUPDQFH1HZ7KHDWUH4XDUWHUO\± :HLVHU0  7KHZRUOGLVQRWDGHVNWRS$&06,*&+,,QWHUDFWLRQV   ± :LV]QLHZVNL'DQG&R\QH5  0DVNDQG,GHQWLW\7KH+HUPHQHXWLFVRI 6HOI&RQVWUXFWLRQLQWKH,QIRUPDWLRQ$JH,Q5HQQLQJHU$DQG6KXPDU: HGV Building Virtual Communities: Learning and Change in Cyberspace. &DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV± =KDR6  +XPDQRLGVRFLDOURERWVDVDPHGLXPRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQNew 0HGLD 6RFLHW\  ± %Gender in Epistemological Foundations of Science and Technology

Homunculus in the Hormones?

REBECCA JORDAN-YOUNG

+RZLVLWWKDWZHDVKXPDQVFRPHWREHZKRZHDUH",WLVRIFRXUVHRQHRI WKHPRVWDQFLHQWTXHVWLRQVDQGLWPD\VLJQDODFXULRVLW\DERXWLQGLYLGXDOLW\ +RZGR,LQSDUWLFXODUFRPHWRKDYHWKHVHLGHDVVNLOOVERGLO\WUDLWVDQG GHVLUHV" DVZHOODVDERXWJURXSV :K\DUHWKHVHWKLQJVOLYLQJDQGWKRVHGHDG" Why are these beings human and those dogs? Why is this kindRIKXPDQGLI- IHUHQWIURPthat kind" $ULVWRWOHSURSRVHGWKDWDOOOLYLQJEHLQJVPXVWKDYHD ³VRXO´±DQDFWLYHSULQFLSOHWKDWDQLPDWHVDQGGLUHFWVWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKH RUJDQLVPZLWKRXWZKLFKWKHOLYLQJEHLQJZRXOGEHOLIHOHVVDVDPLQHUDO7KH VRXOJDYHERWKOLIHLWVHOIDQGWKHVSHFL¿FIRUPRIWKHRUJDQLVP7KLVH[SODQD- WLRQVDWLV¿HGSOHQW\RISHRSOHIRUDUHPDUNDEO\ORQJWLPH%XWGXULQJWKHVHY- HQWHHQWKFHQWXU\OHDUQHGSHRSOHEHFDPHPRUHDQGPRUHOLNHO\WRH[SHFWWKDW WKHRULHVDERXWWKHQDWXUDOZRUOGVKRXOGEHEDVHGRQHYLGHQFHDQGWKHLGHDWKDW GHYHORSPHQWZDVGLUHFWHGE\WKHVRXOFUHDWHGDVHULRXVSUREOHP1DPHO\QR RQHKDGHYHUVHHQDVRXOQRUKDGDQ\LGHDZKHUHVSHFL¿FDOO\LWPLJKWEHQRU KRZH[DFWO\LWPLJKWZRUN,QVKRUWWKHVRXOZDVWRRDEVWUDFWDQGPHWDSK\VL- FDODQLGHDIRUWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\PDWHULDOLVWEHOLHIVRI:HVWHUQVFLHQFH $QGVREHFDXVHQRRQHFRXOGVHHKRZPDWWHUFRXOGWDNHRQQHZIRUPVDOO E\LWVHOIWKHLGHDRISUHIRUPDWLRQLVPEHJDQWRWDNHKROG,QVKRUWWKLVZDVWKH LGHDWKDWRUJDQLVPVGHYHORSIURPVPDOOHUYHUVLRQVRIWKHPVHOYHV7KHIXQGD- PHQWDOIRUPRIWKHRUJDQLVPZDVDOZD\VDOUHDG\WKHUH7KHELRORJLVWKLVWRULDQ &ODUD3LQWR&RUUHLD  KDVZULWWHQDORYHO\KLVWRU\WKDWÀHVKHVRXWDOOWKH GHWDLOVRIWKHLQWHUHVWLQJDQGVWLOOUHOHYDQWKLVWRU\RISUHIRUPDWLRQLVPZKLFK VKHGH¿QHVDV³WKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWWKHSULPRUGLDORUJDQLVPDOUHDG\FRQWDLQV

_%DVHGRQDSUHVHQWDWLRQGHOLYHUHG'HFHPEHUDW-RKDQQHV.HSOHU8QLYHUVLW\ /LQ]$XVWULD /HFWXUHVHULHVµ)RU)XWXUH,QQRYDWLRQV*HQGHULQ6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRO- RJ\¶ DQGRQ-RUGDQ

LQVLGHLWVHOIDOORWKHURUJDQLVPVRIWKHVDPHVSHFLHVSHUIHFWO\SUHIRUPHGPLQ- iscule though they might be”. That idea now seems quaint, but it is not really VRIDUUHPRYHGIURPZKDWVKHGHVFULEHVDV³WKHPRUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGYHUVLRQRI WKHPRGHO´SUHH[LVWHQFH³LQZKLFKWKHSULPRUGLDORUJDQLVPFRQWDLQVRQO\ WKHEDVLFEOXHSULQWVRIDOOWKHUHODWHGRUJDQLVPVWRFRPH´ 3LQWR&RUUHLD [[L  $ELJDUJXPHQWDPRQJSUHIRUPDWLRQLVWVFRQFHUQHGWKHUROHRIHJJVDQG RYDULHVYHUVXVWKHUROHRIVSHUPDQGWHVWHVµ6SHUPLVWV¶ZHUHFHUWDLQWKDWWKH UXGLPHQWDU\KXPDQFRXOGEHIRXQGLQVSHUPDQGµRYLVWV¶ZHUHFRQYLQFHGWKDW WKH HJJ ZDV WKH WUXH DGGUHVV RI WKH WLQ\ SUHKXPDQ7KH IDPRXV QDWXUDOLVW $QWRQLYDQ/HHXZHQKRHNDVSHUPLVWIDPRXVO\UHSRUWHGKRZKLVPLFURVFRSH DOORZHGKLPWRµVHH¶WKHVHWLQ\FUHDWXUHVLQVSHUPDQGKHFDOOHGWKHP³OLWWOH PHQ´ LQ/DWLQKRPXQFXOXV 7KHKRPXQFXOXVLVVWLOOZLWKXVDVLWWXUQVRXW 6FLHQWLVWVQRORQJHUµVHH¶WKHPLQVSHUPRULQRYD±EXW,DUJXHLQWKLVSDSHU WKDWDWKHRU\RIGHYHORSPHQWWKDWLVFXUUHQWO\TXLWHSRSXODULVDYDULDWLRQRQ WKHEURDGWKHPHRISUHH[LVWHQFH7KLVWKHRU\EUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQKROGVWKDW µVH[KRUPRQHV¶WUDQVIRUPWKHLQLWLDOO\VH[QHXWUDOPDWWHURIWKHEUDLQFDXVLQJ WKHEUDLQWRWDNHRQWUDLWVWKDWDUHWLPHOHVVO\PDVFXOLQHRUIHPLQLQH,QVWHDG RIOLWHUDOµOLWWOHPHQ¶WKHHQWLW\WKDWLVQRZWKRXJKWWREHWUDQVPLWWHGDFURVV WLPHIURPRQHJHQHUDWLRQWRWKHQH[WLVPDVFXOLQLW\RUIHPLQLQLW\±DSRSXODU ZD\RIXQGHUVWDQGLQJIXQGDPHQWDOFDWHJRULHVRIKXPDQQDWXUH5DWKHUWKDQ FXUOHGLQVLGHWKHVSHUPDVWKHµVSHUPLVWV¶EHOLHYHGRUWXFNHGLQVLGHWKHRYXP DVµRYLVWV¶GLGWKHLPDJLQDU\WLPHOHVVµOLWWOHPHQ¶DQGµOLWWOHZRPHQ¶RIEUDLQ organization theory are encased in testosterone and estrogen.

***

7KLV FKDSWHU HQFDSVXODWHV WKH PDLQ DUJXPHQWV RI P\ ERRN Brain Storm -RUGDQ

)RUWKHSXUSRVHVRIWKLVFKDSWHU,SUHVHQWDYHU\FRQFLVHVXPPDU\RIWKH PDLQW\SHVRIKXPDQEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQVWXGLHV¿YHFRUHDVVXPSWLRQVWKDW GULYHWKHUHVHDUFKDQGWKUHHIXQGDPHQWDOZD\VWKDWWKHRYHUDOOHYLGHQFHIURP UHVHDUFKRQEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQIDLOVWRVXSSRUWWKHWKHRU\E\FRQYHQWLRQDOVFL- HQWL¿F VWDQGDUGV , FRQFOXGH ZLWK D IHZ QRWHV DERXW WKH GLIIHUHQW OHYHOV RQ which we can understand the discrepancies and gaps in brain organization research, especially considering whether it is necessary to choose between LGHQWLI\LQJVFLHQWL¿FHUURUVRUSXUVXLQJDQDQDO\VLVWKDWGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHIXQ- GDPHQWDOO\VRFLDODQGFRQWLQJHQWQDWXUHRIVFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJH7KLVWHQVLRQ SRVHVDSDUWLFXODUULVNZKHQ,XVHRWKHUNLQGVRIUHVHDUFKRQKXPDQVH[W\SHG WUDLWVLQRUGHUWRFRQWUDVWWKRVHZLWKWKHYLVLRQRIVH[JHQGHUHPEHGGHGLQEUDLQ organization theory. In Brain Storm,XVHGVXFKFRQWUDVWVLQDYDULHW\RIZD\V FKLHIDPRQJWKHPWRVKRZWKDWDOOHYLGHQFHGRHVQRWLQIDFWFRQYHUJHLQVXS- SRUWRIEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQWKHRU\,ZDQWWREHFOHDUKHUHWKDWLWZDVQHYHUP\ LQWHQWLRQWRVXJJHVWWKDWRQHRIWKHVHotherZD\VRINQRZLQJKXPDQVH[JHQ- GHULVLQVRPHZD\IXOO\µWUXH¶RUFDQHVFDSHDOOWKHEDJJDJHRIHPEHGGHGJHQ- GHULGHRORJ\LQFRPSOHWHPRGHOLQJDQGGDWDDQGRWKHUÀDZVWKDWEHGHYLOEUDLQ organization research. Yet some research approaches do seem more promising WKDQRWKHUVWRPH(YHU\WKLQJLQP\RZQUHVHDUFKRQVH[XDOLW\P\NQRZOHGJH RIKLVWRU\DQGIHPLQLVW676DQGOLIHH[SHULHQFHVSUHSDUHPHWRVHHVH[XDOLW\ DQGJHQGHUDVFRPSOH[FRQWLQJHQWDQGKLVWRULFDOO\FKDQJHDEOH±LQVKRUWQRW YHU\OLNHO\WREHWKHNLQGRISKHQRPHQDWKDWPLJKWEHFKDUDFWHUL]HGDVµWUDLWV¶ WKDWHPHUJHRXWRIPDVFXOLQHRUIHPLQLQHVXEVWDQFHV6RZLWKWKDWGLVFODLPHU RXWLQWKHRSHQOHW¶VWDNHDFORVHUORRNDWEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQUHVHDUFK

THE THEORY OF BRAIN ORGANIZATION

³,I\RX¶UHJRLQJWRUHSURGXFHELVH[XDOO\\RXQHHGGLIIHUHQW JHQLWDOLD\RXQHHGGLIIHUHQWJRQDGVWRRDQG\RXQHHGGLI- IHUHQWLQWHUQDORUJDQV%XWWKHEUDLQFRQWUROVWKHVHWKLQJVVR \RXQHHG±,WKLQN\RXQHHGDGLIIHUHQWEUDLQ´ %UDLQ2UJDQL]DWLRQ5HVHDUFKHU µ'U,¶ $XJXVW

7RH[DPLQHEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQWKHRU\,DQDO\]HGDOOWKHKXPDQVWXGLHVWKDW VFLHQWLVWVKDYHXVHGWRWHVWWKLVWKHRU\DQG,DOVRLGHQWL¿HGWKHPRVWZLGHO\ FLWHGDQGLQÀXHQWLDOVFLHQWLVWVLQWKHZRUOGZKRFRQGXFWVXFKVWXGLHV0\PDLQ LQWHUHVWZDVLQWDONLQJWRWKHPDERXWWKHWHFKQLFDOGHWDLOVRIWKHLUVWXGLHVEXW, 114 REBECCA JORDAN-YOUNG

DOVR,DVNHGWKHPWRH[SODLQWKHWKHRU\LQWKHPRVWFRQFLVHZD\WKH\FRXOGDQG ,DVNHGWKHPZKDWVWLPXODWHGWKHLULQLWLDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHWKHRU\µ'U,¶LVRQHRI those scientists2±DZRUOGUHQRZQHGQHXURVFLHQWLVWZKRKDVEHHQGRLQJVWXG- LHVUHODWHGWRWKLVWKHRU\IRUGHFDGHV7KHZD\KHIUDPHGLWLQDVH[XDOO\UH- SURGXFLQJVSHFLHVWKHEUDLQLVDVRUWRIDFFHVVRU\UHSURGXFWLYHRUJDQ7RKLP WKHH[LVWHQFHRIDPDOHEUDLQYHUVXVDIHPDOHEUDLQLVQRWDQRSHQTXHVWLRQWKDW RQHVKRXOGLQYHVWLJDWHEXWLVLQVWHDGDORJLFDOUHTXLUHPHQWRIVH[XDOUHSURGXF- WLRQLWVHOI%UDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQWKHRU\LVDSSHDOLQJWRµ'U,¶DQGRWKHUVZKR WKLQNOLNHKLPEHFDXVHLWKDVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIµSDUVLPRQ\¶PHDQLQJWKDW LWLVWKHVLPSOHVWH[SODQDWLRQWKDWFRYHUVDJUHDWQXPEHURISKHQRPHQD%UDLQ RUJDQL]DWLRQWKHRU\LVDQH[FHOOHQWH[DPSOHRIDSDUVLPRQLRXVWKHRU\EHFDXVH LWEXLOGVDVLQJOHXQLI\LQJH[SODQDWLRQRIVH[GHYHORSPHQWHQFRPSDVVLQJERWK EHKDYLRUDQGWKHSK\VLFDOSK\VLRORJLFDOERG\7KHNH\DFWRUIRUERWKWKHERG\ DQGEHKDYLRU YLDWKHEUDLQ ZRXOGEHVWHURLGKRUPRQHV 7RVNLPTXLFNO\RYHUDJUHDWGHDORIKLVWRU\WKDWLVFRYHUHGQLFHO\LQPDQ\ RWKHU SODFHV HJ 2XGVKRRUQ  6HQJRRSWD  9DQGHQ :LMQJDDUG  WKH¿UVWFHQWXU\RIKRUPRQHUHVHDUFK±SUHGDWLQJERWKWKHWHUPµKRU- PRQHV¶DQGWKHELRFKHPLFDOLQVLJKWVDQGWHFKQRORJLHVWKDWZRXOGDOORZSUHFLVH LVRODWLRQDQGLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHVHVXEVWDQFHV±ZDVIRFXVHGRQTXHVWLRQVRI VH[7KHVWHURLGVWKDWSHRSOHVWLOOWRGD\WHQGWRWKLQNRIDVµVH[KRUPRQHV¶ZHUH SXWWRJHWKHULQWRJURXSVEDVHGQRWRQKDYLQJVLPLODUFKHPLFDOVWUXFWXUHVEXW EDVHG RQ WKHLU DELOLWLHV WR DIIHFW FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK PDVFXOLQLW\ WKHKRUPRQHVFODVVL¿HGDVµDQGURJHQV¶ RUWKRVHDIIHFWHGZLWKIHPLQLQLW\ WKH µHVWURJHQV¶ 1HOO\2XGVKRRUQ  KDVVKRZQKRZDFHUWDLQLGHRORJ\RI ELQDU\RSSRVLWLRQDOVH[HVFUHDWHGDUHVHDUFKIUDPHZRUNWKDWQRWRQO\VKDSHG WKHH[SHULPHQWVLQHDUO\HQGRFULQRORJ\EXWUHSHDWHGO\EORFNHGHYLGHQFHWKDW FRQWUDGLFWHGWKLVLGHRORJ\7KUHHPDMRUH[SHFWDWLRQVLQFOXGHGWKDW WKHVH FKHPLFDOVZRXOGEHVH[VSHFL¿F SUHVHQWRQO\LQKHDOWK\LQGLYLGXDOVRIRQH VH[RUWKHRWKHUEXWQRWERWK  WKH\ZRXOGEHDQWDJRQLVWLF DQGURJHQVFRXQ- WHUDFWLQJWKHHIIHFWVRIHVWURJHQV DQG WKH\ZRXOGEHIXQGDPHQWDOO\µIRU¶ GHYHORSPHQWRIVH[XDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDVRSSRVHGWREHLQJLQYROYHGLQDZLGH UDQJHRIIXQFWLRQVIRUERWKVH[HV

_)ROORZLQJVWDQGDUGHWKQRJUDSKLFSUDFWLFHLQERWKWKHERRNDQGWKLVFKDSWHU,UHIHUWR DOOVFLHQWLVWV,LQWHUYLHZHGE\SVHXGRQ\PVUDWKHUWKDQWKHLUUHDOQDPHV,SURPLVHGWKHP FRQ¿GHQWLDOLW\ZKHQ,FRQGXFWHGWKHLQWHUYLHZVLQRUGHUWRPDNHWKHPIHHOFRPIRUW- DEOHH[SUHVVLQJVFLHQWL¿FDOO\XQSRSXODUYLHZVRUFULWLTXLQJFROOHDJXHVRUZRUNWKDWWKH\ ZRXOGQ¶WZDQWWRSXEOLFO\RSSRVH HOMUNCULUS IN THE HORMONES? 115

%\WKHVH[SHULPHQWVLQGHYHORSPHQWDOHQGRFULQRORJ\KDGGHPRQ- VWUDWHGWKDWVWHURLGVSOD\DYHU\SRZHUIXOUROHLQWKHGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQRIUHSUR- GXFWLYHDQGJHQLWDOVWUXFWXUHV,WZDVGXULQJWKLVWLPHWKDWPRUHV\VWHPDWLFH[- SHULPHQWDOPHWKRGV HJXVLQJFRQWUROJURXSVDVZHOODVH[SHULPHQWDOJURXSV  DQGDGYDQFHGUHVHDUFKWHFKQLTXHV HJWKHDELOLW\WRFRQGXFWVXUJHULHVH[- WUHPHO\HDUO\LQDQLPDOGHYHORSPHQW DOORZHG$OIUHG-RVWDQGRWKHUVWRVROYH ZKDWKDGEHHQDORQJVWDQGLQJSX]]OHLQVH[XDOGHYHORSPHQWKRZGRIHWXVHV JRIURPEHLQJVH[XDOO\µQHXWUDO¶±WKDWLVVWUXFWXUDOO\LQGLVWLQJXLVKDEOHE\VH[ IURPWKHPDFURVFRSLFOHYHODWOHDVW±WREHLQJYLVLEO\DQGIXQFWLRQDOO\HLWKHU µPDOH¶RUµIHPDOH¶"-RVWEXLOWRQH[SHULPHQWVJRLQJDOOWKHZD\EDFNWRWKH IDWKHURIH[SHULPHQWDOHQGRFULQRORJ\WKH9LHQQHVHVFLHQWLVW(XJHQ6WHLQDFK trying to show that steroids, and in particular androgens, seemed to play the GHFLVLYHUROH,IDQ\DQLPDOLVH[SRVHGWRDVXI¿FLHQWTXDQWLW\RIDQGURJHQV GXULQJWKHFULWLFDOSHULRGLQLWVOLIHZKHQJHQLWDODQGUHSURGXFWLYHGLIIHUHQ- WLDWLRQWDNHVSODFH DSHULRGWKDWLVWKHVDPHIRUHYHU\LQGLYLGXDOLQDJLYHQ VSHFLHV WKDWDQLPDOZLOOGHYHORSWKHUHSURGXFWLYHVWUXFWXUHVRIDPDOH,QWKH DEVHQFHRIDQGURJHQVµIHPDOH¶VWUXFWXUHVZRXOGGHYHORS-RVWFRQFOXGHGWKDW WKHIHPDOHSDWKZD\LVWKHdefault directionZKLFKKDSSHQVLQWKHDEVHQFHRI anyJRQDGDOKRUPRQHV7KLVOHG-RVWDQGRWKHUVWRDVVHUWWKDWIHPDOHGHYHORS- PHQWLVµSDVVLYH¶7KLVLGHDZKLFKHQMR\HGDQXQFDQQ\¿WZLWKVRFLDOLGHDV DERXWWKHDVVXPHG SURSHUDQGQDWXUDO SDVVLYLW\RIZRPHQUHLJQHGIRUQHDUO\ ¿IW\\HDUVEHIRUHGHYHORSPHQWDOELRORJLVWVFDPHWRWKHLUVHQVHVDQGDSSDUHQWO\ UHPHPEHUHGWKDWWKHUHLVQRVXFKWKLQJDVµSDVVLYH¶GHYHORSPHQWWKHUHDUHal- waysPHFKDQLVPVWREHH[SODLQHG,W¶VVLPSO\WKHFDVHWKDWWKHGHYHORSPHQWDO PHFKDQLVPVIRUIHPDOHUHSURGXFWLYHVWUXFWXUHVVHHPWREHVRPHZKDWGLIIHUHQW WKDQIRUPDOHV±WKH\DUHQ¶WXQGHUWKHREYLRXVFRQWURORIJRQDGDOVWHURLGVDQG WKH\PD\EHPRUHGLUHFWO\UHODWHGWRJHQHWLFPHFKDQLVPV VHHHJ+XJKHV 

FKURPRVRPHV EXWLWGHYHORSVDVHLWKHUPDVFXOLQHRUIHPLQLQHGHSHQGLQJRQ ZKHWKHUDQGURJHQVDUHSUHVHQWGXULQJDFULWLFDOSHULRG 3KRHQL[HWDO  7KH\EDVHGWKHLUWKLQNLQJRQH[SHULPHQWVLQJXLQHDSLJVWKDWKDGEHHQFDVWUDWHG DQGWUHDWHGZLWKKRUPRQHVDWYHU\HDUO\VWDJHVRIOLIH7KRVHDQLPDOVZKRZHUH WUHDWHGZLWKDQGURJHQVUHJDUGOHVVRIWKHLUFKURPRVRPDOVH[ZHUHPRUHOLNHO\ WRGLVSOD\µPDOHW\SLFDO¶VH[XDOEHKDYLRUVPHDQLQJWKDWWKH\ZRXOGUHDGLO\ PRXQWRWKHUDQLPDOVµ'HSULYLQJ¶GHYHORSLQJDQLPDOVRIDQGURJHQVGXULQJWKH VDPHFULWLFDOSHULRGUHVXOWHGLQDEDVLFDOO\µIHPDOHW\SLFDO¶SDWWHUQPHDQLQJ WKDWWKH\ZRXOGPRUHUHDGLO\SHUIRUPWKHDUFKHGEDFNORUGRVLVUHVSRQVHDQG DOORZRWKHUDQLPDOVWRPRXQWWKHP)URPWKHYHU\¿UVWUHVHDUFKUHSRUWRQEUDLQ organization, Young and his colleagues suggested that this same process could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µPDVFXOLQL]LQJ¶RUµIHPLQL]LQJ¶KRUPRQHUHJLPHQV7KHQWKHVH H[SHULPHQWDOO\PDQLSXODWHGIHWXVHVZRXOGKDYHWREHWUDFNHGDOOWKHZD\LQWR DGXOWKRRGWRVHHKRZWKHLUJHQGHUDQGVH[XDOLW\WXUQHGRXW±XQGHUµEOLQGLQJ¶ FRQGLWLRQVRIFRXUVHPHDQLQJWKDWQHLWKHUWKHVFLHQWLVWVQRUWKHIDPLOLHVQRU WKHH[SHULPHQWDOVXEMHFWVWKHPVHOYHVZRXOGNQRZZKDWNLQGRIWUHDWPHQWWKH\ JRW7KHUH¶VQRQHHGWRJRLQWRDOOWKHRWKHUGHWDLOVRIWKLVQLJKWPDULVKIDQWDV\ UHVHDUFKLW¶VDQHYLOLGHDDQGLW¶VVLPSO\QRWSRVVLEOH$VDUHVXOW\RXFDQ¶W ORRNDWWKHUHVXOWVRIVWXGLHVRQEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQLQWKHVDPHZD\WKDW\RX ZRXOGLIWKH\ZHUHH[SHULPHQWV

,QVWHDGVFLHQWLVWVKDYHWRSLHFHWRJHWKHUYDULRXVVWXGLHVWKDWXVHGLIIHUHQWDS- SURDFKHVDQGWKHUHIRUHKDYHGLIIHUHQWVWUHQJWKVDQGZHDNQHVVHV%XWLQSLHF- LQJWRJHWKHUWKRVHGLIIHUHQWVWXGLHVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRSD\DWWHQWLRQWRKRZWKH GLIIHUHQW HOHPHQWV WKDW VFLHQWLVWV DUH ZRUNLQJ ZLWK HLWKHU OLQH XS DUH V\P- PHWULFDO RUDUHGLIIHUHQW7KDWLVKRZ,FRQGXFWHGV\PPHWU\DQDO\VHVRIEUDLQ RUJDQL]DWLRQUHVHDUFK:KLOHWKHZRUNRIH[DPLQLQJPRUHWKDQVWXGLHVLQ detail was painstaking, the idea behind it was rather simple: when scientists VD\WKDWDQGURJHQH[SRVXUHVLQHDUO\GHYHORSPHQWOHDGWRPDVFXOLQHJHQGHU DQGVH[XDOLW\ZKDWSUHFLVHO\GRWKH\PHDQE\µPDVFXOLQHJHQGHUDQGVH[XDO- LW\¶"'RWKHVHWKLQJVPHDQWKHVDPHWKLQJLQYDULRXVGLIIHUHQWVWXGLHV":KDW DERXWWKHRWKHUSKHQRPHQDWKDWVFLHQWLVWVOLQNWRHDUO\KRUPRQHH[SRVXUHV OLNHKHWHURVH[XDOLW\RUKRPRVH[XDOLW\RUµVH[W\SHGLQWHUHVWV¶",QP\ERRN DQGLQWKHIHZH[DPSOHVEHORZ,VKRZWKDWWKHZD\VFLHQWLVWVDSSURDFKWKHVH SKHQRPHQDDUHVRSURIRXQGO\GLIIHUHQWDVWRPDNHWKHZKROHERG\RIUHVHDUFK H[WUHPHO\LQFRKHUHQW )LUVWWKRXJKLW¶VXVHIXOWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHNLQGVRIVWXGLHVVFLHQWLVWVKDYH XVHGWRWHVWWKHWKHRU\LQKXPDQV7KHLU¿UVWVWUDWHJ\ZDVWRVWXG\SHRSOHWKH\ FRQVLGHUHGµH[SHULPHQWVRIQDWXUH¶WKRVHZKRZHUHNQRZQWRKDYHKDGKRU- PRQHH[SRVXUHVWKDWZHUHXQXVXDOIRUWKHLUJHQHWLFVH[7KH\VWXGLHGSHRSOH ZLWKLQWHUVH[FRQGLWLRQVLQZKLFKHLWKHUWKHOHYHORIH[SRVXUHWRSDUWLFXODUKRU- mones, or the way that the body responded to hormones, was not typical. The PRVWFRPPRQLQWHUVH[FRQGLWLRQVWKDWVFLHQWLVWVKDYHVWXGLHGLQFOXGHJHQHWLF IHPDOHVZLWKWKHFODVVLFDOIRUPRIFRQJHQLWDODGUHQDOK\SHUSODVLD &$+ LQ ZKLFKWKHUHLVKLJKSURGXFWLRQRIDQGURJHQVGXULQJIHWDOOLIHDQGURJHQLQVHQ- VLWLYLW\V\QGURPH $,6 LQZKLFKDJHQHWLFPDOHSURGXFHVDQGURJHQVEXWWKH WLVVXHVGRQRWUHVSRQGWRWKHPDQGDOSKDUHGXFWDVHGH¿FLHQF\LQZKLFKDQ HQ]\PHWKDWLVQHFHVVDU\IRUFRQYHUWLQJWHVWRVWHURQHWRGLK\GURWHVWRVWHULQHLV missing, so that genetic males without this enzyme are born with ambiguous ORRNLQJJHQLWDOLDEXWGHYHORSDPXFKPRUHµPDVFXOLQH¶SK\VLTXHDWSXEHUW\ 2QFHVFLHQWLVWVKDYHLGHQWL¿HGDJURXSRISHRSOHZLWKLQWHUVH[FRQGLWLRQVWR VWXG\WKH\FRPSDUHWKLVJURXSZLWKQRQLQWHUVH[SHRSOHRIWKHVDPHDVVLJQHG VH[JHQGHU LHERWKLQWHUVH[DQGµFRQWURO¶VXEMHFWVPXVWEHUHDUHGLQWKHVDPH JHQGHU ,QHSLGHPLRORJ\VWXGLHVWKDWFRPSDUHRXWFRPHVDPRQJWZRJURXSV ZKRKDYHKDGGLIIHUHQWHDUOLHUH[SRVXUHVDUHFDOOHGFRKRUWVWXGLHVVRWKDW¶VWKH WHUP,¶OOXVHWRGHVFULEHWKHVHVWXGLHV By 1967, reports began to appear that suggested girls and women who had EHHQH[SRVHGWRDKLJKOHYHORIDQGURJHQVLQWKHZRPEZHUHLQGHHGPRUH µPDVFXOLQH¶WKDQRWKHUJLUOVDQGZRPHQ (KUKDUGWDQG0RQH\(KUKDUGW 118 REBECCA JORDAN-YOUNG

(YHUVDQG0RQH\(KUKDUGW(SVWHLQDQG0RQH\ DQGWKHUH- VHDUFKHUVDWWULEXWHGWKLVWRWKHHIIHFWVRIµVH[KRUPRQHV¶RQWKHGHYHORSLQJ EUDLQ VHH-RUGDQ

PDOVRIERWKVH[HV 3KRHQL[HWDO 7KDWLVKRUPRQDOO\XQWUHDWHG QRUPDOIHPDOHVRIJXLQHDSLJVDQGWKHRWKHUVPDOOPDPPDOVZLOOPRXQWRWKHU DQLPDOVWRVRPHH[WHQWDQGPDOHVRIWKHVHVDPHVSHFLHVDOVRDOORZWKHPVHOYHV WREHPRXQWHG

DQGORYHRIVSRUWVWRFDUHLQSHUVRQDODSSHDUDQFHUHODWLRQVKLSLGHDOVKREELHV DQG RFFXSDWLRQDO DVSLUDWLRQV HJ %HUHQEDXP DQG +LQHV  +HQGHUVRQ and Berenbaum, 1997; Money and Ehrhardt, 1972; Pasterski et al., 2005; see Jordan-Young, 2010: chapter 8, passim 7KH\DOVROLQNHGFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVWR HDUO\EUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGZHUHLQLWLDOO\FRQ¿GHQWWKDWµJHQHUDOLQWHOOLJHQFH¶ RU,4LQFUHDVHGZLWKDQGURJHQH[SRVXUHV (KUKDUGWDQG0RQH\0RQH\ DQG/HZLV 5HVHDUFKHUVGURSSHGWKDWFODLPIDLUO\HDUO\ZKHQLWEHFDPH FOHDUWKDW,4GRHVQ¶WDFWXDOO\GLIIHUEHWZHHQPDOHVDQGIHPDOHVEXWFRQWLQXHG WRWLHVSHFL¿FVNLOOVOLNHPHQWDOURWDWLRQDELOLW\RUYHUEDOÀXHQF\WRVH[W\SHG KRUPRQHH[SRVXUHVHDUO\LQGHYHORSPHQW HJ*ULPVKDZ6LWDUHQLRVDQG)LQ- egan, 1995; Rahman et al., 2003; Sanders and Ross-Field, 1986; see Jordan-

VWXGLHVVHH0H\HU%DKOEXUJ 7KHµRUJDQL]LQJ¶K\SRWKHVLVDOORZHGDQ HVFDSHKDWFKIURPWKHGLI¿FXOW\SRVHGE\WKHIDLOXUHRIVXFKLQWHUYHQWLRQV 2QFHWKHWKHRU\ZDVLQWURGXFHGWKHLQDELOLW\RIVFLHQWLVWVWRVKRZDFRUUHOD- WLRQEHWZHHQEHKDYLRUVRUSV\FKRORJLFDOWUDLWVDQGDGXOWOHYHOVRIFLUFXODWLQJ KRUPRQHVFRXOGEHGLVPLVVHGDVLUUHOHYDQW:LWKWKHEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQWKHRU\ VFLHQWLVWVVLPSO\K\SRWKHVL]HWKDWVH[DW\SLFDOWUDLWVRUEHKDYLRUVPHDQWKDW something unusual must have happened with hormones in the early organizing SHULRG±HYHQWKRXJKWKDWµVRPHWKLQJ¶FRXOGQRORQJHUEHGLUHFWO\VHHQRUPHD- VXUHG7KLVRSHQHGXSDJUHDWPDQ\DYHQXHVIRUUHVHDUFKGHVLJQVWKDWPLJKW \LHOGLQGLUHFWHYLGHQFHRIWKRVHHDUOLHUKRUPRQHHIIHFWV6FLHQWLVWVVWXGLHGOLW- HUDOO\DQ\DVSHFWRIEHKDYLRURUSV\FKRORJ\DQGWHPSHUDPHQWDPRQJLQWHUVH[ SHRSOHDQGLILWVHHPHGWRGLIIHUIURPWKHQRQLQWHUVH[SHRSOHWRZKRPWKH\ DUHFRPSDUHGWKHQWKHVHGLIIHUHQFHVKDYHEHHQRYHUZKHOPLQJO\DWWULEXWHGWR KRUPRQHV7KLVFRQWLQXHVWREHWKHFDVHLQVSLWHRIORQJVWDQGLQJDUJXPHQWV WKDWWKHUHDULQJH[SHULHQFHVRILQWHUVH[SHRSOHDUHRIWHQGUDPDWLFDOO\GLIIHU- HQW 'RHOODQG/RQJLQR.DUND]LV WKDWWKHPHGLFDODQGSV\FKR- ORJLFDOLQWHUYHQWLRQVWRZKLFKWKH\DUHURXWLQHO\VXEMHFWDUHRIWHQWUDXPDWL]LQJ DQG LQ DQ\ FDVH DUH FHUWDLQO\ FRQVHTXHQWLDO -RUGDQ

PDQ\FRPSDULVRQVLQWKHVDPHVWXG\RUE\XVLQJWKHZURQJNLQGRIVWDWLVWLFDO WHVWVIRUWKHVWXG\GHVLJQ $QRWKHULPSRUWDQWYLRODWLRQRIVFLHQWL¿FSULQFLSOHV is that studies that do not support the theory are routinely ignored in the litera- WXUHZKLOHWKRVHVWXGLHVWKDWVWURQJO\VXSSRUWWKHWKHRU\DUHFLWHGYHU\KHDYLO\ HYHQWKRXJKWKHODWWHUDUHWKHVPDOOHVWDQGOHDVWUHOLDEOHVWXGLHV&ROOHFWLYHO\ VXFKHUURUVDPRXQWWRZKDW,KDYHFDOOHG³ORDGLQJWKHGLFH´LQIDYRURIWKH theory. 7KHVHFRQGPDMRUIDLOXUHRIEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQWKHRU\LVDQLQWHUSUHWLYH SUREOHPVFLHQWLVWVURXWLQHO\IDYRUWKHH[SODQDWLRQWKDWKRUPRQHVH[HUWDGLUHFW RUJDQL]LQJHIIHFWRQWKHEUDLQZKLFKLQWXUQGLUHFWO\DIIHFWVEHKDYLRU

CONCLUSION

7KHHPSLULFDOFULWLTXH±WKHSDUWRIP\ZRUNWKDWPLJKWXQGHUVWDQGDEO\EH PLVWDNHQIRUDVRUWRIQDwYHIHPLQLVWHPSLULFLVP +DUGLQJ ±LVRQO\RQH IDFHWRIP\DQDO\VLV,QWKLVSURMHFW,KDYHWULHGWRZRUNRQPXOWLSOHDQDO\WLF IURQWVVLPXOWDQHRXVO\LQRUGHUWR¿QGSRLQWVRIFRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKHZLGHVW UDQJHRIUHDGHUVLQFOXGLQJHYHU\RQHIURPWKHVFLHQWLVWVZKRGRWKHVHVWXG- LHVWRSHRSOHZKRUHDGDERXWWKHPLQWKHGDLO\QHZVWRVWXGHQWVRIJHQGHU DQGFULWLFDOVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\VWXGLHV 676 ,QGRLQJVR,NQRZWKDW, ULVNDQQR\LQJUHDGHUVIURPHDFKRIWKHVHJURXSVE\QRWGLUHFWLQJP\VHOIPRUH HOMUNCULUS IN THE HORMONES? 123

IXOO\RUFRQVLVWHQWO\WRWKHLULQWHUHVWVDQGSRLQWVRIYLHZ%XW,GLVDJUHHZLWK WKHQRWLRQWKDW\RXFDQQRWVLPXOWDQHRXVO\EHWKRXJKWIXODERXWWKHDGHTXDF\ RIVSHFL¿FGDWDDQGDQDO\WLFPHWKRGVIRUDGGUHVVLQJSDUWLFXODUTXHVWLRQVDQG DWWKHVDPHWLPHPDLQWDLQWKHSHUVSHFWLYHWKDWallVFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJHLVIXQ- GDPHQWDOO\VRFLDODQGSDUWLDO +DUDZD\+DUGLQJ/RQJLQR DQG  /LNHDOOVFLHQWL¿FREMHFWVWKHKXPDQµWUDLWV¶WKDWVFLHQWLVWVVWXG\LQFRQ- QHFWLRQZLWKEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQDUHFRQWLQJHQW %DUDG0RO 7KH VSHFL¿FSDWWHUQVRIVH[XDOLW\FRJQLWLRQHPRWLRQDQGEHKDYLRUWKDWVFLHQWLVWV µNQRZ¶WKURXJK WKHLU UHVHDUFK DQG ZKLFK WKHLU VWXGLHV WLH WR VSHFL¿F NLQGV RIKRUPRQHH[SRVXUHVDUHQRWWLPHOHVVVWDWLFVWDEOHREMHFWVEXWHPHUJHQW SKHQRPHQDSURGXFHGWKURXJKWKHLQWUDDFWLRQRIWKHOLYLQJEHLQJVZKRDUH VWXGLHGDQGWKHVSHFL¿FVFLHQWL¿FSUDFWLFHVWKDWVFLHQWLVWVHPSOR\LQWKHLUUH- search. These intra-actions characterize the psychology research that shows µJHQGHUHG¶WUDLWVWREHGLVWULEXWHGLQDPRVDLFZD\DFURVVLQGLYLGXDOVUDWKHU WKDQEHLQJDFWXDOO\ VH[GLPRUSKLF MXVWDVVXUHO\DVWKH\FKDUDFWHUL]H EUDLQ RUJDQL]DWLRQUHVHDUFK$QQHPDULH0RODQGRWKHUVZKRFORVHO\IROORZVFLHQ- WL¿FSUDFWLFHV HJ)UDQNOLQDQG5REHUWV0DUWLQ0XUSK\ 5DSS IUDFWXUHWKHVHOIFRQ¿GHQWQDUUDWLYHRIVLQJXODUVFLHQWL¿FREMHFWV DQG VLPSOH FDXVHHIIHFW UHODWLRQVKLSV LQWR ³SDUWLDOLWLHV SRVLWLRQDOLWLHV FRP- plications, tenuousness, instabilities, irregularities, contradictions, heteroge- QHLWLHVVLWXDWHGQHVVDQGIUDJPHQWDWLRQ±FRPSOH[LWLHV´ &ODUNH[[LY  0RO KDV REVHUYHG WKDW ³WKLV WXUQV GRLQJ DQWKURSRORJ\ LQWR D SKLORVRSKLFDO PRYH´   ,I,KDYHQRWDOVRWXUQHGWKHVWXG\RISUDFWLFHVLQEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQUH- VHDUFKLQWRDSKLORVRSKLFDOPRYHWKHQ,KDYHIDLOHGLQRQHRIP\DLPV7KH SRLQWRIGHOYLQJLQWRVXFKGHWDLOLQWRWKHVHVWXGLHVH[DPLQLQJKRZWKHPHD- VXUHVZRUNKRZWKHSKHQRPHQDEHLQJH[DPLQHGVKLIWIURPVWXG\WRVWXG\LV precisely to highlight such contingencies. It is also to point out that there are GLIIHUHQWOHYHOVDQGGHJUHHVRIPXOWLSOLFLW\6FLHQWL¿FVWDQGDUGVVXFKDVWKRVH that suggest legitimate approaches to measurement, statistical procedures, and VHOHFWLRQRIH[SHULPHQWDOVXEMHFWVDQGFRPSDULVRQJURXSVFDQQRWVLPSO\EH thrown out because STS has already shown that science is contingent anyway. 0RVWRIXVGRLQJ676GRLWEHFDXVHRIDKHDOWK\UHVSHFWIRUHYHQDORYHRI HPSLULFDOUHVHDUFK7KHPRVWWKULOOLQJ676DQDO\VLVGRHVQ¶WFRQVLVWLQSRLQWLQJ RXWµÀDZV¶EXWLQSRLQWLQJRXWLQWHUHVWLQJDQGVHHPLQJO\LPSRVVLEOHLQFRQVLV- WHQFLHVLQH[FHOOHQWHYHQEULOOLDQWZRUN VHH0ROIRUZKDWLVSHUKDSVP\ IDYRULWHH[DPSOHRIVXFKDQDQDO\VLV  124 REBECCA JORDAN-YOUNG

,QWKH¿QDOFKDSWHURIBrain Storm, I looked beyond brain organization UHVHDUFKDQGFRQWUDVWWKHPRGHORIGHYHORSPHQWLPSOLFLWLQWKDWWKHRU\ZLWK RWKHUPRUHLQWHUDFWLYHDQGFRQWLQJHQWPRGHOVRIGHYHORSPHQW,DOVRFRQWUDVW WKHLPSOLFLWPRGHOVRIIHPLQLQLW\DQGPDVFXOLQLW\LQEUDLQUHVHDUFKZLWKWKH PRGHOVRIPDVFXOLQLW\DQGIHPLQLQLW\WKDWDUHIRXQGLQRWKHUNLQGVRIVWXGLHV VXFKDVVRFLDOSV\FKRORJ\RUUHVHDUFKRQOHDUQLQJLQWHUYHQWLRQVUHODWHGWRFRJ- QLWLYHVNLOOVWKDWVKRZVH[JHQGHULPEDODQFHV:KDWLVWKHSRLQWRIFRQWUDVW- LQJEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQUHVHDUFKZLWKRWKHUIRUPVRIUHVHDUFKRQVH[JHQGHU" ,WLVQRWWRDVVHUWWKDWRQHIRUPLVFOHDUO\µWUXH¶HYHQFRQWUROOHGH[SHULPHQWV LIWKH\FRXOGEHGRQHRQKXPDQEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQZRXOGQRW\LHOGSULVWLQH and simple knowledge. On this point, I think my argument in Brain Storm ZDVIDXOW\RUDWOHDVWLQVXI¿FLHQWO\FOHDULQVHYHUDOSODFHV,DSSHDOHGWRWKH HYLGHQFHIURPRWKHUNLQGVRIUHVHDUFKDVLIWKDWHYLGHQFHZHUHµQDNHGIDFW¶ 6RKHUH,ZLVKWREHFOHDUHUVFLHQWLVWV¶LGHDVDVZHOODVWKHFRQFUHWHPHWK- ods and tools that they use work together with their human subjects to produce SDUWLFXODUYHUVLRQVRIUHDOLW\,QWKHHQGLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRQRWLFHEXWWKHQPRYH EH\RQGWKHNQRZOHGJHWKDWGLIIHUHQWVFLHQWL¿FDSSURDFKHV\LHOGGLYHUJHQWLQ- IRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKH µVDPH¶ SKHQRPHQD VD\ DJJUHVVLRQ RU YHUEDO DELOLWLHV RUKLJKO\VSHFL¿FVNLOOVOLNH'PHQWDOURWDWLRQ ,WLVQHFHVVDU\¿QDOO\WR DVNZKLFKNLQGVRILQWHUYHQWLRQVLQWKHZRUOGGRGLIIHUHQWUHVHDUFKSURMHFWV PDNHSRVVLEOHDQGZKDWLQWHUYHQWLRQVGRWKH\SUHFOXGH /RQJLQR "7KLV PDNHVXVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUPDNLQJPXFKPRUHH[SOLFLWWKHFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQ VFLHQWL¿FSURMHFWVDQGVRFLDOLQYHVWPHQWVDQGLWLVSDUWLFXODUO\FUXFLDOZKHQ WKHVXEMHFWRIUHVHDUFKLVKXPDQGLIIHUHQFHV :KDWVRUWRILQWHUYHQWLRQVDUHPDGHSRVVLEOHRUSUHFOXGHGE\WKHSURMHFW RIEUDLQRUJDQL]DWLRQUHVHDUFK"7KLVTXHVWLRQEULQJVXVEDFNWRWKHGHDUOLWWOH KRPXQFXOXVDQGLWLVZK\,FORVHGP\ERRNZLWKDFDOOWRWXUQDZD\IURP UHVHDUFKWKDWVHHNVWKHFDXVHRIIHPDOHRUPDOHµHVVHQWLDOQDWXUHV¶%UDLQRUJD- QL]DWLRQUHVHDUFKLVGHHSO\LQYHVWHGLQIHPDOHDQGPDOHDVWKHµEDVLF¶KXPDQ GLYLVLRQQRWMXVWIRUSXUSRVHVRIUHSURGXFWLRQEXWLQJHQHUDO,WHQVKULQHVD SDUWLFXODUZRUOGYLHZWKDWWUHDVXUHVWKHVH[JHQGHUELQDU\DQGLQYLWHVLQWHU- YHQWLRQV WR IXUWKHU VWDELOL]H VH[JHQGHU DV VLQJXODU ZLWKLQ LQGLYLGXDOV ,W LV EDVLFDOO\ D EDFNZDUGVORRNLQJ WKHRU\ KROGLQJ WKH LQGLYLGXDO DV D µ¿QLVKHG SURGXFW¶RIVRUWVDQGVHHNLQJWKHVHHGVRIWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VQDWXUHLQµPDVFXOLQH¶ RUµIHPLQLQH¶FKHPLFDOVDWWKHULJKW RUZURQJ WLPHDQGSODFH,WLVDUHVHDUFK SURMHFWWKDWLVSHUVLVWHQWO\ VRPHPLJKWDUJXHREVHVVLYHO\ IRFXVHGRQµGHYLD- WLRQV¶IURPWKHVXSSRVHGO\FRUUHFWDQGKHDOWK\PDVFXOLQHRUIHPLQLQHW\SH ZKLFKLVWKHPRVWH[WUHPHO\VWHUHRW\SHGIRUP7KLVUHVHDUFKRULHQWDWLRQEOXQWV HOMUNCULUS IN THE HORMONES? 125

LQWHUYHQWLRQVWKDWPLJKWUHLPDJLQHJHQGHURUWKRVHWKDWZRXOGUHIRFXVDWWHQ- WLRQRQRWKHUZD\VRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJKXPDQWUDLWVDQGSRWHQWLDO

REFERENCES

$OOHQ/6DQG*RUVNL5$  6H[XDO2ULHQWDWLRQDQGWKH6L]HRIWKH$QWH- rior Commissure in the Human Brain. Proceedings of the National Acad- emy of Sciences of the United States of America $XJXVW ± %DUDG.  0HHWLQJWKH8QLYHUVH+DOIZD\4XDQWXP3K\VLFVDQGWKH(Q- tanglement of Matter and Meaning.'XUKDP1&'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV %HUHQEDXP6$DQG%DLOH\-0  (IIHFWVRQ*HQGHU,GHQWLW\RI3UHQDWDO $QGURJHQVDQG*HQLWDO$SSHDUDQFH(YLGHQFHIURP*LUOV:LWK&RQJHQLWDO Adrenal Hyperplasia. -RXUQDORI&OLQLFDO(QGRFULQRORJ\DQG0HWDEROLVP   ± %HUHQEDXP6$DQG+LQHV0  (DUO\$QGURJHQVDUH5HODWHGWR&KLOG- KRRG6H[7\SHG7R\3UHIHUHQFHVPsychological Science  ± &ODUNH$(  Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmod- ern Turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 'RHOO5DQG/RQJLQR+  6H[+RUPRQHVDQG+XPDQ%HKDYLRU$&UL- WLTXHRIWKH/LQHDU0RGHO-RXUQDORI+RPRVH[XDOLW\ ± ± (KUKDUGW$$ DQG 0RQH\ -   3URJHVWLQ,QGXFHG +HUPDSKURGLWLVP ,4 DQG 3V\FKRVH[XDO ,GHQWLW\ LQ D 6WXG\ RI7HQ *LUOV 7KH -RXUQDO RI 6H[ Research  ± (KUKDUGW$$(SVWHLQ5DQG0RQH\-  )HWDO$QGURJHQVDQG)HPDOH Gender Identity in the Early-Treated Adrenogenital Syndrome. Johns Hopkins Medical Journal± (KUKDUGW$$(YHUV.DQG0RQH\-  ,QÀXHQFHRI$QGURJHQDQG6RPH $VSHFWVRI6H[XDOO\'LPRUSKLF%HKDYLRULQ:RPHQ:LWKWKH/DWH7UHDWHG Adrenogenital Syndrome. Johns Hopkins Medical Journal± )UDQNOLQ6DQG5REHUWV&  %RUQDQG0DGH$Q(WKQRJUDSK\RI3UHLP- plantation Genetic Diagnosis.3ULQFHWRQ1-3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV *RRUHQ/DQG&RKHQ.HWWHQLV37  'HYHORSPHQWRI0DOH*HQGHU,GHQ- WLW\5ROHDQGD6H[XDO2ULHQWDWLRQ7RZDUGV:RPHQLQD;<6XEMHFW :LWKDQ,QFRPSOHWH)RUPRIWKH$QGURJHQ,QVHQVLWLYLW\6\QGURPHAr- FKLYHVRI6H[XDO%HKDYLRU  ± 126 REBECCA JORDAN-YOUNG

*ULPVKDZ*06LWDUHQLRV*DQG)LQHJDQ-$.  0HQWDO5RWDWLRQ$W Cognition  ± +DUDZD\'  6LWXDWHG.QRZOHGJHV7KH6FLHQFH4XHVWLRQLQ)HPLQLVP DQGWKH3ULYLOHJHRI3DUWLDO3HUVSHFWLYHFeminist Studies  ± +DUGLQJ6  5HWKLQNLQJ6WDQGSRLQW(SLVWHPRORJ\:KDWLVµ6WURQJ2E- MHFWLYLW\¶",Q$OFRII/DQG3RWWHU( HGV )HPLQLVW(SLVWHPRORJLHV New

LQWHUVH[FRQGLWLRQVZLWKDPELJXRXVJHQLWDOLDDFURVVVHFWLRQDOVWXG\Lan- cet± 0RO$   The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice. Durham: 'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 0RQH\-DQG(KUKDUGW$$  0DQ :RPDQ%R\ *LUOBaltimore and /RQGRQ-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 0RQH\-DQG/HZLV9  ,4*HQHWLFVDQG$FFHOHUDWHG*URZWK$GUHQR- genital Syndrome. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital± 0RQH\-(KUKDUGW$$DQG0DVLFD'1  )HWDO)HPLQL]DWLRQ,QGXFHGE\ $QGURJHQ,QVHQVLWLYLW\LQWKH7HVWLFXODU)HPLQL]LQJ6\QGURPH(IIHFWRQ Marriage and Maternalism. Johns Hopkins Medical Journal± 0RUODQG,  ,QWHUVH[7UHDWPHQWDQGWKH3URPLVHRI7UDXPD,Q)LVKHU -$ HG Gender and the Science of Difference: Cultural Politics of Con- temporary Science and Medicine.1HZ%UXQVZLFN1-5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV± 0XUSK\0  Sick Building Syndrome and the Problem of Uncertainty: (QYLURQPHQWDO 3ROLWLFV 7HFKQRVFLHQFH DQG :RPHQ :RUNHUV Durham, 1&'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 2XGVKRRUQ1  %H\RQGWKH1DWXUDO%RG\$Q$UFKHRORJ\RI6H[+RU- mones. London and New York: Routledge. 3DVWHUVNL9/ *HIIQHU 0( %UDLQ & +LQGPDUVK 3%URRN & DQG +LQHV 0  3UHQDWDO+RUPRQHVDQG3RVWQDWDO6RFLDOL]DWLRQE\3DUHQWVDV'HWHU- PLQDQWVRI0DOH7\SLFDO7R\3OD\LQ*LUOV:LWK&RQJHQLWDO$GUHQDO+\- perplasia. Child Development  ± 3KRHQL[&+*R\5:*HUDOO$$DQG

9DQGHQ:LMQJDDUG0  5HLQYHQWLQJWKH6H[HV7KH%LRPHGLFDO&RQ- struction of Femininity and Masculinity Race, Gender, and Science. %ORRPLQJWRQ,/,QGLDQD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 9LQFHQ]R5%UXQR0=LULOOL/DQG&HVDUH&  &KDSWHU(VWURJHQV and Male Reproduction. In: (QGRWH[W$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZHQGRWH[W RUJPDOHPDOHPDOHIUDPHKWP DFFHVVHG'HFHPEHU 

BARBARA ORLAND

6FLHQFH LV VDLG WR GHDO ZLWK ZHOOSODQQHG V\VWHPDWLF DQG HYLGHQFHEDVHG NQRZOHGJHDNQRZOHGJHWKDWLVFDSDEOHRIRYHUFRPLQJHYHU\GD\H[SHULHQFH (SLVWHPRORJ\ WHDFKHV WKDW WKH VXFFHVVIXO VFKRODU HYHQ KDV WR SXW DVLGH KLV VXEMHFWLYHHYHU\GD\H[SHULHQFHVLQRUGHUWRDWWDLQLQQRYDWLYHNQRZOHGJH(Y- HU\GD\OLIHDQGDFDGHPLDDVZHOODVFRPPRQVHQVHDQGVFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJH UHSUHVHQWGLIIHUHQWZRUOGV+RZHYHUWKLVFRQWUDGLFWLRQLVSXWLQWRSHUVSHFWLYH by newer approaches in science studies. Already in the 1930s Ludwik Fleck KDGSRLQWHGRXWWKDWVFKRODUVKDYHH[SHULHQFHVLQIDPLO\VRFLHW\DQGSROLWLFV WKDWLQÀXHQFHWKHLUZRUN )OHFN2UODQG 1RWRQO\GRWKH\FRQ- WLQXDOO\VXEYHUWWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQUHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFHLQPHGLFLQHDQG KHDOWKFDUHEHFDXVHRIWKHUHTXLUHPHQWVRIFOLQLFDOWKHUDSHXWLFSUDFWLFHSURJ- UHVVLQPHGLFDOVFLHQFHFDQDOVREHFOHDUO\OLQNHGWRWKHHYHU\GD\H[SHULHQFHV RI WKH SUDFWLWLRQHU 5HVHDUFK DVVLJQPHQWV DUH VXSSRVHG WR FODULI\ D JHQHUDO physiological question and, at the same time, they are directly related to the WDVNRIKHDOLQJDSDWLHQWZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDOFRQGLWLRQDQGKLVWRU\RIVXIIHULQJ 7KHUHIRUHLQFOLQLFDOSUDFWLFHWKLQJVDUHRIWHQGRQHWKDWFRQWUDGLFWWKHJHQHUDO WKHRU\RIPHGLFLQH&RQFHVVLRQVKDYHWREHPDGHZLWKUHJDUGWRVXEMHFWLYH VHQVLWLYLWLHVDQGFXOWXUDOWUDGLWLRQVZKLFKFDQQRWEHMXVWL¿HGVFLHQWL¿FDOO\ 7KHGHEDWHVXUURXQGLQJWKHWRSLFRI naturalYHUVXV DUWL¿FLDOEDE\IRRG illustrates this argument particularly clearly. During industrialization, breast- IHHGLQJDQGEUHDVWPLONEHFDPHDYHU\SRZHUIXOV\PERODQGHPERGLPHQWRI QDWXUHLQFLYLOL]HGVRFLHW\,WZDVHOHYDWHGWRWKHVWDWXVRIDµQDWXUDO¶QRUPWKDW 130 BARBARA ORLAND

EHFDPHSDUWLFXODUO\GRJPDWLFLQWKHSXEOLFKHDOWKGLVFRXUVH+RZHYHUZKLOVW EUHDVWPLONZDVSURSDJDWHGDVWKHEHVWQXWULWLRQIRUDEDE\LQGXVWU\DOVRGH- YHORSHGPDVVSURGXFHGEDE\IRRG7KHVHSURGXFWVZKLFKZHUHEDVHGRQWKH newest chemical knowledge, thus competed with maternal breast milk. 7KH FRQWURYHUVLHV DQG FRQÀLFWV ZKLFK UHVXOWHG IURP WKLV FRQWUDGLFWLRQ VKHGOLJKWRQDVLWXDWLRQWKDWLVVLJQL¿FDQWWRWKHKLVWRU\RIVFLHQFH7KH\EULQJ to light the relationship between science, the market, and the public sphere, ZKLFKKDGEHHQFKDQJLQJSULPDULO\GXULQJWKHVHFRQGKDOIRIWKHth century. 3KLOLSS6DUDVLQDSWO\GHVFULEHGWKLVDVD³FXOWXUHRINQRZOHGJH´ZKLFK³WRRN WKHVFLHQWL¿FUKHWRULFRIµIDFWV¶LQWRWKHZLGHUSXEOLFVSKHUHDQGEURXJKWDOO DUHDVRIOLIHLQWRDFRQVXOWDWLRQUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKLQGLYLGXDOPHGLFDOVFLHQWL¿F DQGWHFKQLFDOGLVFLSOLQHV´ 6DUDVLQ 1 On the other hand, and this aspect needs to be dealt with in more detail, FRQWURYHUVLHVRIWKHNLQGPHQWLRQHGKHUHPDNHFOHDUWKDWLQWKHSROLWLFDODQG economic arena the VFLHQWL¿F WUXWK LV QRW DOZD\V D VXI¿FLHQW UHVRXUFH WKDW JXDUDQWHHVVXFFHVV7KHRULHVFRPHLQWRFRQÀLFWZLWKVRFLHWDOFRQYHQWLRQVDQG IXUWKHUPRUHWKHUHDUHDYDULHW\RIGLVFLSOLQHVRQWKHPDUNHWZKLFKDUHLQD FRPSHWLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKHDFKRWKHU:KDWEHFRPHVHVWDEOLVKHGWDNHQIRU JUDQWHGDQGWKHUHE\HIIHFWLYHO\SUDFWLFHGEHFRPHVnaturalDQGDVVXFKSDUWRI VRFLHWDOEHKDYLRU:LWKUHVSHFWWRWKHVFLHQFHVFRQWURYHUVLHVLQFRQFUHWHDUHDV RIUHVHDUFKEHORQJWRWKHPRVWSURGXFWLYHIDFWRUVLQVFLHQWL¿FGHYHORSPHQW 5HVHDUFKFUHDWHVSUREOHPVZKLFKLQWXUQJHQHUDWHDQHZGHPDQGIRUUHVHDUFK DQGWKHUHYLVLRQRIFRQVXOWLQJNQRZOHGJH)RURWKHUPDUNHWSDUWLFLSDQWVKRZ- HYHUWKLVSURFHVVLVQRWDOZD\VSURGXFWLYH±PRWKHUVLQSDUWLFXODUZHUHLQ- FUHDVLQJO\VSRLOWIRUFKRLFH

THE NATURAL NORM: ‘BREAST MILK’

7KHDVVHUWLRQWKDWRQO\DPRWKHUZLWKKHURZQPLONFDQIHHGDFKLOGZLWKRXW any danger arose during the Enlightenment at a time when health, personal K\JLHQHDQGSDUWLFXODUO\WKHPRUDODQGFKDUDFWHUWUDLWVRIWKHµIHPDOH¶ZHUH EHLQJGHEDWHG0DWHUQDOORYHDVDSXUSRVHRIQDWXUHZDVGLVFRYHUHG1DWXUDO SKLORVRSKHUVVDZERWKWKHIHPDOHEUHDVWDVZHOODVWKHPLONDVQDWXUDORUJDQ IXQFWLRQVRIWKHPRWKHU¶V EXWQRWWKHZRPDQ¶V ERG\:RPHQGRQRWKDYH

_$OOTXRWHVIURP*HUPDQVRXUFHVXVHGLQWKLVSDSHUZHUHWUDQVODWHG E\ 5HEHFFD Carberry. MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 131

WKHLU³WZRPLONYHVVHOV´LQRUGHU³WROLIWWKHPXSDUWL¿FLDOO\´DQG³XVHWKHP IRUFRXUWLQJ´EXWUDWKHUZRPHQGHYHORSEUHDVWV³DVDKLJKO\LPSRUWDQWWRRO IRUIHHGLQJDFKLOG´ 2VWKRII GRFWRUVDUJXHG$OWKRXJKWKH\KDYH EHHQ UHYHUHG DV IHUWLOLW\ V\PEROV VLQFH DQFLHQW WLPHV EUHDVWV DQG PLON KDG QHYHUEHIRUHEHHQVRVWURQJO\PDWHUQDOL]HG VHH%HLHU'HODKD\H 6FKLHELQJHU

'XULQJ WKH (QOLJKWHQPHQW PDWHUQDO QXUWXUH ZDV SDUW RI D SROLWLFDO DJHQGD IRULQIDQWVXUYLYDO VHH)LOGHV*ROGHQ-DFREXV/DVWLQJHU 6FKLHELQJHU )RUWKH¿UVWWLPHSKLORVRSKHUVQDWXUDOLVWVDQGSK\- VLFLDQVWXUQHGWKHLUDWWHQWLRQWRWKHFKLOGDVDQREMHFWRIVFLHQWL¿FVWXG\SUR- GXFLQJDQDWRPLFDOSK\VLRORJLFDODQGSV\FKRORJLFDOGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHFKLOG elaborating debates on child-rearing customs, and generating a huge amount RIDGYLFHDQGSUHVFULSWLRQVRQK\JLHQH VHH%HQ]DTXpQ :HDNHUWKDQ DQ\DQLPDOXQDEOHWRPRYHRUPDNHXVHRILWVRUJDQVDQGVHQVHVWKHFKLOG ZDV³DQLPDJHRIPLVHU\DQGSDLQ´DFFRUGLQJWR*HRUJHV/RXLV/HFOHUFGH %XIIRQ ± ZULWLQJLQLQKLVNatural History of Man(YHQ PRUHIDPRXVZHUHWKHFODLPVRI-HDQ-DFTXHV5RXVVHDXZKREDVHGKLVLQÀX- HQWLDODFFRXQWRIFKLOGUHDULQJLQÉmile  RQ%XIIRQ¶VZRUN1DWXUHKH LQIRUPHGWKHHQOLJKWHQHGSXEOLFSURGXFHVVWURQJDQGUREXVWFKLOGUHQ³ZKR DUHZHOOFRQVWLWXWHGDQGPDNHDOOWKHUHVWSHULVK´ TXRWHGLQ%HQ]DTXpQ  )DUIURPEHLQJQDWXUDOWKHZHDNQHVVRIFKLOGUHQLVDQLQVWDQFHRIVRFL- HW\¶VFRUUXSWLQJHIIHFWRQKXPDQQDWXUHFRPSODLQHGWKHPDQZKRKLPVHOIKDG SODFHGKLVRZQ¿YHFKLOGUHQLQIRXQGOLQJKRPHV5HWXUQLQJWRQDWXUHDQGLWV laws was the surest way to end corruption and regenerate society. Émile began WKLVSROLF\RIUHJHQHUDWLRQE\UHSODFLQJWKHXQQDWXUDOSUDFWLFHRIZHWQXUVLQJ ZLWKWKH¿JXUHRIWKHPDWHUQDOQXUVHWKHJXDUDQWRURIWKHIDPLO\DQGRIDQ LQFRUUXSWLEOHVLJQV\VWHPIRUWKH5HSXEOLFRISDUHQWV VHH-DFREXV  ³/HWPRWKHUVGHLJQWRQXUVHWKHLUFKLOGUHQ´5RXVVHDXSUHDFKHG³PRUDOVZLOO UHIRUPWKHPVHOYHVQDWXUH¶VVHQWLPHQWVZLOOEHDZDNHQHGLQHYHU\KHDUWWKH VWDWHZLOOEHUHSRSXODWHG´ TXRWHGLQ6FKLHELQJHU  132 BARBARA ORLAND

7KLVQHZIRXQGGXW\RIPRWKHULQJDQGEUHDVWIHHGLQJZKLFKIHDWXUHG±EH- IRUH5RXVVHDX±LQWKHUHOHYDQWDUWLFOHVRIWKH(QF\FORSpGLH in 1751, launched DQXQSUHFHGHQWHGFDPSDLJQDJDLQVWZHWQXUVLQJ /DVWLQJHU 7KHUH FDQEHQRGRXEWWKDWWKHDQFLHQWFXVWRPRIHPSOR\LQJDZHWQXUVHIRULQIDQW QXWULWLRQKDGLQFUHDVHGHQRUPRXVO\LQWKHFLWLHVRIWKHVHYHQWHHQWKDQGHLJK- teenth centuries. Especially in France, wet-nursing was both a social institu- WLRQDQGDVWDWHUHJXODWHGLQGXVWU\$URXQGIHZHUWKDQEDELHVRXW RIQHZERUQVLQ3DULVZHUHIHGE\WKHLUPRWKHUVDIXUWKHUKDGD ZHWQXUVHLQWKHLUSDUHQWDOKRPH IURPDSRSXODWLRQRIWR  *pOLVVHHDOVR6XVVPDQ $OOWKHRWKHUQHZERUQVZHUH VDLGWREHJLYHQWRZHWQXUVHVRXWVLGHWKHFLW\LQWKHSHULSKHUDODUHDVDQGXS WRDGLVWDQFHRINPLQ1RUPDQG\3LFDUG\RU%XUJXQG\$ZLGHVSUHDG IHDWXUHRIXUEDQOLIHLWZDVDOVRSRSXODULQVPDOOHUWRZQVDQGFRPPRQDPRQJ FUDIWVSHRSOHWUDGHUVPHPEHUVRIWKHERXUJHRLVLHSK\VLFLDQVDQGHYHQODERU- HUV7KHVLONZRUNHUVRI/\RQVZHUHVDLGWRKDYHFRPSOHWHO\JLYHQDZD\WKHLU EDELHV2QO\WKHSRRUHVWUHIUDLQHGIURPWKLVSUDFWLFH $WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHthFHQWXU\PRWKHU¶VPLONKDGDOUHDG\EHFRPH an abstract biological norm, an anthropological model, which was the ideo- ORJLFDOO\ORDGHGEDVLVRIDYDULHW\RIPHDVXUHVIRUKHDOWKSROLF\(VSHFLDOO\ PLGGOHFODVVPRWKHUVZHUHIRUFHGWREUHDVWIHHGWKHLURZQEDELHVLQRUGHUWR FRQWUDGLFWWKH³FKLOGPXUGHULQJSUDFWLFHRIWKHDULVWRFUDF\RIOHWWLQJWKHLUED- ELHVEHIHGE\DZHWQXUVH´ )UHYHUW)UHYHUW $V8WH)UH- YHUWSRLQWHGRXWZRPHQZHUHUHJDUGHGDVWKH³H[WHQGHGDUPRIWKHGRFWRU´WR VSUHDGWKHPHVVDJHRIWKHPRUDOSKLORVRSKHUVDQGPHGLFDOH[SHUWV'XULQJWKH SHULRGRILQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQWKHFDOOIRUEUHDVWIHHGLQJGHYHORSHGLQWRDQLQVWUX- PHQWRIPLGGOHFODVVKHDOWKSROLF\WKDWZDVXVHGLQDYDULHW\RIZD\V'RFWRUV ZRPHQ¶VDVVRFLDWLRQVKHDOWKDXWKRULWLHVDQGORFDODXWKRULWLHVLQWHQVL¿HGWKH EUHDVWIHHGLQJSURSDJDQGDVLQFHWKHWLPHZKHQVWDWLVWLFLDQVDQGVRFLDOK\JLHQ- LVWVV\VWHPDWLFDOO\LQYHVWLJDWHGDQGZURWHDERXWLQIDQWPRUWDOLW\ VHH6W|FNHO  $VRDULQJQXPEHURIPRQRJUDSKVDQGDUWLFOHVLGHQWL¿HGRQHFDXVHLQ SDUWLFXODU³7KHGHFLGLQJIDFWRUIRUDQLQIDQWWRWKULYHLV¿UVWDQGIRUHPRVWWKH W\SHRIQXWULWLRQDQGWKHRWKHUIRRG>«@:KHQFKLOGUHQDUHUHJXODUO\EUHDVW- IHGLQIDQWPRUWDOLW\LVORZ´ 3ULQ]LQJ 1RPDWWHUZKLFKVRFLDO HFRQRPLFRUJHRJUDSKLFDOIDFWRUVZHUHFRUUHODWHGWKHPDWHUQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRUQXWULWLRQDQGFDUHRILQIDQWVDOZD\VRFFXSLHGDSURPLQHQWSRVLWLRQ MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 133

THE NEED FOR BREAST MILK SURROGATES

'HVSLWHWKHXQTXHVWLRQHGRULHQWDWLRQDOIXQFWLRQWKDWWKHEUHDVWPLONQRUPDF- TXLUHGLQWKHHYHU\GD\UHDOLW\RIWKHthFHQWXU\WKHFRQFUHWHSUDFWLFHRIGRF- WRUVUHJDUGLQJWKHEUHDVWIHHGLQJTXHVWLRQGLGQRWGLIIHUIURPWKDWRIPRWKHUV PLGZLYHVDQGRWKHUVZKRKHOSHGZLWKSUHJQDQF\ELUWKDQGFRQ¿QHPHQW,Q RQHGRFWRUZURWHWKDWWKH³PRUDOGXW\RIWKHPRWKHUWREUHDVWIHHGKHU LQIDQWKHUVHOILVKRZHYHUQRWDEVROXWH´ =HWWZDFK 0HGLFDOOLWHUD- WXUHUHFRUGHGPDQ\UHDVRQVIRUQRWUHVRUWLQJWREUHDVWIHHGLQJWKHVHGLGQRW RQO\LQFOXGHVRFLDOUHDVRQVVXFKDVWKHIUHTXHQWO\PHQWLRQHGFRPIRUWRIZHOO RII ZRPHQ RU WKDW RI WKH µXQQDWXUDO¶ZHW QXUVH7KHUH ZHUH D ZKROH UDQJH RIPHGLFDOFRQWUDLQGLFDWLRQV VHH0HLVVQHU± DOLVWRIWKH\HDU VWDWHGWKHIROORZLQJSUREOHPVDJHDQGFRQVWLWXWLRQ ³ZRPHQZKRZHUH ZHDNHQHGE\ZRUU\DQGKDUGZRUN´ DQDHPLDWXEHUFXORVLV FRQVXPSWLRQ  VFURIXODYHQHUHDOGLVHDVHV V\SKLOLVJRQRUUKRHD UDFKLWLVRVWHRPDODFLD ERQH VRIWHQLQJ IHYHULVKLOOQHVVHV FRQ¿QHPHQW FKROHUDRUG\VHQWHU\ LQWHVWLQDO GLVHDVHV  SV\FKRVLV K\VWHULD  HSLOHSV\ DQRPDOLHV RI WKH EUHDVW RU LQÀDP- PDWLRQRIWKHEUHDVWWRQDPHEXWDIHZ VHH.HKUHU &RPSODLQWVDERXW ZRPHQ¶VREGXUDF\RQO\UDUHO\DWWULEXWHGLWH[FOXVLYHO\WRDODFNRIXQGHUVWDQG- LQJRUZLOOLQJQHVV7KHPHGLFDOKHOSHUVVWDWHGMXVWDVRIWHQWKDWPRWKHUVODFNHG WKHSRVVLELOLW\RISD\LQJDWWHQWLRQWRWKHLUKHDOWKDQGWKDWRIWKHLUFKLOGUHQ)RU H[DPSOHLIWKHPRWKHU¶VVRFLDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVDQGOLIHVW\OHPDGHLWLPSRVVLEOH IRUKHUWRIROORZWKHQHFHVVDU\GLHWKHUGRFWRUZRXOGQHHGWRDGYLVHDJDLQVW EUHDVWIHHGLQJ :HLVVHQEDFK 'RFWRUVZHUHRIWHQMXVWDVFRQYLQFHG E\ROGSUDFWLFHVDVWKHPRWKHUV:RPHQRYHUZHUHDGYLVHGQRWWREUHDVW- IHHGDV³PDQ\FKLOGUHQZLOOQRWWDNHWKHEUHDVWRIDQROGHUZRPDQ´ 0DXWK- QHU  0RWKHUVFHUWDLQO\QHHGHGDOWHUQDWLYHVDIDFWWKDWZDVFOHDUWRHYHU\GRFWRU )XUWKHUPRUHWKHUHZHUHPDQ\XQFDUHGIRULQIDQWVLQRUSKDQDJHVIRXQGOLQJ homes, hospitals, poor houses, and work houses whose nourishment was the UHVSRQVLELOLW\RIWKHLQVWLWXWLRQ¶VVWDII'RFWRUVZKRZRUNHGWKHUHZHUHYHU\ RIWHQYHKHPHQWDGYRFDWHVRIZHWQXUVLQJ,QWKHPDQDJHURID9LHQQHVH FKLOGUHQ¶VKRVSLWDOZURWH

³,WRIWHQEUHDNVP\KHDUWZKHQ,VHHKRZDSRRUOLWWOHPLWHZKLPSHUV DQGVTXLUPVKRZLWRIWHQVFUHDPVZLWKKXQJHUXQWLOLWLVKRDUVHKRZLW LVEOXHDQGVWLIIIURPDQLQQHUFROGKRZLWLVVKULYHOOHGOLNHDPXPP\ XQWLO LW VXFFXPEV WR WKH WHUULEOH VXIIHULQJ RI VWDUYDWLRQ >«@ )RU PH 134 BARBARA ORLAND

WKHUHLVQRJUHDWHUMR\WKDQZKHQ,KDYHXVHGHYHU\SRVVLEOHDUWRISHU- VXDVLRQDQGREWDLQHGDZHWQXUVHIRURQHRIWKHVHSRRUPLWHVDQGWKHQ VHHKRZLWVQDWFKHVWKHEUHDVWDQGWKHQVPLOHVDQGLVUHYLYHGDIWHUDIHZ KRXUV´ 0DXWKQHU

JUSTUS VON LIEBIG AND THE ‘SOUP FOR INFANTS’

7KHGLVFRXUVHRQPRWKHUKRRGDQGWKHFRPSOH[UHDOLW\RILQIDQWIHHGLQJH[LVWHG VLGHE\VLGHZKLFKLVZK\LQWKHQHZVWKDWDFKHPLVW¶VODERUDWRU\KDG GHYHORSHGDIRUPXODIRUEDE\IRRGGLGQRWFDXVHDJUHDWVWLU7KHWKHQDOUHDG\ IDPRXV-XVWXVYRQ/LHELJZURWHWKDWKLVLQYHQWLRQRIµDUWL¿FLDOEUHDVWPLON¶ ZKLFKKHFDOOHGµVRXSIRULQIDQWV¶³ZDVSURPSWHGE\WKHIDFWWKDWRQHRIP\ JUDQGFKLOGUHQFRXOGQRWEHIHGE\KLVPRWKHUDQGDVHFRQGQHHGHGVRPHPRUH FRQFHQWUDWHGIRRGDORQJVLGHKLVPRWKHU¶VPLON´ /LHELJDSUHIDFH 7KH IDWKHUVRIWKHFKLOGUHQERWKGRFWRUVKDGVXJJHVWHGWKDW/LHELJVKRXOGPDNH WKHIDPLO\UHFLSHDYDLODEOHWRDZLGHUSXEOLF 8*/1R  ,W ZDV LQ QR ZD\ VXUSULVLQJ WKDW /LHELJ VKRXOG WXUQ KLV GDXJKWHU¶V DQG GDXJKWHULQODZ¶VSUREOHPLQWRDVFLHQWL¿FTXHVWLRQ±DVDFKHPLVWKHKDG DIWHUDOOEHHQGHDOLQJZLWKIRRGSURGXFWVIRURYHUWZHQW\\HDUVDQGKDGWKH QHFHVVDU\ODERUDWRU\IDFLOLWLHVDWKLVGLVSRVDO+LVPHDWH[WUDFWZDVDOUHDG\D IDPRXVSURGXFWWKDWVROGH[FHHGLQJO\ZHOOLQWKHPLGV /HZLFNL  7KLVGRHVKRZHYHUQRWSHUPLWWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWLWZDV/LHELJ¶V DLPWRFUHDWHMXVWDQRWKHUSUR¿WDEOHIRRGSURGXFW$WWKLVVWDJHRIKLVFDUHHU /LHELJZDVQRORQJHUFRQFHUQHGZLWKLQFUHDVLQJKLVUHSXWDWLRQRULQFRPH VHH 0XQGD\  )LQOD\   )XUWKHUPRUH WKH VWRU\ RI KLV EDE\ IRRG FDQ KDUGO\TXDOLI\DVWKHKLVWRU\RIDVFLHQWL¿FEUHDNWKURXJK+DGKHEHHQSULPDU- LO\LQWHUHVWHGLQ¿QGLQJWKHVROXWLRQWRDNQRWW\TXHVWLRQFRQWURYHUVLDOZLWKLQ WKHZRUOGRIFKHPLVWU\KHSUHVXPDEO\ZRXOGKDYHIRFXVHGRQWKHVFLHQWL¿- FDOO\PRUHJULSSLQJTXHVWLRQRISURWHLQFRQWHQWV/LHELJKDGDIWHUDOODOUHDG\ GRQHVRPHJURXQGZRUNRQWKHSULPDF\RISURWHLQVDVDVRXUFHRISODVWLFDQG PHFKDQLFDOSRZHUDQGSURGXFLQJVFLHQWL¿FDOO\HQJLQHHUHGIRRGWKDWZDVULFK LQSURWHLQZDVYHU\PXFKHQYRJXH

_$OVRVHHWKHIROORZLQJSDUDJUDSK MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 135

QRWROHUDQFHIRUSUHSDUDWLRQVWKDWLQFOXGHGÀRXUSRUULGJH3+HZDVQRWIXQGD- PHQWDOO\RSSRVHGWRÀRXUSRUULGJHLQEDE\IRRGEHFDXVHLWZDVVXSSRVHGO\ QRWGLI¿FXOWWRFDOFXODWHWKHFRUUHFWPL[WXUHRIFRZ¶VPLONDQGÀRXUWKDWFRU- UHVSRQGHGWRWKHQXWULHQWVLQEUHDVWPLON7KHPDLQSUREOHPIRU/LHELJOD\LQ WKHIDFWWKDWÀRXUZKLFKDVVXFKZDVE\QRPHDQVXQVXLWDEOHIRULQIDQWVZDV PXFKOHVVDONDOLQHWKDQEUHDVWPLONDQGWKHUHIRUHUHDFWHGDFLGLFO\LQWKHLQ- IDQWV¶VWRPDFK,WVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQLQWRVROXEOHIRUPVRIVXJDUFRXOGKHIHDUHG RYHUVWUDLQ WKH OLWWOH ERG\¶V RUJDQLVP ,W ZDV SUHFLVHO\ WKLV SUREOHP WKDW KLV IRUPXODDLPHGWRDYRLG VHH/LHELJD±  /LHELJ¶VLGHDZDVWRXVHWKHPDVKLQJSURFHVVWKDWZDVDOUHDG\NQRZQIURP EHHUEUHZLQJDVDNLQGRIWHFKQRORJLFDOSUHGLJHVWLRQRIWKHVWDUFK7KLVLQ- YROYHGSUHSDULQJDÀRXUDQGPLONSRUULGJHDQGWKHQDGGLQJDPL[WXUHRIEDUOH\ PDOWDQGGRXEOHFDUERQDWHRISRWDVK47KHZDUPHGSRUULGJHKDGWRUHVWIRUDW OHDVWKDOIDQKRXULQRUGHUWRREWDLQWKHGHVLUHGHIIHFWRIWKHPDVKLQJSURFHVV 7KHZKROHSURFHGXUHZDVQRWRQO\LQFRQYHQLHQWEXWDOVRWLPHFRQVXPLQJ,W WRRNPRUHWKDQDQKRXUEHIRUHRQHFRXOGIHHGWKHFKLOGDQGVWRUDJHZDVQRW SRVVLEOHEHFDXVHWKHIRRGFRQWDLQHGPLON 'HVSLWHWKHVHGLVDGYDQWDJHVFKHPLVWVDQGSKDUPDFLVWVZKRZHUHWKH¿UVW WRKHDURI/LHELJ¶VODERUDWRU\H[SHULPHQWVZHUHHQWKXVLDVWLFDERXWWKHLGHD /LHELJZDVREOLJHGWRVSHHGXSWKH¿UVWSULQWRIKLVZRUNEHFDXVH±DVKH LQIRUPHGKLVFRHGLWRU±WKHQHZVZDVDOUHDG\VSUHDGLQJLQSKDUPDFLVWFLU- FOHVWKDWWKHUHZRXOGVRRQEHDQHI¿FLHQWEDE\IRRGIRUPXODRQWKHPDUNHW 8*/1R ,QGHHGDIWHU/LHELJ¶VZRUNEHFDPHNQRZQKHKLPVHOIVDZ WRLWVUDSLGGLVVHPLQDWLRQ$WWKHWXUQRIWKH\HDU/LHELJKDGDGYLVHG DW OHDVW WZR SKDUPDFLVWV LQ GLIIHUHQW ORFDWLRQV WR PDNH DQG VHOO KLV µVRXS¶ $PRQJVWWKHPZHUHWKH:LGQPDQQSKDUPDF\LQ0XQLFKDQG6DYRU\ 0RR]H LQ/RQGRQ 8*/1R 7KHODWWHUSXEOLFL]HGWKHSURPRWLRQDOO\HIIHFWLYH

_/LHELJNQHZWKDWSDHGLDWULFLDQVVDZÀRXUSRUULGJHPL[WXUHVDVDPDLQFDXVHIRUWKH HDUO\GHDWKRILQIDQWV+HDOVRZURWH³7KHGRFWRUVDUHDZDUHRIWKHKDUPIXOHIIHFWRIWKH ÀRXUSRUULGJHVWKDWDUHVRZLGHVSUHDGLQWKHFRXQWU\DQGLQWKHFLW\RQHXQGHUVWDQGVWKH IDFWWKDWFRZ¶VPLONLVQRWLPSURYHGE\PL[LQJLWZLWKZKHDWÀRXUUDWKHULWJHWVZRUVH EHFDXVHZKHDWÀRXULVDYHU\LQFRPSOHWHIRRGSURGXFWGXHWRLWVODFNRIPLQHUDOVDOWV´ /LHELJ  _%DUOH\PDOWZDVWREHSURFXUHGIURPDEUHZHU\JURXQGLQDQRUGLQDU\FRIIHHJULQGHU DQGWKHQVWUDLQHG7KHSUHSDUDWLRQRIWKHSRWDVKVROXWLRQZDVDOVRGHVFULEHGLQGHWDLO ,W ZDV WR EH SUHSDUHG XVLQJ RUGLQDU\ SKDUPDF\ SRWDVK FDUERQLFXP GHSDGXUXP  DQG SUHIHUDEO\VRIWZDWHU 136 BARBARA ORLAND

PHVVDJHWKDWHYHQ4XHHQ9LFWRULDJDYHKHUJUDQGVRQSULQFH$OEHUW9LFWRUWKH µ/LHELJ6RXS¶WRHDW7KLVRIFRXUVHÀDWWHUHGLWVFUHDWRU 8*/1R1R  ZKRUHDFWHGSURPSWO\E\IROORZLQJXSWKH¿UVWYHUVLRQRIKLVZRUNLQWKH µ$QQDOVRIFKHPLVWU\DQG3KDUPDF\¶LQZLWKDVHSDUDWHSXEOLFDWLRQD\HDU later, which went to two editions in the same year.5 7KHUHZDVDQREYLRXVGHPDQGDQGWKHLQQRYDWRU¶VIDPRXVQDPHLPSDUWHG FUHGLELOLW\WRWKHQHZIRRGSURGXFWHYHQEHIRUHLWFRXOGSURYHLWVZRUWKLQWKH ¿HOG,WZDVWKHVHFLUFXPVWDQFHVDQGQRWVRPXFKWKHIRUPXODLWVHOIWKDWOHG WRWKHSURGXFW¶VVXFFHVV7KLVEHFRPHVFOHDUZKHQWDNLQJDFORVHUORRNDWWKH ZRUNSUHVHQWHGWRWKHZLGHUSXEOLFLQIRUWKHDYHUDJHOD\SHUVRQWKH WKHRUHWLFDOGHULYDWLRQRIWKHIRUPXODZDVQRWFRPSUHKHQVLEOH,QDGGLWLRQKLV JHQHUDOWKHRU\RIQXWULWLRQDOVRFDPHXQGHUVRPHFULWLFLVP+RZHYHUQHLWKHU WKHPHWKRG¶VFRPSOH[LW\QRUWKHFRQWURYHUV\ZHUHDEOHWRKDUPWKHµ6RXSIRU LQIDQWV¶

REMEDY OR FOOD PRODUCT: THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF B ABY FOOD

/LHELJ ZDV QRW WKH RQO\ RQH DW WKH WLPH WR H[SHULPHQW ZLWK DUWL¿FLDO EDE\ IRRG$\RXQJGRFWRUDOVWXGHQWRIREVWHWULFVDQGJ\QDHFRORJ\3KLOLSS%LHGHUW ZDVDOVRLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHFKHPLFDOGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQEUHDVWPLONDQGFRZ¶V PLON VHH9DXSHO /LNH/LHELJKHFRQFHLYHG±EDVHGRQKLVVFLHQWL¿F ¿QGLQJV±DIRRGSURGXFWDQGKDGLWPDQXIDFWXUHGDQGPDUNHWHGE\DSKDU- macist.6/LNH/LHELJ¶Vµ6RXSIRULQIDQWV¶Biedert’s Rahmgemenge %LHGHUW¶V

_6XSSOHPHQWVUHJDUGLQJWKHXVHRIWKHSURGXFWZHUHSXEOLVKHGERWKLQWKHAnnalen and in Buchners Neues RepertoriumVHH/LHELJ DEF  _,QFRQWUDVWWR/LHELJZKRLQYHVWLJDWHGWKHGLJHVWLRQDQGUHDEVRUSWLRQRIFDUERK\GUDWHV DQGWKHUHGXFWLRQRIVWDUFKSURGXFWLRQ%LHGHUWFRQFHQWUDWHGRQWKHPHWDEROLVPRISUR- tein. He had built a small machine, a digestion machine, which simulated the digestion SURFHVVRIDQLQIDQW6WRPDFKDFLGZDVDGGHGWRYDULRXVW\SHVRISUHWUHDWHGPLONDQGOHIW WRUHVWIRUDFHUWDLQDPRXQWRIWLPHDWƒ&+HZDVWKXVDEOHWRSURYHWKDWEUHDVWPLONQRW RQO\FRQWDLQVOHVVSURWHLQWKDQFRZ¶VPLONEXWWKDWLWDOVRFXUGOHVLQD¿QHJUDLQHGZD\ DQGWKHUHE\PXVWEHFKHPLFDOO\GLIIHUHQW7KLVGLVFRYHU\ZDVLPSRUWDQWIRUWKHSURGXF- WLRQRIDVXEVWLWXWHLQWKDWLWZDVQRWVXI¿FLHQWWRPHUHO\EDODQFH³WKHSHUFHQWDJHVRIFD- VHLQLQKXPDQDQGFRZ¶VPLON´EXWWRDOVRUHSOLFDWHWKHFKHPLFDOVWUXFWXUHRIEUHDVWPLON SURWHLQV6LQFHWKLVZDVQRWSRVVLEOH%LHGHUWFRQFOXGHG³:HWKHUHIRUHKDYHQRPHWKRG MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 137

FUHDP PL[WXUH  EHFDPH NQRZQ QDWLRQZLGH DQG ZDV QRW RQO\ GLVFXVVHG LQ UHOHYDQWFKHPLVWU\DQGPHGLFDOMRXUQDOVEXWDOVRLQGDLO\QHZVSDSHUVIDP- LO\SHULRGLFDOVDQGKRXVHKROGDQGKHDOWKDGYLFHSXEOLFDWLRQV7+RZHYHUERWK IRUPXODVVKDUHGWKHVDPHGLVDGYDQWDJHWKH\FRXOGQRWEHUHDGLO\SUHSDUHGDW KRPHRULQDGRFWRU¶VRI¿FH

7KXV IRU WKH WLPH EHLQJ WKH\ UHPDLQHG SURGXFWV WKDW FRXOG RQO\ EH ERXJKW at a pharmacy. In 1866 the pharmacy Pachmayr and Widnmann in Munich VROG IUHVKO\ SUHSDUHG SRUWLRQV RI µ/LHELJ VRXS¶ LQ YDULRXV FLW\ SKDUPDFLHV 7KH\DOVRVROGDSUHSUHSDUHGPDOWSRZGHULQWHQGHGWRIDFLOLWDWHSUHSDUDWLRQDW KRPH:LWKLQHOHYHQPRQWKV 6HSWHPEHUWR-XO\ 3DFKPD\UDORQH VROGSRUWLRQV VHH3¿IIQHU ,QBiedert’s Kindernah- rung %LHGHUW¶VFKLOGUHQ¶VIRRG ODWHUUHQDPHGBiedert’s Ramogen, was the ¿UVWWLQQHGYHUVLRQWREHFRPHDYDLODEOHRQWKHPDUNHWDQGLQVROGIRUD SULFHRIPDUNV %LHGHUW 0L[HGZLWKZDWHUDQGIUHVKPLONWKH FRQWHQWVZHUHVDLGWR\LHOGDIRRGLQHYHU\ZD\FRPSDUDEOHWRWKHIUHVKO\SUH- SDUHGFUHDPPL[WXUH,QWKH*HUPDQGDLU\=ZLQJHQEHUJL+WRRNRYHU WKHSURGXFWLRQRIWKHWLQQHGEXWWHUOLNHVXEVWDQFH'HVSLWHWKHHYHUFKDQJLQJ YLHZVUHJDUGLQJWKHLVVXHRIIDWWKHSURGXFWVROGYHU\ZHOODQGZDVVWLOORQWKH PDUNHWLQ VHH0OOHU 

WKDWUHDOO\LPSURYHVFRZ¶VPLONQHLWKHUGRHVJRDW¶VPLONSURYLGHDEHWWHUVXEVWLWXWH>@ RWKHUW\SHVRIPLONDUHKDUGWRREWDLQDQGDQ\ZD\RIIHUOLWWOHKRSHRIEHLQJPRUHXVHIXO´ FLWHGLQ9DXSHO %LHGHUW¶VVXEVWLWXWHIRRGDLPHGWRPDNHFRZ¶VPLONPRUHHDV- LO\GLJHVWLEOHE\UHGXFLQJWKHDPRXQWRISURWHLQDQGSUHFXUGOLQJLW,QDYDULDWLRQRID IRUPXODGHYHORSHGE\KLV3K'VXSHUYLVRU%LHGHUWFRROHGIUHVKFRZ¶VPLONIRUKRXUV DQGVXEVHTXHQWO\VNLPPHGWKHIDWRII7KHVNLPPHGPLONZDVODFHGZLWKDOLTXLGPDGH IURPGULHGFDOI¶VVWRPDFKGRXVHGZLWKYLQHJDU5RXJKO\DWHDVSRRQRIWKLVZDVWREH DGGHGWRDKDOIDSLQWRIPLONDQGWKHHQWLUHPL[WXUHKHDWHGDQG¿OWHUHG7ZRSDUWVRIWKLV ZKH\ZKHUHWKHQPL[HGZLWKRQHSDUWFUHDP _7KHIDPLO\PDJD]LQHDie Gartenlaube (The Bower)IRULQVWDQFHIRXQGHGLQ UHJXODUO\IHDWXUHGSURGXFWDGYHUWLVHPHQWVIURPDYDULHW\RIPDQXIDFWXUHUV7KHWLPHJDS EHWZHHQWKHSURGXFWODXQFKDQGWKH¿UVWSUHVHQWDWLRQLQFRRNERRNVGHFUHDVHGVXEVWDQ- WLDOO\ZKHQ±DVLWODWHUEHFDPHFRPPRQ±HGLWRUVDQGDXWKRUVRIFRRNERRNVH[WHQGHG LQYLWDWLRQVWRYLVLWWKHPDQXIDFWXULQJSODQWVRUJDQL]HGFRRNLQJFRXUVHVDQGVHQWRXW IUHHUHFLSHV7KHIDPRXVFRRNERRNDXWKRU+HQULHWWH'DYLGLVZDVDVXSSRUWHURIWKHYDUL- RXV/LHELJIRRGSURGXFWV VHH7HXWHEHUJ  138 BARBARA ORLAND

,WGLGQRWWDNHORQJIRUFRXQWOHVVLPLWDWRUVZKRKDGSLFNHGXSRQWKHSR- tential demand to appear on the scene. The market now abounded with copy- cat products carrying names such as Liebig’sche Suppe, /|IÀXQG¶V.LQGHUQDK- rung, Liebe’s Nahrungsmittel LQ GLUHFW RU LQGLUHFW UHIHUHQFHV WR WKH IDPRXV FKHPLVW *HUEHUII  ,QSDUWLFXODUVRFDOOHGFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXUVZHUHVROGVLQFHWKHLUPDQXIDFWXULQJ SURFHVV ZDV FRPSDUDWLYHO\ VLPSOH 0RVW RI WKH PDQXIDFWXUHUV ZHUH VPDOO RU PLGGOHVL]HGEXVLQHVVHVZKRVHRZQHUVZHUHDOVRWKHSURGXFW¶VLQYHQWRUV ZLWK- RXW DXWKRU  $V QR SDUWLFXODU TXDOL¿FDWLRQ ZDV UHTXLUHG E\ WKH VWDWH WR SURGXFHWKHVHSURGXFWVLWZDVRQO\WKHVRXUFHVRIUDZPDWHULDOWKDWGHWHUPLQHG WKHDFFHVVWRWKHEDE\IRRGPDUNHW:KHWKHULWZDV=ZLHEDFN UXVN PDQXIDF- WXUHUVWKHVRXSLQGXVWU\ H[SHULHQFHGLQPL[LQJGLYHUVHSXOVHÀRXUVZLWKGULHG YHJHWDEOHVDQGVHDVRQLQJ GDLULHVRUFRQGHQVHGPLONSURGXFHUVVRRQDZLGH UDQJHRIPDQXIDFWXUHUVMRLQHGWKHSKDUPDFLHVRQDEXVWOLQJPDUNHW8

:KLOHWKHHIIRUWLQSUHSDULQJYDULRXVIRUPXODVZDVWKHLQLWLDOUHDVRQWKDWIRV- WHUHGWKHFRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQRIEDE\IRRGLWZDVWKHEUHDVWIHHGLQJSURSDJDQGD WKDWZDVVXEVHTXHQWO\WRDIIHFWWKHEXVLQHVV$W¿UVWWKRXJKWKHPDUNHW¶VHX- SKRULDRYHUEDE\IRRGSUHYDLOHGFRQWLQXLQJLQWRWKHV0DQ\SHRSOHDW WKHWLPHVDZWKHFRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQRIFKHPLFDONQRZOHGJHDVEHQH¿FLDOSURJ- UHVV7KHQKRZHYHUWKHUDGLFDOSROLWLFL]DWLRQRILQIDQWPRUWDOLW\EHJDQWRWDNH HIIHFW3DHGLDWULFLDQVLQSDUWLFXODUFDPHIRUZDUGZLWKWKHLUREVHUYDWLRQVWKDW WKHSXUFKDVHGSURGXFWVUHVXOWHGLQIDWDOPDOQXWULWLRQ$OHWWHUE\DSDHGLDWUL- FLDQIURP'DUPVWDGWUHYHDOVZKRZDVKHOGUHVSRQVLEOH,Q$UQROG9LGDO DVNHGWKHLPSHULDOKHDOWKDXWKRULW\LQ%HUOLQIRUKHOS

³DJDLQVW D GDQJHU WKDW WKUHDWHQV WKH LQIDQWV LQ WKH ZKROH RI WKH *HU- PDQ(PSLUH>«@,DPUHIHUULQJWRWKHDGYHUWLVLQJXQGHUWDNHQE\YDULRXV FKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXUIDFWRULHVLQDZD\WKDWVLPSO\FDQQRWEHSHUPLWWHG>@ (YHU\DWWHPSWE\GRFWRUVWRVSUHDGWKHPHVVDJHDERXWQDWXUDOIHHGLQJ DQGWRVWHHUDUWL¿FLDOIRRGVLQWKHPRVWUDWLRQDOGLUHFWLRQLVIUXVWUDWHG E\XQVFUXSXORXVDGYHUWLVLQJZKLFKPRUHRUOHVVFRYHUWO\FDVWVVXVSL- FLRQRQEUHDVWDQGFRZ¶VPLONRQO\WRFRQFOXGHE\H[WROOLQJFKLOGUHQ¶V ÀRXU>«@6RPHPDQXIDFWXUHUVZHUHHYHQVRFDXWLRXVDVWRH[FOXGHIURP

_7KLVZRUNJLYHVDJRRGRYHUYLHZRIWKHYDULRXVQXWULWLRQDOSUHSDUDWLRQVEHIRUHWKH 6HFRQG:RUOG:DU5HLFKHUW  )RUWKHFRQWURYHUVLHVRYHUDUWL¿FLDOEDE\IRRGVHH DOVR$SSOH   MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 139

WKHLUEURFKXUHVDQ\WKLQJGLUHFWO\FRQWURYHUVLDOLQIDFWWRHYHQSDUWLDOO\ UHFRJQL]HWKHXVHIXOQHVVRIEUHDVWIHHGLQJ7KHRYHUDOOLPSUHVVLRQIRU WKHOD\PDQLVQHYHUWKHOHVVWKDWQXWULWLRQXVLQJFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXULVEHVW >@$QGH[SHULHQFHFRQ¿UPVWKLVDFRPPRQUHPDUNE\PRWKHUVZKRVH LQIDQWKDVEHFRPHLOODVDUHVXOWRIWKHIRRGLVµEXW,GLGEX\P\FKLOG VRPHWKLQJJRRGDQGH[SHQVLYH¶´ %XQGHVDUFKLY%HUOLQ5 

7KHSUHVVXUHIURPWKHSXEOLFKHDOWKGLVFRXUVHZDVVXFKWKDWLWEHFDPHYLWDOWR SURYLGHVFLHQWL¿FSURRIRIEHLQJDEOHWRSHUIHFWO\UHSODFHEUHDVWPLON2WKHU- ZLVHRQHUDQWKHULVNRIEHLQJVHHQDVVKRZLQJQRFRQFHUQIRUSRVVLEOHKHDOWK GDPDJHV$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKHPDQXIDFWXUHUVFRXOGQRWJLYHWKHLPSUHVVLRQRI ZDQWLQJWRGLVFRXUDJHPRWKHUVIURPEUHDVWIHHGLQJ,QWKLVVWUDQJHDQGFRQÀLFW- LQJVLWXDWLRQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHUVRIEDE\IRRGGHYHORSHGDXQLTXHPDUNHWLQJ VWUDWHJ\7KH\DGYHUWLVHGWKHLUSURGXFWVDVVXEVWLWXWHV,QWKHLUEURFKXUHVRQ DGYHUWLVLQJSRVWHUVDQGLQQHZVSDSHUDGYHUWLVHPHQWVWKH\¿UVWSUDLVHGEUHDVW PLONDQGWKHQIDUPRUHH[WHQVLYHO\FRPPHQGHGWKHLUSURGXFWDVDIXOO\VXI- ¿FLHQWVXEVWLWXWH VHH6FKPLGWVHHDOVR%HUWOLQJ  2QH UHVXOW RI WKLV SDUDGR[LFDO VLWXDWLRQ RI KDYLQJ WR EH DV JRRG DV WKH QDWXUDODUFKHW\SHEXWQRWEHLQJDOORZHGWRVXSSUHVVLWZDVWKDWWKHLPDJHRI EDE\IRRGSURGXFWVRVFLOODWHGEHWZHHQUHPHG\DQGIRRGSURGXFW2QO\SKDU- macies could sell their products as remedies or medicinal products, only they FRXOGSRLQWWRDSURIHVVLRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKPHGLFLQH+RZHYHUWKHWUDGH VWUXFWXUHDQGWKHSURIHVVLRQDOUXOHVDQGWUDGLWLRQVRIWKHSKDUPDFLHVJDYHWKH EDE\IRRGPDQXIDFWXUHUVJRRGUHDVRQVWRDYRLGWKHPHGLFLQDOPDUNHWDQGWR SODFHWKHPVHOYHVRQWKHPDUNHWDVIRRGSURGXFWPDQXIDFWXUHUV3KDUPDFLVWV ZHUHLQÀH[LEOHWKH\ZHUHRQO\DOORZHGWRZRUNORFDOO\$VWKH\ZHUHGHDOLQJ ZLWKIUHVKPLONPHGLFDORUFKLOGUHQ¶VPLONHVWDEOLVKPHQWVFRXOGRQO\VHUYHD small distribution area.91DWLRQZLGHDPELWLRQVFRXOGRQO\EHSXUVXHGDVDIRRG SURGXFWPDQXIDFWXUHU

_7KHLQÀH[LELOLW\RISKDUPDFLHVZDVPDLQO\FDXVHGE\WKHFRQFHVVLRQV\VWHP,QRUGHU WRRSHQDSKDUPDF\LWZDVQHFHVVDU\WRREWDLQSHUPLVVLRQIURPWKHVXSHUYLVLQJDXWKRULW\ %HWZHHQDQGWKHUHZDVDVLJQL¿FDQWVKRUWDJHRISKDUPDFLHVLQVRPHWRZQVDQG regions. While patent protection had gained in importance since the 1870s, there were strong restrictions against its application to remedies and medicinal products. In addi- WLRQLQWKHVWKHUHZHUHDQXPEHURIDGYHUWLVLQJEDQVE\µLPSHULDOGHFUHH¶LQIRUFH 6HH(UQVW   140 BARBARA ORLAND

6XSSO\LQJFRPSDUDWLYHO\QRQSHULVKDEOHDQGWUDQVSRUWDEOHSURGXFWVFRQ- GHQVHGPLONDQGFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXUPDQXIDFWXUHUVWULHGWREULGJHWKHJDSEHWZHHQ QDWLRQZLGHGLVWULEXWLRQDQGVFLHQWL¿FOHJLWLPDF\LQWKHLUSURGXFWEUDQGLQJDQG DGYHUWLVLQJ1RRQHJUDVSHGWKLVPRUHTXLFNO\WKDQ+HQUL1HVWOpZKRKDGD NHHQLQVWLQFWIRUGHYHORSLQJVRSKLVWLFDWHGPDUNHWLQJVWUDWHJLHV$WDWLPHZKHQ HFRQRPLFVVWLOOVSXUQHGDGYHUWLVLQJDVLPPRUDOGHFHSWLRQDQGDVDGLVKRQRXU- DEOHDFWLRQRUGHFODUHGLWRXWULJKWXQQHFHVVDU\IRU1HVWOpDGYHUWLVLQJDOUHDG\ FRQVWLWXWHGWKHODUJHVWVKDUHRIKLVRYHUKHDGFRVWV %\1HVWOpKDGLQYHQWHGKLVFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXUDPL[WXUHRI/LHELJ¶V IRUPXODDQGFRQGHQVHG³¿UVWFODVV6ZLVVPLON´DVKHQHYHUWLUHGRIHPSKDVL]- LQJODWHURQ,QHDUO\2FWREHUKHWHVWHGKLVSURGXFWRQWZRLQIDQWV:KHQ ZRUGJRWURXQGWKDWWKH\KDGUHDFWHGIDYRUDEO\WRLWPDQ\PRWKHUVPLGZLYHV DQGGRFWRUVÀRFNHGIURPQHDUDQGIDUWRSXUFKDVHWKHFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXU1HVWOp GHGXFHGWKDW³>@LI,FDQVHOOWKLVDWWKHVDPHUDWHLQWKHELJFLWLHV,ZLOOKDYH WREXLOGDKXJHIDFWRU\DQGZLOOEHFRPHDPLOOLRQDLUHLQQRWLPH´ VHH3¿IIQHU  :LWKLQD\HDUSURGXFWLRQKDGVWDUWHGDQG1HVWOpZDVSURYHGULJKW ,QMXVWVHYHQDQGDKDOI\HDUVIURPHDUO\WRDXWXPQKHLQFUHDVHG VDOHVIURPWRWLQVRIFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXU%\WKHSURGXFWZDV being sold in eighteen countries, with the highest sales in Germany, Switzer- ODQG)UDQFH5XVVLDDQG$XVWULD LQWKDWRUGHU 7KHNH\WRVXFFHVVZKLFK FRQWLQXHGWRZRUNDIWHU+HQUL1HVWOp¶VUHWLUHPHQWIURPDFWLYHOLIHLQDQG WKHFRQYHUVLRQRIWKH¿UPLQWRDOLPLWHGFRPSDQ\OD\LQWKHFRPELQDWLRQRI YDULRXVPDUNHWLQJVWUDWHJLHV,QRUGHUWRVHWKLPVHOIDSDUWIURPWKHQXPHURXV LPLWDWLRQVRI/LHELJ¶VLQIDQW¶VµVRXS¶WKDWDGYHUWLVHGZLWK/LHELJ¶VQDPHZLWK YDU\LQJGHJUHHVRILQJHQXLW\DQGGLVUHJDUGLQJWKHIDPRXVVXSSOLHURIWKHLGHD 1HVWOpWULHGIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJWRDVVRFLDWHWKHH[FOXVLYLW\RIKLVLQYHQWLRQ ZLWKKLVRZQQDPH$WDWLPHZKHQIRRGSURGXFWVZHUHXVXDOO\VROGRSHQDQG ZHUHSDFNHGE\WKHUHWDLOHUDQGQRWWKHPDQXIDFWXUHUWKH1HVWOpFKLOGUHQ¶V ÀRXUFDPHRQWKHPDUNHWZLWKFRQVLVWHQWO\WKHVDPHSDFNDJLQJDQGOHWWHULQJ and a logo that was designed quickly but is still used today. It was then, in IDFWDQLQIDQWIRRGSURGXFWWKDWODXQFKHGWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIEUDQGLQJDQG corporate design. 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWDVPHQWLRQHGDERYHDGYHUWLVLQJ ZDVFRQVLGHUHGGHFHSWLYHDQGGLVKRQRXUDEOHPDQXIDFWXUHVOLNH1HVWOpXQGHU- standably sought a close association with pharmaceutical products and em- SOR\HGDQDGYHUWLVLQJVWUDWHJ\WKDWHPSKDVL]HGWKHSXEOLFLQWHUHVWDVSHFWRU XVHG PRUDO DUJXPHQWV )XUWKHUPRUH LW ZDV FUXFLDO IRU WKHVH PDQXIDFWXUHUV WRDVVHUWWKHPVHOYHVLQWKHKHDOWKSROLF\GHEDWHV)RUWKLVUHDVRQ1HVWOpXVHG MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 141

DXWKRULW\EDVHGDGYHUWLVLQJ3DLGDVVHVVPHQWVE\GRFWRUVRUUHFRJQL]HGIRUHQ- VLFRUUHVHDUFKFKHPLVWVDQGWKDQN\RXOHWWHUVIURPGRFWRUVVHOHFWHGE\WKH PDQXIDFWXUHUZHUHSXEOLVKHGLQQHZVSDSHUDGYHUWLVHPHQWVQHZVSDSHUVXSSOH- PHQWVRQSDFNDJLQJDQGRQÀ\HUV10)UHHWULDOVIRUGRFWRUVZHUHDQRWKHUVWUDW- HJ\VLQFHZKDWFRXOGEHPRUHEHQH¿FLDOIRUDSURGXFWWKDQWREHWHVWHGLQWKH GRFWRU¶VSUDFWLFHDQGWKHQGLVFXVVHGLQWKHUHOHYDQWDFDGHPLFMRXUQDOV"(YHQ SDHGLDWULFVWH[WERRNVKDGVHUYHGRYHUWKHGHFDGHVDVSURGXFWWHVWLQJSODWIRUPV WKDWFLWHGLQGLYLGXDOSURGXFWVPDQXIDFWXUHUVDQGFRQWDFWDGGUHVVHV VHH.HK- UHUII.ROLVNRII 110RUHLPSRUWDQWO\1HVWOpDOVRQHJRWL- DWHGIDYRXUDEOHFRPPLVVLRQFRQWUDFWVZLWKSKDUPDFLHVVRWKDWWKHSDFNDJLQJ VXEVHTXHQWO\FDUULHGWKHQRWLFHµ$YDLODEOHLQDOO EHWWHU SKDUPDFLHV¶

THE REACTION OF PAEDIATRICS: INFANT PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICAL NUTRITION REGIMES

3DHGLDWULFLDQV LQLWLDOO\ KDG DV OLWWOH H[SHULHQFH ZLWK VXEVWLWXWH IRRG IRU LQ- IDQWVDVDQ\RQHHOVH,URQLFDOO\LWZDVWKHFRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQRIEDE\IRRG WKDWZRXOGH[SHGLWHWKHIRUPLQJRIDVHSDUDWHGLVFLSOLQHDQGLWVGHWDFKPHQW IURPLQWHUQDOPHGLFLQH0HGLFDOKLVWRULDQ(GXDUG6HLGOHUSXWLWWKLVZD\%DE\ IRRGEHFDPHD³YHKLFOHIRUWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRISDHGLDWULFVDVDVFLHQFHDVD PHWKRGWKDWEHFDPHWKHRU\´ 6HLGOHU±  8SXQWLORQO\DIHZLQGLYLGXDOSDHGLDWULFLDQVKDGFRQGXFWHGWKHLU RZQUHVHDUFK:LWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRI3KLOLSSH%LHGHUWWKHPDMRULW\KDGPHUHO\ UHDFWHGWRWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGGHYHORSPHQWV0D[6HLIIHUWDGRFWRUDWWKH8QL- YHUVLW\&KLOGUHQ¶V&OLQLFLQ/HLS]LJUHPDUNHGLQH[DVSHUDWLRQWKDWLQVWHDGRI GHYHORSLQJWKHLURZQJXLGHOLQHVIRUIRRGSURGXFWVGRFWRUVZHUHREOLJHGWR OHDUQDERXWWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHLQIDQWGLJHVWLYHV\VWHPYLDUHDFWLRQVWR LQGXVWULDOO\SURGXFHGIRRGSURGXFWV,QKLVFULWLFLVPRIWKH³H[FHVVLYHOHQLHQFH WRZDUGVLQFRPSHWHQWUHIRUPHUVLQWKH¿HOGRILQIDQWQXWULWLRQDQGPLONWUHDW- PHQW´KHUHIHUUHGWRWKHIDPRXVEDFWHULRORJLVW&DUO)OJJHZKRKDGKLPVHOI criticized

_$FROOHFWLRQRIUHYLHZVDQGDQDO\VHVRIWKH1HVWOpFKLOGUHQ¶VÀRXUFDQEHIRXQGLQWKH $UFKLYH+LVWRULTXH1HVWOpLQ9HYH\$+1&KDP'RVVLHU± _$%RQQSDHGLDWULFLDQIRUH[DPSOHGHYRWHGDQHQWLUHERRNWRWKHH[SHULPHQWDOFRP- SDULVRQFDUULHGRXWLQKLVRZQSUDFWLFHZLWKSXUFKDVDEOHFKLOGUHQ¶VQXWULWLRQSURGXFWV 6FKRSSH  142 BARBARA ORLAND

³WKDWLQSDVW\HDUVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHK\JLHQHRIPLONZHKDYHPDGH WKHPLVWDNHRIUHO\LQJRQWKHDGYLFHRIPHQZKRDUHQHLWKHUK\JLHQLVWV QRUSDHGLDWULFLDQVEXWFKHPLVWVIDUPHUVDQGSKDUPDFLVWVDQGWKDWZH KDYHDOORZHGRXUVHOYHVWRDVVXPHDOPRVWZLWKRXWIXUWKHUYHUL¿FDWLRQ WKDWHYHU\WKLQJWKHODWWHUKDYHSURYLGHGXVZLWKLQWHUPVRIPLONSUHSD- UDWLRQVDQGWKHRULHVDQGSURFHGXUHVRIPLONWUHDWPHQWLVK\JLHQLFDOO\ DSSURSULDWH´ 6HLIIHUW 

,QDPDWWHURIDIHZ\HDUVUHVHDUFKZDVV\VWHPDWLFDOO\HVWDEOLVKHGDWXQLYHU- VLW\FOLQLFV7KHDHWLRORJ\DQGSDWKRJHQHVLVRIQXWULWLRQDOLOOQHVVHVLQLQIDQWV UHPDLQHGWKHIRFDOSRLQWRISDHGLDWULFUHVHDUFKIRUVHYHUDOGHFDGHV VHH&]HUQ\ DQG.HOOHU ,QFUHDVLQJVLJQL¿FDQFHZDVDWWDFKHGWRWKHSK\VLRORJ\ RILQIDQWVDQGWKHDQDWRP\RIGLJHVWLRQDQGWKHTXHVWLRQVVXUURXQGLQJPHWDER- OLVPZHUHLQYHVWLJDWHGLQGHWDLO What used to be described in colloquial terms as a thriving LQIDQW DQG one that fails to thriveZDVQRZGH¿QHGVFLHQWL¿FDOO\DQGUHLQWURGXFHGLQWR HYHU\GD\SUDFWLFHDVFULWHULDIRUZKDWVKRXOGEHFRQVLGHUHGnormal. Mothers DQGPDQXIDFWXUHUVQRZKDGWREULQJWKHLULQIDQWQXWULWLRQSUDFWLFHLQWROLQH ZLWKVFLHQWL¿FGH¿QLWLRQVRIµKHDOWK\¶RUµSDWKRORJLFDO¶0HDVXULQJZHLJKLQJ FKHPLFDODQGSK\VLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQVRIPHWDEROLVPDQGRIWKHEORRGEHFDPH UHJXODUWHFKQLTXHVRISDHGLDWULFGLDJQRVLV7KHLQGLYLGXDOFKLOGZDVLQFUHDV- LQJO\DVVHVVHGDQGWUHDWHGZLWKLQWKHJULGRIVWDWLVWLFDOSRSXODWLRQV

$URXQGWKHWXUQRIWKHODVWFHQWXU\WKHNLQGRISDHGLDWULFQXWULWLRQDOUHJLPHV LQWDEOHIRUPZHUHGHYHORSHGWKDWDUHVWLOOYDOLGWRGD\DQGKDYHORQJVLQFH JRQHEH\RQGEHLQJH[FOXVLYHO\DSSOLFDEOHWRVLFNFKLOGUHQ VHHDOVR$SSOH  'H .QHFKWYDQ (HNHOHQ   (YHU VLQFH WKH DPRXQW RI PLON RU PLONVXEVWLWXWHFRQVXPHGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHFKLOG¶VERG\ZHLJKWLVUHFRUGHGLQ PLQXWHGHWDLO$QGDIWHUWKHPHGLFDOUHVHDUFKKDGJRWXQGHUZD\LWQRORQJHU VHHPHGIURPDSDHGLDWULFSRLQWRIYLHZQHLWKHUWKHRUHWLFDOO\QRUSUDFWLFDOO\ VFDQGDORXVWRHPEDUNRQH[SHULPHQWVZLWKEDE\IRRGWKDWFRQWDLQHGQRRU YHU\ OLWWOH PLON :LWK WLPH WKLV KDG LWV HIIHFW RQ WKH SXEOLF SHUFHSWLRQ RI EUHDVWPLON$VSDHGLDWULFVZHUHVRRQWR¿QGRXWDOOWKHDWWHPSWVWRFUHDWH DQH[DFWFRS\RIEUHDVWPLONZRXOGQRWKDYHEHHQVWULFWO\QHFHVVDU\:LWK WKHH[FHSWLRQRIWKHSUREOHPRIVXI¿FLHQWPLONK\JLHQHWKHLQIDQWRUJDQLVP SURYHGWREHPRUHDGDSWDEOHWKDQSUHYLRXVO\WKRXJKW)URPDSXUHO\SK\VL- RORJLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZWKHQEUHDVWIHHGLQJEHFDPHSUDFWLFDOO\VXSHUÀXRXVDQG MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 143

paediatricians gradually relinquished their hostile attitude towards industri- DOO\SURGXFHGEDE\IRRG12

7UDQVODWHGIURP*HUPDQE\5HEHFFD&DUEHUU\

REFERENCES

$SSOH5'  0RWKHUVDQG0HGLFLQH$6RFLDO+LVWRU\RI,QIDQW)HHGLQJ ±0DGLVRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI:LVFRQVLQ3UHVV %HLHU5  'LH*HVFKLFKWHGHU0XWWHUPLOFK%LOGHUXQG'HXWXQJHQHLQHV ³.|USHUVDIWHV´Universitas± %HQ]DTXpQ$6  &KLOGKRRG,GHQWLW\DQG+XPDQ6FLHQFHLQWKH(QOLJKW- enment. History Workshop Journal± %HUWOLQJ&  (OWHUQSÀLFKWXQG.LQGHVUHFKW(LQ:RUWDQGDV0XWWHUKHU] Berlin. %LHGHUW3  'DV.LQGVHLQHJHLVWLJHXQGN|USHUOLFKH3ÀHJHYRQGHU*H- burt bis zur Reife. Stuttgart: Enke. %XQGHVDUFKLY %HUOLQ 5 Acta betr. Kindernahrungsmittel 9RO  $XJ±/HWWHURI'UPHG$UQROG9LGDORI6HSWHPEHU &]HUQ\$DQG.HOOHU$  'HV.LQGHV(UQlKUXQJ(UQlKUXQJVVW|UXQ- JHQXQG(UQlKUXQJVWKHUDSLH(LQ+DQGEXFKIUbU]WHYRO/HLS]LJ9L- enna: Franz Deuticke. 'H.QHFKWYDQ(HNHOHQ$  7KHEHVWVXEVWLWXWHIRUPRWKHU¶VPLONSUR- SULHWDU\ SUHSDUDWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH ULVH RI SDHGLDWULFV DQG WKH VFLHQFH RI nutrition in the Netherlands during the twentieth-century. In: Den Hartog $3 HG )RRG7HFKQRORJ\6FLHQFHDQG0DUNHWLQJ(XURSHDQ'LHWLQWKH Twentieth Century.(DVW/LQWRQ7XFNZHOO3UHVV± 'HODKD\H0&  Tétons et tétines. Histoire de l’allaitment. Paris: Edi- tions trame way.

_$WOHDVWXQWLOQHZUHVHDUFKUHVXOWVQHFHVVLWDWHGDUHDSSUDLVDO7KHRQO\¿QGLQJWKDW KDVVWRRGWKHWHVWRIWLPHLV%LHGHUW¶VQRWLRQRIWKHFKHPLFDOGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQEUHDVW DQGFRZ¶VPLON,QWKHFRXUVHRIWKHth century other research results emerged, again as- VLJQLQJSK\VLRORJLFDOLPSRUWDQFHWREUHDVWIHHGLQJDVEUHDVWPLONZDVSURYHQWRFRQWDLQ LPPXQRORJLFDOO\LPSRUWDQWVXEVWDQFHVIRU¿JKWLQJLQIHFWLRQWKDWDUHQRWSUHVHQWLQFRZ¶V PLON VHH:DFKWHO  144 BARBARA ORLAND

(UQVW(  Das “industrielle” Geheimmittel und seine Werbung. Arznei- IHUWLJZDUHQLQGHU]ZHLWHQ+lOIWHGHV-DKUKXQGHUWVLQ'HXWVFKODQG Marburg: E. Mauersberger. )LOGHV9  :HW1XUVLQJ$+LVWRU\IURP$QWLTXLW\WRWKH3UHVHQW New York: Basil Blackwell. )LQOD\05  7KH5HKDELOLWDWLRQRIDQ$JULFXOWXUDO&KHPLVW-XVWXVYRQ /LHELJDQGWKHVHYHQWK(GLWLRQ$PEL[7KH-RXUQDORIWKH6RFLHW\IRUWKH History of Alchemy and Chemistry  ± )OHFN/  (UIDKUXQJXQG7DWVDFKH*HVDPPHOWH$XIVlW]H)UDQNIXUWD M.: Suhrkamp. )UHYHUW8  .UDQNKHLWDOVSROLWLVFKHV3UREOHP±6R]LDOH8Q- terschichten in Preussen zwischen medizinischer Polizei und staatlicher Sozialversicherung.*|WWLQJHQ9DQGHQKRHFN 5XSUHFKW )UHYHUW8  ³)UVRUJOLFKH%HODJHUXQJ´+\JLHQHEHZHJXQJXQG$UEHLWHU- IUDXHQLPXQG-DKUKXQGHUWGeschichte und Gesellschaft± *pOLV-/DJHW0DQG0RUHO0)  Der Weg ins Leben. Geburt und Kind- KHLWLQIUKHUHU=HLW0QFKHQ%HFN *HUEHU1  =XU(UQlKUXQJGHU.LQGHUXQGGLH.LQGHUQDKUXQJVPLWWHO %UXJJ&:ROI 6RKQ *ROGHQ-  A Social History of Wet Nursing in Amercia. From Breast to Bottle.&DPEULGJHHWDO&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV -DFREXV0  )LUVW7KLQJV7KH0DWHUQDO,PDJLQHU\LQ/LWHUDWXUH$UW and Psychoanalysis. New York/London: Routledge. .HKUHU )$   'LH HUVWH .LQGHUQDKUXQJ ,Q 9RONPDQQ 5 HG  Sam- POXQJNOLQLVFKHU9RUWUlJHLQ9HUELQGXQJPLWGHXWVFKHQ.OLQLNHQ, Nr. 170. /HLS]LJ± .ROLVNR$  9HUVXFKHPLW%DFNKDXV¶VFKHU.LQGHUPLOFK$UFKLYIU.LQ- derheilkunde± /DVWLQJHU9  5H'H¿QLQJ0RWKHUKRRG%UHDVW)HHGLQJDQGWKH)UHQFK Enlightenment. :RPHQ¶V6WXGLHV$Q,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\-RXUQDO± /HZLFNL: HG   :|KOHUXQG/LHELJ%ULHIHYRQ±DXV-XVWXV YRQ/LHELJ¶VXQG)ULHGULFK:|KOHU¶V%ULHIZHFKVHOLQGHQ-DKUHQ± , New Edition. Göttingen: J. Cromm. /LHELJ-YRQ  (LQHQHXH6XSSHIU.LQGHUAnnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie ± /LHELJ-YRQ D 6XSSHIU6lXJOLQJHPLW1DFKWUlJHQLQEH]XJDXILKUH Bereitung und Anwendung3UHIDFH%UDXQVFKZHLJ)ULHGULFK9LHZHJXQG Sohn. MOTHERHOOD AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION 145

/LHELJ-YRQ E 1DFKWUDJ]XPHLQHU6XSSHIU6lXJOLQJHAnnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie± /LHELJ-YRQ F 1DFKWUDJ]XPHLQHU6XSSHIU6lXJOLQJHNeues Reper- WRULXPIUGLH3KDUPDFLH± /LHELJ-YRQ  8HEHUGHQ(UQlKUXQJVZHUWKGHU6SHLVHQBerthold Auer- bachs Deutscher Volkskalender± 0DXWKQHU/:>5LWWHUYRQ0DXWVWHLQ@  .LQGHU'LlWHWLN(LQH$QOHLWXQJ ]XUQDWXUJHPlVVHQ3ÀHJHXQG(U]LHKXQJGHV.LQGHV, 2nd ed. Wien: Carl Herold und Sohn. 0HLVVQHU )/   *UXQGODJH GHU /LWHUDWXU GHU 3lGLDWULN HQWKDOWHQG GLH 0RQRJUDSKLHQEHUGLH.LQGHUNUDQNKHLWHQ/HLS]LJ)HVW¶VFKH9HUODJVEX- chhandlung. 0OOHU(  'LH%HGHXWXQJGHV.XKPLOFKIHWWHVIUGLH6lXJOLQJVHUQlKUXQJ Stuttgart: Enke. 0XQGD\3(  6turm und Dung: Justus von Liebig and the Chemistry of Agriculture3K'GLVVHUWDWLRQ&RUQHOO8QLYHUVLW\ 2UODQG %   $OOWDJVJHVFKLFKWH XQG :LVVHQVFKDIWVIRUVFKXQJ RGHU 'LH XQHUNDQQWHQ 3RWHQWLDOH GHU KLVWRULVFKHQ 5HNRQVWUXNWLRQ YRQ ³$OOWDJ´ WerkstattGeschichte± 2VWKRII+&$  8HEHUGDV6HOEVW6WLOOHQ(LQRUJDQRPLVFKPHGL]LQLVFKHU Versuch. Lemgo. 3¿IIQHU$  +HQUL1HVWOp ± 9RP)UDQNIXUWHU$SRWKHNHUJHKLO- fen zum Schweizer Pionierunternehmer.=XULFK&KURQRV 3ULQ]LQJ)  'LH(QWZLFNOXQJGHU.LQGHUVWHUEOLFKNHLWLQGHQHXURSlLVFK- en Staaten. -DKUEFKHUIU1DWLRQDO|NRQRPLHXQG6WDWLVWLN± 5HLFKHUW .+   %HLWUDJ ]XU KLVWRULVFKHQ (QWZLFNOXQJ GHU 6lXJOLQJV HUQlKUXQJ Medical dissertation, Jena. 6DUDVLQ3  5HL]EDUH0DVFKLQHQ(LQH*HVFKLFKWHGHV.|USHUV± )UDQNIXUWD06XKUNDPS 6FKLHELQJHU/  :K\0DPPDOVDUHFDOOHG0DPPDOV,Q6FKLHELQJHU/ Nature’s Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon 3UHVV± 6FKPLGW )$   'LH NQVWOLFKH (UQlKUXQJ GHV 6lXJOLQJV PLW NHLPIUHL JHPDFKWHU.XKPLOFKQDFKGHP6R[KOHW¶VFKHQ9HUIDKUHQ Berlin/Neuwied: L. Heuser. 6FKRSSH+  =XUNQVWOLFKHQ(UQlKUXQJGHU6lXJOLQJHLQGHQHUVWHQGUHL /HEHQVPRQDWHQ([SHULPHQWHOONOLQLVFKH8QWHUVXFKXQJ7ELQJHQ/DXSS 146 BARBARA ORLAND

6HLGOHU(  'LH(UQlKUXQJGHU.LQGHULP-DKUKXQGHUW,Q$UWHOW:HW DO HG (UQlKUXQJXQG(UQlKUXQJVOHKUHLP-DKUKXQGHUW Göttingen: 9DQGHQKRHFN 5XSUHFKW 6HLIIHUW 0   'LH 9HUVRUJXQJ GHU JURVVHQ 6WlGWH PLW .LQGHUPLOFK  Teil: Die Notwendigkeit einer Umgestaltung der Kindermilcherzeugung. Leipzig: Wiegel. 6W|FNHO6  'LH%HNlPSIXQJGHU6lXJOLQJVVWHUEOLFKNHLWLP6SDQQXQJV- IHOGYRQ6R]LDOHU+\JLHQHXQG(XJHQLNDP%HLVSLHO%HUOLQVLP.DLVHUUHLFK und in der Weimarer Republik. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 6XVVPDQ *'   Selling Mother’s Milk: The Wet-Nursing Business in )UDQFH±8UEDQD8QLYHUVLW\RI,OOLQRLV3UHVV 7HXWHEHUJ +-   'LH 5ROOH GHV )OHLVFKH[WUDNWV IU GLH (UQlKUXQJV wissenschaften und den Aufstieg der Suppenindustrie. Kleine Geschichte GHU )OHLVFKEUKH ZLWK (OOHUEURFN .36SLHNHUPDQQ 87KRPV 8 DQG =DWVFK$ 6WXWWJDUW)UDQ]6WHLQHU 8*/ 8QLYHUVLW\RI*LHVVHQ/LHELJ'HSRVLWXP 1RBrief an eine rus- VLVFKH*URVVIUVWLQ /HWWHUWRD5XVVLDQ*UDQG'XFKHVV 0XQLFK 8*/ 8QLYHUVLW\RI*LHVVHQ/LHELJ'HSRVLWXP 1RLetter to Hermann .RSSRI)HEUXDU\ 8*/ 8QLYHUVLW\RI*LHVVHQ/LHELJ'HSRVLWXP 1RLetter to Charles %RQHURI$XJXVW 8*/ 8QLYHUVLW\RI*LHVVHQ/LHELJ'HSRVLWXP 1RLetter to his sister (OLVH.QDSSRI0D\ 8*/ 8QLYHUVLW\RI*LHVVHQ/LHELJ'HSRVLWXP 1RLetter to the chemist +HUPDQQYRQ)HKOLQJRI0D\ 9DXSHO(  3KLOLSS%LHGHUW ± /HEHQ:HUN:LUNXQJ Medical GLVVHUWDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI+DQQRYHU :DFKWHO 8   (UQlKUXQJ YRQ JHVXQGHQ 6lXJOLQJHQ XQG .OHLQNLQGHUQ Stuttgart/New York: Thieme. :HLVVHQEDFK )-   Anleitung zur Besorgung und Auferziehung neuge- borener Kinder, nebst Beschreibung der Kinderkrankheiten. Leipzig. :LWKRXWDXWKRU  'LH6lXJOLQJV(UQlKUXQJPLW9ROWPHU¶V0XWWHUPLOFK QDFKMlKULJHU(UIDKUXQJ Altona.

WALTRAUD ERNST

³1RWVXUSULVLQJO\ZKDWLVDWVWDNHLQWKLVG\QDPLFFRQFHS- WLRQRIPDWWHULVDQXQVHWWOLQJRIQDWXUH¶VSUHVXPHG¿[LW\ DQGKHQFHDQRSHQLQJXSRIWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVIRUFKDQJH´ %DUDG

6LQFHWKHODWHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\IHPLQLVWDQDO\VLVRIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ KDVEHHQFULWLFL]LQJQRWRQO\WKHDEVHQFHRIZRPHQDVHSLVWHPLFVXEMHFWVDQG REMHFWVEXWDOVRWKHLUUDWKHUSUREOHPDWLFSUHVHQFHDVDVWHUHRW\SHGDQGGHYDO- XHGRWKHU6WXGLHVVKRZKRZSUHYDOHQWJHQGHUQRUPVLPSHGHSHRSOHWRGH- YHORSWHFKQRORJLHVDFFHVVLEOHWRDQGSUR¿WDEOHIRUDOO /HUPDQHWDO 6¡UHQVHQHWDO 6WXGLHVDOVRVKRZKRZSHRSOH¿QGQHZZD\VWRQHJRWL- DWHWKHLUJHQGHULGHQWLWLHVZLWKLQWKHPDWHULDOL]HGFXOWXUDOVSDFHRIQRUPDWLYH DVVXPSWLRQVDERXWZRPHQDQGPHQ .DIDLHWDO9DUPD DQG KRZSHRSOHH[SUHVVJHQGHULQLQIRUPDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHV EH\RQG VRFDOOHG QDWXUDO RU FXOWXUDOO\ GHVLUDEOH ZD\V /DQGVWU|P E :DNHIRUG 7KHUHIRUHIHPLQLVWDQDO\VLVRIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\LV LQ QHHG RI ¿QGLQJ ¿UVW LQQRYDWLYH HSLVWHPLF ZD\V WR HPSRZHU WKRVH ZKR are dis-empowered by gender hierarchies, racism, classism, homophobia, and RWKHULGHRORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQVWKDWFODVVLI\SHUVRQVLQVWUXFWXUDOKLHUDUFKLHV6HF- RQGIHPLQLVWDQDO\VLVFDQLQYHVWLJDWHWKHHSLVWHPLFJURXQGRQZKLFKSHUVRQV counteract those structural hierarchies. Third, I will argue that epistemological

$VKRUWHUDQGSUHOLPLQDU\YHUVLRQRIWKLVSDSHUZDVJLYHQDWWKHMRLQW6($667FRQ- IHUHQFH³'HVLJQDQGGLVSODFHPHQW±VRFLDOVWXGLHVRIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\´2FWREHU ±DWWKH&RSHQKDJHQ%XVLQHVV6FKRRO'HQPDUN0DQ\WKDQNVWR.ULVWLQD3LD +RIHUDQG(OLVDEHWK*UHLIIRUKHOSIXOFRPPHQWVRQDQHDUOLHUYHUVLRQ 148 WALTRAUD ERNST

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|P D 0RUHSUHFLVHO\,ZLOOH[SORUHZKDWKDSSHQVLIZHLQYHVWLJDWHJHQGHU LQFOXGLQJVH[DQGVH[XDOLW\DVGLIIUDFWLRQSDWWHUQVUDWKHUWKDQDVGLIIHUHQFHV 7KHFKDSWHUDLPVWRFRQWULEXWHWRDZD\RIVWXG\LQJJHQGHULQWHFKQRORJLFDO SURFHVVHVDQGSURGXFWLRQVLQIRUPHGE\DWKHRU\RIJHQGHUWKDWGRHVQRWSUHVXS- SRVHJHQGHUDVDJLYHQELQDU\RUGLFKRWRP\'UDZLQJRQWKHLQVLJKWVRI-XGLWK %XWOHU¶VDSSURDFKRQSHUIRUPDWLYLW\RIJHQGHU  DQGJHQGHUDVDQDSSD- UDWXV  LWZLOOH[DPLQHHSLVWHPLFYDOXHVIRUWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIJHQGHUHG HQWDQJOHPHQWVRIVFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQ,ZLOOLQYHVWLJDWHZKHWKHU ±DQGLIVRKRZ±%XWOHU¶VXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIJHQGHUDVDQDSSDUDWXVFDQEH PHWKRGRORJLFDOO\XVHIXOIRUIHPLQLVWVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\VWXGLHV$IXUWKHU SRLQWRIGLVFXVVLRQZLOOEHZKHWKHU±DQGLIVRKRZ±.DUHQ%DUDG¶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

SOLQDU\DQGKROLVWLFPRGHOIRUWKHVWXG\RIKXPDQVH[JHQGHUDQGVH[XDOLW\ This model includes questions about the cell, the organism, the psyche, person- WRSHUVRQUHODWLRQVKLSVFXOWXUHDQGKLVWRU\RQDODUJHUVFDOH )DXVWR6WHUOLQJ  ,ZLOOGLVFXVVZKHWKHUKHUDFFRXQWRQG\QDPLFELRFXOWXUDOV\VWHPVRI UHFLSURFDOO\UHODWHGSURFHVVHVFDQEHSXWWRXVHIRUWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIPDWHULDO DQGVRFLDODVSHFWVRIJHQGHUVH[DQGVH[XDOLW\,QEULQJLQJWKHVHSHUVSHFWLYHV WRJHWKHUWKHSDSHUFODLPVWKDWWKURXJKWKHHIIRUWWRFRXQWHUDFWWR¿WLQRUWR SHUIRUPDORQJWKHQRUPVSURGXFHGE\NQRZOHGJHDQGLJQRUDQFHRIJHQGHU VH[DQGVH[XDOLW\ZHDOOFRQWULEXWHWRZKDWFRXQWVDVNQRZOHGJHDWDQ\JLYHQ PRPHQW 7KH SDSHU DUJXHV IRU D UHODWLRQDO HSLVWHPRORJLFDO IUDPHZRUN DQG shows that not only our apparatuses and concepts shape the results, but that DOO LQYROYHG ³VXEMHFWV REMHFWV KXPDQV DQG QRQKXPDQV RU LQDSSURSULDWHG RWKHUV´ +DUDZD\ GHSHQGRQHDFKRWKHUDQGWKXVPXWXDOO\VKDSHWKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIHDFKRWKHUDQGWKHZRUOG

WHAT IS DIFFRACTION? WHAT IS AN APPAR ATUS? WHAT IS MATTER?

'LIIUDFWLRQLVXQGHUVWRRGE\.DUHQ%DUDGLQPRUHWKDQRQHZD\7KHPRVWLP- SRUWDQWGLIIHUHQFH%DUDGPDNHVLVWKHRQHEHWZHHQGLIIUDFWLRQDQGUHÀHFWLRQ 5HÀHFWLRQLVSUREOHPDWL]HGE\%DUDGDVDQRSWLFDOPHWDSKRULQUHSUHVHQWD- WLRQDOLVPDZLGHVSUHDGHSLVWHPRORJLFDODFFRXQWLQWKHSKLORVRSK\RIVFLHQFH )RU%DUDGDVZHOODVIRU+DUDZD\  IURPZKRP%DUDGWDNHVXSWKHLGHD RIGLIIUDFWLRQDVDXVHIXOFRQFHSWIRUIHPLQLVWHSLVWHPRORJ\LWLVLPSRUWDQWWR RYHUFRPHUHÀHFWLRQDVDQHSLVWHPRORJLFDOPRGHODVZHOODVDPHDQVWRXQGHU- VWDQGGLIIHUHQFH±DQGWKXVDVDQHWKLFDOPRGHO±EHFDXVHLWVHHPVJURXQGHGLQ GLFKRWRPRXVWKLQNLQJ,QFODVVLFDOSK\VLFVGLIIUDFWLRQSRLQWVWRDQLQWHUHVWLQJ picture:

³6LPSO\VWDWHGGLIIUDFWLRQKDVWRGRZLWKWKHZD\ZDYHVFRPELQHZKHQ WKH\RYHUODSDQGWKHDSSDUHQWEHQGLQJDQGVSUHDGLQJRIZDYHVWKDWRFFXUV ZKHQ ZDYHV HQFRXQWHU DQ REVWUXFWLRQ 'LIIUDFWLRQ FDQ RFFXU ZLWK DQ\ NLQGRIZDYHIRUH[DPSOHZDWHUZDYHVVRXQGZDYHVDQGOLJKWZDYHVDOO H[KLELWGLIIUDFWLRQXQGHUWKHULJKWFRQGLWLRQV´ %DUDG

7KLVPHDQVWKDWGLIIUDFWLRQFDQEHDQRXWFRPHRIDQH[SHULPHQWDOVHWWLQJLQ WKHODERUDWRU\DVZHOODVDQDWXUDOSKHQRPHQRQ³7KHRFHDQZDYHVDUHWKXV 150 WALTRAUD ERNST

GLIIUDFWHGDVWKH\SDVVWKURXJKWKHEDUULHUWKHEDUULHUVHUYHVDVDGLIIUDFWLRQ DSSDUDWXVIRURFHDQZDYHV´ %DUDG ±/DWHU%DUDGXVHVWKHH[DPSOH RIWZRVWRQHVGURSSHGLQWRDFDOPSRQGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WRLOOXVWUDWHWKHPHDQ- LQJRILQWHUIHUHQFHRUGLIIUDFWLRQSDWWHUQ³7KHZDYHVDUHVDLGWRLQWHUIHUHZLWK HDFKRWKHUDQGWKHSDWWHUQFUHDWHGLVFDOOHGDQLQWHUIHUHQFHRUGLIIUDFWLRQSDW- WHUQ´ %DUDG $VKLIWLQJHQGHUVWXGLHVIURPDIUDPHZRUNRIUHÀHFWLRQWRDIUDPHZRUN RIGLIIUDFWLRQFRXOGEHLQWHUHVWLQJIRUWKHIROORZLQJUHDVRQV8QGHUVWDQGLQJ JHQGHULQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIUHÀHFWLRQVHHPVSUREOHPDWLFEHFDXVHLWVXSSRUWV DELQDU\V\VWHPRIWKRXJKWZKLFKHQYLVDJHVWKH2WKHUDVDQRSSRVLWHLQIURQW RIWKHVHOILQDGLFKRWRPRXVPRGHOZKLFKH[FOXGHVVLPLODULWLHV,QWKHFDVHRI JHQGHUWKH2WKHUKDVRIWHQEHHQVFKHPDWL]HGDVWKHRQHRIµWKHRSSRVLWHVH[¶ 7RWKLQNRIJHQGHULQRSSRVLWHVLQWXUQVXJJHVWVWRWKLQNRIJHQGHULQGLFKRWR- PRXVELQDULHVDVHLWKHUZRPHQRUPHQ

HUVLVDKLJKO\FRQWHVWHG¿HOGSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVHLWLVVRUHOHYDQWIRUH[LVWHQFH In her book Undoing Gender  %XWOHUHODERUDWHVKHUWKHRU\RISHUIRUPD- WLYLW\RIJHQGHUDQGUHODWHVJHQGHUDVDQRUPFORVHO\WRLWVERGLO\HQDFWPHQW

³,QIDFWWKHQRUPRQO\SHUVLVWVDVDQRUPWRWKHH[WHQWWKDWLWLVDFWHG out in social practice and reidealized and reinstituted in and through the GDLO\VRFLDOULWXDOVRIERGLO\OLIH>«@>,@WLVLWVHOI UH SURGXFHGWKURXJK LWVHPERGLPHQWWKURXJKWKHDFWVWKDWVWULYHWRDSSUR[LPDWHLWWKURXJK WKHLGHDOL]DWLRQVUHSURGXFHGLQDQGE\WKRVHDFWV´ %XWOHU 

This means that, according to Butler, gender is neither something one has or is, EXWUDWKHUDQRUPDWLYHUHJXODWLRQWRZKLFKSHUVRQVVKDSHRUUHVKDSHWKHLUERG- LHV±QRWQHFHVVDULO\DORQJHVWDEOLVKHGELQDU\JHQGHUHGQRUPVEXWLQUHODWLRQ WRWKHP)URPWKLVIROORZVWKDWWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZVH[LVUHODWHGWRJHQGHURQH has to understand not only how the so-called social is related to the so-called QDWXUDORUKRZFXOWXUHLVUHODWHGWRPDWWHURUWKHERG\EXWDOVRKRZIHPLQLQL- ties and masculinities are produced through these relations. 7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHFRQWLQJHQF\RIWKLVELQDU\DQGLWVDSSOLFDWLRQVLQIHPL- QLVW VWXGLHV RI VFLHQFH DQG WHFKQRORJ\ , ZLOO VXEVHTXHQWO\ GLVFXVV %XWOHU¶V FRQFHSWRIWKHDSSDUDWXVRIJHQGHULQPRUHGHWDLO,QWKHFKDSWHU‘Gender Reg- ulations’VKHXVHVWKHFRQFHSWRIDSSDUDWXVWRGHVFULEHWKHSURGXFWLRQDQGQRU- PDOL]DWLRQSURFHVVHVLQZKLFKGLIIHUHQWFRQFHSWVGHOLQHDWHPRUHRUOHVVERGLO\ SV\FKLF RU VRFLDO DVSHFWV RI KXPDQ SHUVRQDOLWLHV ³*HQGHU LV WKH DSSDUDWXV E\ZKLFKWKHSURGXFWLRQDQGQRUPDOL]DWLRQRIPDVFXOLQHDQGIHPLQLQHWDNH SODFH DORQJ ZLWK WKH LQWHUVWLWLDO IRUPV RI KRUPRQDO FKURPRVRPDO SV\FKLF DQGSHUIRUPDWLYHWKDWJHQGHUDVVXPHV´ %XWOHU +HUHKHUFRQFHSW RIDSSDUDWXVFOHDUO\HQFRPSDVVHVPXFKPRUHWKDQDµOHQV¶RUµFRQVWUXFWLRQ¶ ,WSRLQWVWRDFRPSOH[DQGPXOWLIDFHWHGLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQVRFLDOQRUPVDQG PDWHULDOVHPLRWLF VWDWHV RI KXPDQV DV GLYHUVH DV KRUPRQDO OHYHOV FKURPR- VRPDODFWLYDWLRQVSV\FKLFLQWHUIHUHQFHV±RUGLIIUDFWLRQVLQWKHSHUIRUPDWLYH GLVSOD\ LQ ZKLFK JHQGHU LV SURGXFHG DQG HQIRUFHG 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG VKH SRLQWVRXWWKDWJHQGHUH[FHHGVLWVGH¿QLWLRQDVDQRUPDWLYHELQDU\RIIHPLQLQ- ity and masculinity:

³*HQGHULVWKHPHFKDQLVPE\ZKLFKQRWLRQVRIPDVFXOLQHDQGIHPLQLQH DUHSURGXFHGDQGQDWXUDOL]HGEXWJHQGHUPLJKWYHU\ZHOOEHWKHDSSDUD- tus by which such terms are deconstructed and denaturalized. Indeed, it PD\EHWKDWWKHYHU\DSSDUDWXVWKDWVHHNVWRLQVWDOOWKHQRUPDOVRZRUNV 152 WALTRAUD ERNST

WRXQGHUPLQHWKDWYHU\LQVWDOODWLRQWKDWWKHLQVWDOODWLRQLVDVLWZHUH GH¿QLWLRQDOO\LQFRPSOHWH´ %XWOHU 

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¶VVHQVH"$QGLI\HVLQZKLFKVHQVHFDQJHQGHUEHXQGHUVWRRG DVWKHYHU\DSSDUDWXVZKLFKSURGXFHVWKHVH DQGRWKHU GLIIUDFWLRQSDWWHUQV" In her book Meeting the universe halfway   %DUDG HODERUDWHV RQ YDULRXVPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRIPDWWHURQWKHFRQFHSWXDOOHYHODVLIKHUFRQFHSWXDO DSSURDFKLWVHOI¿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µH[DPSOHRIQDWXUH¶RITXHHUQHVVEH\RQGKXPDQZD\VRI OLYLQJ,WZDVQRWIRULWVTXHHUQHVVWKRXJKWKDWWKHEULWWOHVWDUEHFDPHIDPRXV ,WZDVLQSURMHFWVRIELRPLPHVLV%DUDGH[SODLQVZKHUHLWVWHFKQLTXHRIVHHLQJ DWWUDFWHGWKHDWWHQWLRQRIUHVHDUFK7KHDXWKRUWKLQNVWKDWWKHUHLVPRUHWRWKH brittlestar: She asks crucial questions about bonding, belonging, and boundar- LHVRIPDWHULDORUJDQLFERGLHV,QWHUHVWLQJO\ZKHQLWFRPHVWRWKHEULWWOHVWDU WKH UHODWHGQHVV RI D VLQJOHG RXW  ERG\ WR WKH µHQYLURQPHQW¶ VXUURXQGLQJ LW becomes blurred:

³7KHEULWWOHVWDUVSHFLHVH[KLELWJUHDWGLYHUVLW\LQVH[XDOEHKDYLRUDQG UHSURGXFWLRQVRPHVSHFLHVXVHEURDGFDVWVSDZQLQJRWKHUVH[KLELWVH[- XDOGLPRUSKLVPVRPHDUHKHUPDSKURGLWLFDQGVHOIIHUWLOL]HDQGVRPH DIFFRACTION PATTERNS? SHIFTING GENDER NORMS 153

UHSURGXFHDVH[XDOO\E\UHJHQHUDWLQJRUFORQLQJWKHPVHOYHVRXWRIWKH IUDJPHQWHGERG\SDUWV:KHQLVDEURNHQRIIOLPERQO\DSLHFHRIWKH HQYLURQPHQWDQGZKHQLVLWDQRIIVSULQJ"´ %DUDG 

6KHDVNVHYHQPRUHWRWKHSRLQW³,VFRQWLJXLW\RIERG\SDUWVUHTXLUHGLQWKH VSHFL¿FDWLRQRIDVLQJOHRUJDQLVP"&DQZHWUXVWYLVXDOGHOLQHDWLRQVWRGH¿QH ERGLO\ERXQGDULHV"&DQZHWUXVWRXUH\HV"´%DUDGFRQFOXGHV³&RQQHFWLYLW\ does not require physical contiguity.” The crucial question seems to concern WKHUHODWHGQHVVLQFRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKHJHQHUDWLRQRIRUJDQLVPV³,VWKHFRQ- QHFWLRQEHWZHHQDQµRIIVSULQJ¶UHJHQHUDWHGIURPDIUDJPHQWHGERG\SDUWDQG WKHSDUHQWEULWWOHVWDUWKHVDPHDVLWVFRQQHFWLRQWRDGHDGOLPERUWKHUHVWRI WKHHQYLURQPHQW"´ %DUDG :LWKWKHEULWWOHVWDU%DUDGGRHVQRWRQO\ JLYHDWHOOLQJH[DPSOHRIYDULDWLRQVRQWKHPXOWLIDFHWHGZD\VVH[JHQGHUDQG VH[XDOLW\LVRUJDQL]HGLQQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWVEXWDOVRSURYLGHVIXQGDPHQWDO LQVLJKWVWRWKHYDULRXVUHVHDUFKDSSDUDWXVHVWXUQLQJWRLW,WLVDOVRWKHPRVW FRQYLQFLQJH[DPSOHIRU%DUDG¶VFODLPIRUWKHLQWUDDFWLYHEHFRPLQJRIPDWWHU ZLWKLQWKHZRUOGZKLFKLQGHHGJRHVEH\RQG-XGLWK%XWOHU¶VIRFXVRQKXPDQ LQWHUDFWLRQLQWKHZRUOG0RUHRYHUKHUGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHEULWWOHVWDUH[FHHGV DQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI RUJDQLVPV ZKLFK SUHVXSSRVHV VROLG ERXQGDULHV %DUDG WKHUHE\HQODUJHVRXUFRQFHSWRIWKHRUJDQLVPLQDQLQWHUHVWLQJZD\IURPDQ HQWLW\ZLWKFOHDUERXQGDULHVWRVRPHWKLQJUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQWZLWKLQ PXFKOHVVGLVWLQFWOLPLWV+HUH%DUDG¶VGHVFULSWLRQGHOLQHDWHVDQDSSDUDWXVRI UHVHDUFKDVDQLQWUDDFWLYHVFHQDULRRIGLVFHUQLQJDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJHPSLULFDO ¿QGLQJVµLQQDWXUH¶,WFUHDWHVDVKLIWLQWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIPDWWHUZLWKLQOLY- LQJRUJDQLVPV,WVKRZVDGLIIUDFWLRQSDWWHUQQRWRQO\FRQFHUQLQJWKHREMHFWRI UHVHDUFKEXWDOVRFRQFHUQLQJWKHHSLVWHPRORJLFDOIUDPHZKLFKFRQVLVWVRIDQG constitutes at the same time, the epistemic subject. .DUHQ%DUDGVXJJHVWVKHUDSSURDFKRIµDJHQWLDOUHDOLVP¶DVDQHZIHPLQLVW epistemology to understand matter, including the gendered body, as a dynam- LFLQWUDDFWLYHEHFRPLQJ:LWKWKLVDFFRXQWVKHFODLPVWRJREH\RQG-XGLWK %XWOHU¶VDSSURDFKRISHUIRUPDWLYLW\RIJHQGHUEHFDXVHVKHDOVRLQFOXGHVQRQ KXPDQRUJDQLVPVDQGQRQRUJDQLFPDWWHULQWKHVHLQWUDDFWLYHSURFHVVHVRIEH- FRPLQJ0RUHRYHU%DUDGTXHVWLRQVWKHFOHDUFXWERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQRUJDQLF matter and non-organic matter, as well as those between the organism and the µHQYLURQPHQW¶:LWKWKLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIKXPDQVDVMXVWRQHFXULRXVRUJDQLF HQWLW\EHWZHHQDQLQGH¿QLWHQXPEHURIRWKHUVVKHRSHQVRXUH\HVIRUDELJ YDULHW\RIQDWXUDOV\VWHPVRIUHSURGXFWLRQDVZHOODVLQWHUDFWLYHRULQWUDDFWLYH relationality and attachment. In this way, the current binary gender system, 154 WALTRAUD ERNST

ZKLFKVWLOOVHHPVULJRURXVO\ELQGLQJIRUKXPDQVPLJKWEHFRPHFRQWHVWHGLQ LWVH[HPSODU\IXQFWLRQIRUQDWXUHDVDZKROH ,DPQRWVXUHZKHWKHU%XWOHUDQG%DUDGXVHWKHFRQFHSWRIWKHDSSDUD- WXVZLWKWKHVDPHLQWHQWLRQ1HYHUWKHOHVVUHDGLQJWKHWZRDXWKRUVWRJHWKHU LVKHOSIXOIRUWZRUHDVRQVRQHIRUPDNLQJ%XWOHU¶VXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIJHQGHU DVDQDSSDUDWXVPHWKRGRORJLFDOO\XVHIXOIRUIHPLQLVWVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ VWXGLHVDQGVHFRQGO\IRUPDNLQJ%DUDG¶VDJHQWLDOUHDOLVWYHUVLRQRIWKHDS- SDUDWXVDSSOLFDEOHDVDQHSLVWHPRORJLFDOFRQFHSWIRUJHQGHUVWXGLHVEH\RQG 676,WKLQN%XWOHULQWURGXFHVWKHWHUPµDSSDUDWXV¶WRSRLQWWRWKHIDFWWKDWD VSHFL¿FRUFXUUHQWQRUPDWLYHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIJHQGHULVPRUHPDWHULDOWKDQ WKHWHUPµIUDPHZRUN¶RUµLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ¶ZRXOGVXJJHVW³,IJHQGHULVDQRUP LWLVDIRUPRIVRFLDOSRZHUWKDWSURGXFHVWKHLQWHOOLJLEOH¿HOGRIVXEMHFWVDQG DQDSSDUDWXVE\ZKLFKWKHJHQGHUELQDU\LVLQVWLWXWHG´ %XWOHU 7KH WHUPµDSSDUDWXV¶VHHPVKHOSIXOIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHLPSHUDWLYHFKDUDFWHURI JHQGHUDVDYDOLGVRFLDOPHFKDQLVP$WWKHVDPHWLPHLWKHOSVWRLPDJLQHWKH SRVVLELOLW\WRFKDQJHFHUWDLQDVSHFWV±SDUWVRUWRROV±RIWKLVPHFKDQLVPRU HYHQH[FKDQJLQJLWDVDZKROH6LQFHDQDSSDUDWXVLVDFRPSOH[LQVWUXPHQW ZKLFKLVEXLOWDQGLQVWDOOHGWRDFKLHYHDFHUWDLQJRDOWKHWHUPPD\KHOSWRXQ- GHUVWDQGWKHKLVWRULFDOFRQWLQJHQF\RIDFHUWDLQJHQGHUUHJLPH2QWRSRIWKDW DQDSSDUDWXVLIXQGHUVWRRGLQLWVIXQFWLRQLQJDVDWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHPLJKW EHWUDQVIRUPHGE\VXEMHFWVLQZD\VZKLFKDUHQRWLQWHQGHGE\RWKHUVXEMHFWV LQWKH¿UVWSODFH,QRWKHUZRUGVLIZHXQGHUVWDQGJHQGHUDVDQDSSDUDWXVE\ ZKLFKVXEMHFWVDUHSURGXFHGDVLQFRUSRUDWLQJDFHUWDLQIHPLQLQLW\RUPDVFX- OLQLW\LQSUHVHQWWLPHLQGRPLQDQWFXOWXUHVWKRVHZKRGRQRW¿WLQPLJKWEH FRPSUHKHQVLEOHDVVXEMHFWVZKRQRWRQO\SRLQWWRWKHOLPLWVRIWKHDSSDUDWXVDW ZRUNDQGWKHQHHGWRFKDQJHLW2QWRSRIWKDWWKH\DOUHDG\UHSUHVHQWVXEMHFWV DQGREMHFWVRIGLIIUDFWLRQSDWWHUQVRIJHQGHU %XWOHUDQG%DUDGERWKVHHPWRXQGHUVWDQGDQDSSDUDWXVDVSURYRNLQJDFHU- WDLQVHWRIPDWHULDOVHPLRWLFSUDFWLFHV+RZHYHU%XWOHU¶VIRFXVLVRQWKHFRQVWL- WXWLRQRIJHQGHUHGVXEMHFWVWKURXJKSHUIRUPDWLYHLWHUDWLRQZKLOH%DUDGIRFXVHV RQWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQRI JHQGHUHG UHVHDUFKREMHFWVDQGSKHQRPHQDWKURXJKLQ- WUDDFWLYHEHFRPLQJ³$SSDUDWXVHVDUHG\QDPLFDOO\PDGHDQGUHPDGHWKURXJK GLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIERXQGDU\PDNLQJSUDFWLFHV´ %DUDG +HUHLWLV LPSRUWDQW WR QRWH WKDW LQ ERWK DFFRXQWV WKH FOHDUFXW GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ VXEMHFWDQGREMHFWLVFRQWHVWHG6LQFHWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRISKHQRPHQDWKURXJK UHVHDUFKDSSDUDWXVHVLVXQGHUVWRRGDVPDWHULDOGLVFXUVLYHSUDFWLFHVDQHPSLUL- FLVW XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI HPSLULFDO UHVHDUFK DOVR RI H[SHULPHQWDO HPSLULFDO UH- VHDUFKVHHPVLPSRVVLEOH)RU%DUDGWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQLVDOUHDG\SDUWRI DIFFRACTION PATTERNS? SHIFTING GENDER NORMS 155

the phenomenon produced in the epistemic process as the apparatus is installed. +HUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIPDWWHULVQRWOLPLWHGWRWKHHPSLULFDOGDWDZKLFKDUHFRO- lected or measured within a certain established apparatus, nor to the interpreta- WLRQRIWKHVHGDWD0D\EHLQDFRPSDUDEOHZD\%XWOHU¶VDFFRXQWVKRZVJHQGHU DVSHUIRUPHGE\KXPDQVXEMHFWVZLWKLQEXWQRWFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHH[LVWLQJ ELQDU\ DSSDUDWXV RI JHQGHU 3UHFLVHO\ EHFDXVH WKH SHUIRUPDQFH QHFHVVDULO\  IDLOVWRFRQIRUPWRWKHHVWDEOLVKHGLGHDOL]HGELQDU\FRGHWKHDSSDUDWXVRIJHQ- GHULVDV%XWOHUSRLQWVRXWDQHODERUDWHGLQVWLWXWLRQDQGUHYHDOVLWVQDWXUDOL]LQJ DQGQRUPDOL]LQJIXQFWLRQ,QDVLPLODUZD\PDWHULDOSKHQRPHQDLQWUDDFWLQJ ZLWKLQWKHHSLVWHPLFSURFHVVLQ%DUDG¶VDFFRXQWDUHQHYHUIXOO\FDOFXODEOHLQ DGYDQFHE\WKHDSSDUDWXVRIUHVHDUFK7KHXQFHUWDLQW\UHODWLRQEURXJKWIRUZDUG E\TXDQWXPSK\VLFVOHDGVEH\RQGWKHFDOFXODEOHSUHGLFWDELOLW\RIPDWHULDOSUR- FHVVHVLQH[SHULPHQWDODVZHOODVLQQDWXUDOFLUFXPVWDQFHV DVKHOGIRULQVWDQFH E\FODVVLFDOPHFKDQLFV ,QERWK%XWOHU¶VDQG%DUDG¶VDFFRXQWVLWVHHPVWKDWD EHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHZRUOGLVDFKLHYHGSUHFLVHO\WKURXJKWKHWUDQVJUHV- VLRQRIWKHHQYLVLRQHGRULQVWDOOHGRUGHURIWKLQJV VHHDOVR'H/DXUHWLV  But does this lead to a new feminist materialism ± DV D QHZ SDUDGLJP IRUJHQGHUVWXGLHV"6LQFHWKHPDWHULDOFRQGLWLRQVLQ.DUHQ%DUDG¶VDFFRXQW FOHDUO\H[FHHGHPSLULFLVWDVZHOODVPDU[LVWDFFRXQWV,FRQVLGHUWKHWHUPma- terial feminismPRUHVXLWDEOH VHHDOVR$ODLPRDQG+HNPDQ )RUWKH IROORZLQJUHDVRQV%\XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHPDWHULDOLW\RIKXPDQERGLHVDQGQRQ KXPDQQDWXUHDVLQIRUPHGE\WKHIHPLQLVWFRQVWUXFWLYLVWLGHDRISHUIRUPDWLY- LW\ UDWKHU WKDQ DV DQ HVVHQWLDO DXWKRULW\ RI DXWKHQWLFLW\ WKLV PDWHULDOLW\ FDQ EHDFNQRZOHGJHGDVDQDFWLYHDVSHFWLQWKHSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJHZLWKRXW HVVHQWLDOL]LQJLW%DUDGJLYHVWKHH[DPSOHRIVKRSÀRRUPDFKLQHU\LQRUGHUWR LOOXVWUDWHWKHSURGXFWLYHUROHRIPDWHULDOLW\LQGLIIHUHQWIRUPV³7KHPDWHULDO FRQGLWLRQVRIWKHVKRSÀRRUSHUIRUPDWLYHO\SURGXFHUHODWLRQVRIFODVVDQGRWKHU IRUPVRIFXOWXUDOLGHQWLW\LQWKHLQWUDDFWLRQRIKXPDQVDQGPDFKLQHV´ %DUDG  $OLWWOHODWHUVKHUHODWHVWKHWHUPRIWKHDSSDUDWXVWRWKLVPDWHULDO GLVFRXUVLYHSUDFWLFH³,PSRUWDQWO\DSSDUDWXVHVDUHQRWH[WHUQDOIRUFHVWKDWRS- HUDWHRQERGLHVIURPWKHRXWVLGHUDWKHUDSSDUDWXVHVDUHPDWHULDOGLVFRXUVLYH SUDFWLFHVWKDWDUHLQH[WULFDEOHIURPWKHERGLHVWKDWDUHSURGXFHGDQGWKURXJK ZKLFK SRZHU ZRUNV LWV SURGXFWLYH HIIHFWV´ %DUDG    7KHUHIRUH .DUHQ%DUDG¶VLQVLJKWVVHHPWRSRLQWPRUHWRWKHQRWLRQWKDWGLIIUDFWLRQSDW- WHUQVKHOSWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHRYHUODSVDQGVKLIWVLQDQDWWHPSWWRPDNHVHQVH RIWKHZRUOGQRWRQO\FRQFHUQLQJWKHFRQVWDQWO\VKLIWLQJPDWHULDOL]DWLRQVDQG GLVFRXUVHVRIJHQGHUQRUPVEXWDOVRFRQFHUQLQJWKHSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJH LQJHQHUDO%DUDGVXJJHVWVWKDWZLWKWKHGLIIUDFWLRQSDWWHUQVRIZDYHVSURGXFHG 156 WALTRAUD ERNST

E\WKHWZRVOLWH[SHULPHQWTXDQWXPSK\VLFVSURYLGHGDSURPLVLQJIUDPHZRUN RI XQGHUVWDQGLQJ VFLHQWL¿F NQRZOHGJH SURGXFWLRQ 6KH DOVR KROGV WKDW ZLWK WKHFDSDELOLW\WRORFDWHDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHVKLIWDVLQJOHDWRPRIDFHUWDLQ PDWHULDORUWH[WXUHZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHFDOOHGµVFDQQLQJ WXQQHOLQJ PLFURVFRSH¶ VWP  WKH µVHFRQG TXDQWXPSK\VLFDO UHYROXWLRQ¶WRRN SODFH±DVWKHEDVLVIRUQDQRWHFKQRORJ\DQGELRPLPHVLV,QKHUDFFRXQWWKHVH QHZWHFKQRVFLHQWL¿FDSSDUDWXVHVRIQDQRWHFKQRORJ\DQGELRPLPHVLVQHHGWR EHLQYHVWLJDWHGZLWKLQDEURDGHUVRFLRSROLWLFDODQGQDWXUDOµHQYLURQPHQW¶DV WKH\FUHDWHWKURXJKPDWHULDOVHPLRWLFSUDFWLFHVQHZ±PD\EHSUHFDULRXV±UH- ODWLRQVEHWZHHQKXPDQVRWKHURUJDQLVPVDQGQRQRUJDQLFPDWWHU7KHUHIRUH RQWKHHSLVWHPRORJLFDOOHYHO%DUDGJRHVEH\RQG%RKU¶VDFFRXQWLQWKDWVKH VKLIWVWKHIUDPHZRUNRIUHODWLYLW\RINQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQLQTXDQWXPSK\VLFV WRDIUDPHZRUNRIUHODWLRQDOLW\:LWKWKLVPRYHVKHFRQQHFWVWKHµVHFRQGTXDQ- WXPUHYROXWLRQ¶WRIHPLQLVWHSLVWHPRORJ\,IZHXQGHUVWDQGWKHSURGXFWLRQRI NQRZOHGJHDVWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDQDSSDUDWXVRIUHVHDUFKZHPLJKWEHDEOH WRDQDO\]HWKLVYHU\DSSDUDWXVLQRUGHUWRGHFRQVWUXFWRUVKLIWWKHQRUPDWLYLW\RI JHQGHU SDWWHUQVLWPLJKWSURGXFH:KHQGRLQJVRLWVHHPVLPSRUWDQWWRUHÀHFW WKHOLPLWHGDFFHVVWRNQRZOHGJHRIWKHZRUOGSURYLGHGWKURXJKHYHQWKHQHZ- HVWHSLVWHPRORJLFDODQGWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHV VHH-DVDQRII %DUDG¶V DFFRXQWRIµDJHQWLDOUHDOLVP¶WUDQVFHQGVWKHLGHDVWLOOKHOGE\PDQ\VFKRODUV LQWHFKQRVFLHQFHVRISURFHVVHVPDWHULDOVDQGSKHQRPHQDDVVHJUHJDWHGRU isolatable in the research process. It enables the notion that processes, materi- DOV DQG SKHQRPHQD DUH OLQNHG LQ D FRPSOH[ DQG QHYHU IXOO\ DSSUHKHQVLEOH UHODWLRQDOLW\LQZKLFKSURFHVVHVEHFRPHDFWLYDWHGWKURXJKVSHFL¿FUHVHDUFK LQDZD\WKDWJRHVEH\RQGWKHLQWHQWLRQDOLW\RISHUVRQVDQGWKHFDOFXODWLRQE\ PDFKLQHV,QRUGHUWRGLVFXVVWKHHQWDQJOHPHQWRIPDWWHUDQGPHDQLQJDVLQQR- YDWLYHPHWKRGVIRUFRQVWUXFWLYHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\HQJDJHPHQWVEHWZHHQWHFK- QRVFLHQFHVDQGKXPDQLWLHVLWVHHPVLPSRUWDQWWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKHVKLIWLQJLQWUD DFWLYLW\RIKXPDQPDFKLQHLQWHUIDFHV,WVHHPVWKDWWKHDFFHVVWRWKHZRUOG WKURXJKRXUPDFKLQHU\WKHWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHVRIFRQWHPSRUDU\NQRZOHGJH SURGXFWLRQDOVRVKLIWVRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRINQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQLWVHOI

MATERIAL INTERRELATIONS: MACHINES AND HUMANS?

:KDWKDSSHQVEHWZHHQKXPDQVDQGPDFKLQHVZKHQWKH\IDFHHDFKRWKHURULQ- WHUDFW"+XPDQVGRQ¶WPHUHO\XVHPDFKLQHVWRGRVRPHWKLQJ7KHPDFKLQHDQG DIFFRACTION PATTERNS? SHIFTING GENDER NORMS 157

WKHDFWLYLW\OHDYHWUDFHVRQDQGLQKXPDQVDQGYLFHYHUVD7UDFHVFRXOGPHDQ WRVLJQLI\DEUDVLRQZHDUDQGWHDURUDWWULWLRQEXWDOVRHPSRZHUPHQWHQKDQFH- PHQWRURWKHUHQDEOLQJDVSHFWVRIWKLVLQWHUDFWLRQ1HLWKHULVLWMXVWDQLQWHUIDFH ± D WRXFK VFUHHQ RU D FRQWDFW DUHD EHFDXVH LW LV KXPDQV ZKR PXVW LQLWLDWH FRQWDFWWRWKHPDFKLQHU\WRVWDUWDSURFHVV,WPDNHVOLWWOHVHQVHWRVSHDNRIPD- FKLQHU\RUWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHVDVLQLWLDWLQJHQFRXQWHUV DWOHDVWXQWLOQRZ  VLQFHHYHQWKHPRVWµLQWHOOLJHQW¶GHYLFHVGRQRWDFWLQDFRPSDUDEO\LQWHQWLRQDO ZD\DVKXPDQVGR,QWHQWLRQDOLW\PLJKWQRWEHDQHFHVVDU\GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ humans and machines, because human agency is not always intentional, and DXWRPDWLFGHYLFHVVRPHWLPHVVHHPWRLQLWLDWHDFHUWDLQSURFHVVRILQWHUIHUHQFH %XWLQWHQWLRQDOLW\VHHPVWREHDVXI¿FLHQWFULWHULRQRIGLIIHUHQFHEHFDXVHWHFK- QRORJLFDOGHYLFHVRQO\VLPXODWHLQWHQWLRQDODJHQF\7KHVHVLPXODWLRQVDFWX- DOO\LQYROYHKXPDQVLQWHUDFWLQJZLWKRWKHUKXPDQVWKURXJKPDFKLQHVLQRWKHU ZRUGVE\ZD\RIWHFKQRORJLFDOLQWHUIHUHQFH7KHWHUPLQWHUIHUHQFHSRLQWVWR LPSDFWLQÀXHQFHDQGPDQLSXODWLRQWRLPSDLUPHQWLQWHUYHQWLRQDQGLQWUXVLRQ EXWDOVRWRPHUJLQJDQGPL[LQJDVZHOODVWRRYHUODSRYHUOD\DQGVXSHUSRVL- WLRQDQGWRGLVWXUEDQFHGLVUXSWLRQDQGGLVRUGHU,Q%DUDG¶VXVHRIWKHWHUP DOOWKHVHGLPHQVLRQVDUHHYRNHGDOWKRXJKVKHXVHVWKHWHUPV\QRQ\PRXVO\WR GLIIUDFWLRQDVZHKDYHVHHQDERYH &RQVHTXHQWO\WKHKXPDQPDFKLQHLQWHUIDFHLVDG\QDPLFSURFHVVRIPDWH- rialization, in which meanings can change. This means that although newly de- YHORSHGWHFKQRORJLFDOREMHFWVQHHGWREHUHFRJQL]HGLQWKHLUHQYLVLRQHGFXOWXUDO HQYLURQPHQWWKH\DOZD\VFDUU\WKHSRVVLELOLW\RIOHDGLQJEH\RQGWKHUHSOLFDWLRQ RIYDOLGDWHGQRUPV7KHG\QDPLFRIWKHKXPDQPDFKLQHUHODWLRQLVDOVRDFHQ- WUDOUHVXOWLQ/XF\6XFKPDQ¶VVWXG\+XPDQ0DFKLQH5HFRQ¿JXUDWLRQV   +HUHPDFKLQHVDUHQRWXQGHUVWRRGDV¿QLWHREMHFWV³5DWKHUWKDQ¿[HGREMHFWV WKDWSUHVFULEHWKHLUXVHDUWHIDFWV±SDUWLFXODUO\FRPSXWDWLRQDOO\EDVHGGHYLFHV± FRPSULVHDPHGLXPRUVWDUWLQJSODFHHODERUDWHGLQXVH´ 6XFKPDQ  ,QWKHVDPHZD\SHUVRQVZKRDUHLQYROYHGLQKXPDQPDFKLQHUHODWLRQVVKRXOG QRWEHXQGHUVWRRGDVDXWRQRPRXVVXEMHFWV³7KHSHUVRQ¿JXUHGKHUHLVQRWDQ DXWRQRPRXVUDWLRQDODFWRUEXWDQXQIROGLQJVKLIWLQJELRJUDSK\RIFXOWXUDOO\ DQG PDWHULDOO\ VSHFL¿F H[SHULHQFHV UHODWLRQV DQG SRVVLELOLWLHV LQÀHFWHG E\ HDFKQH[WHQFRXQWHU±LQFOXGLQJWKHPRVWQRUPDWLYHDQGIDPLOLDU±LQXQLTXHO\ SDUWLFXODUZD\V´ 6XFKPDQ 7KLVPHDQVWKDWJHQGHUHGVXEMHFWVDQG REMHFWVFDQH[SHULHQFHQHZSUDFWLFHVDQGQHZPHDQLQJVRIWKHPVHOYHVLQFOXG- ing their gendered meaning, through their interaction. $VDUHVXOWWKHSURGXFWLRQRIWHFKQRORJ\VKDSHVRXUFXOWXUHZKLFKLQWXUQ LVVWUXFWXUHGE\DJHQGHUHGVRFLDORUGHU7KHUHIRUHWKHZD\LQZKLFKWHFK- 158 WALTRAUD ERNST

QRORJLFDOGHYHORSPHQWVWDNHSODFHDQGWKHZD\WHFKQRORJ\LVGHVLJQHGDQG SURGXFHGLQFOXGLQJHDFKSHUVRQLQYROYHGLQWKHSURFHVVLVRSHQWRFKDQJH

BEYOND THE ‘RODENT’S TALE’

+RZ FDQ JHQGHU LQ KXPDQ DQG QRQKXPDQ RUJDQLVPV EH LQYHVWLJDWHG DV D critical site where the material and the social interact? The biologist Anne )DXVWR6WHUOLQJTXHVWLRQVDUHGXFWLRQLVWYLHZRIIXQFWLRQDOSULQFLSOHVRQKX- PDQVH[XDOLW\LQKHUFHOHEUDWHGERRN6H[LQJWKH%RG\*HQGHU3ROLWLFVDQG WKH&RQVWUXFWLRQRI6H[XDOLW\  +HUHVKHWUDFHVWKHth century history RIELRORJLFDOWKHRULHVRQKRUPRQHVJHQHVFKURPRVRPHVDQGRIH[SHULPHQWV WRVWXG\WKHFKHPLFDOSK\VLRORJ\RIEHKDYLRU6KHH[SRVHVWKHFRQWLQXRXVO\ FKDQJLQJSHUVSHFWLYHRQWKHEHKDYLRURIODERUDWRU\URGHQWVLQFRQQHFWLRQZLWK KRUPRQDOWUHDWPHQWZKLFKOHDGVWRTXLWHFXULRXVDQGHYHUFKDQJLQJµIDFWV¶ WKURXJKDQDORJ\LQIHUHQFHDERXWKXPDQVH[XDOLW\ )RU LQVWDQFH LQ WKH PLGV )UDQN$PEURVH %HDFK GHYHORSHG D GH- WDLOHGWKHRU\RIDQLPDOVH[XDOLW\DVKHREVHUYHG³VWULNLQJLQGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQF- HVZLWKLQHDFKVH[DPRQJODERUDWRU\VWUDLQVRIWKHVDPHVSHFLHVDQGDPRQJ URGHQW VSHFLHV´ +H FRQVHTXHQWO\ DUJXHG WKDW QHXURORJLFDOO\ ³DOO DQLPDOV KDYHDELVH[XDOSRWHQWLDO´ )DXVWR6WHUOLQJ %\FRQWUDVWLQ LQIRUPHGE\³WKHFROGZDULGHRORJ\WKDWSUDLVHGKHWHURVH[XDOLW\DQGUDQWHG DERXWWKHKRPRVH[XDOPHQDFH´:LOOLDP&

ORJLFDOWKHRULHVDERXWKXPDQVH[XDOLW\³GHULYHGIURPURGHQWH[SHULPHQWDWLRQ DUHLQDGHTXDWHHYHQIRUURGHQWV´ )DXVWR6WHUOLQJ  $QQH)DXVWR6WHUOLQJ¶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¿FDQWO\LQVHYHUDOSDUWVRIWKHEUDLQZKHQWKHSDWHUQDOEHKDYLRU ZDVLQWHQVL¿HG+HQFHWKHH[SHULHQFHRISDWHUQLW\KDGFKDQJHGQRWRQO\WKH VRFLDOEHKDYLRURIPDOHPLFHEXWDOVRWKHEUDLQSK\VLRORJ\RIWKHSDWHUQDO EUDLQV%HFDXVHRIWKHHYROXWLRQDU\NLQVKLSVWUXFWXUHVEHWZHHQWKHKRUPRQDO SK\VLRORJ\EHWZHHQPLFHDQGKXPDQV)DXVWR6WHUOLQJLQIHUVWKDWWKHUHFRXOG EHPHFKDQLVPVWKURXJKZKLFKJHQGHUHGH[SHULHQFHDOVRFKDQJHVWKHJHQGHUHG KXPDQERG\RQWKHKRUPRQDOOHYHO )DXVWR6WHUOLQJ±  $VDFRQVHTXHQFH)DXVWR6WHUOLQJGHYHORSVDQLQWHJUDWLYHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQ- DU\DQGKROLVWLFPRGHOIRUWKHVWXG\RIKXPDQVH[JHQGHUDQGVH[XDOLW\,W connects questions about the cell, the organism, the psyche, the person to per- son relationships, the culture, and the history on a larger scale. She consid- HUVWKHVHFRPSRQHQWVDVDG\QDPLFELRFXOWXUDOV\VWHPRIUHFLSURFDOO\UHODWHG SURFHVVHV )DXVWR6WHUOLQJ 7KLVPDNHVFOHDUWKDWWRXQGHUVWDQG WKH QDWXUH DQG FXOWXUH RI JHQGHU VH[ DQG VH[XDOLW\ WKHVH FRQFHSWXDO ¿HOGV KDYHWREHVWXGLHGZLWKLQDQLQWHUDFWLYHIUDPHZRUN7KLVFRXOGHQDEOHXVWR RYHUFRPHQDWXUDOL]HGQDUUDWLYHVRIJHQGHUKLHUDUFKLHVKHWHURQRUPDWLYLW\DQG VH[ELQDULVP:HFDQVHHKHUHKRZVRFDOOHGPDWHULDOQDWXUDORUSK\VLRORJLFDO processes are closely tied to so-called social and cultural processes. We are DEOHWRLQVWDOOH[SHULPHQWDOVHWWLQJVLQZKLFKEUDLQSK\VLRORJ\GRHVQRWIXQF- WLRQDVDQXOWLPDWHFDXVHIRUVRFLDOEHKDYLRUEXWLQVWHDGDVDFRUUHODWLQJIDFWRU LQUHFLSURFDOSURFHVVHVRIPDWHULDOVHPLRWLFDFWRUV8QGHUVWDQGLQJVH[JHQGHU DQGVH[XDOLW\DVDELRFXOWXUDOV\VWHPGRHVQRWSURYLGHHDV\DQVZHUVDQGLW does not only necessitate an interdisciplinary approach. It needs transdisci- SOLQDU\WKLQNLQJWRFRUUHODWHGLIIHUHQWPHWKRGVWRUHVHDUFKFHOOVRUJDQLVPV 160 WALTRAUD ERNST

LQGLYLGXDOSV\FKHVVRFLDOJURXSVQDWLRQDOKLVWRULHVDQGWUDQVQDWLRQDOFXOWXUHV WRRYHUFRPHWKHELQDU\FDWHJRULHVRIVH[JHQGHUDQGVH[XDOLW\

CONCLUSION

7KHDERYHDQDO\VLVVKRZVWKDWQHZHSLVWHPRORJLFDOLGHDVHQDEOHQHZZD\VWR LQYHVWLJDWHVH[JHQGHUDQGVH[XDOLW\ZLWKRXWUHLQIRUFLQJELQDU\JHQGHUQRUPV )HPLQLVWDQDO\VLVRIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\SURYLGHVLQQRYDWLYHZD\VIRUUH- search to empower those who are dis-empowered by gender hierarchies, rac- LVPFODVVLVPKRPRSKRELDDQGRWKHULGHRORJLFDOIUDPHVWRFODVVLI\SHUVRQV in structural hierarchies. The discussion in this chapter suggests that it is chal- OHQJLQJEXWZRUWKDWWHPSWLQJWRVWXG\SKHQRPHQDWKDWWUDQVFHQGWKHQRUPDWLYH DSSDUDWXVRIJHQGHU:HKDYHVHHQWKDWWKURXJKWKHDSSDUDWXVRIUHVHDUFKGLI- IUDFWLRQSDWWHUQVRIJHQGHUFDQEHJHQHUDWHG,IZHIROORZ%DUDGDQGXQGHU- VWDQGWKHDSSDUDWXVRIUHVHDUFKDVDSDUWRIWKHSKHQRPHQRQZHDUHVWXG\LQJ LW VHHPV LQWHUHVWLQJ WR LQYHVWLJDWH LI VFLHQWL¿F FODLPV FRQ¿UPLQJ WKH QRUPD- WLYHJHQGHUELQDU\DUHUHODWHGWRVWHUHRW\SLFDODVVXPSWLRQVDERXWZRPHQDQG PHQRUZKHWKHUWKH\UHO\RQLQVXI¿FLHQWVHWVRIGDWD VHH-RUGDQ

RUJDQLVPV DQG QRQRUJDQLF PDWWHU$V .DUHQ %DUDG SXWV LW ³7KH DWWHQGLQJ HWKLFRRQWRHSLVWHPRORJLFDOTXHVWLRQVKDYHWRGRZLWKUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGDF- FRXQWDELOLW\IRUWKHHQWDQJOHPHQWVµZH¶DUHZLOOLQJWRWDNHRQLQFOXGLQJFRP- PLWPHQWVWRµRXUVHOYHV¶DQGZKRµZH¶PD\EHFRPH´ %DUDG  )HPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHVWXGLHVWKHUHIRUHQHHGWRSXUVXHDGHFRQVWUXFWLYH DVZHOODVDFRQVWUXFWLYHGLUHFWLRQ7KLVPHDQV¿UVWWKDWHSLVWHPLFHQWDQJOH- PHQWVRIFXUUHQWRUKLVWRULFDODSSDUDWXVHVRIJHQGHUZLWKVFLHQWL¿FWKHRULHV DQGWHFKQRORJLFDOSURGXFWVFDQEHDQDO\]HG6HFRQGLGHDOO\WKURXJKWKHYHU\ PRPHQWRIDQDO\VLVWKHDSSDUDWXVRIJHQGHUEHFRPHVYLVLEOHDVDVSHFL¿FDU- UDQJHPHQW RU QRUPDWLYH IUDPH RI JHQGHU 7KLUG WKLV FDQ EH XQGHUVWRRG DV GHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RU GHQDWXUDOL]DWLRQ ZKLFK RSHQV WKH ZD\ IRU QHZ PDWHULDO VHPLRWLFSUDFWLFHVLQZKLFKDQHVWDEOLVKHGDSSDUDWXVRIUHVHDUFKDVZHOODVDQ HVWDEOLVKHGDSSDUDWXVRIJHQGHUDUH H[ FKDQJHGDQGDQHZXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI JHQGHUJHWVHVWDEOLVKHG,QRWKHUZRUGVJHQGHUUHODWLRQVEHFRPHGLIIUDFWHGLQ a new way through epistemic negotiation. Or, to put it another way, a change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

REFERENCES

$ODLPR6DQG+HNPDQ6 HGV   Material Feminisms. Bloomington/In- GLDQDSROLV,QGLDQD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV %DUDG .   0HHWLQJ WKH 8QLYHUVH +DOIZD\ 4XDQWXP 3K\VLFV DQG WKH (QWDQJOHPHQWRI0DWWHUDQG0HDQLQJ'XUKDP/RQGRQ'XNH8QLYHUVLW\ Press. %XWOHU-  %RGLHVWKDW0DWWHU2QWKH'LVFRXUVLYH/LPLWVRI³6H[´ New York: Routledge. 162 WALTRAUD ERNST

%XWOHU-  *HQGHUUHJXODWLRQV,Q%XWOHU-Undoing Gender. New York/ /RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH± &DVWUR9DUHOD0G0 'KDZDQ 1 DQG (QJHO$ HGV    Hegemony and +HWHURQRUPDWLYLW\5HYLVLWLQJ7KH3ROLWLFDOLQ4XHHU3ROLWLFV Aldershot: Ashgate. 'H/DXUHWLV7  (FFHQWULF6XEMHFWV)HPLQLVW7KHRU\DQG+LVWRULFDO&RQ- sciousness. Feminist Studies  ± (KUHW * -XUJHQV$ HW DO   2HVWURJHQ UHFHSWRU RFFXUHQFH LQ WKH PDOH PRXVH EUDLQ ± PRGXODWLRQ E\ SDUHQWDO H[SHULHQFH Neuroreport    ± )DXVWR6WHUOLQJ$  6H[LQJWKH%RG\*HQGHU3ROLWLFVDQGWKH&RQVWUXF- WLRQRI6H[XDOLW\New York: Basic Books. +DOEHUVWDP--  7KH4XHHU$UWRI)DLOXUH Durham/London: Duke Uni- YHUVLW\3UHVV +DUDZD\'  Simians, Cyborgs, and Women. The Reinvention of Nature. London: Routledge. +DUDZD\ '   Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan©_ Meets_OncoMouseTM: Feminism and Technoscience. New York/London: Routledge. +DXVHQ.  Geschlechtergeschichte als Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Gött- LQJHQ9DQGHQKRHFN 5XSUHFKW -DVDQRII6 HG   States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and Social Order. New York: Routledge. .DIDL<%+HHWHU&'HQQHU-DQG6XQ-< HGV   Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat. New Perspectives on Gender and Gaming. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. .LOLDQ(  GeschlechtSverkehrt. Theoretische und literarische Perspe- ktiven des gender-bending. .|QLJVWHLQ718OULNH+HOPHU9HUODJ /DQGVWU|P& D 4XHHULQJIHPLQLVWWHFKQRORJ\VWXGLHVFeminist Theory   ± /DQGVWU|P& E 4XHHULQJ6SDFHIRUQHZ6XEMHFWVKritikos. An inter- QDWLRQDODQGLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\MRXUQDORISRVWPRGHUQFXOWXUDOVRXQGWH[W and image 1RYHPEHU'HFHPEHU $YDLODEOHDWKWWSLQWHUWKHRU\RUJ FODQGVWURPKWP DFFHVVHG-DQXDU\  /DTXHXU7  0DNLQJ6H[%RG\DQG*HQGHUIURPWKH*UHHNVWR)UHXG &DPEULGJH0$+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV /HUPDQ1(2OGHQ]LHO5DQG$UZHQ30 HGV   *HQGHU 7HFKQRORJ\ A Reader. %DOWLPRUH/RQGRQ7KH-RKQ+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV DIFFRACTION PATTERNS? SHIFTING GENDER NORMS 163

/RUEHU -   8VLQJ *HQGHU WR 8QGR *HQGHU $ )HPLQLVW 'HJHQGHULQJ 0RYHPHQWFeminist Theory  ± 6¡UHQVHQ.+)DXONQHU:DQG5RPPHV(  7HFKQRORJLHVRI,QFOXVLRQ *HQGHULQWKH,QIRUPDWLRQ6RFLHW\Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press. 6XFKPDQ/$  +XPDQ0DFKLQH5HFRQ¿JXUDWLRQV3ODQVDQGVLWXDWHG Actions. 2ndHGLWLRQ&DPEULGJH1HZ

Gender Research as Knowledge Resource in Technology and Engineering

LENA TROJER

INTRODUCTION – SCIENCE CREATING REALITIES

$VSLUDWLRQVLQJHQGHUUHVHDUFKZLWKLQWHFKQRORJ\DQGHQJLQHHULQJKDYHGH- YHORSHGLQWRDUHVHDUFKWUDQVIRUPLQJDFWLYLW\IRFXVLQJRQVRFLHWDOUHOHYDQFH DQGHQJLQHHULQJIDFXOWLHV7KHFRQGLWLRQVWKDWDUHQHHGHGDQGFUHDWHGUHTXLUH HSLVWHPRORJLFDOSOXUDOLVP7KHJHQGHUUHVHDUFKUHIHUUHGWRKHUHLVDOVRFDOOHG IHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFH When discussing gender in sectors like technology and engineering, we RIWHQWHQGWRFRXQWKHDGVLHKRZPDQ\ZRPHQDUHSUHVHQWLQZKLFKIXQF- tions. By contrast, gender issues are much less seen as generating knowledge DQGWHFKQRORJ\LQWKHPVHOYHV7KLVFKDSWHUZLOOLOOXVWUDWHZKDWNLQGRIDGGHG YDOXHFHUWDLQDFDGHPLFDFWLYLWLHVVWDUWLQJLQJHQGHUUHODWHGLVVXHVFDQKDYH (SLVWHPRORJLFDOFRPPHQWVRQIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHDUHSUHVHQWHGDVIRVWHU- LQJDQGDWWHPSWLQJWRDGYDQFHRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRINQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQLQ technology and engineering. In the last three decades the research-political debate on gender research LQ6ZHGHQKDVPRYHGEDFNDQGIRUWK0DMRUYRLFHVLQWKHGRPLQDQWDFDGHPLF GLVFRXUVH KDYH UDUHO\ VWUHVVHG WKH NQRZOHGJH FRQWULEXWLRQ PDGH E\ JHQGHU research across all disciplines. Despite this circumstance, increasing numbers RIVFKRODUVZLWKLQJHQGHUUHVHDUFKDUH¿QGLQJWKHLUZD\DQGSODFHDW6ZHGHQ¶V XQLYHUVLWLHV1

1_6HHZZZJHQXVVHPHURPJHQXVIRUVNQLQJVPLOM&%HU DFFHVVHG-XQH  166 LENA TROJER

:KHQLWFRPHVWRJHQGHUUHVHDUFKZLWKLQWKHIDFXOWLHVRIWHFKQRORJ\DQG HQJLQHHULQJ UHOHYDQW FRQWULEXWLRQV IURP WKLV UHVHDUFK FDXVH VSHFL¿F FKDO- OHQJHV ZKLFK KDYH WR EH DFNQRZOHGJHG:K\ LV WKDW" 2QH FKDOOHQJH LV WR KDYH DQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI JHQGHU UHVHDUFK DV DFWXDO UHVHDUFK LQ D VLWXDWLRQ ZKHUHWKHREYLRXVJHQGHU QRQ HTXDOLW\LVVXHLVLQWKHIRUHIURQWWKDWLVLQD VLWXDWLRQRILPEDODQFHLQWHUPVRIWKHQXPEHURIDFWLYHUHVHDUFKHUV:RPHQ DUHIHZDQGHVSHFLDOO\VRDPRQJWKHSURIHVVRULDOVWDII7KHLVVXHPRYHVDZD\ IURPUHVHDUFKWRTXDQWLWDWLYHJHQGHUHTXDOLW\ZKLFKPDNHVOLWWOHVHQVHZKHQLW comes to knowledge production within technology and engineering. The sec- RQGDQGFRUHFKDOOHQJHIRUDFDGHPLDLVWKDWJHQGHUUHVHDUFKZLWKLQWHFKQRORJ\ DQGHQJLQHHULQJGRHV127SULPDULO\IRFXVRQJHQGHU±ZRPHQDQGPHQ,W IRFXVHVRQWHFKQRORJ\7KLVPHDQVWKDWJHQGHUUHVHDUFKHUVZLWKLQWHFKQRORJ\ DQGHQJLQHHULQJTXLFNO\¿QGWKHPVHOYHVZRUNLQJZLWKHSLVWHPRORJLFDOLVVXHV DVWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWIRUSURGXFLQJWKHWHFKQLFDONQRZOHGJHV\VWHPVDUWLIDFWV HWFWKDWDUHRIUHOHYDQFHLQWKHDFWXDOFRQWH[WVRIDSSOLFDWLRQDQGLPSOLFDWLRQ 7KHIUDPHZRUNRIWKHRULHVDQGPHWKRGRORJLHVIRUWKLVZRUNLVJDWKHUHGIURP IHPLQLVW UHVHDUFK QDWLRQDOO\ DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDOO\ DV ZHOO DV UHVHDUFK IRVWHU- LQJIXQGDPHQWDOUHVHDUFKWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVLGHQWL¿HGLQVRFLHW\7KLVLVZKDW SURPSWVPHWRXVHWKHFRQFHSWRIIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHLQVWHDGRIJHQGHU research within technology and engineering.27KHFRQFHSWRIIHPLQLVWUHVHDUFK FRQQRWHVFKDQJHDQGWUDQVIRUPDWLRQLQDPRUHH[SOLFLWZD\WKDQJHQGHUUH- VHDUFKZKLFKLVUHJDUGHGDVOHVVSURYRFDWLYHDQGQRWWRXFKLQJWKHUDZQHUYHV RIDFDGHPLD 1RWRQO\'RQQD+DUDZD\EXWDOVRVFKRODUVOLNH6KHLOD-DVDQRII6KDURQ 7UDZHHN DQG (OLVDEHWK *XOEUDQGVHQ RIIHU FRQYLQFLQJ DUJXPHQWV DERXW UH- VHDUFKDVUHDOLW\SURGXFLQJZRUOGPDNLQJDFWLYLWLHV-DVDQRII  HPSKD- VL]HVWHFKQRORJLHVRIKXPLOLW\LQVWHDGRIWHFKQRORJLHVRIKXEULV,DPSDUWLFXODU LQVSLUHGE\7UDZHHN¶VDUJXPHQWDWLRQFRQFHUQLQJGHWHFWRUEXLOGLQJLQSDUWLFOH SK\VLFVODERUDWRULHVDQGWKHUHDOLW\SURGXFLQJGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHVSHFL¿FFRQ- VWUXFWLRQVRIWKHVHGHWHFWRUV 7UDZHHND *XOEUDQGVHQZDVRQHRIWKH ¿UVWVFKRODUVWRLQWURGXFH'RQQD+DUDZD\LQWKH1RUGLFFRXQWULHVDQGKHUXVH RIWKHUHDOLW\SURGXFLQJZRUOGPDNLQJFRQFHSW6FLHQFHLV FR FUHDWLQJVR- ciety and is thus political. That is why I also encourage researchers to concern WKHPVHOYHVZLWKWKHSROLWLFDODVSHFWVRIWKHLUUHVHDUFK$VDVFLHQWLVW,KDYHWR VHHP\VHOIDVDSURGXFHURIUHDOLWLHVIRUP\VHOIDQGIRUDOORWKHUVLQVRFLHW\

2 | This is a concept inspired in particular by scholars like Donna Haraway, see e.g. Har- away 1991, 1997. GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 167

$Q\RQHZKR¿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up by some closing remarks.

THE POSITION OF FEMINIST TECHNOSCIENCE – MY APPROACH

$V LQGLFDWHG DERYH , XVH WKH FRQFHSW RI IHPLQLVW UHVHDUFK V\QRQ\PRXVO\ ZLWKJHQGHUUHVHDUFKDQG,XVHWKHFRQFHSWRIIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHDOPRVW V\QRQ\PRXVO\ZLWKIHPLQLVWUHVHDUFKZLWKLQWHFKQRORJ\DQGHQJLQHHULQJ,Q P\DFDGHPLFFRQWH[W,VWLOOKDYHWRH[SODLQZK\,DPGH¿QLQJP\VHOIDVD IHPLQLVWUHVHDUFKHU:KHQ,VWDUWHGLQWKHV,WKRXJKWLWZRXOGEHSRVVLEOH WR³FOHDQVH´WKHFRQFHSWRIIHPLQLVWUHVHDUFKHUIURPDOOVWUDQJHDVVRFLDWLRQV SHRSOHXVHGWRPDNH :DKO 7KLVFRQFHSWLVVWLOOSURYRFDWLYH LQ6ZH- GHQ EHFDXVHLWLVDFDOOIRUSROLWLFDODQGWUDQVIRUPLQJDFWLRQVUHJDUGLQJDQ DFDGHPLF GLVFRXUVH XQZLOOLQJ WR WUDQVIRUP , VKRXOG LQWHUSUHW WKLV VLWXDWLRQ SRVLWLYHO\ DV LW VLJQDOV WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ RI D VHFRQG RUGHU $KUHQIHOW   ZKLFKLVZKDW,DPVWULYLQJIRU$VHFRQGRUGHUWUDQVIRUPDWLRQUHIHUVWRDPRUH GHHSJRLQJFKDQJHLQFRQWUDVWWRVKDOORZDFWLYLWLHVRIFKDQJHZKLFKZLOONHHS the status quo intact. :LWKLQLQWHUQDWLRQDOIHPLQLVWUHVHDUFKZLWKVWURQJOLQNVWRWKHGRPLQDQW WHFKQLFDO ¿HOGV RI RXU DJH ± LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJ\ ,&7 ELRWHFKQRORJ\DQGPDWHULDOWHFKQRORJ\±WKHUHLVDZLGHVSUHDGXQGHU-

_³*RGWULFNRIVHHLQJHYHU\WKLQJIURPQRZKHUH´ 168 LENA TROJER

VWDQGLQJRIWKHSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJHDQGWHFKQRORJ\DVSURFHVVHVWDNLQJ place in distributed systems. In other words, knowledge is co-generated in WKHRYHUODSSLQJERUGHUODQGRIXQLYHUVLWLHVFRPSDQLHVDQGRWKHUUHJLRQDOQD- tional, and international actors. These processes are also apparent in my own UHJLRQ%OHNLQJHDQGDIIHFWWKHZD\LQZKLFKP\XQLYHUVLW\WKH%OHNLQJH,QVWL- WXWHRI7HFKQRORJ\ %7+ LVFDUU\LQJRXWUHVHDUFKDQGGHYHORSPHQWWKH5 ' ZRUN7KHWHUPWHFKQRVFLHQFHFRQQRWHVWKLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSURGXFWLRQ RINQRZOHGJHDQGWHFKQRORJ\7KHZD\LQZKLFKWHFKQRVFLHQFHLVGH¿QHGE\ scholars like Donna Haraway raises important questions about boundaries and WUDQVJUHVVLRQVEHWZHHQLPSORVLRQRIVFLHQFHWHFKQRORJ\SROLWLFVDQGVRFLHW\ humans and non-humans etc. as well as implosion phenomena within the same VSKHUHV +DUDZD\  2QHFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWHFKQRVFLHQFHLVDV*XOEUDQGVHQ  HPSKDVL]HV LWVUHYHUVHORJLFNQRZOHGJHKDVWREHXVHGLQRUGHUWREHWHVWHG$FODVVLF H[DPSOHLVUHSURGXFWLRQWHFKQRORJLHV4IRULQVWDQFHZKHUHWKHSUDFWLFHRIWHVW WXEHEDELHVKDVWREHXVHGLQZRPHQ¶VERGLHVLQRUGHUWRWHVWWKLVWHFKQLTXH 7KLVLVVXHKDVWKHUHIRUHDQLPSRUWDQWUHVHDUFKSROLWLFDOGLPHQVLRQ,QIHPL- QLVW WHFKQRVFLHQFH WKH UHVHDUFKSROLWLFDO GLVFXVVLRQ LV YLWDO IRU WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQUHVHDUFKDQGSROLWLFVLHWKHUHDOLW\SURGXFLQJDVSHFWRIVFLHQFHDQG research. Seeing ICT as a reality-producing technology rests on the idea that all RI XV UHVHDUFKHUV LQ WKH ¿HOG LQFOXGHG DUH HQPHVKHG LQ GHYHORSPHQW SUR- FHVVHVZKHUHQRLQQRFHQWSRVLWLRQVH[LVW )OD[+DUDZD\ ,&7 LQWHUYHQHVLQDQGFUHDWHVSHRSOH¶VHYHU\GD\OLYHV2QWKHRWKHUKDQG,&7LV VRPHWKLQJGHYHORSHGDQGLQWHUSUHWHGE\SHRSOH7KHZRUNRIP\FROOHDJXHV DQGP\VHOILVLQVSLUHGE\WKLVIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQWL¿FDSSURDFKDQGDLPVWR FUHDWHERWKDWKHRUHWLFDOEDVLVDQGSUDFWLFHVIRUGHYHORSPHQWSURFHVVHVLQ,&7 UHODWHG GLVFLSOLQHV DV ZHOO DV LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI LQQRYDWLRQ V\VWHPV7KLV LV SDUWLFXODUO\UHOHYDQWIRURXU3K'VWXGHQWVDQGFROOHDJXHVFRPLQJIURP(DVW $IULFDDQG%ROLYLD 0\FRQFHUQLVWRRSHQXSIRUDQGIRVWHUHSLVWHPRORJLFDOSOXUDOLVP5DWIDF- XOWLHVRIWHFKQRORJ\DQGHQJLQHHULQJLQRUGHUWRHQFRXQWHUFRPSOH[UHDOLWLHV LQRXUUHVHDUFKHQFRXQWHU\RXQJSHRSOHDQGWKHLUSUHIHUHQFHVLQOHDUQLQJSUR-

4_)URPLQYLWURIHUWLOL]DWLRQWRFORQLQJVHHHJZZZ¿QUUDJHRUJ DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\   _,QFRQWUDVWWRRQHGRPLQDQWVLQJXODUHSLVWHPRORJ\HJWKHGRPLQDQWZHVWHUQSRVLWLY- istic related epistemology. GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 169

FHVVHVRIKLJKHU,&7UHODWHGHGXFDWLRQDVZHOODVRXUFRRSHUDWLRQSDUWQHUVLQ VRFLHW\ERWKLQWKHSULYDWHDQGSXEOLFVHFWRUV:HZKRDUHZRUNLQJDWIDFXOWLHV RIWHFKQRORJ\DQGHQJLQHHULQJKDYHWRWUDQVIRUPLQPRUHDGYDQFHGZD\VWKDQ H[SHFWHG2QHIXQGDPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQIRUWKHQHFHVVDU\WUDQVIRUPDWLRQLVWR RSHQXSIRUDQGIRVWHUHSLVWHPRORJLFDOSOXUDOLVP:LWKUHJDUGWRWKLVFKDOOHQJH ,QD:DJQHUKDVFRQWULEXWHGVRPHHVVHQWLDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJV6KHDUJXHV :DJ- QHU WKDWWKHFHQWUDOLGHDRIFRPELQLQJHVWDEOLVKHGIRUPVRIVFLHQWL¿F LQTXLU\ZLWKWKHVRFLDOSUDJPDWLFVRIGHYHORSLQJJRDOVPHWKRGVWKHRULHVDQG products can be realized by epistemological pluralism and partial translations EHWZHHQVLWXDWHGNQRZOHGJHVRIGLIIHUHQWFRPPXQLWLHV )RVWHULQJ HSLVWHPRORJLFDO SOXUDOLVP LV D FKDOOHQJH DW IDFXOWLHV RI WHFK- QRORJ\DQGHQJLQHHULQJZKHWKHU\RXQJRUORQJHVWDEOLVKHG:KHQZHKDYH OHDUQHGWRVSHOOWKHZRUGHSLVWHPRORJ\ZKHQZHKDYHDFNQRZOHGJHGWKDWZH GRUHVHDUFKDQGWHDFKE\ZDONLQJRQDFHUWDLQHSLVWHPRORJLFDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUH WKHQLWLVKLJKWLPHWRSRVHRXUVHOYHVWKHTXHVWLRQZKHWKHUWKLVLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLV UHOHYDQWHQRXJKZKHWKHULWLVDSSURSULDWHIRURXULGHQWL¿HGQHHGV 6LWXDWHGDWDWHFKQLFDOXQLYHUVLW\ZLWKDQH[SOLFLWSUR¿OHRIDSSOLHG,&7LQ FORVHFRRSHUDWLRQZLWKXQLYHUVLW\LQGXVWU\DQGJRYHUQPHQWHSLVWHPRORJLFDO openness is a huge challenge. The present knowledge and technology produc- WLRQRFFXUVLQVLWXDWLRQVWKDWDUHIDUUHPRYHGIURPZKDWLVLGHQWL¿HGDVDWUDGL- WLRQDOPRGHXQLYHUVLW\6 *LEERQVHWDO ±WKHOLQHDUPRGHOXQLYHUVLW\ 7KHVHNQRZOHGJHSURFHVVHVDUHP\GDLO\H[SHULHQFHVDWRQHRIWKHFDPSXVHV RI%7+PRUHSUHFLVHO\DWFDPSXV.DUOVKDPQZKLFKLVLQWHJUDWHGLQDQLQQR- YDWLRQQRGHFDOOHG1HW3RUW.DUOVKDPQ7$WRRUHVWULFWHGDQGXQUHÀHFWHGHSLV- temological basis constitutes an impediment in our daily work. :KDWUHVRXUFHVGRHVDQ,&7UHVHDUFKHUDQGPHPEHURIWKHDFDGHPLFWHDFK- LQJVWDIIKDYHDWKHUGLVSRVDOLQRUGHUWRUHPDLQFRQ¿GHQWIXWXUHRULHQWHGDQG LQQRYDWLYH",QWKHFRXUVHRIRXUQRZWZHOYH\HDUVRIGHYHORSPHQWH[SHULHQFH ZLWKVRIDUJRRGUHVXOWVLQVWXGHQWUHFUXLWPHQWUHVHDUFKDQGFDPSXVEXLOG- LQJWKHUHVRXUFHVIRUWKHQHFHVVDU\HSLVWHPRORJLFDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVZHUHIRXQG ZLWKLQIHPLQLVWUHVHDUFKGHYHORSHGZLWKLQDIDFXOW\RIWHFKQRORJ\±LHZLWKLQ IHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFH,WPLJKWVRXQGVWUDQJHWKDWZHKDYHIRXQGUHOHYDQFH

 _ 6RPH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DUH GLVFLSOLQDULW\ LQWHUQDOO\GULYHQ WD[RQRP\ RI GLVFLSOLQHV QHXWUDOLW\REMHFWLYLW\VFLHQWL¿FGLVFRYHU\KHJHPRQ\RIWKHRUHWLFDORUH[SHULPHQWDO VFLHQFHDXWRQRP\RIVFLHQWLVWVDQGWKHLUKRVWLQVWLWXWLRQVWKHXQLYHUVLWLHVVKDUSGLYLGH RIEDVLFDQGDSSOLHGUHVHDUFK 7_6HHZZZQHWSRUWVH DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  170 LENA TROJER

ZLWKLQIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHIRUWKHEHQH¿WRIEXLOGLQJDPXFKQHHGHGHSLV- WHPRORJLFDOSOXUDOLVP7KLVFKDSWHUZLOOSURYLGHDUJXPHQWVIRUWKHZK\DQG how.

FROM COUNTING HEADS TO RESEARCH TRANSFORMATION

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question, to the woman question8WRWKHVFLHQFHTXHVWLRQ7KLVUHIHUVWRWKH +DUGLQJWXUQ +DUGLQJ PRYLQJIURPWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKDWVFLHQFHFDQ GRIRUZRPHQWRZKDWIHPLQLVWVFDQGRIRUVFLHQFH7KHUHDUHQRVLPSOHRU VHOIDFWLQJOLQNVEHWZHHQWKHVHJHQHUDOSKDVHV 'XULQJWKHODVWGHFDGHVZHKDYHHPSKDWLFDOO\DUJXHGIRUWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI SHUVSHFWLYHVIURPwithin 7URMHU 7KLVLVDFHQWUDOFRQGLWLRQIRUIHPLQLVW WHFKQRVFLHQFHWREHUHOHYDQWDQGXVHIXODWIDFXOWLHVRIWHFKQRORJ\DQGHQJL- QHHULQJ.DUHQ%DUDGKDVIRVWHUHGWKLVDUJXPHQW6KHZULWHVWKDW³RQDQDJHQ- WLDOUHDOLVWDFFRXQWRIWHFKQRVFLHQWL¿FSUDFWLFHVWKHµNQRZHU¶GRHVQRWVWDQGLQ DUHODWLRQRIDEVROXWHH[WHUQDOLW\WRWKHQDWXUDOZRUOGEHLQJLQYHVWLJDWHG±WKHUH LVQRVXFKH[WHULRUREVHUYDWLRQDOSRLQW´ %DUDG ,WLVQRWHQRXJK WRGRJHQGHUUHVHDUFKRIWHFKQRORJ\IURPWKHRXWVLGH,WLVHTXDOO\LPSRUWDQW WREHGHHSO\LQYROYHGLQ³WKHEHOO\RIWKHEHDVW´DEHOO\\RXDUHSDVVLRQDWHO\ LQWHUHVWHGLQ +DUDZD\  )RUWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIIHPLQLVWHSLVWHPRORJ\LQWRWHFKQRVFLHQFHLQSUDF- WLFHDW%7+RQHVWDWHPHQWRI'RQQD+DUDZD\KDVEHHQHVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQW ³7HFKQRORJ\LVQRWQHXWUDO:H¶UHLQVLGHZKDWZHPDNHDQGLW¶VLQVLGHXV :H¶UHOLYLQJLQDZRUOGRIFRQQHFWLRQV±DQGLWPDWWHUVZKLFKRQHVJHWPDGH DQGXQPDGH´ +DUDZD\FLWHGLQ.XQ]UX 7KLVTXRWHZDVSXWXSRQWKH ZDOO LQ WKH OXQFKURRP DW D UHVHDUFK ODERUDWRU\ IRFXVLQJ RQ ZDWHU MHW WHFK-

_)RULQVWDQFHGHYHORSLQJFDUVRUVSHHFKV\QWKHVL]HUVVXLWDEOHIRUZRPHQ¶VERGLHV GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 171

nologies close to BTH. Together with a colleague we were hired to integrate VRPHNLQGRIJHQGHUUHVHDUFKSHUVSHFWLYHLQD(8SURMHFWDWWKHODERUDWRU\ PHQWLRQHG7KH+DUDZD\TXRWHZDVDOPRVWLPSRVVLEOHWRFRPSUHKHQGIRUWKH ZDWHUMHWUHVHDUFKHUVLQRXULQWURGXFWRU\GLVFXVVLRQV%XWVRPHRIWKHPWRRN WKHLQLWLDWLYHWRFRS\LWDQGSXWLWRQWKHZDOOIRUIXUWKHULQWHUQDOGHEDWHV$O- PRVWD\HDUDIWHUWKLVHYHQWZHFDPHEDFNIRUFRQWLQXHGFROODERUDWLRQDQG IRXQGWKHLQYROYHGUHVHDUFKHUVDSSUHFLDWLQJWKHTXRWHDQGDOOWKHGLVFXVVLRQV it had nurtured.

CO-EVOLVING PROCESSES

,WLVQRWE\DFFLGHQWWKDWIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHHDVLO\OLQNVXSWRDQGFRQ- WULEXWHV WR IRVWHULQJ FRHYROYLQJ UHVHDUFK SURFHVVHV ZLWKLQ WHFKQRORJ\ DQG HQJLQHHULQJ$VZLOOEHH[HPSOL¿HGEHORZFRHYROYLQJSURFHVVHVDUHLPSRU- WDQWZKHUHUHOHYDQFHDQGFRQWH[WVRIDSSOLFDWLRQDQGLPSOLFDWLRQFRQVWLWXWH WKHHVVHQWLDOHOHPHQWV7KHIUDPHRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJFRHYROXWLRQLQFOXGHVWKH WULSOHKHOL[FRQFHSW (W]NRZLW]DQG/H\GHVGRUII ZKLFKJLYHVXVVRPH FRPSUHKHQVLRQRIWKHVWUXFWXUHRIWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHG7KHPDLQDFWRUVDUHXQL- YHUVLWLHV NQRZOHGJHLQVWLWXWLRQV LQGXVWU\ SULYDWHVHFWRU DQGJRYHUQPHQW RQDQ\OHYHO %XWWKHWULSOHKHOL[FRQFHSWGRHVQRWFRQWULEXWHZLWKWKHFRUH DQVZHUWRKRZWKHFRHYROYLQJWULSOHKHOL[SURFHVVLVFDUULHGRXW2QHDQVZHU WRWKHµKRZ¶TXHVWLRQFDQEHIRXQGLQWKHUHVHDUFKSURFHVVHVWHUPHGPRGH9 *LEERQVHWDO  7KH6ZHGLVK&RXQFLOIRU3ODQQLQJDQG&RRUGLQDWLRQRI5HVHDUFK )51  LQLWLDWHGDQG¿QDQFHGDVWXG\WKDWUHVXOWHGLQWKHSXEOLFDWLRQThe new produc- tion of knowledge *LEERQVHWDO ZKHUHWKHUHVHDUFKSURFHVVPRGH ZDVWKRURXJKO\GHVFULEHG&KDUDFWHULVWLFVRIPRGHLQFOXGHIRULQVWDQFH FRQWH[WRIDSSOLFDWLRQWUDQVGLVFLSOLQDULW\PXFKJUHDWHUGLYHUVLW\RIVLWHVRI NQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQDFFRXQWDELOLW\FRQWH[WRILPSOLFDWLRQQRYHOIRUPVRI quality control, socially robust knowledge. The strong and hostile reactions IURPWKHGRPLQDQWXQLYHUVLW\ PRGH UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVVKRZHGWKHPRGH XQGHUVWDQGLQJVZHUHDQGDUHUHDOO\WRXFKLQJWKHUDZQHUYHVRIWKHH[LVWLQJ DFDGHPLFGLVFRXUVH7KHVHPRGHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVDUHSURWHFWLQJGLVFLSOLQDU-

_6RPHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDUHFRQWH[WRIDSSOLFDWLRQWUDQVGLVFLSOLQDULW\JUHDWGLYHUVLW\RI VLWHVRINQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQUHVHDUFKKLJKO\UHÀH[LYHDFFRXQWDELOLW\QRYHOIRUPVRI TXDOLW\FRQWUROVRFLDOO\UREXVWNQRZOHGJHFRQWH[WRILPSOLFDWLRQ 172 LENA TROJER

LW\LQWHUQDOO\GULYHQWD[RQRP\RIGLVFLSOLQHVQHXWUDOLW\REMHFWLYLW\FRQWH[W RIGLVFRYHU\KHJHPRQ\RIWKHRUHWLFDORUH[SHULPHQWDOVFLHQFHDVKDUSGLYLGH RIEDVLFDQGDSSOLHGUHVHDUFK%XWDV*LEERQVH[SODLQHG10 mode 2 knowledge SURGXFWLRQVKDYHDOZD\VH[LVWHGDQGPRGHLVDYHU\HI¿FLHQWVSHFLDOL]DWLRQ RINQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQ7KLVVSHFLDOL]DWLRQ¿QGVLWVURRWVLQWKHVFLHQWL¿F UHYROXWLRQLQWKHV 0HUFKDQW  The debates around the mode1 / mode 2 understandings concerns the twin QRWLRQVRIµVFLHQFHVSHDNLQJWRVRFLHW\¶DQGµVRFLHW\VSHDNLQJEDFNWRVFLHQFH¶ ,QRWKHUZRUGVµVRFLHW\¶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µLQYHVWPHQW¶LQRUGHUWRFRQYLQFHWKHORFDOSDUOLDPHQW WRYRWHLQIDYRURILW)RUWKLVDUJXPHQWDWLRQWREHVXFFHVVIXOWKHPD\RURI .DUOVKDPQFOHDUO\DQQRXQFHGWKDW³LQSXWLVQRWHQRXJK´

THE CASE OF SWEDEN: NETPORT

7KHIROORZLQJFDVHVHUYHVWRLOOXVWUDWHFRHYROXWLRQDQGUHVHDUFKWUDQVIRUPD- tion processes in particular. $VPHQWLRQHGDERYHWKHUHVHDUFKGLYLVLRQZKHUH,DPDFDGHPLFDOO\VLWXDW- HGKDVDVSHFL¿FKLVWRU\DQGREOLJDWLRQLQWHJUDWHGLQDQLQQRYDWLRQQRGHFDOOHG NetPort.Karlshamn,11 KHUHDIWHU UHIHUUHG WR DV 1HW3RUW 1HW3RUW LV FRRZQHG E\WKHXQLYHUVLW\ %7+ WKHORFDOJRYHUQPHQWDQGWKHLQGXVWU\LQLGHQWL¿HG VHFWRUV QHZPHGLDDQG,7612 7KLVUHODWLRQRIRZQHUVKLSFRQVWLWXWHVDVWURQJ VLJQDOIRUSXWWLQJWULSOHKHOL[SURFHVVHVLQDUHDOOLIHFRQWH[W1HW3RUWLVQRW RQO\DORRVHQHWZRUNRIWULSOHKHOL[DFWRUVEXWRUJDQL]HGDQGMRLQWO\RZQHGLQ a challenging and inspiring way.

_,QWHUYLHZDWWKH+66FRQIHUHQFH5RQQHE\6ZHGHQ 11_6HHZZZQHWSRUWVH DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  12 | Intelligent transport systems. GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 173

7KHVWDUWRI1HW3RUWFRLQFLGHGZLWKWKHVWDUWRIDQHZXQLYHUVLW\FDPSXV RI%7+LQ.DUOVKDPQ'HYHORSLQJDQHZFDPSXVDWDWHFKQLFDOXQLYHUVLW\LQD WULSOHKHOL[FRQWH[WQHHGVDWOHDVWVWDUWLQJFRQGLWLRQV 1. Undergraduate students 2. Graduate students 3. (SLVWHPRORJLFDODFNQRZOHGJHPHQWRIPRGH 4. 7ROHUDQFHWRZDUGVUHVLVWDQFHWKDWLVDOZD\VDSSHDULQJLQGHYHORSPHQWSUR- FHVVHVHVSHFLDOO\LQWHUQDOO\DWWKHXQLYHUVLW\

,QWKH\HDUWKH9LFH&KDQFHOORURI%7+JDYHKLVDSSURYDOIRUWKHGHSDUW- PHQWWKDWLQFOXGHVWKHGLYLVLRQRI,&7DQG*HQGHU5HVHDUFKDW%7+WRWDNH WKHPDLQUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIVWDUWLQJWRGHYHORSWKHQHZFDPSXV7KLVWDVNZDV VXSSRUWHGE\%7+ZLWKDFHQWUDOO\DSSRLQWHGSURMHFWFRRUGLQDWRU7KHGLYL- sion had the authority and competence to initiate bachelor programs in media WHFKQRORJ\DQGZDVDOUHDG\UXQQLQJD3K'SURJUDPZLWKDQXPEHURIGRFWRUDO VWXGHQWV7KHGLYLVLRQVWDIIZDVVWURQJO\PRWLYDWHGWRHPEUDFHDWULSOHKHOL[ FROODERUDWLRQSUDFWLFHLHWRZRUNLQFORVHFROODERUDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHXQLYHU- VLW\ORFDOJRYHUQPHQWDQGLQGXVWU\ )RUKLVDSSURYDOWKH9&KDGEHFRPHFRQYLQFHGRIDERYHFRQGLWLRQ1RV DQG&RQGLWLRQ1RFKDUDFWHUL]HGWKHSUDFWLFHRIWKH9&DQGVHHPHGWREH VHOIHYLGHQWIRUKLP7KHDPELWLRQVRIWKHGLYLVLRQWRIXO¿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¶V GHYHORSPHQWHIIRUW,QDGGLWLRQUHVLVWDQFHKHOSVWRFODULI\ZKDWNLQGRIGHYHO- RSPHQWDQGWUDQVIRUPDWLRQFRQGLWLRQV\RXQHHGEHVLGHVSURPRWLQJGLDORJXH Both BTH campus Karlshamn and NetPort started in the year 2000. Net- 3RUW6FLHQFH3DUNZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQ7KHVWDWXVLQIRU%7+FDPSXV .DUOVKDPQLQFOXGHGRYHUVWXGHQWVLQWKHEDFKHORUSURJUDPV'LJLWDO9L- VXDO3URGXFWLRQ'LJLWDO$XGLR3URGXFWLRQ'LJLWDO*DPH:HE'HYHORSPHQW plus an Introductory Year. The PhD program as well as the present research GLYLVLRQLVFDOOHG7HFKQRVFLHQFH6WXGLHVDQGLQFOXGHVSUR¿OHDUHDVQDPHO\ 174 LENA TROJER

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¶VLQYROYHPHQWVWHPVIURPWKHPXWXDOµSURMHFW¶1HW- 3RUWRIIRVWHULQJVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWRI ORFDO VRFLHW\7KHSUHUHTXLVLWH IRUWKLVµSURMHFW¶LVDWULSOHKHOL[OLNHSURFHVVZKLFKLQRXUFDVHLVQXUWXUHGE\ DFRQVWDQWDOPRVWGDLO\GLDORJXH,QWKLVGLDORJXHZKLFKLVDNLQGRIDJRUD PXWXDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJVDUHVXSSRVHGWR¿QGWKHLUH[SUHVVLRQLQYHU\FRQFUHWH ZD\VUHVXOWLQJLQFRHYROXWLRQSURFHVVHV)RUXVZKRKDYHEHHQLQYROYHGZH talk about an

³HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI WKH LQVWLWXWLRQ RI D µNLWFKHQ FDELQHW¶ $ JHQHURXV RSHQ LQYLWLQJ DOORZLQJ DUHQD KDG WR EH FUHDWHG IRU WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RIQHZTXHVWLRQVDQGGUHDPV«:HQHHGDORWRIµNLWFKHQFDELQHWV¶RQ FDPSXVWRFDWHUIRUWKHSRO\FHQWULFLQWHUDFWLYHDQGPXOWLSDUWLWHSURFHVV- HVRINQRZOHGJHPDNLQJZHPD\GUHDPRI$YLVLRQWKDWHQWDLOVWUDQV- IRUPDWLYHSURFHVVHVFKDQJLQJUHVHDUFKFXOWXUHVDQGµWHDFKLQJVPDUW SHRSOHKRZWROHDUQ¶´ *XOEUDQGVHQVHHDOVR$UJ\ULV 

During the pioneer phase, the dialogue within NetPort was intense and rela- WLYHO\HDV\WRNHHSJRLQJ7KHUHZHUHDOZD\VYDULRXVNLQGVRIFKDOOHQJHVEXW WKH\UHPDLQHGPDQDJHDEOHDVWKHFRUHJURXS NLWFKHQFDELQHW KDGDQLGHDO QXPEHURIPHPEHUVDQGLWZDVSRVVLEOHWRVKDUHWKHPRGHH[SHULHQFHV$V QHZ FROOHDJXHV DQG SDUWQHUV MRLQHG DQG WKH XSVFDOLQJ RI 1HW3RUW DFWLYLWLHV continued, the kitchen cabinet became increasingly challenging to maintain. It LVHDVLHUWRSULRULWL]HWLPHIRUWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\DGYDQFHGGHYHORSPHQWZLWKLQ HDFKSDUWQHU¶VDUHDVRIUHVSRQVLELOLW\WKDQWRVHWDVLGHVXI¿FLHQWWLPHIRUWKH WULSOHKHOL[FRHYROYLQJSURFHVV7KHDVSHFWRIWKHFRHYROYLQJSURFHVVHVWKXV

13_)RUPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQVHHZZZEWKVHWNVWHNQRYHWQVI DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  14_)RUPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQVHHKWWSVLFGVH DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 175

FKDQJHVRYHUWLPHEXWWKHVWDQGSRLQWRINHHSLQJWKHPDLQDFWRUVWRJHWKHULVDQ DEVROXWHSUHUHTXHVLWHIRUVXVWDLQDELOLW\ :LWKWKLVVKRUWVXPPDU\RIWKHFDVH1HW3RUW,KRSHWRKDYHLOOXVWUDWHGKRZ VRPHIXQGDPHQWDOFRQFHSWVRIIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHVXFKDVVLWXDWHGNQRZO- HGJHVWUDQVGLVFLSOLQDULW\DQGFRHYROXWLRQKDYHEHHQ¿OOHGZLWKVXEVWDQFHIRU XVDFWLYHLQWKHVDPHSURIHVVLRQDOHQYLURQPHQW

THE CASE OF UGANDA: ICT CENTRE ARUA

$UDGLFDOFKDQJHRIFRQWH[WSURYLGHVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRXQGHUVWDQGPHDQLQJVRI VLWXDWHGNQRZOHGJHVHSLVWHPRORJLFDOSOXUDOLVPFRHYROXWLRQSURFHVVHVDQG WKHUHOHYDQFHRIPRGH7KHIROORZLQJFDVHLOOXVWUDWHVWKLV 6HFRQGDU\ VFKRROV LQ 8JDQGD H[FHSW IRU VRPH YHU\ IHZ LQ WKH FDSLWDO .DPSDODDQGLWVYLFLQLW\KDYHWRFRSHZLWKH[WUHPHO\VFDUFHUHVRXUFHVOLNH YHU\IHZTXDOL¿HGWHDFKHUVQRERRNVQRODERUDWRULHVDQGSRRUHOHFWULFLW\DQG ,QWHUQHWLQIUDVWUXFWXUH $UHVHDUFKHUDWWKH)DFXOW\RI7HFKQRORJ\0DNHUHUH8QLYHUVLW\ 0$.  VWDUWHGDUHVHDUFKSURMHFWLQLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHUHDVRQVZK\WKHUHZHUH VRIHZIHPDOHVWXGHQWVDWWKH)DFXOW\RI7HFKQRORJ\DWKLVXQLYHUVLW\ZK\ WKHUHZHUHVRIHZVWXGHQWVDW0$.FRPLQJIURPVHFRQGDU\VFKRROVLQUXUDO DUHDVDQGKRZWRFKDQJHWKLVVLWXDWLRQ /DWLQJ $WWKDWWLPHRYHU RIWKHIHZIHPDOHHQJLQHHULQJVWXGHQWVFDPHIURPWKHµHOLWH¶DQGDGYDQWDJHG XUEDQVFKRROVORFDWHGLQ.DPSDODDQGLWVVXUURXQGLQJGLVWULFWVRI0XNRQRDQG :DNLVR7KHVWXG\¶VUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVZHUHOLQNHGZLWKWKHH[SOLFLWGLPHQ- VLRQRIJHQGHULVVXHVFOHDUO\LQWKHPRUHTXDQWLWDWLYHQRWLRQRIJHQGHUHTXDOLW\ EXWLPSOLFLWO\DOVRLQDTXDOLWDWLYHVHQVHHVSHFLDOO\ZLWKUHJDUGWRNQRZOHGJH SURGXFWLRQDWDWHFKQLFDOIDFXOW\ The study was conducted in Arua, which is a remote, poor, and unstable UXUDOGLVWULFWRI8JDQGDNLORPHWHUVIURP.DPSDODLQWKHQRUWKHDVWRIWKH FRXQWU\FORVHWRWKHERUGHUVRI'HPRFUDWLF5HSXEOLFRI&RQJRDQG6XGDQ6LQFH WKHIRFXVZDVRQIHPDOHVWXGHQWVWZRJLUOV¶VHFRQGDU\VFKRROVZHUHFKRVHQLQ WKHSHULSKHU\RI$UXDWRZQ7KHSURMHFWZDVGHVLJQHGLQVXFKDZD\WKDWER\V DQGSXSLOVLQRWKHUVFKRROVZRXOGDOVREHQH¿WDWDODWHUVWDJHLQWKHUHVHDUFK +\EULGHOHDUQLQJWRROVZHUHGHYHORSHGDQGLPSOHPHQWHG+\EULGHOHDUQ- LQJLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHSURMHFWVLJQL¿HVDIRUPRIHOHDUQLQJZKHUHWKHPDLQ FRXUVHGHOLYHU\SODWIRUPFRQVLVWVRILQWHUDFWLYHPXOWLPHGLD&'520DQGLV FRPELQHGZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOIDFHWRIDFHFODVVURRPWHDFKLQJ7KHGHYHORSPHQW 176 LENA TROJER

SDUWDQGWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHSURMHFWWRRNSODFHLQDNLQGRISDUDOOHOSUR- FHVVWKDWLQYROYHGVHWWLQJXSDQ,&7&HQWUHLQWKHPLGGOHRI$UXDWRZQ7KH PDLQUHDVRQIRUHVWDEOLVKLQJDQ,&7&HQWUH ODWHURQWREHFRPHWKH,&7*,6 5HVHDUFK&HQWUH LQWKHSURMHFWZDVWKH¿QDQFLDOVLWXDWLRQLQERWKVHFRQGDU\ VFKRROV5HVRXUFHVIRUWKHRSHUDWLRQDOFRVWVRIVXVWDLQLQJ,QWHUQHWFRQQHFWLY- LW\ZHUHQRWDYDLODEOH$GHFLVLRQZDVPDGHWRGHOLYHUFRQWHQWLQ&'520 IRUPDWWRWKHVFKRROVEXWDOVRWRVHWXSDQ,&7&HQWUHZLWKVDWHOOLWH,QWHUQHW FRQQHFWLYLW\96$7ZLWKLQ WKH YLFLQLW\ RI WKH WZR VFKRROV IRU WUDLQLQJ DQG IXUWKHUGLJLWDOUHVRXUFHV In order to anchor the whole project in its starting phase, the researcher ap- SURDFKHGWKHORFDODQGGLVWULFWJRYHUQPHQWRI$UXDDQGSUHVHQWHGWKHSURMHFW LQFOXGLQJWKHLQWHUHVWRIWKH)DFXOW\RI7HFKQRORJ\WRGHYHORSDQ,&7&HQWUH LQ$UXDZLWKWKHIDFLOLWLHVRI,QWHUQHWFRQQHFWLYLW\7KHUHVSRQVHIURPWKH$UXD JRYHUQPHQWZDVYHU\SRVLWLYH7KH\XQGHUVWRRGWKHSRWHQWLDOVIRUWKHWRZQ DQGGLVWULFWDQGDFWHGDFFRUGLQJO\7KH\SURYLGHGSUHPLVHVIRUWKH&HQWUHLQ an old court house building, which they quickly repaired and upgraded with UHJDUGWRVHFXULW\IDFLOLWLHV7KH)DFXOW\RI7HFKQRORJ\ZLWK¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUW IURP6LGD6$5(& WKHUHVHDUFKXQLWRI6ZHGLVK,QWHUQDWLRQDO'HYHORSPHQW &RRSHUDWLRQ$JHQF\ HTXLSSHGWKH&HQWUH)XUWKHUPRUHWKHUHVHDUFKHUDS- SURDFKHGWKHEXVLQHVVFRPPXQLW\LQ$UXDZKLFKDJUHHGWRXVHWKHVHUYLFHVDW WKH&HQWUHWRPDNHLWVXVWDLQDEOH$WULSOHKHOL[SURFHVVZDVWKXVSUDFWLVHGLQ WKHVSHFL¿FFRQWH[WRIDUXUDOGLVWULFWLQ8JDQGDZLWKWKHPDLQDFWRUV0DNHUHUH 8QLYHUVLW\$UXDORFDODQGGLVWULFWJRYHUQPHQWDQGWKHORFDOEXVLQHVVVHFWRU 7KHJLUOVWXGHQWVSDUWLFLSDWLQJZHUHHQWKXVLDVWLFEXWDQXPEHURIQRWDEOH and sometimes critical situations occurred with the students and their teach- ers during the project.15$VDYHU\FRQFUHWHUHVXOWWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHUHVHDUFK VWXG\VKRZHGWKDWIRUJLUOVERUQDQGOLYLQJLQ$UXDRIWKH¿QDO\HDU $ OHYHO VWXGHQWVSDVVHG16DQGZHUHHOLJLEOHIRUXQLYHUVLW\DGPLVVLRQFRPSDUHG WRDOPRVWEHIRUHWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIHOHDUQLQJWRROV7KLVZDVWKHUHVXOW DIWHURQO\VL[PRQWKVRIJLUOVWXGHQWVDQGWKHLUWHDFKHUVXVLQJWKHVHWRROV 7KHGHFLVLRQWRHVWDEOLVKDQ,&7&HQWUHKDGDKXJHLPSDFWQRWRQO\IRUWKH WRZQDQGLWVVXUURXQGLQJGLVWULFWEXWDOVRIRUPXQLFLSDOLWLHVRQWKHRWKHUVLGHRI WKHQHDUE\ERUGHUZLWKWKH'HPRFUDWLF5HSXEOLFRI&RQJRDQG6XGDQ

15 | For more details see Lating, 2011. 16 | The school system in Uganda uses a national curriculum with nationally coordinated H[DPLQDWLRQWHVWV7KHODWWHUZDVXVHGDVLQGLFDWRUVLQWKLVUHVHDUFKVWXG\ GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 177

:KDWVWDUWHGDVDQHOHDUQLQJSURMHFWLQRUGHUWRLQFUHDVHWKHQXPEHURI IHPDOHVWXGHQWVDWWKH)DFXOW\RI7HFKQRORJ\0DNHUHUH8QLYHUVLW\HQGHGXS DVDQ,&7*,65HVHDUFK&HQWUHLQ$UXDIDFLOLWDWLQJVFKRROVGLVWULFWDQGOR- FDOEXVLQHVVHVDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQVGLVWULFWDQGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWDODXWKRULWLHV KRVSLWDOVORFDODXWKRULWLHVDFURVVWKHERUGHUVRI6XGDQDQG&RQJR17 ,QWKHJRYHUQPHQWRI8JDQGDGHFLGHGWRHVWDEOLVKDQHZXQLYHUVLW\ ±0XQL8QLYHUVLW\±ZLWKWKH,&7*,65HVHDUFK&HQWUHLQ$UXDDVLWVLQLWLDO QXFOHXVDQGLQFOXGLQJD)DFXOW\RI7HFKQRVFLHQFH 7KHQXPEHURIVWDNHKROGHUVLVLPSUHVVLYHDQGTXLWHXQLTXHFRPSDUHGWRD 6ZHGLVKUHJLRQDOFRQWH[W7KLVLVDVWURQJVLJQDOIURPWKHVWDNHKROGHUVIRUWKH

17 | 'LVWULFWDQGORFDOJRYHUQPHQWRI¿FLDOV5HJLRQDO'LVWULFW3ROLFH&RPPDQGHU¶V2I- ¿FH'LVWULFW3ROLFH&RPPDQGHU¶V2I¿FH&KLHI$GPLQLVWUDWLYH2I¿FHU¶V2I¿FH'LVWULFW 0HGLFDO2I¿FHU¶V2I¿FH'LVWULFW)RUHVWU\2I¿FH5HVLGHQW'LVWULFW6WDWH$WWRUQH\¶V2I- ¿FH'LVWULFW,QIRUPDWLRQ2I¿FHDQG'LVWULFW(QJLQHHU¶V2I¿FH Schools:0XQL*LUOV6HFRQGDU\6FKRRO(GLRIH*LUOV6HFRQGDU\6FKRRO0YDUD6HFRQG- ary School; Arua Public Secondary School; Arua Public Primary School; Uganda Chris- WLDQ8QLYHUVLW\$UXD&DPSXV$UXD9RFDWLRQDO7UDLQLQJ6FKRRO$UXD&RUH3ULPDU\ 7HDFKHU¶V&ROOHJH6W-RVHSK¶V&ROOHJH2PEDFKLDQG$Q\D¿R5ROH0RGHO6HFRQGDU\ School. Hospitals: Arua Hospital and Maracha Hospital. Other governmental institutions: National Social Security Fund and Northern Uganda Social Action Fund. Business sector:7KH'LVWULFW&KDPEHURI&RPPHUFH:HVW1LOH5XUDO(OHFWUL¿FDWLRQ &RPSDQ\8JDQGD%UHZHULHV3ULYDWH6HFWRU,QLWLDWLYH6XPDQGXUD&RQVWUXFWLRQ:RUNV %RQLIDFH 7HOHYLVLRQ 1HWZRUNV 1LOH )P  UDGLR VWDWLRQ $UXD 2QH )0 UDGLR VWDWLRQ &RSFRRW8JDQGD:HVWQLOH'LVWLOOHULHV+HULWDJH*DUGHQV±KRWHOVEXVLQHVV0XOWLWHFK 8JDQGD±,&7WUDLQLQJEXVLQHVV.XOXYD+RVSLWDODQG0DULH6WRSHV8JDQGD±5HSURGXF- WLYHKHDOWKSURYLGHU Non-governmental organizations and community-based organizations: Netherlands De- YHORSPHQW2UJDQLVDWLRQ 619 8JDQGD8QLWHG1DWLRQV+LJK&RPPLVVLRQIRU5HIXJHHV &UHDP8JDQGD &RPPXQLW\%DVHG2UJDQL]DWLRQ 3$' &RPPXQLW\%DVHG2UJDQL]D- WLRQ 35$)2' &RPPXQLW\%DVHG2UJDQL]DWLRQ &$)(&& $6XGDQHVH&RPPXQLW\ %DVHG 2UJDQL]DWLRQ  :RUOG 9LVLRQ 8JDQGD :(1':2$ $ ZRPHQ¶V RUJDQL]DWLRQ KHOSLQJZLGRZVDQGGLVDGYDQWDJHGFKLOGUHQ 16($1HHGV6HUYLFH(GXFDWLRQ$JHQF\ Others:WUDYHODJHQWVVWXGHQWVIURPVFKRROVRXWVLGH$UXD'LVWULFWPRVWO\GXULQJVFKRRO YDFDWLRQVFRPPXQLW\ZRUNHUVDQGWKHLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHPRVWO\XVLQJWKH,QWHUQHWIRU FRPPXQLFDWLRQZLWKWKHLUUHODWLYHVDQGIULHQGVLQDQGRXWVLGH8JDQGD 178 LENA TROJER

DFNQRZOHGJHGUHOHYDQFHRIWKHHOHDUQLQJSURMHFWWKHWULSOHKHOL[FROODERUD- WLRQDQGLWVLPSDFWLQDSODFHOLNH$UXD'LVWULFW 7URMHUDQG/DWLQJ 7KH UHVHDUFKHUUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHSURMHFWZDVFROODERUDWLQJZLWKXVDWWKH'LYLVLRQ RI7HFKQRVFLHQFH6WXGLHV%7+FDPSXV.DUOVKDPQ0XWXDOOHDUQLQJDQGSUDF- WLFHRILWVHSLVWHPRORJLFDOSOXUDOLVPWRRNSODFHZKLOHWKHSURMHFWZDVLQSURJ- UHVV,WLVLPSRVVLEOHWRNQRZDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIVXFKDSURMHFWZKDWZLOOKDS- SHQDQGKRZLWZLOOXQIROG:KDWLVHVVHQWLDOLVWROHDUQIURPRQHDQRWKHU¿QG VLWXDWHGVROXWLRQVDQGUHPDLQRSHQIRUGLYHUVHXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRINQRZOHGJH

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The Unknown, Unspecified, Uncontrollable

7KHFDVHRI8JDQGDSUHVHQWHGDERYHHOXFLGDWHVKRZERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQVR- FLHW\DQGUHVHDUFKDUHQRWVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGDQGFOHDU7KDWKROGVWUXHIRUDOO RXUFLYLOL]DWLRQVLQFUHDVLQJO\GHSHQGLQJRQUHVHDUFKDQGNQRZOHGJH+HOJD 1RZRWQ\FODLPHVWKDWUHVHDUFKDQGVRFLHW\DUHFRSURGXFHGRUFRHYROYH 1R- ZRWQ\HWDO ZKLFKLVDORQJZD\IURPWKHVLPSOHOLQHDUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ RIWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWKDVIRUDORQJWLPHGRPLQDWHGUHVHDUFKLQRXUWUDGL- WLRQDOXQLYHUVLWLHVDVZHOODVLQUHVHDUFKSROLF\*XOEUDQGVHQ  VWDWHVWKDW LW LV LQ WKH ¿HOG RI WHFKQRVFLHQFH VXFK DV LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJ\ELRJHQHWHFKQRORJ\DQGPDWHULDOWHFKQRORJ\ WKDWVFLHQWLVWVDUH most clearly pushing the boundaries between science and society, research and SROLWLFVDQGWKHUHE\XQGHUVFRULQJWKHREVROHVFHQFHRIDOLQHDUXQGHUVWDQGLQJ RINQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQSURFHVVHV The increasingly acknowledged non-linear knowledge production pro- FHVVHVVWUHVVWKHLPSRUWDQFHIRUXVWRDVVHVVWKHXQNQRZQXQVSHFL¿HGXQ- FRQWUROODEOHLUUHJXODULQERWKUHVHDUFKDQGSROLWLFDOVSKHUHV:KDWIROORZVIRU DOODFWRUVLVWRDGPLWWKHUHDUHOLPLWVWRNQRZOHGJHLQUHVHDUFK6KHLOD-DVDQRII HPSKDVL]HVWKHSUDFWLFHRI³WHFKQRORJLHVRIKXPLOLW\´LQIDYRURI³WHFKQROR- JLHVRIKXEULV´LQWKHGLDORJXHEHWZHHQVFLHQFHDQGVRFLHW\-DVDQRII   DGGUHVVHVWKHGULYLQJIRUFHIRUVRFLHW\WRVSHDNEDFNLQVWDWLQJWKDWXQ- FHUWDLQWLHVDQGULVNVDUH³SDUWRIWKHPRGHUQKXPDQFRQGLWLRQZRYHQLQWRWKH YHU\IDEULFRISURJUHVV7KHSUREOHPZHXUJHQWO\IDFHLVKRZWROLYHGHPR- FUDWLFDOO\DQGDWSHDFHZLWKWKHNQRZOHGJHWKDWRXUVRFLHWLHVDUHLQHYLWDEO\µDW ULVN¶´$SSUHFLDWLQJWHFKQRORJLHVRIKXPLOLW\EULQJVPHEDFNWRWKHW\SLFDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWHFKQRVFLHQFHLQWKHUHYHUVHORJLF7KLVPHDQVDVPHQWLRQHG GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 179

DERYHWKDWNQRZOHGJHPXVWEHDSSOLHGLQRUGHUIRULWWREHWHVWHG7KHUHYHUVH ORJLFDVWKHµFROOHFWLYHH[SHULPHQW¶KDVEHHQH[SOLFLWO\GLVFXVVHGE\%UXQR Latour, where he states, that

³DOORIXVKDYHEHFRPHPHPEHUVRIFROOHFWLYHH[SHULPHQWVRQJOREDO ZDUPLQJWKHLQÀXHQFHRIJHQHWLFHQJLQHHULQJFRQVHUYDWLRQRIVSHFLHV GHPRJUDSK\SROOXWLRQHWF7KXVZHKDYHWRSUDFWLFHVRPHWKLQJWKDW XQWLOUHFHQWO\ZDVWKHFDOOLQJRIYHU\IHZVSHFLDOLVWVQDPHO\VFLHQFH SROLF\1RZHYHU\RQHLVOHGWRSUDFWLFHVFLHQFHSROLF\RYHUDYDVWUDQJH RIVFLHQWL¿FDQGWHFKQLFDOFRQWURYHUVLHV7KLVKDVHQWLUHO\PRGL¿HGWKH UHODWLRQVRIWKHSXEOLFZLWKWKHSURGXFHUVRIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\´ /DWRXU 

,QFUHDVLQJO\RSHQV\VWHPVIRUNQRZOHGJHSURGXFWLRQUHTXLUHDIRFXVRQWKH GLUHFWUHDOLW\SURGXFLQJHIIHFWVRIUHVHDUFK±LWVFRQWH[WRILPSOLFDWLRQ 1R- ZRWQ\HWDO $FFRUGLQJWR'RQQD+DUDZD\WKHUHLVQHLWKHUWLPHQRU VSDFHWRGHYHORSUHVHDUFKHUV¶UHODWLRQVZLWKVRFLHW\³«DIWHUDOOWKHVHULRXV HSLVWHPRORJLFDO DFWLRQ LV RYHU´ +DUDZD\    1HLWKHU VXVWDLQDELOLW\ QRURWKHUYDOXHVWKDWZHZRXOGOLNHWRUHDOL]HFDQEHVHFXUHGUHWURVSHFWLYHO\ 2XUWHFKQRVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKLVSRVLWLRQLQJLWVSURMHFWVDQGZRUNWRSURPRWH PRUHFRPSOH[DQGLQWHJUDWHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQUH- VHDUFKDQGVRFLHW\LQWKLVJUH\DUHDWKDW1RZRWQ\HWDO  LQWHUSUHWDVD GHGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQRIWKHVRFLDOVSKHUHVRIPRGHUQLW\

Resources for What?

7U\LQJRXWSUDFWLFHVRIIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHDWD6ZHGLVKWHFKQLFDOXQLYHUVLW\ DVH[HPSOL¿HGDERYHKDVHQDEOHGXVWRIRUPXODWHZKDWNLQGRIUHVRXUFHVIHPL- QLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHFDQRIIHU)HPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHUHSUHVHQWVUHVRXUFHVWR ‡ H[SDQGWKHNQRZOHGJHIUDPHVDQGSUDFWLFHVIRUWHFKQRORJ\GHYHORSPHQWLQ LQFUHDVLQJO\FRPSOH[UHDOLWLHV ‡ RSHQXSSUHIHUHQWLDOULJKWVRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQLQVHOHFWLRQVRISURFHGXUHVDQG VWDQGDUGVZKLFKDUHDOZD\VUHDOLW\SURGXFLQJDFWLYLWLHV ‡ GHYHORSHSLVWHPRORJLFDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVUHOHYDQWWRDVRFLHW\KHDYLO\GHSHQ- dent on research and technology; ‡ HVWDEOLVKQHZDUHQDVIRUGHYHORSLQJXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQ research, the political sector, and industry; ‡ GHYHORSGULYLQJIRUFHVIRULQWHUDQGWUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\FRQVWHOODWLRQV 180 LENA TROJER

Innovation Revisited

6LWXDWHGNQRZOHGJHVLVDFRUQHUVWRQHFRQFHSWLQIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFH +DU- DZD\ WKDWDOVRIRVWHUVRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRILQQRYDWLRQSURFHVVHV 7KHWHUPµVLWXDWHGNQRZOHGJHV¶ZDVFRLQHGE\'RQQD+DUDZD\DVSDUWRIKHU HSLVWHPRORJLFDOZRUNWRSURYLGHDOWHUQDWLYHVWR³«GHYHORSLQJDWKRPHWKDW YRLFHRIHQWLWOHPHQWWKHYRLFHRIFRQWUROWKDWDFFRPSDQLHVWKHFRQTXHVWRI HPSLUHVIDUIURPKRPH´ 7UDZHHNE )RU+DUDZD\DOONQRZOHGJH LVORFDO,WLVKLVWRULFDOO\DQGFXOWXUDOO\VLWXDWHG,WLVSUREOHPDWLFWRDUJXHIRU a watertight bulkhead between the researcher as a subject and the research ob- MHFWEHWZHHQREVHUYLQJDQGFKDQJLQJDQGEHWZHHQUHVHDUFKDQGSROLWLFV7KH UHVHDUFKHULVUHJDUGHGDVDQDFWLYHSDUWLFLSDQWLQWKHUHVHDUFKSURFHVV6KHKH generates and organizes knowledge in an ongoing interaction with the reality VKHKHLVUHVHDUFKLQJ7KLVQRWLRQRIVLWXDWHGNQRZOHGJHVFRQVWLWXWHVDYLWDO SDUWRIWKHHSLVWHPRORJLFDOEDVHIRUWKHFDVHLQ8JDQGDDVZHOODVLQ6ZHGHQ DVSUHVHQWHGDERYH 7KHIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFH,UHSUHVHQWLVGHHSO\LQYROYHGLQLQQRYDWLRQ SURFHVVHVOHDQLQJRQWULSOHKHOL[H[SHULHQFHVDQG,ZLVKWRDUJXHWKDWIHPLQLVW technoscience strengthens these processes by: ‡ SURFHVVRULHQWHGGHYHORSPHQWWKURXJKDEURDGHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWUDQVIRU- mation practices; ‡ HQIRUFHPHQWDQGLQWHJUDWLRQRIVLWXDWHGNQRZOHGJHVDQGWHFKQRORJ\GHYHO- opment; ‡ HPSKDVL]LQJWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISRZHUUHODWLRQVDQGWKHLULPSDFWVLQFOXG- LQJ FRPSOH[ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI JHQGHU VWUXFWXUHV ZKLFK LV QRW H[SOLFLWO\ GLVFXVVHGLQWKLVFKDSWHUEXWFDQEHIRXQGHOVHZKHUH18 

)RUPHWKHLQQRYDWLRQSURFHVVHVFLUFOHDURXQGWKHSUDFWLFHVRIVLWXDWHGNQRZO- HGJHVFRHYROXWLRQVRFLDOO\UREXVWWHFKQRORJ\DQGNQRZOHGJHDQGWHFKQROR- JLHVRIKXPLOLW\1RZRWQ\KDVJLYHQDQLQVSLULQJDSSURDFKE\VWDWLQJWKDW³LQ- QRYDWLRQLVWKHFROOHFWLYHEHWRQDFRPPRQIUDJLOHIXWXUHDQGQRVLGHQHLWKHU VFLHQFHQRUVRFLHW\NQRZVWKHVHFUHWRIKRZWRFRSHZLWKLWVLQKHUHQWXQFHU-

18 _ )RU LQVWDQFH %LUJLWWD 5\GKDJHQ¶V UHVHDUFK SURMHFW ,QQRYDWLYHFOXVWHUVFORVLQJWKH JDSEHWZHHQ8QLYHUVLW\DQG6RFLHW\LQ(DVW$IULFD$OLYLQJSURRIRI0RGHH[FHOOHQFH" 6HH KWWSZZZEWKVHWNVWHNQRYHWQVIVLGRUUHVHDUFKDQGSURMHFWV DFFHVVHG  -DQXDU\   GENDER RESEARCH AS KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE 181

WDLQWLHV,WKDVWREHGRQHLQVRPHVRUWRIDOOLDQFHDQGDVHQVHRIGLUHFWLRQ ZKLFKLVVKDUHG´ 1RZRWQ\  7KHGRPLQDQWGLVFRXUVHRILQQRYDWLRQDQGLQQRYDWLRQV\VWHPVLVIRFXVLQJ RQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHPDUNHWHFRQRP\,QWKLVFRQWH[WLWLVQRQFRQWUR- YHUVLDOWRWDONDERXWVXVWDLQDEOHHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQW%XWZKDW,ZRXOGOLNH IHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFHWRDUJXHDQGWU\WUDQVIRUPDWLRQVIRULVLQQRYDWLRQLQDOO LWVFRPSOH[LW\WKDWFUHDWHVVXVWDLQDEOHFRQGLWLRQVIRUDOLYHDEOHZRUOGDQGOLIH QRWRQO\IRUPHDQGRWKHUSULYLOHJHGSHRSOH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

,DPPRVWJUDWHIXOWRDOOP\FROOHDJXHVDWWKHUHVHDUFKGLYLVLRQRI7HFKQRVFL- HQFH6WXGLHV%7+IRUVXSSO\LQJFRQWHQWWRWKHFRQFHSWRIIHPLQLVWWHFKQR- VFLHQFHLQWKHIRUPRILQYDOXDEOHH[SHULHQFHVSUDFWLFHVPHWKRGRORJLHVDQG WKHRULHVIURPZKLFK,KDYHOHDUQHGDORW:LWKRXWP\FROOHDJXHVDQGSURIHV- VLRQDOSDUWQHUVLQ8JDQGD7DQ]DQLD%ROLYLDDQGHOVHZKHUHLQ6ZHGHQDQG 1RUZD\P\XQGHUVWDQGLQJRILQQRYDWLRQVDQGLQQRYDWLRQV\VWHPVZRXOGEH H[WUHPHO\OLPLWHG

REFERENCES

$KUHQIHOW%  )|UlQGULQJVRPWLOOVWnQG &KDQJHDVVWDWH  Lund: Stu- dentlitteratur. $UJ\ULV&  Teaching Smart People How to Learn.+DUYDUG%XVLQHVV 5HYLHZ0D\-XQH %DUDG .   3RVWKXPDQLVW 3HUIRUPDWLYLW\7RZDUG DQ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ RI How Matter Comes to Matter. Signs. Journal of Women in Culture and Society  ± (NGDKO3  Medieteknik i en Senmodern Tid (Media technology in a Late Modern Time). %OHNLQJH ,QVWLWXWH RI 7HFKQRORJ\ 'RFWRUDO 'LVVHUWDWLRQ Series No. 2005:7. (W]NRZLW] + DQG /H\GHVGRUII / HGV    Universities and the Global .QRZOHGJH(FRQRP\$7ULSOH+HOL[RI8QLYHUVLW\,QGXVWU\*RYHUQPHQW Relations. London: Pinter. )OD[-  7KH(QGRI,QQRFHQFH,Q%XWOHU-DQG6FRWW- HGV Feminists Theorize the Political. 1HZ

Gibbons M, Limoges C, Nowotny H, Schwartsman S, Scott P, and Trow M HGV   The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Sci- ence Science and Research in Contemporary Societies. London/Thousand Oaks/New Delhi: Sage. *XOEUDQGVHQ(  +RZFDQXQLYHUVLWLHVEHFRPHPRUHDFWLYHSDUWQHUVLQ LQQRYDWLRQV\VWHPV"/HVVRQVIURPWKH1RUGLFFRXQWULHV",Q*XOEUDQGVHQ (1VHQJL\XPYD$5\GKDJHQ%DQG7URMHU/ HGV ,&7LQQRYDWLRQV\V- WHPVDQGWKHUROHRIXQLYHUVLWLHVLQVRFLHWDOGHYHORSPHQW±D SRVW FRORQLDO strain?%XWDUH1DWLRQDO8QLYHUVLW\RI5ZDQGD3UHVV *XOEUDQGVHQ(7URMHU/%M|UNPDQ&DQG(ORYDDUD3  *HQXVIRUVNQLQJ LQRPWHNQLVNIDNXOWHW±HQNXQVNDSVSROLWLVNXWPDQLQJ *HQGHU5HVHDUFK ZLWKLQ7HFKQLFDO)DFXOWLHV±DNQRZOHGJHSROLWLFDOFKDOOHQJH KVT± +DUDZD\'  6LWXDWHG.QRZOHGJHV7KH6FLHQFH4XHVWLRQLQ)HPLQLVP DQGWKH3ULYLOHJHRI3DUWLDO3HUVSHFWLYHFeminist Studies  ± +DUDZD\ '   Simians, Cyborgs, and Women. Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge. +DUDZD\ '   7KH 3URPLVHV RI 0RQVWHUV$ 5HJHQHUDWLYH 3ROLWLFV IRU ,QDSSURSULDWHG2WKHUV,Q*URVVEHUJ/1HOVRQ&DQG7UHLFKOHU3 HGV  Cultural Studies./RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH± +DUDZD\ '   Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium.FemaleMan©_ Meets_OncoMouseTM: Feminism and Technoscience. New York & Lon- don: Routledge. +DUGLQJ6  7KH6FLHQFH4XHVWLRQLQ)HPLQLVP Ithaca/London: Cornell 8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV -DVDQRII6  7HFKQRORJLHVRI+XPLOLW\&LWL]HQ3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQ*RYHUQ- ing Science. Minerva  ± .XQ]UX+  

1RZRWQ\+  ³6RFLHW\LQ6FLHQFHWKH1H[W3KDVHLQDQ,PSHWXRXV5H- ODWLRQVKLS´ NH\ QRWH VSHHFK 6FLHQFH LQ 6RFLHW\ )RUXP %UXVVHOV ± March. 1RZRWQ\+6FRWW3DQG*LEERQV0  Re-Thinking Science: Knowledge and the Public in an Age of Uncertainty. London: Polity Press. 7UDZHHN6 D %HDPWLPHVDQG/LIHWLPHV7KH:RUOGRI+LJK(QHUJ\3K\V- icists.&DPEULGJH0$/RQGRQ+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 7UDZHHN6 E %RUGHU&URVVLQJV1DUUDWLYH6WUDWHJLHVLQ6FLHQFH6WXG- ies and Among Physicists in Tsukuba Science City, Japan. In: Pickering A HG Science as Practice and Culture.&KLFDJR,/8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR 3UHVV± 7URMHU /   *HQXVIRUVNQLQJ LQRP 7HNQLNYHWHQVNDS ± HQ GULYElQN I|U IRUVNQLQJVI|UlQGULQJ *HQGHU5HVHDUFKZLWKLQ7HFKQRVFLHQFH±DVHHGEHG for research transformation). 6WRFNKROP +|JVNROHYHUNHW 6ZHGLVK 1DWLRQDO$JHQF\IRU+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ  7URMHU/DQG/DWLQJ32  *HQGHU5HVHDUFKDV.QRZOHGJH5HVRXUFHLQ Technology and Engineering. 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH 6HFRQG ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RQIHUHQFHRQ$GYDQFHVLQ(QJLQHHULQJDQG7HFKQRORJ\ $(7 . :DJQHU,  &RQQHFWLQJFRPPXQLWLHVRISUDFWLFHIHPLQLVPVFLHQFHDQG technology. :RPHQ¶V6WXGLHV,QWHUQDWLRQDO)RUXP  ± :DKO$  0ROQHW±DWWI|UHOlVDRPIHPLQLVWLVNIRUVNQLQJ 7KH&ORXG± /HFWXULQJ)HPLQLVW5HVHDUFK Kvinnovetenskaplig tidsskrift ±

C. Reflecting Un/equal Conditions for Participation

Can Women Engineers be ‘Real Engineers’ and ‘Real Women’? Gender In/Authenticity in Engineering

WENDY FAULKNER

INTRODUCTION

$VRFLRORJ\VWXGHQWLQRQHRIP\FODVVHVUHSRUWHG XQSURPSWHG WKDWPHQHQ- gineering students she knows describe the women on their course as either ³XJO\OHVELDQV´RU³SUHWW\DQGRQO\GRLQJHQJLQHHULQJLQRUGHUWR¿QGDPDQ´ 7KUHDGHGWKURXJKWKHJURVVKHWHURVH[LVPRIWKHHQJLQHHULQJVWXGHQWV¶UHPDUNV is an equally worrying message about women engineers: women who are really LQWRHQJLQHHULQJDUHQRWµUHDOZRPDQ¶DQGFRQYHUVHO\µUHDOZRPHQ¶DUHQRWµUHDO HQJLQHHUV¶,QZKDWIROORZV,ZLOOGHPRQVWUDWHKRZLQRIWHQVXEWOHDQGWDNHQ IRUJUDQWHGZD\VWKLVgender in/authenticity message gets reproduced again and again in engineering cultures, practices, and identities. I will argue that this LVDFUXFLDOEXWQRWZLGHO\XQGHUVWRRGUHDVRQZK\WKHSURIHVVLRQUHPDLQVVR UHVLVWDQWWRJHQGHUFKDQJHLQPRVWFRXQWULHVLQVSLWHRIFRQFHUWHGJRYHUQPHQW and industry-backed campaigns to recruit and retain more women engineers. ,WLVIUHTXHQWO\FODLPHGWKDWZRPHQHQJLQHHUVKDYHWR³¿WLQWRDPDVFXOLQH FXOWXUH´ HJ&DUWHUDQG.LUNXS \HWWKHUHLVOLWWOHV\VWHPDWLFUHVHDUFK RQWKHVXEMHFWRUDQ\FULWLFDODQDO\VLVRIZKDWLVµPDVFXOLQH¶DERXWWKHFXOWXUHV LQRSHUDWLQJHQJLQHHULQJ0\HYLGHQFHFRPHVIURPDVWXG\HQWLWOHGµ*HQGHUV LQRI(QJLQHHULQJ¶ )DXONQHU ZKLFKVRXJKWWREULQJDJHQGHUµJD]H¶WR DQHWKQRJUDSKLFLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIHQJLQHHULQJSUDFWLFHVFXOWXUHVDQGLGHQWL- WLHV7KHVWXG\FRPELQHGLQWHUYLHZVZLWKREVHUYDWLRQWKURXJKMREVKDGRZLQJ LQWKUHHFRPSDQLHVLQVRIWZDUHGHYHORSPHQW 86ZRUNSODFHLQ LQ EXLOGLQJGHVLJQ 8.ZRUNSODFHVLQ DQGLQRLO¿HOGVHUYLFHV 8. 188 WENDY FAULKNER

ZRUNSODFHVLQ ,QWRWDOHQJLQHHUV PHQZRPHQ ZHUHVWXGLHG LQWKHVHZRUNSODFHVDIXUWKHULQWHUYLHZVZHUHFRQGXFWHGZLWKHQJLQHHUV IURPGLIIHUHQWGLVFLSOLQHVDQGVHFWRUV$QDO\VLVZDVEDVHGRQUHSHDWHGUHDGLQJ RIH[WHQVLYH¿HOGQRWHVLQWHUYLHZWUDQVFULSWVDQGUHSRUWV By using ethnographic methods, I hoped to document the more subtle gen- GHULQH[FOXVLYHG\QDPLFVZKLFKGRQRWDOZD\VUHJLVWHUDVVXFKWRSDUWLFLSDQWV :LWKQRWDEOHH[FHSWLRQV +DFNHU0HOOVWU|P7RQVR  HWKQRJUDSKLF VWXGLHV RI HQJLQHHUV KDYH QRW DGGUHVVHG JHQGHU DQG PRVW UH- VHDUFKLQWRZRPHQLQHQJLQHHULQJKDVEHHQEDVHGRQLQWHUYLHZVZLWKZRPHQ %\IRFXVLQJRQµJHQGHUVLQRIHQJLQHHULQJ¶,KRSHGWR¿QGRXWPRUHDERXWWKH PHQDQGPDVFXOLQLWLHVRIHQJLQHHULQJLQWKHEHOLHIWKDWWKLVLVQHFHVVDU\LIZH DUHWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHFRQWLQXLQJSRRUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIZRPHQLQWKHSURIHV- VLRQ*HQGHULQWKLVIUDPLQJLVXQGHUVWRRGDVPXOWLSOHÀXLGDQGUHODWLRQDO± QRWDV¿[HGDQGWLPHOHVVGXDOLWLHVRIIHPLQLQLW\ZRPHQYVPDVFXOLQLW\PHQ ,WKXVVRXJKWWRLQYHVWLJDWHKRZJHQGHUVDUHSHUIRUPHG VHH%XWOHU ± KRZSDUWLFXODUIHPLQLQLWLHVDQGPDVFXOLQLWLHVDUHDFWLYHO\FRQVWLWXWHGWKURXJK VRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV±DQGWKXVKRZWKH\PD\EHFKDQJLQJDQG or changed. 7ZR SULRU 86 VWXGLHV LQIRUPHG P\ RZQ 7KH ¿UVW ZDV D ORQJLWXGLQDO FURVVVHFWRUVWXG\FRQGXFWHGE\-XGLWK0F,OZHHDQG*UHJJ5RELQVRQ   7KH\IRXQGWKDWDOWKRXJKPRVWZRPHQHQJLQHHUVRFFXSLHGORZHUVWDWXVSRVL- WLRQVWKDQVLPLODUO\HGXFDWHGPHQZLWKLQWHQ\HDUVRIJUDGXDWLQJWKH\IDUHG UHODWLYHO\EHWWHULQVRPH¿HOGVDQGRUJDQLVDWLRQVWKDQLQRWKHUV$NH\IDFWRU KHUHZDVWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDQµHQJLQHHULQJFXOWXUH¶ZKLFKFHOHEUDWHVKDQGVRQ WHFKQLFDOFRPSHWHQFH HYHQZKHQWKHMREGRHVQRWUHTXLUHWKLV DQGUHZDUGV DJJUHVVLYHVHOISURPRWLRQ7KXVWKH\FRQFOXGH³,WLVZRPHQ¶VPHPEHUVKLS QRWWKHLUFRPSHWHQFHWKDWLVDWTXHVWLRQ7KH\GRQRWFRQIRUPRUPRUHDFFX- rately, do not appearWRFRQIRUPWRWKHFXOWXUHRIWKHZRUNSODFH´ 0F,OZHH DQG5RELQVRQ 7KHVHFRQGZDVDQHWKQRJUDSKLFVWXG\E\.DUHQ 7RQVRZKRDIWHU\HDUVZRUNH[SHULHQFHDVDQHQJLQHHUIHOWWKDW³VRPHWKLQJ DERXWHQJLQHHULQJVHHPVWRPDNHLWGLI¿FXOWIRUZRPHQWREHWKRXJKWRIDV IXOOÀHGJHGPHPEHUV´  6KHVRXJKWWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKHSURFHVVRIµEH- FRPLQJ¶DQHQJLQHHUE\FRQGXFWLQJH[WHQVLYHSDUWLFLSDQWREVHUYDWLRQDPRQJVW college engineering students. As an insider/outsider, she was uniquely placed WRREVHUYHYDULRXVVXEWOHZD\VLQZKLFKWKHDELOLW\RIWKHZRPHQVWXGHQWVDV HQJLQHHUVLVRIWHQUHQGHUHGLQYLVLEOH VHHODWHU  *DLQLQJ UHOHYDQW TXDOL¿FDWLRQV DQG WHFKQLFDO H[SHUWLVH DUH QHFHVVDU\EXW QRWVXI¿FLHQWFULWHULDIRUPHPEHUVKLSRIDQRFFXSDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\RISUDF- CAN WOMEN ENGINEERS BE ‘REAL ENGINEERS’ AND ‘REAL WOMEN’? 189

WLFHPDQ\RWKHULQIRUPDOPHFKDQLVPVDQGFULWHULDGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHURQHLV VHHQDQGIHOWWREHORQJ,QHQJLQHHULQJVKDUHGSOHDVXUHLQWHFKQRORJ\ .OHLI DQG)DXONQHU LVDFRPPRQERQGDVDUHVKDUHGDSSURDFKHVWRWKLQNLQJ DERXWSUREOHPVDQGDVKDUHGKXPRXUDERXWQRQHQJLQHHUV¶LQDELOLW\WRVHHWKH ZRUOGDVµZH¶GR$OVRFUXFLDOLQDOORFFXSDWLRQVDUHHYHU\GD\DVSHFWVRIZKDW ,DPFDOOLQJZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHXQUHODWHGWRWKHLPPHGLDWHGHPDQGVRIWKHMRE ±VXFKDVKRZSHRSOHLQWHUDFWZLWKRQHDQRWKHUWRSLFVRI QRQZRUN FRQYHUVD- WLRQZKDWWKH\¿QGIXQQ\DQGZKRVRFLDOLVHVZLWKZKRP7KHVHWKLQJVQRW RQO\KHOSRLOWKHZKHHOVRIWKHRUJDQLVDWLRQDQGJHWWKHMREGRQHWKH\DOVRKDYH DKXJHEHDULQJRQZKRLVVHHQDQGIHOWWREHORQJDQGRQZKRJHWVRQ$VQXPHU- RXVVWXGLHVRIZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHUHYHDOµGRLQJWKHMRE¶IUHTXHQWO\HQWDLOVµGR- LQJJHQGHU¶ HJ$FNHU&ROOLQVRQDQG+HDUQ+DOIRUGHWDO  0\RZQ¿HOGZRUNREVHUYDWLRQVRQHQJLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHVSDLQWD PL[HGSLFWXUH VHH)DXONQHUD 7ZRZRUNSODFHVSURYLGHGH[WUHPHFDVHV LQRQH8.RLO¿HOGHQJLQHHULQJEDVHVWURQJSUHVVXUHVWRFRQIRUPWRDPDFKR YHUVLRQRIPDVFXOLQLW\DQGLQWKH86VRIWZDUHGHYHORSPHQWGHSDUWPHQWDNHHQ DZDUHQHVVRIGLYHUVLW\SROLWLFV,QJHQHUDOWKHHQJLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHV ,REVHUYHGZHUHUHVSHFWIXO1RQHWKHOHVVLQDOO¿YHZRUNSODFHV,LGHQWL¿HGG\- namics which tend to include some and marginalise others: most notably, the use RIIUDWHUQDOIRUPVRIJUHHWLQJ µPDWH¶RUµPDQ¶ IRUZKLFKWKHUHLVQRIHPLQLQH RUJHQGHUQHXWUDOHTXLYDOHQWDWHQGHQF\WROHDQRQWRSLFVRIFRQYHUVDWLRQVWH- UHRW\SLFDOO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKPHQ HJIRRWEDOO DQGWKHH[LVWHQFHRIVRFLDOQHW- ZRUNVRIPHQZKRVHPDVFXOLQLW\LVORFDOO\KHJHPRQLFDQGRURUJDQLVDWLRQDOO\ SRZHUIXO6XFKG\QDPLFVPDNHLWHDVLHUIRU PRVW PHQWKDQ PRVW ZRPHQHQ- gineers to build and maintain working relationships and to progress their careers. 8QGHUO\LQJWKHVHG\QDPLFVLVDSKHQRPHQRQVXJJHVWHGDOVRE\7RQVR¶V ¿QGLQJV±DSKHQRPHQRQ,DPFDOOLQJWKHLQYLVLELOLW\SDUDGR[ZKHUHE\ZRP- HQHQJLQHHUVDUHVLPXOWDQHRXVO\KLJKO\YLVLEOHDVZRPHQ\HWinYLVLEOHDVHQJL- QHHUV,EHOLHYHWKLVSDUDGR[LVDNH\WRXQGHUVWDQGLQJZK\ZRPHQHQJLQHHUV struggle to belong in engineering workplace cultures. This chapter elaborates KRZWKHLQYLVLELOLW\SDUDGR[RSHUDWHVDQGH[SORUHVWKHUHODWHGFRQFHSWRIJHQ- der in/authenticity. I initially coined the latter concept to capture the apparent congruence or non-congruence of gender and engineering identities for men and women engineers respectively±DVLQHQJLQHHULQJLV IHOWDQGSHUFHLYHG WREH DJHQGHULQDXWKHQWLFRSWLRQIRUZRPHQ )DXONQHUD ,WLVDJHQGHU DXWKHQWLFRSWLRQIRUPHQVLPSO\EHFDXVHWKHODUJHPDMRULW\RIHQJLQHHUVDUH PHQWKLVLVWKHVWDWLVWLFDOQRUP1RUPVVKDSHH[SHFWDWLRQVZKHQSHRSOHWKLQN µHQJLQHHU¶PRVWHQYLVDJHDPDQ:RPHQHQJLQHHUVDUHLQYLVLEOHDQGVXUSULV- 190 WENDY FAULKNER

LQJDVHQJLQHHUVIRUWKHVDPHUHDVRQ7KH\¿QGWKHPVHOYHVKDYLQJWRH[SODLQ why they chose this career, where men who opt to be engineers are not remark- DEOHDVPHQ:LWKQRUPVFRPHQRUPDWLYHSUHVVXUHV&UXFLDODPRQJVWWKHVH ,EHOLHYHLVWKHV\PEROLFDVVRFLDWLRQRIPHQPDVFXOLQLWLHVDQGWHFKQRORJLHV /RKDQDQG)DXONQHU DQGWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOJHQGHULQJRIWKHWHFKQLFDO VRFLDOGXDOLVPHYLGHQWLQVWHUHRW\SHVOLNHWKHDVRFLDOHQJLQHHU(YHQWKRXJK DFWXDO SHRSOH DQG SUDFWLFHV DUH IDU PRUH GLYHUVH WKDQ GXDOLVHG VWHUHRW\SHV )DXONQHUE VXFKV\PEROVVWLOOSHUIRUPZRUNWKH\VHUYHWRQRUPDOLVH JHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHDQGLQHTXDOLWLHV$FFRUGLQJO\WKHWHUPJHQGHULQDXWKHQWLF- LW\DOVRVHUYHVWRFDSWXUHthe normative pressures of the way things are.

INVISIBILITY AS ENGINEERS

%HLQJVHHQWREHSURIHVVLRQDOO\FDSDEOHLVQDWXUDOO\FUXFLDOWRJDLQLQJPHP- EHUVKLSLQDQ\RFFXSDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\RISUDFWLFH7KDWWKLVLVDSDUWLFXODU VWUXJJOHIRUZRPHQDVHQJLQHHUVLVHYLGHQWDWDOOVWDJHVRIWKHFDUHHUF\FOH$W XQLYHUVLW\PHQVWXGHQWVDUHRIWHQVXUSULVHGZKHQWKHZRPHQVWDUWSHUIRUP- LQJZHOODFDGHPLFDOO\(YHQZKHQIDFHGZLWKHYLGHQFHWRWKHFRQWUDU\WKHUH FDQUHPDLQOLQJHULQJGRXEWVDERXWWKHZRPHQ¶VDELOLW\ 'U\EXUJK 3DU- WLFLSDWLQJLQVWXGHQWGHVLJQWHDPV7RQVR  ZDVDEOHWRREVHUYHVXEWOH G\QDPLFVE\ZKLFKWKHFRQWULEXWLRQVRIYHU\DEOHZRPHQHQJLQHHUVZHUHUHQ- GHUHGLQYLVLEOHWRIDFXOW\PHPEHUV7KHPHQVWXGHQWVLQYROYHGZHUHJHQHUDOO\ XQDZDUHRIWKHLUSDUWLQWKLVSURFHVVDQGWKHZRPHQZHUHOHIWZRQGHULQJZK\ WKH\ZHUHQ¶WJHWWLQJJRRGMREV 0RVWZRPHQHQJLQHHUVKDYHH[SHULHQFHGEHLQJ TXLWHOLWHUDOO\ LQYLVLEOH DVHQJLQHHUV±FODVVLFDOO\ZKHQWKH\DUHPLVWDNHQIRUWKHVHFUHWDU\E\RXW- VLGHUV$UULYLQJWRGRDSUHVHQWDWLRQWRDSRWHQWLDOQHZFOLHQWEXLOGLQJGH- VLJQHQJLQHHU.DUHQNQRZVVKHPXVWLPPHGLDWHO\LQWURGXFHKHUVHOIDQGWDNH DSURPLQHQWUROHLIVKHLVWRDYRLGWKLV³$VDVHQLRUZRPDQZKRLVEORQGDQG JLUOLHORRNLQJWKHUHDUHSHRSOHZKRGRQ¶WWDNHPHVHULRXVO\WRVWDUWZLWK%XW RQFHWKH\UHDOLVH,FDQGRWKHMRELW¶VRYHU´,WLVDIUHTXHQWODPHQWRIZRPHQ LQDQ\RFFXSDWLRQZKHUHWKH\DUHLQDPLQRULW\WKDWWKH\KDYHWRZRUNKDUGHU WKDQWKHPHQWRSURYHWKHLUDELOLW\

VHQLRUROGHUZRPHQHQJLQHHUVWROGPHWKH\KDYHWR UH HVWDEOLVKWKHLUFUHGHQ- WLDOVHYHU\WLPHWKH\HQFRXQWHUDQHZFROOHDJXHDVVRFLDWHRUFOLHQW6RKDYLQJ WRGHPRQVWUDWH\RXFDQGRWKHMREFRQVWLWXWHVDQH[WUDOD\HURISUDFWLWLRQHU LGHQWLW\ZRUNZKLFKZRPHQDQGQRWPHQKDYHWRGRWKURXJKRXWWKHLUFDUHHUV $ UHFHQW (8 VWXG\ 3URPHWHD *RGIUR\*HQLQ   IRXQG WKDW WKLV SUHV- VXUHLVFRPSRXQGHGE\WKH DSSDUHQWO\ZLGHVSUHDG SHUFHSWLRQWKDWZRPHQ HQJLQHHUVEHQH¿WIURPµXQIDLU¶SUHIHUHQWLDOWUHDWPHQW±WKDWWKH\µJRWWKHMRE EHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHDZRPDQQRWEHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHJRRGHQRXJK¶7KLVH[SOLFLW TXHVWLRQLQJRIWKHZRPHQ¶VFRPSHWHQFHFDQEHH[WUHPHO\XQGHUPLQLQJ 9DULRXVIRUPVRIODEHOOLQJFDQVHUYHWRXQGHUPLQHWKHYLVLELOLW\DQGFUHG- LELOLW\RIZRPHQDVHQJLQHHUV%\QRPHDQVWULYLDOLVWKHQHDUXQLYHUVDOXVHLQ WKH8.ZRUNSODFHV,VWXGLHGRIWKHJHQHULFµKH¶WRUHIHUWRDQHQJLQHHUZKRLV QRWNQRZQDQGWKHZLGHVSUHDGXVHRIPDVFXOLQHWHUPV±µPHQ¶µER\V¶µJX\V¶ ±WRUHIHUWRJURXSVRIHQJLQHHUV7KHUHLVOLWWOHDZDUHQHVVRIWKHLPSDFWRI JHQGHUHGODQJXDJHHYHQDPRQJVWHQJLQHHUVZKRVXSSRUWJHWWLQJPRUHZRPHQ LQWRHQJLQHHULQJ%XWZKHQDFRPSDQ\GLUHFWRUVD\V³:HSXWRXUNH\PHQIRU- ZDUG´LQELGGLQJIRUDELJGHVLJQFRQWUDFWKHLVSHUSHWXDWLQJDWUDGLWLRQZKLFK PDNHVLWµQRUPDO¶HYHQµQDWXUDO¶WRFKRRVHPHQIRUVXFKMREV$WEHVWVXFK VWDWHPHQWVUHQGHUZRPHQHQJLQHHUVLQYLVLEOHDWZRUVWWKH\UHQGHUWKHYHU\ category woman engineer a non-sequitur. 7RQVR  DVNHGLQWHUYLHZHHVWROLVWDQGH[SODLQDQ\WHUPVWKH\XVHWR LGHQWLI\GLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIHQJLQHHULQJVWXGHQWV7KLV\LHOGHGWHUPVLQWKUHH FDWHJRULHV µQHUGV¶ ZKR ZHUH OLNH GHVLJQ HQJLQHHUV µDFDGHPLF DFKLHYHUV¶ ZKRSHUIRUPHGEHVWDWWKHPRUHDEVWUDFWFRUHRIWKHFXUULFXOXPDQGµJHHNV¶ ZKRDOVRSHUIRUPHGZHOODFDGHPLFDOO\EXWZHUHLGHQWL¿HGE\WKHLUZLGHUFDP- SXVDFWLYLWLHV6WULNLQJO\RQO\IRXURIWKHVHWHUPVUHIHUWRZRPHQDOORI WKHPLQWKHµJHHN¶FDWHJRU\VRQRWGH¿QHGE\HQJLQHHULQJSHUIRUPDQFH,Q- IRUPDQWVVLPSO\GLGQ¶WseeZRPHQDVEHLQJµQHUGV¶RUµDFDGHPLFDFKLHYHUV¶ HYHQWKRXJKPDQ\RIWKHLUZRPHQFROOHDJXHVZRXOG¿WLQWKHVHFDWHJRULHV $VZLWKWKHJHQHULFµKH¶7RQVRZDUQVWKDWVXFKFRQVWUXFWLRQVRISUDFWLWLRQHU LGHQWLWLHVDUHFRQVHTXHQWLDO³2QHFDQQRWEHORQJDVDQHQJLQHHULIWKHUHDUHQR UHFRJQLVHGZD\VWREHORQJDVVXFK´ 7RQVR 3HUKDSVVRPHZKDWOHVVREYLRXVLVWKHLPSOLFLWJHQGHULQJRIGLFKRWRPLVHG FDWHJRULHVXVHGWRGHVFULEHGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIHQJLQHHULQJZRUN±KDUGVRIW concrete/abstract, practice/theory, technical/social. Gender hierarchies are RIWHQFRQVWLWXWHGWKURXJKWKHVHGXDOLVPV±ERWKV\PEROLFDOO\DQGRUJDQLVD- WLRQDOO\±DOEHLWLQFRQWUDGLFWRU\ZD\V )DXONQHUE 7KHWHFKQLFDOVRFLDO GLVWLQFWLRQ VXUIDFHG UHSHDWHGO\ LQ P\ UHVHDUFK SHUKDSV EHFDXVH LW PDSV VR 192 WENDY FAULKNER

UHDGLO\RQWRFXOWXUDOO\DYDLODEOHSUHVXPSWLRQVDERXWPDVFXOLQHLQVWUXPHQWDO- LVPDQGIHPLQLQHH[SUHVVLYHQHVV)RUH[DPSOHPDQ\PHQHQJLQHHUVFOHDYHWR DµQXWVDQGEROWV¶LGHQWLW\DOWKRXJKWKLVWHFKQLFLVWLGHQWLW\LVDWRGGVZLWKWKH SURIRXQGO\KHWHURJHQHRXVQDWXUHRIHQJLQHHULQJSUDFWLFHLWFRQYHUJHVZLWK DQGSHUIRUPV DYDLODEOHPDVFXOLQLWLHVZLWKZKLFKWKH\DUHFRPIRUWDEOH7KH JHQGHUPHVVDJHVRSHUDWLQJWKURXJKWKHVHYDULRXVPHFKDQLVPVUHQGHUZRP- HQ¶VPHPEHUVKLSDVµUHDOHQJLQHHUV¶PRUHIUDJLOHWKDQPHQ¶V )DXONQHU  $FUXFLDOFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHLUIUDJLOHPHPEHUVKLSDVHQJLQHHUVLVLWVLP- SDFW RQ WKH SURIHVVLRQDO VHOIHVWHHP DQG FRQ¿GHQFH RI PDQ\ ZRPHQ HQJL- QHHUVDWYDULRXVSRLQWVLQWKHLUFDUHHU6HYHUDO\RXQJHUHQJLQHHUVWROGPHWKH\ XQH[SHFWHGO\H[SHULHQFHGDVXGGHQORVVRIFRQ¿GHQFHRQHQWHULQJXQLYHUVLW\ ,IRXQGWKLVDVKRFNLQJGLVFRYHU\JLYHQWKHVHOIFRQ¿GHQFHUHTXLUHGHYHQWR RSWIRUDQRQJHQGHUFRQYHQWLRQDOFDUHHUEXW7RQVR¶VZRUNVLJQDOVWKHNLQGRI identity and educational dynamics that might contribute to this. Both the Mc- ,OZHHDQG5RELQVRQ  DQGWKH3URPHWHDVWXGLHV 7KDOHU HQFRXQ- WHUHGZRPHQHQJLQHHUVZKRUHSRUWHGDORVVRIFRQ¿GHQFHRQJHWWLQJVWXFNLQ GHDGHQGMREVPLGFDUHHU/LNH7RQVR,EHOLHYHPDQ\ZRPHQHQJLQHHUVLQWHU- QDOLVHDVHQVHRIWKHLUIUDJLOHVWDWXVDVHQJLQHHUVLWLVfeltDVZHOODVSHUFHLYHG One older woman engineer recounted how, when she and other women engi- QHHUVPHHWWKH\RIWHQ³FRQIHVVWRIHHOLQJDIUDXG´DIWHUDIHZGULQNVWRJHWKHU $QRWKHUWROGPHWKDWVKHDQGRWKHUZRPHQHQJLQHHUVZKRKDYHEHHQLQVHQLRU PDQDJHPHQWUROHVIRUVRPH\HDUVWHQGQRZWRLQWURGXFHWKHPVHOYHVWRQHZ DFTXDLQWDQFHVRUDVVRFLDWHVDVµDPDQDJHU¶UDWKHUWKDQµDQHQJLQHHU¶ZKHUHVH- QLRUPHQFROOHDJXHVLQWKHVHUROHVFRQWLQXHWRUHIHUWRWKHPVHOYHVDVHQJLQHHUV :HVHHYHU\FOHDUO\KHUHWKHVHQVHRIZRPHQHQJLQHHUVODFNLQJµDXWKHQWLF- LW\¶DVHQJLQHHUVLQGHHGWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHHYLGHQFHRQWKLVLVDNH\UHDVRQ ZK\,KDYHEHHQXQZLOOLQJWRDEDQGRQWKHFRQFHSWRIJHQGHULQDXWKHQWLFLW\ 6KDN\VHOIHVWHHPDQGFRQ¿GHQFHFDQEHLQVLGLRXVO\XQGHUPLQLQJZLWKYHU\ GDPDJLQJFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUWKHUHWHQWLRQDQGFDUHHUSURJUHVVLRQRIZRPHQLQ HQJLQHHULQJ:KLOVWPRVWZRPHQHQJLQHHUVDUHDZDUHRIWKHLUJHQGHUYLVLELOLW\ DQGRIWKHQHHGIRUWKHPWRZRUNKDUGHUWKDQWKHPHQWRSURYHWKHLUHQJLQHHU- LQJFUHGHQWLDOVIHZDSSHDUWREHDZDUHRIWKHPRUHVXEWOHG\QDPLFVZLWKLQHQ- JLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHVE\ZKLFKWKHLUSURIHVVLRQDOVHOIHVWHHPLVXQGHUPLQHG )HHOLQJVRIODFNRIFRQ¿GHQFHRUDXWKHQWLFLW\DUHUDUHO\YRLFHGLQSXEOLF LQ IURQWRIPHQ 7KH\WHQGWREHVHHQDVDSHUVRQDOIDLOLQJUDWKHUWKDQVRPHWKLQJ IRUZKLFKWKHZLGHUFRPPXQLW\DQGRUJDQLVDWLRQEHDUUHVSRQVLELOLW\ZKLFKLV RQHUHDVRQZK\QHWZRUNVIRUZRPHQLQWHFKQLFDORFFXSDWLRQVFDQEHVXFKDQ HPSRZHULQJPHFKDQLVPIRUWKHLUPHPEHUV /HH  CAN WOMEN ENGINEERS BE ‘REAL ENGINEERS’ AND ‘REAL WOMEN’? 193

6HYHUDODQDO\VWVKDYHHQFRXQWHUHGDUHOXFWDQFHDPRQJVW VRPH ZRPHQ HQJLQHHUVWRVHHJHQGHUDVUHOHYDQWLQWKHLUFDUHHUVDQGZRUNSODFHVRUWRHQ- JDJHLQFROOHFWLYHIHPLQLVWDFWLRQ7KHUHVHHPVWREHDSHUYDVLYHµGLVFRXUVHRI JHQGHUQHXWUDOLW\¶±WKDWHYHU\RQHLVEHLQJWUHDWHGHTXDOO\±DPRQJVWZRPHQ DQGPHQVFLHQWLVWVDQGHQJLQHHUV (LVHQKDUWDQG)LQNHO ,QLQWHUYLHZV ZLWKZRPHQHQJLQHHUV EHWZHHQWKHDJHVRIDQG LQWKH86-DQH -RUJHQVRQIRXQGWKDW³SDUWLFLSDQWVGRQRWIUDPHGLI¿FXOWHSLVRGHVLQWKHLUSUR- IHVVLRQDOOLYHVLQWHUPVRIJHQGHULQHTXDOLW\´  DQGODUJHO\DGRSWHG DQRQRUDQWLIHPLQLVWSRVLWLRQ7HOOLQJO\/LVD/HH  ¶VLQWHUYLHZVZLWK PHPEHUVRIZRPHQ¶VWHFKQRORJ\QHWZRUNVLQ(XURSHUHYHDODVHQVLWLYLW\WKDW EHLQJµIHPLQLVW¶LPSOLHVDWKUHDWWRWKHXQLW\RIWKHSURIHVVLRQ)DFHGZLWKFKDO- OHQJHVIURPIHPLQLVWVWKHZRPHQVWXGHQWV'U\EXUJK  VWXGLHGGHIHQGHG WKHµSOD\KDUG¶FXOWXUHRIWKHLUPHQSHHUVHYHQWKRXJKWKH\WKHPVHOYHVUDUHO\ SDUWLFLSDWHGDQGIUHTXHQWO\GLVPLVVHGDQ\VH[LVWEHKDYLRUE\PHQHQJLQHHUV DVH[FHSWLRQDOHYHQZKHQSUHVHQWHGZLWKHYLGHQFHWRWKHFRQWUDU\6KHVHHV FRPPLWPHQWWRJURXSVROLGDULW\DVDNH\HOHPHQWLQWKHVRFLDOLVDWLRQRIHQJL- QHHULQJVWXGHQWVDQGFRQFOXGHVWKDWOHDUQLQJWRFRQYH\VROLGDULW\OLNHOHDUQLQJ WRFRQYH\RQH¶VFRPSHWHQFH³UHTXLUHVH[WUDHIIRUW>IRUWKHZRPHQ@EH\RQG ZKDWLVDVNHGRIPHQLQDVLPLODUSRVLWLRQ´ 'U\EXUJK  :HVHHDJDLQLQWKHVHWHQVLRQVWKHQRQFRQJUXHQFHRISUDFWLWLRQHUDQGJHQ- GHULGHQWLWLHVIRUZRPHQHQJLQHHUV,WVHHPVWKDWE\UHIXWLQJRUSOD\LQJGRZQ WKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIJHQGHUZRPHQHQJLQHHUVDUHEHWWHUDEOHWRVWUHQJWKHQRU SURWHFWWKHLUIUDJLOHPHPEHUVKLSDVHQJLQHHUVZKLOHSOD\LQJXSJHQGHUDQG KHLJKWHQLQJWKHLUYLVLELOLW\DVµZRPHQ¶FDQEHVHHQ DQGIHOW WRWKUHDWHQWKHLU PHPEHUVKLS LQ WKH FRPPXQLW\ RI SUDFWLFH -RUJHQVRQ VXJJHVWV WKDW ZRPHQ HQJLQHHUV¶ FKRLFH WR GLVWDQFH WKHPVHOYHV IURP IHPLQLVW DQDO\VHV DQG IRUPV RILQWHUYHQWLRQVKRXOGEHUHDGDVGLVFXUVLYHSRVLWLRQLQJLWSHUIRUPVLPSRU- WDQW LGHQWLW\ ZRUN ³FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ VWUDWHJLHV ZLGHO\ REVHUYHG DPRQJVWIHPDOHVFLHQWLVWVDQGHQJLQHHUVWRGLVTXDOLI\WKHLUIHPLQLQLW\E\PXW- LQJWKHLUYLVLELOLW\DVZRPHQ´ ± 

VISIBILITY AS WOMEN

:KLOVWWKHLQYLVLELOLW\RIZRPHQHQJLQHHUVDVHQJLQHHUVPHDQVWKH\KDYHWR GRH[WUDOD\HUVRISUDFWLWLRQHULGHQWLW\ZRUNWKHLUYLVLELOLW\DVZRPHQRIWHQ PHDQV±SDUDGR[LFDOO\±WKDWWKH\DOVRKDYHWRGRH[WUDOD\HUVRIJHQGHULGHQ- tity work. The point here is that women engineers tend to get pigeon-holed by 194 WENDY FAULKNER

WKHLUFROOHDJXHVLQWRFHUWDLQVWHUHRW\SLFDOO\IHPLQLQHLGHQWLWLHV±PRVWFRP- PRQO\DV KHWHUR VH[XDOO\DYDLODEOHRUDVPRWKHU±LGHQWLWLHVZKLFKKDYHQRWK- LQJWRGRZLWKWKHMREDQGZKLFKFDQEHH[WUHPHO\SUREOHPDWLF 2IWKHODEHOVXVHGE\7RQVR¶VVWXGHQWVWRLGHQWLI\ZRPHQHQJLQHHUVRQO\ RQH VRURULW\ ZRPDQ  ZDV UHVSHFWDEOH WKH UHPDLQGHU FKDUDFWHULVHG ZRPHQ HQJLQHHUVLQWHUPVRIZKHWKHUWKH\ZHUHSUHWW\DQGE\LPSOLFDWLRQVH[XDOO\ DYDLODEOHWRPHQ %HWW\VRURULW\FKLFNJLUO RUXJO\DQGXQGHVLUDEOHWRPHQ HQJLQHHULQJVFKRROZRPDQ $VLQWKHUHPDUNVZLWKZKLFK,RSHQHGWKLVFKDS- WHUµUHDOZRPDQ¶LVGH¿QHGLQKHWHURQRUPDWLYHWHUPVVKHLVKHWHURVH[XDODQG DWWUDFWLYHWRPHQ%HLQJVH[XDOO\YLVLEOHEULQJVWKHULVNRISUHGDWLRQ0RVW ZRPHQHQJLQHHUVXQOLNHWKHLUPHQFROOHDJXHVKDYHH[SHULHQFHGXQZDQWHG ÀLUWLQJDQGRUVH[XDOKDUDVVPHQWIURPPHQFROOHDJXHVRUDVVRFLDWHVDWVRPH SRLQW

)URPDVWXG\RIZRPHQDQGPHQHQJLQHHUVLQVL[RUJDQLVDWLRQVLQ1RUZD\LQ WKHODWHV(OLQ.YDQGH  LGHQWL¿HGIRXUµLGHDOW\SH¶IHPLQLQLWLHV VSOLWRQWZRD[HV L VDPHQHVVRUGLIIHUHQFHWRPHQDQG LL SURDFWLYHRUQRW with respect to their careers. Younger women and women who opted to not KDYHFKLOGUHQWHQGHGWRDGRSWDµVDPHQHVVVWUDWHJ\¶ZKHUHE\WKH\VRXJKWWR¿W LQDQGRUFRPSHWHZLWKWKHPHQRQWKHPHQ¶VWHUPV/LNHZRPHQLQWKHVWXG- LHVUHSRUWHGHDUOLHUWKH\EHOLHYHGJHQGHULVQRWUHOHYDQWDWZRUNDQGWHQGHG WRGLVWDQFHWKHPVHOYHVIURPRWKHUZRPHQ%\FRQWUDVWZRPHQZLWKFKLOGUHQ SXUVXHGDµGLIIHUHQFHVWUDWHJ\¶EHFDXVH³%\EHLQJSUHJQDQWWKHZRPHQHUDVH WKHLGHDRI JHQGHU QHXWUDOLW\DWWKHZRUNSODFH´ .YDQGH 7KH\ ZHUHXQZLOOLQJWRFRQIRUPWRWKHRUJDQLVDWLRQDOQRUPVDQGYDOXHVVRHLWKHU ZLWKGUHZIURPWKHFRPSHWLWLRQDQGSULRULWLVHGIDPLO\OLIHRUDWWHPSWHGWRFRP- ELQHIDPLO\DQGFDUHHUE\FRPSHWLQJRQWKHLURZQWHUPV 7KH VDPHGLIIHUHQW FKRLFH RI DYDLODEOH IHPLQLQLWLHV UHYHDOHG KHUH VWDQGV LQVRPHFRQWUDVWWRWKHIDLUO\ZLGHUDQJHRIPDVFXOLQLWLHVVRPHRIWKHPTXLWH PDUJLQDODFFRPPRGDWHGLQWKHHQJLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHV,VWXGLHG )DXONQHU D .YDQGHDWWULEXWHVWKLVSRODULW\WRDµGLOHPPDRIGLIIHUHQFH¶ZKHUHE\ ZRPHQ KDYH WR SRVLWLRQ WKHLU JHQGHU LGHQWLWLHV LQ UHODWLRQ WR WKH KHJHPRQLF PDVFXOLQLW\LHV VHH&RQQHOO RSHUDWLQJLQWKHSURIHVVLRQ7KLVGLOHPPD RIGLIIHUHQFHLVIXQGDPHQWDOO\OLQNHGWRWKHQRQFRQJUXHQFHRIJHQGHUDQGHQ- JLQHHULQJLGHQWLWLHVIRUZRPHQHQJLQHHUVFDSWXUHGE\WKHJHQGHULQDXWKHQWLFLW\ FRQFHSW,IWREHDµUHDOHQJLQHHU¶LVWREHDPDQand if ‘men’ and ‘women’ are necessarily differentWKHQZRPHQHQJLQHHUVKDYHWRSOD\GRZQWKHLULGHQWLW\DV µUHDOZRPHQ¶LIWKH\DUHWREHORQJLQHQJLQHHULQJ:KLOVWZRPHQHQJLQHHUVDUH KLJKO\YLVLEOHDVZRPHQWKH\PXVWDOVROHDUQWRLQVRPHVHQVHEHFRPHinYLV- LEOHDVZRPHQ7KLVLVZKDW-RUJHQVRQ  PHDQVE\³GLVTXDOLI\LQJWKHLU IHPLQLQLW\´DSHUKDSVVXSHU¿FLDOH[DPSOHEHLQJ.YDQGH¶V¿QGLQJWKDWZRPHQ HQJLQHHUVZKR³ZHDUIULOOV´RUXVHPDNHXSZRXOGQRWEHWDNHQVHULRXVO\ -RUJHQVRQ  KDVFKDOOHQJHGWKHWHQGHQF\RIWKHZRPHQLQHQJLQHHU- LQJOLWHUDWXUHWRFDVWZRPHQDVYLFWLPVRU OHVVFRPPRQO\ UHVLVWHUVDUJXLQJ IRUDPRUHQXDQFHGDQGVLWXDWHGDQDO\VLVP\RZQUHVHDUFKVXSSRUWVWKLVPRYH &HUWDLQO\P\¿HOGZRUNLGHQWL¿HGSUHVVXUHVWREHFRPHµRQHRIWKHODGV¶LIWKH\ DUHWR¿WLQWRDZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHODUJHO\GH¿QHGE\DQGFRPIRUWDEOHWRPHQ ZKHUHLQVRPHVHWWLQJV¿WWLQJLQFDQPHDQVLWWLQJRQWKHPDUJLQVRIFRQYHUVD- WLRQVDERXWIRRWEDOODQGIDPLOLHVJRLQJDORQJZLWKVH[XDOKXPRXURUVZHDULQJ DQGVRIRUWK )DXONQHUD %XWP\HYLGHQFHDOVRUHYHDOVDPRUHFRPSOH[ DQGFKDQJLQJSLFWXUHWKDQLVVXJJHVWHGE\WKHµGLVTXDOLI\LQJRIIHPLQLQLW\¶ FRQFOXVLRQ RI PXFK HDUOLHU UHVHDUFK:KHQ , DVNHG ZRPHQ HQJLQHHUV ZKDW 196 WENDY FAULKNER

WKH\IHOWDERXWJRLQJLQWRDQRFFXSDWLRQGRPLQDWHGE\PHQWKH¿UVWUHVSRQVH RIPDQ\ZDVWKDWWKH\HQMR\WKHFRPSDQ\RIPHQDQGKDYHPDQ\PHQIULHQGV 6RPHUHOLVKWKHFKDOOHQJHWKLVSUHVHQWV2LO¿HOGHQJLQHHU.DWKOHHQ³OLNHGEH- LQJ D QRYHOW\´ DQG IHHOV YHU\ SURXG WKDW VKH ³ZDV JRRG DW WKH MRE DQG JRW QRWLFHGIRULW´2WKHUVDUHSUDJPDWLFFODLPLQJWKDWEHLQJYLVLEOHDVDwoman HQJLQHHUFDQZRUNWRWKHLUDGYDQWDJHRQFHWKHLUHQJLQHHULQJFUHGHQWLDOVare established, colleagues and contacts remember them because they ‘stand out LQWKHFURZG¶(QJLQHHULQJ@%HLQJ CAN WOMEN ENGINEERS BE ‘REAL ENGINEERS’ AND ‘REAL WOMEN’? 197

PDOHGRPLQDWHGGRHVQ¶WERWKHUPH,DOZD\VKDGPRUHPHQIULHQGVWKDQZRP- HQ0DQ\ZRPHQDUHWRRJLUO\,WKLQN,KDYHPDQDJHGWRVWD\YHU\IHPLQLQH PHQFRPPHQWRQLW6RPH>ZRPHQHQJLQHHUV@KDYHORVWLWDELWEHFDXVH>«@ LWVWDUWVHDUO\´5HIHUHQFHVWRZRPHQHQJLQHHUVZKRKDYHµORVWLW¶ZHUHFRP- PRQLQWKHRLO¿HOGHQJLQHHULQJFRPSDQ\7KLVXQGHUOLQHVWKHWKUHDGUXQQLQJ WKURXJKWKHOLWHUDWXUHWKDWVLPSO\E\EHLQJDZRPDQLQDPDQ¶VMREZRPHQ engineers jeopardise their status as women. But notice the delicate juggling DFW/HLODLVµYHU\IHPLQLQH¶EXWQRWµWRRJLUO\¶6LPLODUO\/pDWROGPHVKHWULHV WR¿QG³DPHGLXPSODFHEHWZHHQµJLUOVZLWKQDLOV¶DQGµIHPLQLVW¶´6RZKDW we see here is a tension between two gender messages: one which says, ‘To EHDZRPDQHQJLQHHULVWREHVRPHZKDWOHVVFRQYHQWLRQDOO\IHPLQLQHRUPRUH PDVFXOLQHWKDQPRVWZRPHQ¶ VHYHUDORIWKHZRPHQVRIWZDUHGHYHORSHUV, LQWHUYLHZHGPDGHFRPPHQWVOLNHWKLVDERXWWKHPVHOYHV WKHRWKHUZKLFKVD\V µ7REHD³UHDOZRPDQ´±RULQP\WHUPVWRSUHVHUYHRQH¶VJHQGHUDXWKHQWLFLW\ ±RQHPXVWFRQIRUPWRVWHUHRW\SHVRIIHPLQLQLW\¶7KDWWKHUHTXLUHGVWHUHRW\SHV UHPDLQKHWHURQRUPDWLYHLVHYLGHQWLQ/HLOD¶VUHIHUHQFHWRPHQDVWKHMXGJLQJ DXGLHQFHIRUµVWD\LQJIHPLQLQH¶DQGLQWKHFRQFHUQVRIPHQRIIVKRUHWRµSUR- WHFW¶WKHLUZRPHQFRZRUNHUVIURPXQGXHVH[XDOSUHGDWLRQDQGKDUGODERXU

CONCLUSION

*HQGHULQDXWKHQWLFLW\DQGWKHLQYLVLELOLW\SDUDGR[FUHDWHLVVXHVIRUZRPHQ HQJLQHHUVZKLFKPHQHQJLQHHUVE\YLUWXHRIEHLQJPHQUDUHO\KDYHWRH[SHUL- ence. Through numerous subtle and not so subtle dynamics, women engineers DUHSHUFHLYHGDQGFDQIHHOWKHPVHOYHVWREHQRWTXLWHµUHDOHQJLQHHUV¶or ‘real ZRPHQ¶0HQHQJLQHHUVEHORQJPRUHµQDWXUDOO\¶ERWKSURIHVVLRQDOO\DQGLQ WHUPVRIJHQGHUZKLOVWZRPHQKDYHWRGRDGGLWLRQDOLGHQWLW\ZRUNRQERWK IURQWVLIWKH\DUHWRVHFXUHWKHLUPHPEHUVKLSLQDQGVRVWD\DQGSURJUHVVLQ HQJLQHHULQJ7KHFXPXODWLYHLPSDFWRIWKHVHLQYLVLELOLW\G\QDPLFVRQLQGL- YLGXDOZRPHQHQJLQHHUVFDQEHLQVLGLRXVDQGXQGHUPLQLQJWKURXJKRXWWKHLU FDUHHUV±DµGULSSLQJWDS¶HIIHFW6WXGLHVDQGSROLF\UHFRPPHQGDWLRQVRQWKH UHWHQWLRQDQGSURJUHVVLRQRIZRPHQLQHQJLQHHULQJ HJ(XURSHDQ&RPPLV- VLRQ   W\SLFDOO\ IRUHJURXQG VWUXFWXUDO IDFWRUV OLNH WKH ODFN RI ÀH[LEOH ZRUNSUDFWLFHVDQGWKHQRUPRIORQJZRUNLQJKRXUV6LJQL¿FDQWWKRXJKWKHVH LVVXHVDUHKRZHYHUP\UHVHDUFKGHPRQVWUDWHVKRZVXEWOHµWDNHQIRUJUDQWHG¶ JHQGHUG\QDPLFVLQZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHVDOVRKDYHDKXJHEHDULQJ±DQGVRDOVR need to be tackled. 198 WENDY FAULKNER

)RUVRPHWKHODQJXDJHRIJHQGHULQDXWKHQWLFLW\LPSOLHVDZRUU\LQJHVVHQ- WLDOLVWMXGJHPHQW±DERXWµUHDO¶ZRPHQHWF7KHSRLQWIRUPHLVWKDWLWVLJQDOV real membershipRIHQJLQHHULQJDQGJHQGHUV7KHGHHSHU,UHÀHFWHGRQP\ HYLGHQFHWKHPRUH,UHDOLVHGWKDWLWLVSUHFLVHO\WKHVKRFNLQJTXDOLW\RIWKH WHUPWKDWJLYHVWKHFRQFHSWVDOLHQFHLWVLJQDOVKRZFRQVHTXHQWLDOLWLVWREH DQµH[FHSWLRQWRWKHQRUP¶±DQGFRQYHUVHO\KRZPXFKHDVLHUOLIHLVIRUWKRVH ZKRFRQIRUPWRWKHQRUP,WZRXOGEHZURQJKRZHYHUWRYLHZJHQGHUVLQRI HQJLQHHULQJDVPRQROLWKLFDQGXQFKDQJLQJ0\HYLGHQFHRQWKHLQYLVLELOLW\RI ZRPHQHQJLQHHUVLVPL[HGDVLWLVRQRWKHUJHQGHUG\QDPLFVLQRIHQJLQHHULQJ ZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHV7KLVFRPSOH[LW\DOORZVXVWRFRQVLGHUWKHVHFRQGDVSHFW RIWKHJHQGHULQDXWKHQWLFLW\FRQFHSW±QDPHO\WKHQRUPDWLYHSUHVVXUHVRIWKH ZD\WKLQJVDUH±DQGWRSRVHWKHTXHVWLRQKRZPLJKWJHQGHUFKDQJHKDSSHQ be happening in engineering? ,QWKLVFRQQHFWLRQ,KDYHIRXQGLWXVHIXOWRUHVXUUHFWWKHGXDOPHDQLQJRI QRUPDVVWDWLVWLFDOQRUPDQGDVVRFLRORJLFDOO\QRUPDWLYHSUHVVXUHV,WVHHPVWR me that both are operating in engineering workplace cultures. Thus, compari- VRQRIWKHGLIIHUHQWZRUNSODFHV,VWXGLHG )DXONQHUD UHYHDOVWKDWHQJL- QHHULQJZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHVDUHPRUHFRPIRUWDEOHIRU PRVW PHQWKDQ PRVW  ZRPHQWRWKHGHJUHHWKDW L PHQRXWQXPEHUZRPHQDQGWKDW LL QDUURZDQG locally hegemonic gender norms are operating. In general, the largest cultural JURXSZLOOWHQGWRVHWWKHWRQHLQDQ\ZRUNSODFHOHDYLQJDQ\PLQRULW\JURXSV WRDGDSWDQGµ¿WLQ¶7KLVLVZKDW9LYLDQ/DJHVHQ  FDOOVWKHµVWUHQJWKRI QXPEHUV¶SKHQRPHQRQ7KHJUHDWHUWKHUHODWLYHQXPEHUVRIPHQWRZRPHQ WKHJUHDWHUWKHQRUPDWLYHSUHVVXUHVDQGWKHPRUHWHQXRXVO\ZRPHQEHORQJ$W WKHVDPHWLPHZRPHQ¶VPHPEHUVKLSDQGFDUHHUSURJUHVVLRQLQHQJLQHHULQJ DUHVWURQJHUZKHUHRUJDQLVDWLRQVZRUNWRQXUWXUHPRUHLQFOXVLYHZRUNSODFH FXOWXUHV6RWKHLPSDFWRIUHODWLYHQXPEHUVFDQEHREYLDWHGWRVRPHH[WHQW WKURXJKLQVWUXPHQWVOLNHVWURQJWHDPPDQDJHPHQWDQGGLYHUVLW\WUDLQLQJ 5RVDEHWK 0RVV .DQWHU¶V SLRQHHULQJ VWXG\ RI ZRPHQ HQWHULQJ WKH VDOHV IRUFHRIDODUJH86FRUSRUDWLRQ  LGHQWL¿HGWKUHHFRPPRQH[SHULHQFHV WKH\IHOWKLJKO\YLVLEOHDVZRPHQDQGXQGHUSUHVVXUHVWRSHUIRUPEHWWHUWKDQ WKHPHQWKH\IHOWLVRODWHGIURPWKHPHQ¶VLQIRUPDODQGSURIHVVLRQDOQHWZRUNV DQGWKH\IHOWWUDSSHGLQJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHGUROHV7KHVH¿QGLQJVKDYHEHHQ HFKRHG LQ QXPHURXV VXEVHTXHQW VWXGLHV HJ 3DGDYLF   2I SDUWLFXODU QRWHKHUHLQYLVLELOLW\G\QDPLFVDQGSUHVVXUHVWRSHUIRUPJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFH DUH DOPRVW LQYDULDEO\ H[SHULHQFHG E\ ZRPHQ LQ RFFXSDWLRQV GRPLQDWHG E\ PHQ.DQWHUDWWULEXWHGWKLVWRWKHQXPHULFDOJHQGHULPEDODQFHRIDQRFFXSD- WLRQEXWLQDSHUVXDVLYHFULWLTXH-DQLFH

KLHUDUFKLHVVHJUHJDWLRQDQGYDULRXVIRUPVRIVH[LVPDUHDOVRFULWLFDO7KLV FRQFXUVZLWKP\FRQFOXVLRQWKDWUHODWLYHQXPEHUVandQRUPDWLYHSUHVVXUHVLQ the wider gender order both work to reproduce stability. &ULWLFDODPRQJVWWKHVHQRUPDWLYHSUHVVXUHVLVWKHWHQGHQF\WRVHHZRPHQ DV QHFHVVDULO\ GLIIHUHQW IURP PHQ ZKLFK VR UHDGLO\ FRQVWUDLQHG WKH JHQGHU SHUIRUPDQFHV , REVHUYHG -XGLWK %XWOHU   DUJXHV WKDW WKLV LGHRORJ\ RI JHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHLVDFUXFLDOV\PEROLFDVSHFWRIKHWHURQRUPDWLYLW\WKDWPRVW SHRSOHKDYHDQLQYHVWPHQWLQSROLFLQJERXQGDULHVDURXQGZKDWLVDGPLVVLEOH IRUZRPHQDQGPHQ HJE\µSURWHFWLQJ¶ZRPHQIURPKHDY\ZRUNRUVZHDU- LQJ  6KH IXUWKHU DUJXHV WKDW WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI GLIIHUHQFH RFFXUV WKURXJK µVW\OLVHGUHSHWLWLRQRIVSHHFKDFWV¶ HJWKHJHQHULFµKH¶ ,WLVFRPPRQWR¿QG WKDWDFWXDOSHRSOHDQGSUDFWLFHVDUHGLYHUVHZKLOHSHRSOH¶VDFFRXQWVRIWKHP WHQGWRGXDOLVH)RUH[DPSOHRQHIUHTXHQWO\KHDUVWKDWZRPHQHQJLQHHUVKDYH EHWWHUµSHRSOHVNLOOV¶WKDQPHQHQJLQHHUVEXW,IRXQGQRHPSLULFDOVXSSRUWIRU WKLVLQDQ\RIWKHZRUNSODFHV,REVHUYHG )DXONQHUE 7KHUHSHWLWLRQRI VXFKSUHVXPSWLRQVVHUYHVWRUHSURGXFHWKHPDQHQJLQHHUDVWKHQRUPDQGWKH ZRPDQHQJLQHHUDVWKHLQYLVLEOHQRQVHTXLWXU 7KHXSVKRWRIWKLVDQDO\VLVLVWKDWZHQHHGWRWDFNOHERWKWKHZLGHUJHQ- GHURUGHUDQGWKHQXPHULFDOJHQGHULPEDODQFHLIZHZDQWWRDFKLHYHJHQGHU equality in engineering. Put another way, we need to normalise the woman HQJLQHHU±ERWKLQWKHVWDWLVWLFDOVHQVHWKDWWKHQXPEHUVRIZRPHQEHFRPH FORVHUWRWKRVHRIPHQDQGLQWKHQRUPDWLYHVHQVHWKDWHQJLQHHULQJEHFRPHV DVµJHQGHUDXWKHQWLF¶DQRSWLRQIRUZRPHQDVIRUPHQ7KLVPHDQVWKDWDVZHOO DVUHFUXLWLQJPRUHZRPHQLQWRHQJLQHHULQJLWVZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHVKDYHWREH PDGHPXFKPRUHZHOFRPLQJFRPIRUWDEOHDQGVXSSRUWLYHSODFHVIRUZRPHQ LQRUGHUWRDYRLGORVLQJRUXQGHUXWLOL]LQJWKHLUWDOHQW 7KH3URPHWHDVWXG\IRXQGWKDWZKLOVWPRVWODUJHHQJLQHHULQJRUJDQLVD- WLRQVDFURVV(XURSHQRZKDYHSROLFLHVZKLFKVHHNWRLPSURYHWKHUHWHQWLRQDQG SURJUHVVLRQRIZRPHQHQJLQHHUV±DGGUHVVLQJIDPLO\UHODWHGLVVXHVZRUNOLIH EDODQFHDQGFDUHHUGHYHORSPHQW±WKHXSWDNHDQGWKHLPSDFWRIVXFKSROLFLHV LVJHQHUDOO\OLPLWHGRUXQHYHQ /HHHWDO 0RUHRYHUIHZGRDQ\WKLQJ to address gender dynamics in the workplace culture. There is a crying need IRUVXVWDLQHGµFXOWXUHFKDQJH¶WRµZLQKHDUWVDQGPLQGV¶EHKLQGHTXDOLW\DQG GLYHUVLW\ SURJUDPPHV DW DOO OHYHOV RI RUJDQLVDWLRQV VHH /LII DQG &DPHURQ  6XFKFXOWXUHFKDQJHUHTXLUHVWLPHDQGFRPPLWPHQW$FHQWUDOHOHPHQW KDVWREHUDLVLQJDZDUHQHVVRILQYLVLELOLW\DQGRWKHUJHQGHUG\QDPLFVLQWKH ZRUNSODFH7KLVLVHVSHFLDOO\FKDOOHQJLQJQRWRQO\EHFDXVHRIKRVWLOLW\WRIHP- LQLVPDQGSHUFHSWLRQVRIµXQIDLUWUHDWPHQW¶EXWDOVREHFDXVHPDQ\H[FOXVLRQ- 200 WENDY FAULKNER

DU\SUDFWLFHVDQGFXOWXUHVDUHVRWDNHQIRUJUDQWHGWKH\DSSHDUµQRUPDO¶7KH\ persist because that they are not seenDVH[FOXVLRQDU\HYHQE\PHPEHUVZKR FDUHGHHSO\DERXWJHQGHUHTXDOLW\DQGZKRDFWLYHO\VXSSRUWZRPHQHQJLQHHUV 7RQVRVHHDOVR)UHKLOO  7KLVYHU\WDNHQIRUJUDQWHGQHVVLVDNH\UHDVRQZK\JHQGHULQFOXVLYHHI- IRUWVWRGDWHKDYHKDGRQO\OLPLWHGLPSDFW7KHUHPD\EHSURPLVHKRZHYHU LQP\¿QGLQJWKDWLQYLVLELOLW\G\QDPLFVDUHIDUOHVVSURPLQHQWLQZRPHQ¶V LQGLYLGXDOLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKFORVHPHQFRZRUNHUVWKDQLQJURXSVLWXDWLRQVDQG HQFRXQWHUVZLWKRXWVLGHUV DOVRREVHUYHGE\3DGDYLF :LWKFDUHIXOZRUN RQGLYHUVLW\DZDUHQHVVVXFKPHQFRXOGEHFRPHDJHQWVRIJHQGHUFKDQJH± FKDOOHQJLQJWKHWHQGHQF\RIRWKHUPHQDVVRFLDWHVWRLJQRUHXQGHUPLQHRUVWH- UHRW\SHWKHLUFORVHZRPHQFROOHDJXHV±VRWDNLQJWKHSUHVVXUHIURPWKHPWRGR DOOWKH¿JKWLQJRUGHPXUH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

7KLVVWXG\FRXOGQRWKDYHKDSSHQHGZLWKRXWWKH¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWRIWKH8. (FRQRPLFDQG6RFLDO5HVHDUFK&RXQFLODQGWKH%ULWLVK$FDGHP\IRUWKH86 ¿HOGZRUN , DP DOVR JUDWHIXO WR DOO WKH ZRPHQ DQG PHQ HQJLQHHUV ZKR VR JHQHURXVO\SXWXSZLWKPHµKDQJLQJRXW¶ZKLOVWWKH\ZRUNHGDQGJDYHRIWKHLU CAN WOMEN ENGINEERS BE ‘REAL ENGINEERS’ AND ‘REAL WOMEN’? 201

WLPHWRWDONWRPH:DUPWKDQNVWRDOOZKRJDYHVXSSRUWLYHIHHGEDFNRQHDUOLHU LQFDUQDWLRQVRIWKLVFKDSWHU±HVSHFLDOO\9LYLDQ/DJHVHQ8OI0HOOVWU|P.QXW 6¡UHQVHQDQG.DUHQ7RQVR±SOXVWKUHHUHIHUHHVRIWKHNH\MRXUQDODUWLFOHV )DXONQHUDDQGE 

REFERENCES

$FNHU-  *HQGHULQJRUJDQL]DWLRQDOWKHRU\,Q$OEHUW-0LOOV$-DQG 7DQFU 3 HGV  Gendering Organizational Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: 6DJH± %XWOHU -   *HQGHU 7URXEOH )HPLQLVP DQG WKH 6XEYHUVLRQ RI ,GHQWLW\ London: Routledge. &DUWHU5DQG.LUNXS*  :RPHQLQ(QJLQHHULQJ Basingstoke: Macmil- lan. &ROOLQVRQ'/DQG+HDUQ- HGV   Men as Managers, Managers as Men. London: Sage. &RQQHOO5:  *HQGHUDQG3RZHU6RFLHW\WKH3HUVRQDQG6H[XDO3ROL- tics. Cambridge: Polity Press. 'U\EXUJK+  :RUN+DUG3OD\+DUG:RPHQDQG3URIHVVLRQDOL]DWLRQLQ (QJLQHHULQJ±$GDSWLQJWRWKH&XOWXUHGender and Society  ± (LVHQKDUW0DQG)LQNHO(  Women’s Science: Learning and Succeeding form the Margins.&KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV (XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ  Women in Science and Technology: The Busi- ness Perspective.%UXVVHOV'LUHFWRUDWH*HQHUDOIRU5HVHDUFK6FLHQFHDQG 6RFLHW\±:RPHQDQG6FLHQFH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQ )DXONQHU: D 7KHSRZHUDQGWKHSOHDVXUH"$UHVHDUFKDJHQGDIRUµPDN- LQJ JHQGHU VWLFN¶ WR HQJLQHHUV 6FLHQFH 7HFKQRORJ\  +XPDQ 9DOXHV   ± )DXONQHU: E 'XDOLVPVKLHUDUFKLHVDQGJHQGHULQHQJLQHHULQJSocial Studies of Science  ± )DXONQHU:  Genders in/of engineering: a research report. Swindon: ESRC. )DXONQHU:  µ1XWVDQGEROWVDQGSHRSOH¶*HQGHUWURXEOHGHQJLQHHULQJ identities. Social Studies of Science  ± )DXONQHU: D 'RLQJJHQGHULQHQJLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHV3DUW,± 2EVHUYDWLRQVIURPWKH¿HOG(QJLQHHULQJ6WXGLHV  ± 202 WENDY FAULKNER

)DXONQHU: E 'RLQJJHQGHULQHQJLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHFXOWXUHV3DUW,, ±*HQGHULQDXWKHQWLFLW\DQGWKHLQYLVLELOLW\SDUDGR[(QJLQHHULQJ6WXGLHV   ± )UHKLOO/  6XEWOHVH[LVPLQHQJLQHHULQJ,Q%HQRNUDLWLV19 HG Subtle 6H[LVP &XUUHQW 3UDFWLFHV DQG 3URVSHFWV IRU &KDQJH Thousand Oaks, &$6DJH± *RGIUR\*HQLQ$6 HG   :RPHQLQ(QJLQHHULQJ5HVHDUFK Proceed- LQJVRIWKH3520(7($&RQIHUHQFH3DULV2FWREHU±=XULFK /LW9HUODJ +DFNHU6  Pleasure, power and technology: Some tales of gender, engi- neering, and the cooperative workplace. Boston: Unwin Hyman. +DFNHU6  'RLQJLWWKHKDUGZD\,QYHVWLJDWLRQVRIJHQGHUDQGWHFKQRO- ogy. Boston: Unwin Hyman. +DOIRUG66DYDJH0DQG:LW]$  Gender, Career and Organisations. Basingstoke: MacMillan. -RUJHQVRQ -   (QJLQHHULQJ VHOYHV 1HJRWLDWLQJ JHQGHU DQG LGHQWLW\ LQ technical work. 0DQDJHPHQW&RPPXQLFDWLRQ4XDUWHUO\  ± .DQWHU 50   Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books. .HOOHU()  +RZJHQGHUPDWWHUVRUZK\LW¶VVRKDUGIRUXVWRFRXQWSDVW WZR,Q.LUNXS*DQG6PLWK.HOOHU/ HGV ,QYHQWLQJ:RPHQ6FLHQFH Technology and Gender.&DPEULGJH3ROLW\3UHVV± .OHLI7DQG)DXONQHU:  µ,¶PQRDWKOHWH>EXW@,FDQPDNHWKLVWKLQJ GDQFH¶ 0HQ¶V SOHDVXUHV LQ WHFKQRORJ\ 6FLHQFH 7HFKQRORJ\  +XPDQ Values  ± .YDQGH(  ,QWKHEHOO\RIWKHEHDVW&RQVWUXFWLQJIHPLQLQLWLHVLQHQ- gineering organizations. 7KH (XURSHDQ -RXUQDO RI :RPHQ¶V 6WXGLHV 6: ± /DJHVHQ9$  7KHVWUHQJWKRIQXPEHUV6WUDWHJLHVWRLQFOXGHZRPHQLQWR computer science. Social Studies of Science  ± /HH/  (PSRZHULQJZRPHQLQ,&7WKURXJKSURIHVVLRQDOQHWZRUNV,Q 6¡UHQVHQ.+5RPPHV(DQG)DXONQHU: HGV 7HFKQRORJLHVRI,QFOX- VLRQ *HQGHU LQ WKH ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6RFLHW\ Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press. /HH/)DXONQHU:DQG$OHPDQ\&  7XUQLQJJRRGSROLFLHVLQWRJRRG SUDFWLFH:K\LVLWVRGLI¿FXOW",QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI*HQGHU6FLHQFH and Technology  $YDLODEOHDWKWWSJHQGHUDQGVHWRSHQDFXNLQGH[ SKSJHQGHUDQGVHWDUWLFOHYLHZ DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  CAN WOMEN ENGINEERS BE ‘REAL ENGINEERS’ AND ‘REAL WOMEN’? 203

/LII 6 DQG &DPHURQ ,   &KDQJLQJ HTXDOLW\ FXOWXUHV WR PRYH EH\RQG µZRPHQ¶VSUREOHPV¶Gender, Work and Organization  ± /RKDQ0DQG)DXONQHU:   Men and Masculinities. Special Issue on 0DVFXOLQLWLHVDQG7HFKQRORJLHV  ± 0F,OZHH-6DQG5RELQVRQ-*  :RPHQLQ(QJLQHHULQJ*HQGHU3RZHU and Workplace Culture.$OEDQ\1<6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\RI1HZ

6LPLODU%XW'LIIHUHQW" Cognitive Differences in the Discussion of Women in Science and Technology

ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

INTRODUCTION

5HFHQW \HDUV KDYH VHHQ D JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW LQ LQFUHDVLQJ WKH SURSRUWLRQ RI ZRPHQLQVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ VHH2(&' PRWLYDWHGE\HFRQRPLF considerations and/or policies to promote gender equality. A recurring topic LQSHUWLQHQWGLVFXVVLRQVKDVEHHQWKHTXHVWLRQZKHWKHUJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQ FRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFRXOGEHDUHDVRQZK\ZRPHQGHVSLWHQXPHURXVLQLWLDWLYHV FRQWLQXHWREHXQGHUUHSUHVHQWHGLQWHFKQLFDO¿HOGV±FHUWDLQO\DYHU\VHQVLWLYH issue.1:KLOHVRPHFRQGHPQWKHTXHVWLRQLWVHOIDVRXWUDJHRXVRWKHUVDVNZK\ ZRPHQVKRXOGEH³SXVKHG´LQWR¿HOGVWKDWGRQRWDSSHDOWRWKHP,QOLQHZLWK &HFLDQG:LOOLDPV  ZHWKLQNWKDWWKHUHLVDQHHGIRUDPRUHVREHUGLVFXV- VLRQWKDWWDNHVLQWRDFFRXQWWKHLPSUHVVLYHERG\RIUHVHDUFKWKDWDFFXPXODWHG RYHUUHFHQW\HDUV 7KHVHGLVFXVVLRQVRIWHQIRFXVRQWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUJHQGHUGLIIHU- HQFHVDFWXDOO\H[LVWRUQRW$VZHZLOOVKRZWKHUHVXOWVRIQXPHURXVVWXGLHV RQFRJQLWLYHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVDUHPXOWLIDFHWHGDQGKLJKO\QXDQFHG7KXVLW LVQRWKDUGWR¿QGVWXGLHVWKDWFDQEHFLWHGWRVXSSRUWDQ\JLYHQVWDQGSRLQW and the discussion quickly starts going in circles. Furthermore, a politically

_$ZHOONQRZQH[DPSOHLVDVSHHFKE\WKHWKHQSUHVLGHQWRI+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\ RQWKHXQGHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIZRPHQLQVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ZKLFKFUHDWHGDZRUOG- ZLGHVWLU+LVHODERUDWLRQVRQDELOLW\GLIIHUHQFHVDPRQJWRSDFKLHYHUVSURYRNHGDVWRUP RILQGLJQDWLRQEXWWKH\DOVRODXQFKHGPRUHQXDQFHGHIIRUWVWRDGGUHVVWKHLVVXH VHHIRU H[DPSOH&HFLDQG:LOOLDPV1DWXUH1HXURVFLHQFH  206 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

PRWLYDWHGSRLQWRIYLHZRIWHQLQPDQ\ZD\VKDPSHUVDVREHUDVVHVVPHQWRIWKH UHVXOWV(VSHFLDOO\LQUHFHQW\HDUVWKRXJKZHKDYHZLWQHVVHGWKHHPHUJHQFH RILQWHUHVWLQJUHVHDUFKUHVXOWVLQVHYHUDOUHVSHFWV,QSDUWLFXODUWKHSXEOLFDWLRQ RIPHWDDQDO\VHVWKDWVXPPDUL]HDQGHYDOXDWHWKHUHVXOWVRIPDQ\VWXGLHVQHZ VWXGLHVLQWKH¿HOGRIVWHUHRW\SHUHVHDUFKDQGWKHFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIQHZLVVXHV VXFKDVZKHWKHUJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHFRJQLWLYHDUHDDUHVWDEOHRUVXEMHFW WRFKDQJH KDYHGHOLYHUHGQHZLPSHWXVWRWKHGLVFXVVLRQ (YHQLIWKHHPSLULFDO¿QGLQJVFRQWLQXHWRLQGLFDWHDFRPSOH[SDWWHUQRI VLPLODULWLHVDQGGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQPHQDQGZRPHQZHHQGHDYRULQWKLVSD- per to summarize the research results in a kaleidoscopic way. We begin by TXHVWLRQLQJWKHUROHRIFRPSHWHQFHIRUWKHVWHUHRW\SLFDOSHUFHSWLRQVRIPHQ DQGZRPHQDQGGLVFXVVZKDWWKLVPHDQVZLWKUHVSHFWWRTXHVWLRQLQJZRPHQ¶V DSWLWXGHIRUWHFKQLFDO¿HOGV:HWKHQVXUYH\WKHFXUUHQWVWDWHRIUHVHDUFKRQ JHQGHUVSHFL¿FFRJQLWLYHGLIIHUHQFHVWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWYDULRXVLQWHUSUHWD- WLRQVRIIHUHGIRUWKHUHVXOWV)LQDOO\ZHVKLIWSHUVSHFWLYHDZD\IURPFRQVLGHU- LQJZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQFRJQLWLYHDELOLWLHVDQGUDLVHWKH SUDJPDWLFTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUFRJQLWLYHDELOLWLHVFDQEHLQÀXHQFHGDQGLIVR KRZ:HVWURQJO\IDYRUIRVWHULQJWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHVKLIWLQWKHGLVFXVVLRQDVD ZKROH:HDUHFRQYLQFHGWKDWWKLVFDQVDYHHQHUJ\SUHYHQWIUXVWUDWLRQDQG FUHDWHDFRQVWUXFWLYHFOLPDWHDPRQJWKHYDULRXVSURWDJRQLVWV

STEREOTYPES ABOUT WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

What stereotypes exist?

³,W VHHPV WR PH WKDW LQ WKH EHJLQQLQJ ZRPHQ DUH DOZD\V JURVVO\XQGHUHVWLPDWHG´ )HPDOHVWXGHQW ³(YHQEHIRUH,VWDUWHGWKH\VDLG$ZRPDQLQFRPSXWHUVFL- HQFHIRUJHWLW´ )UHVKPDQFRHG

7KHVHTXRWHVIURPDJURXSGLVFXVVLRQZHFRQGXFWHGIRURXUVWXG\2 illustrate KRZIHPDOHFROOHJHVWXGHQWVSHUFHLYHWKHDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHLUFRPSHWHQFH$Q

2 _ ,Q 7(TXDOLW\ ± 7HFKQLN*HQGHU(TXDOLW\ ZH LQYHVWLJDWHG IDFWRUV WKDW LQÀXHQFHG ZKHWKHUVWXGHQWVZHUHVXFFHVVIXOLQRUGURSSHGRXWRIWKHFRPSXWHUVFLHQFHDQGPHFKD- WURQLFVSURJUDPVDWD0LGGOH(XURSHDQ8QLYHUVLW\2QWKHEDVLVRIRXU¿QGLQJVZHGH- SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 207

RSHQO\DUWLFXODWHGXQLYHUVDOGHQLJUDWLRQRIZRPHQKDVQRZEHFRPHJHQHU- DOO\XQDFFHSWDEOH (FNHVDQG 6L[0DWHUQD QHYHUWKHOHVVVWHUHRW\SHV DERXWWKHSXUSRUWHGQDWXUHRIJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV±HJWKDWPHQKDYHVXSHULRU PDWKHPDWLFDOWHFKQLFDODELOLWLHV±WHQDFLRXVO\SHUVLVW *HQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDUHFRJQLWLYHVWUXFWXUHVWKDWFRQYH\VRFLDOO\VKDUHGDV- VXPSWLRQVDQGRUDFXOWXUDOO\VKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIFKDUDFWHULVWLFTXDOLWLHV RIPHQDQGZRPHQ (FNHV $VUHFHQWVWHUHRW\SHUHVHDUFKVKRZV HJ &XGG\HWDO)LVNHHWDO*OLFNDQG)LVNH DWWULEXWLRQVRI SDUWLFXODUDELOLWLHVRUWKHODFNRIWKHPFRQVWLWXWHDVXEVWDQWLDOSRUWLRQRIPDQ\ VWHUHRW\SHV9LHZLQJSUHMXGLFHVDVH[FOXVLYHO\QHJDWLYHMXGJPHQWSDVVHGRQD JURXSXVXDOO\PLVVHVWKHPDUNE\IDLOLQJWRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHIDFWWKDWWKH SRZHUIXOLQÀXHQFHRIPDQ\VWHUHRW\SHVLQHYHU\GD\OLIHLVGXHSUHFLVHO\WRWKH IDFWWKDWWKH\FRPELQHSRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHYLHZVRIDJURXS 7ZRGLPHQVLRQVDUHHVSHFLDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWLQFRQQHFWLRQZLWKJURXSVWH- UHRW\SLQJ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHPDWWHURIFRPSHWHQFHWKHDVFULSWLRQRIVRFLDO ZDUPWK LQWKHIRUPRIIULHQGOLQHVVKHOSIXOQHVVDFDULQJQDWXUH DOVRKDVSDU- WLFXODUVLJQL¿FDQFH7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHVHWZRGLPHQVLRQVPDNHVLWSRVVL- EOHWRGLIIHUHQWLDWHDPRQJIRXUJURXSVRIVWHUHRW\SHVHDFKRQHRIZKLFKHOLFLWV VSHFL¿FSUHMXGLFLDOG\QDPLFVDQGLVDOVRFRQQHFWHGZLWKVSHFL¿FIHHOLQJVDQG EHKDYLRUDORSWLRQV &XGG\HWDO 7KLVGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQKLJKOLJKWVWKDWD particular stereotype does not necessarily apply to all women, and that they DUHIUHTXHQWO\FRQIURQWHGE\DPELYDOHQWVWHUHRW\SHVWKDWFRPELQHSRVLWLYHDQG QHJDWLYH DWWULEXWLRQV FRPSHWHQWEXWFROG YHUVXV ZDUPEXWOHVVFRPSHWHQW  7KHFRPSHWHQWEXWFROGDVFULSWLRQLVRIWHQDFFRPSDQLHGE\FOHDUDQWLSDWK\ ZKHUHE\FHUWDLQJURXSVRIZRPHQDUHFRQVLGHUHGWREHDUHDOWKUHDW HJWKH\ DUHVDLGWREHDEOHWRRUZDQWWRFRQWUROPHQ $WWULEXWLQJVRFLDOZDUPWKDQG simultaneously reduced competence, on the other hand, is usually paired with DSDWHUQDOLVWLFDWWLWXGH *OLFNDQG)LVNH ,QRXUVWXG\ZHZHUHDEOHWR REVHUYHWKDWVXFFHVVIXOIHPDOHVWXGHQWVZHUHVDLGE\WKHLUIHOORZVWXGHQWVWREH OHVVVRFLDOO\ZDUPDQGOHVVDWWUDFWLYHLQDIHPLQLQHZD\EXWH[WUHPHO\DPEL- WLRXV,WLVDODUPLQJWKDWWKHVHZRPHQH[SHULHQFHDORZHUGHJUHHRIVRFLDODF-

YHORSHGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVGHVLJQHGWRLPSURYHFRQGLWLRQVIRUVWXGHQWVDQGLQFUHDVHWKH SURSRUWLRQRIZRPHQDPRQJWKHP VHHZZZWHTXDOLW\DWDQG+RUZDWKHWDO  'DWDFROOHFWLRQFRPSULVHGERWKJURXSGLVFXVVLRQVZLWKFXUUHQWDQGIRUPHUVWXGHQWVRI FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH DQG PHFKDWURQLFV DQG D TXHVWLRQQDLUH WR VXUYH\ HYHU\RQH ZKR KDG UHJLVWHUHGIRUHLWKHURIWKHVHWZRSURJUDPVEHWZHHQDQG 208 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

FHSWDQFHDQGIHHOLQJVRIEHORQJLQJLQWKHDFDGHPLFHQYLURQPHQW .URQEHUJHU DQG+RUZDWKIRUWKFRPLQJ  7KHSDWHUQDOLVWLFDWWLWXGHLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\PRUHVRFLDOO\DFFHSWDEOHVLQFH ZRPHQDUHWKHUHE\SRUWUD\HGDVZRQGHUIXOEHLQJV SRVVLEO\ZLWKVRFLDOFXO- WXUDODQGDUWLVWLFJLIWV 7KHIDFWWKDWWKLV±DWOHDVWLPSOLFLWO\±JRHVDORQJ ZLWKQHJDWLRQRIWKHLUFRPSHWHQFHLVVRPHWKLQJRIZKLFKERWKVLGHVDUHRIWHQ QRWFRQVFLRXVO\DZDUH%XWWKLVLVSUHFLVHO\ZK\WKLVVXEWOHIRUPRISUHMXGLFH FDQEHVRLQVLGLRXV3HRSOHZKRWKLQNWKLVZD\DUHXVXDOO\FRQYLQFHGWKDWWKH\ DUHSRVLWLYHO\GLVSRVHGWRZDUGVZRPHQ VXEMHFWLYHEHQHYROHQFH DQGZRPHQ ZKRDUHFRQIURQWHGE\WKLVDWWLWXGHRIWHQGRQRWHYHQSHUFHLYHLWDVVH[LVWRU GLVFULPLQDWRU\5DWKHUVWXGLHVVXJJHVWWKDWZRPHQXVXDOO\KDYHDKDUGWLPH FDWHJRUL]LQJ WKHVH DWWLWXGHV WKH\ ¿QG WKHP VRPHZKDW SHUSOH[LQJ 5XGPDQ DQG*OLFN :KHQLPSOLFLWGHQLDOVRIFRPSHWHQFHDUHH[SUHVVHGLQFRP- ELQDWLRQZLWKSUDLVHWKLVFDQKDYHDGLVDUPLQJHIIHFW 0DQ\RIWKHZRPHQZHVXUYH\HGLQRXUVWXG\DOVRPDLQWDLQWKDWWKH\KDYH KDUGO\H[SHULHQFHGRSHQGLVFULPLQDWLRQDQGVH[LVP0RUHIUHTXHQWO\WKH\UH- SRUWH[SHULHQFLQJLPSOLFLWGHQLDOVRIWKHLUFRPSHWHQFHPRUHRIWHQH[SUHVVHG LQGHHGVWKDQLQZRUGV±IRULQVWDQFHZKHQZRPHQUHODWHWKDWPHQLQWKHLUDJH JURXSDUHTXLWHKHOSIXODQGJODGO\SURYLGHH[SODQDWLRQVDERXWFRXUVHPDWHULDO FRQYHUVHO\WKHVHZRPHQDUHDOVRDZDUHWKDWPHQ±HYHQ\RXQJHUPHQ±KDUGO\ HYHUDSSURDFKWKHPZLWKTXHVWLRQV$UHWKH\QRWFRQVLGHUHGOLNHO\WRNQRZWKH DQVZHU":RPHQDOVRUHSRUWH[SHULHQFLQJGHQLDOVRIWKHLUFRPSHWHQFHFORDNHG in a compliment:

³,W¶VOLNHZKHQSHRSOHFRPHWRPHDQGVD\µ+H\\RX¶UHDZRPDQDQG \RX¶UHVWXG\LQJFRPSXWHUVFLHQFH:RZVXSHUDFKLHYHPHQW¶«0HQ VWXG\PHFKDWURQLFVRUFRPSXWHUVFLHQFHDQGWKDW¶VMXVWQRUPDOEXWLQ P\FDVHLW¶VDQRXWVWDQGLQJDFFRPSOLVKPHQW$QG,JHWWKLVNLQGRIIXQ- Q\IHHOLQJEHFDXVHQRZD\LVWKDWDUHDOFRPSOLPHQW,W¶VVRUWRIDPL[HG PHVVDJHERWKSRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYH´ IHPDOHVWXGHQW

2IFRXUVHZRPHQIHHOÀDWWHUHGZKHQWKH\DUHSUDLVHGDVH[WUDRUGLQDU\QHY- HUWKHOHVVWKLVSUDLVHLVDOVRFRQ¿UPDWLRQWKDWWKHµZRPHQDUHQRWWHFKQLFDOO\ JLIWHG¶VWHUHRW\SHLVVWLOOYHU\PXFKDOLYHZKHUHE\LWPXVWDOVREHHPSKDVL]HG WKDWZRPHQWRRQRWLQIUHTXHQWO\VKDUHWKLVYLHZ 7KHSDWHUQDOLVWLFDSSURDFKRIEULQJLQJJRRGZLOOWRHQFRXQWHUVZLWKZRPHQ ZKLOH VXEWO\ GLVSDUDJLQJ WKHLU FDSDELOLWLHV LV DOVR UHIHUUHG WR DV EHQHYROHQW VH[LVP *OLFNDQG)LVNH )RUWKHUHFLSLHQWVWKLVDPELYDOHQWDWWLWXGHLV SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 209

FRQVLGHUDEO\KDUGHUWRLQWHUSUHWWKDQRSHQGHSUHFDWLRQDQGRUVH[LVWKRVWLOLW\ 1DWXUDOO\LWPLJKWVHHPPRUHSOHDVDQWWREHFRQIURQWHGE\EHQHYROHQWVH[- LVPWKDQZLWKLWVDQWDJRQLVWLFFRXQWHUSDUWEXWVWXGLHVLQGLFDWHWKDWDGHQLDORI FRPSHWHQFHLQWKHIRUPRIEHQHYROHQWVH[LVPFDQKDYHDSDUWLFXODUO\GHOHWHUL- RXVHIIHFWRQZRPHQ¶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

How do stereotypes work?

³7KHIHHOLQJIRUWHFKQRORJ\WKDW\RXJHWIURP\RXUSDUHQWV DVSDUWRI\RXUXSEULQJLQJLVZKDWWKH\ ZRPHQ DFWXDOO\ ODFN$QGWKLVLVDELWRIDVKRUWFRPLQJ´ PDOHVWXGHQW

0DQ\VWXGLHVH[DPLQHWKHTXHVWLRQRIKRZH[SHFWDWLRQVRISDUHQWVFDUHJLYHUV DQGWHDFKHUVLQÀXHQFHFKLOGUHQ¶VEHKDYLRUDQGSHUIRUPDQFH VHH/OR\GDQG 'XYHHQ7LHGHPDQQ 7KDWVXFKLQÀXHQFHVH[LVWZDVKLJKOLJKWHG ORQJDJRE\5RVHQWKDODQG-DFREVRQ¶VLQÀXHQWLDOVWXG\RQWKH3\JPDOLRQ (IIHFW7KLVVWXG\VKRZHGWKDWZKHQWHDFKHUVDUHWROGWKDWVRPHUDQGRPO\VH- OHFWHGVWXGHQWVZRXOGVRRQH[FHOWKHVHVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFH DVPHDVXUHGE\ REMHFWLYHWHVWV LQGHHGLPSURYHGPRUHWKDQRWKHUVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFH/DWHU UHVHDUFK RQ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ H[SHFWDWLRQ DQG DFKLHYHPHQW LV PRUH FRQWURYHUVLDOEXWLWLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRVFUXWLQL]HWKHOLWHUDWXUHIRUJHQGHULVVXHV )RUH[DPSOH=LHJOHUHWDO  IRXQGWKDWRIPDWKHPDWLFVWHDFK- HUVDQGRYHURISK\VLFVLQVWUXFWRUVUDWHGER\VDVPRUHJLIWHGWKDQJLUOV $FFRUGLQJO\WKHUHLVDUHODWLYHO\KLJKSUREDELOLW\WKDWDJLUOZLOOHQFRXQWHUD WHDFKHUZKRDWWULEXWHVOHVVWDOHQWWRKHUWKDQWRDER\$QROGHUVWXG\E\5RORII DQG(YHUW] VHH5RORII VKRZVKRZJLUOV¶FKDQFHVWRVXFFHHGLQ SK\VLFVDQGFRPSXWHUVFLHQFHDUHXWWHUO\WKZDUWHGE\WHDFKHUV¶LPSOLFLWFRQ- YLFWLRQWKDWWKLVVXEMHFWPDWWHUZLOOQRWEHXVHGRQDKLJKO\TXDOL¿HGOHYHOLQ WKHVHJLUOV¶OLYHVDQGKRZLGHQWLFDOEHKDYLRUE\JLUOVDQGER\VLQFODVVURRP VLWXDWLRQVLVYDULDEO\LQWHUSUHWHGLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKHVWHUHRW\SHµER\VDUH 210 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

JRRGJLUOVDUHGLOLJHQW¶ RQWKHVXEMHFWRIWKLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQDOSDWWHUQDOVRVHH WKHPHWDDQDO\VLVE\6ZLPDQG6DQQD $VLPLODUSDWWHUQRIFRPSHWHQFH DVFULSWLRQZDVDOVRVNHWFKHGE\0HQDFKHU  ZKHUHE\PRWKHUVDWWULEXWH WKHLUGDXJKWHUV¶JRRGJUDGHVLQPDWKHPDWLFVWRVWXG\LQJKDUGZKHUHDVWKHLU VRQVDUHVDLGWRKDYHREWDLQHGJRRGJUDGHVEHFDXVHWKH\DUHJLIWHG&URZOH\ HWDO  REVHUYHGSDUHQWVDQGWKHLUFKLOGUHQLQPXVHXPVDQGGLVFRYHUHG WKDWVFLHQWL¿FREMHFWVRQGLVSOD\ZHUHH[SODLQHGWKUHHWLPHVPRUHRIWHQWRER\V than to girls. %XWSDUHQWVDQGHGXFDWRUVDUHQRWWKHRQO\RQHVZKRLQÀXHQFH\RXQJVWHUV \RXQJSHRSOHPDNHDPDMRULPSDFWRQHDFKRWKHU(YHQFKLOGUHQUHJDUGPDWK- HPDWLFVDVPDVFXOLQH -6WHHOH DQGJLUOVDUHOHVVIUHTXHQWO\HQFRXUDJHG WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQVFLHQWL¿FDFWLYLWLHVE\WKHLUSHHUVWKDQER\VDUH 6WDNHDQG 1LFNHQV +\GHHWDO  UHSRUWWKDW\RXQJSHRSOHDVZHOOHQJDJHLQ VXFKDVFULSWLRQV$PHWDDQDO\VLVRIJHQGHUVSHFL¿FDWWLWXGHVWRZDUGVPDWK- HPDWLFVUHYHDOVWKDWER\VWHQGWRDWWULEXWHVXFFHVVWRWKHLUFDSDELOLWLHVZKHUHDV girls are inclined to attribute their success to hard work or luck, and claim WKHLUIDLOXUHVDUHWKHUHVXOWRIORZHUPDWKHPDWLFDODSWLWXGH)RUJLUOVWKHVHDUH XQIDYRUDEOHDVFULSWLYHSDWWHUQVWKDWLQÀXHQFHWKHLUIXUWKHUPRWLYDWLRQDQGFDQ DFWDVDVHOIIXO¿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p EDVHGPRGHVRISHUFHSWLRQDQGEHKDYLRU$JRRGLOOXVWUDWLRQRIWKLVLVWKHVWXG\ E\1RUWRQHWDO 6WXG\ 7KHVXEMHFWVZHUHDVVLJQHGWKHWDVNRIVHOHFW- LQJIURPDPRQJ¿YHSHUVRQVWKHPRVWTXDOL¿HGIRUDFRQVWUXFWLRQHQJLQHHU- LQJMRE ZKHUHE\WKHLQGLYLGXDOVKRXOGSRVVHVVDJRRGHGXFDWLRQDOEDFNJURXQG DQG ZRUN H[SHULHQFH  2I WKH ¿YH DSSOLFDQWV WZR ZHUH VKRUWOLVWHG 3HUVRQ $KDGEHWWHUWUDLQLQJ FHUWL¿FDWHLQDGGLWLRQWRDFROOHJHGHJUHH DQGKDG SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 211

\HDUVRIFDUHHUH[SHULHQFHZKHUHDV3HUVRQ%KDGRQO\DFROOHJHGHJUHH QR DGGLWLRQDOFHUWL¿FDWH EXW\HDUVRIFDUHHUH[SHULHQFH,QWKHFRQWUROJURXS WKHFDQGLGDWHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGRQO\DV3HUVRQ$DQG3HUVRQ%DQGRIWKH SDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKLVJURXSVHOHFWHG3HUVRQ$DVWKHPRUHTXDOL¿HGDSSOLFDQW7R WKHPHPEHUVRIDVHFRQGJURXS3HUVRQ$ZDVSUHVHQWHGDVDPDOHDQG3HUVRQ %DVDIHPDOHDQGKHUHDVZHOORIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVDVVHVVHG3HUVRQ$DV EHWWHUTXDOL¿HGIRUWKHMRE)LQDOO\LQDWKLUGJURXS3HUVRQ$ZDVSUHVHQWHG DVIHPDOHDQG3HUVRQ%DVPDOHWKHXSVKRWRIZKLFKZDVWKDWRQO\RIWKH SDUWLFLSDQWVQRZIHOWWKDW3HUVRQ$ZDVWKHULJKWRQHIRUWKHMRE7KHUHVXOWVRI WKLVVWXG\VKRZKRZVWHUHRW\SHVLQÀ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¿FDQWLQHTXDOLW\RYHUWLPH 7KH¿QGLQJVVNHWFKHGDERYHPDNHLWFOHDUWKDWVWHUHRW\SHVGHYHORSDFHU- WDLQPRPHQWXPDQGFDQEHFRPHVHOIIXO¿OOLQJSURSKHFLHV1HYHUWKHOHVVWKH TXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWKHGLYHUJHQWUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIPHQDQGZRPHQLQVFL- HQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\FDQDOVR±RUHYHQSULPDULO\±EHH[SODLQHGE\GLYHUJHQW FRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFDQQRWEHDQVZHUHGLQWHUPVRIWKHDERYHGHVFULEHGZD\VWKDW VWHUHRW\SHVDUHRSHUDWLRQDOLQHYHU\GD\OLIH7KXVZHQRZWXUQWRWKHTXHVWLRQ RIZKHWKHUJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVZLWKUHVSHFWWRFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFDQEHLGHQWL¿HG What generalizations are permissible according to the latest research?

ARE THERE COGNITIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN?

5HOHYDQWFULWHULDIRUDQDVVHVVPHQWRIWKH¿QGLQJV\LHOGHGE\VWXGLHVRIFRJQL- WLYHVNLOOVDUHWKHTXHVWLRQVRIZKLFKVNLOOVDUHEHLQJPHDVXUHGKRZDUHWKH\ 212 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

PHDVXUHGDQGZKHQ DWZKDWVWDJHRIWKHOLIHF\FOH DUHWKH\PHDVXUHG7KH UHVXOWVRIWKHVHVWXGLHVDUHFRPSOH[DQGVRPHWLPHVDPELJXRXVZKLFKLVZK\ meta-analyses in this area are enlightening. These meta-analyses scrutinize KRZSURQRXQFHGDGLIIHUHQFHLV PRVWO\PHDVXUHGE\WKHHIIHFWVL]Hd; Cohen, 19883 RYHUDQXPEHURIGLIIHUHQWVWXGLHV7KHHIIHFWVL]HLVFRPSXWHGDFFRUG- LQJWRVWDWLVWLFDOIRUPXODVKRZHYHUWKLVGRHVQRWLQGLFDWHZKHQDGLIIHUHQFH LVVXEVWDQWLDOHQRXJKLQHYHU\GD\OLIHWREHUHOHYDQW7KDWLQWXUQLVDPDWWHU RILQWHUSUHWDWLRQDQGWKHVXEMHFWRIDFRQWURYHUVLDOGHEDWH IRUDQRYHUYLHZVHH &HFLDQG:LOOLDPV&HFLHWDODQG+DOSHUQHWDO  )LUVWRIDOOPHWDDQDO\VHVSHUPLWWKHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQWKDWWKHFRJQLWLYHSUR- ¿OHVRIPHQDQGZRPHQDUHODUJHO\VLPLODUEXWGLIIHULQVRPHDUHDV +\GH  ,QGHWDLOUHVXOWVVKRZWKDWZLWKUHVSHFWWRJHQHUDOLQWHOOLJHQFHQRJHQ- GHUGLIIHUHQFHVFDQEHHVWDEOLVKHG±LHZRPHQDQGPHQDUHHTXDOO\LQWHOOLJHQW RQ DYHUDJH +DOSHUQ HW DO   :KHUHDV WKHUH DUH QR GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH PLGUDQJHRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHVSHFWUXPWKHUHDUHGLIIHUHQFHVDWERWKH[WUHPHV +HGJHV DQG 1RZHOO   0DOHV GLVSOD\ PRUH KHWHURJHQHLW\ ± LH WKHUH DUHPRUHPHQWKDQZRPHQDPRQJERWKWKHORZHVWSHUIRUPHUVDQGWKHKLJKHVW SHUIRUPHUV7KHUHDVRQVIRUWKLVDUHXQFOHDU +DOSHUQHWDO/XELQVNL DQG%HQERZ  )XUWKHUPRUHPHWDDQDO\VHVLQGLFDWHGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHDYHUDJHVNLOOSUR- ¿OHVRIPHQDQGZRPHQIRUFHUWDLQW\SHVRIFRJQLWLYHDELOLWLHVZKHUHE\WKHVH GLIIHUHQFHVYDU\ZLWKWKHVXEMHFWV¶DJH:HZLOOQRZWDNHDFORVHUORRNDWWKUHH VXFKDUHDVWKDWFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGSDUWLFXODUO\UHOHYDQWIRUWHFKQLFDOFDUHHUV YHUEDODQGPDWKHPDWLFDOFDSDELOLWLHVDQGVSDWLDOWKLQNLQJ9HUEDOVNLOOVDUHVLJ- QL¿FDQWEHFDXVHVXSHULRUSHUIRUPDQFHLQWHFKQLFDO¿HOGVFDOOVIRUWKHDELOLW\ WRFRPPXQLFDWHHIIHFWLYHO\DQGWRXQGHUVWDQGDEVWUDFWLGHDV,WLVLPSRUWDQWWR EHDEOHWRFRPPXQLFDWHFOHDUO\XQGHUVWDQGFRPSOH[WH[WVDQGZRUNWRJHWKHU ZLWKRWKHUSHRSOH9HUEDOVNLOOVDUHDQDGYDQWDJHLQDOODFDGHPLFDUHDV$SH- UXVDORIWKHOLWHUDWXUHRQWKLVVXEMHFWVKRZVWKDWQXPHURXVVWXGLHVLQGLFDWHD VPDOOWRPHGLXPJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHLQIDYRURIZRPHQ +DOSHUQHWDO  6RPHEXWQRWDOOYHUEDOWHVWVUHYHDOWKDWZRPHQKDYHDVOLJKWDGYDQWDJHKHUH VHHWKHPHWDDQDO\VHVE\+\GHDQG/LQQDQGE\+HGJHVDQG1RZHOO  

_7KHHIIHFWVL]HdFDQUDQJHIURPWRZLWKDYDOXHRILQGLFDWLQJWKDWWKHUHLVQR GLIIHUHQFH$YDOXHRILVFRQVLGHUHGDODUJHLVDPHGLXPLVDVPDOODQG LV DQHJOLJLEOHGLIIHUHQFH &RKHQ %\FRQYHQWLRQQHJDWLYHYDOXHVDUHXVHGIRUKLJKHU YDOXHVIRUZRPHQDQGSRVLWLYHYDOXHVIRUKLJKHUYDOXHVIRUPHQ SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 213

With respect to mathematical skills, the results are less clear. In this area, WKHRQHLQZKLFKJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDUHPRVWKLJKO\GH¿QHGHPSLULFDO¿QG- LQJVUHYHDOWKHVPDOOHVWDQGWKHOHDVWVWDEOHGLIIHUHQFHVLQFDSDELOLWLHV +DOSHUQ HWDO 7KXVDQDQDO\VLVRIVWXGLHVRIPDWKHPDWLFDOVNLOOVLQYROYLQJ PRUHWKDQPLOOLRQSDUWLFLSDQWVLQGLFDWHGQRJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFH d  IRU VDPSOHVRIWKHJHQHUDOSRSXODWLRQPHQSHUIRUPHGEHWWHULQRIWKHVWXGLHV IRXQGQRGLIIHUHQFHDQGZRPHQRXWSHUIRUPHGPHQLQRIWKHVWXGLHV +\GHHWDO ,QRWKHUZRUGVLWLVQRWKDUGWR¿QGRQHRUPRUHVWXGLHV WKDWVXSSRUWRQH¶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¿FFRJQLWLYHGLIIHUHQFHV WKHIROORZLQJLQWHULPFRQFOXVLRQVFDQEHGUDZQ7KHUHDUHQRDYHUDJHGLIIHU- HQFHVEHWZHHQWKHVH[HVZLWKUHVSHFWWRJHQHUDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDOWKRXJKQXPHU- RXVVWXGLHVLQGLFDWHWKDWWKHUHDUHVPDOODYHUDJHGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHFRJQLWLYH SUR¿OHRIPHQDQGZRPHQDVPHDVXUHGE\VWDQGDUGL]HGWHVWV7KHSDWWHUQRI JHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLVPRUHQXDQFHGWKDQLVRIWHQDVVXPHG3HUIRUPDQFHE\ PHQVHHPVWREHPRUHGLVSHUVHGWKDQWKDWRIZRPHQ*HQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVPDQL- 214 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

IHVWWKHPVHOYHVDERYHDOOLQSHUIRUPLQJYHUEDOWDVNV KLJKHUDYHUDJHYDOXHVE\ ZRPHQ DQGVSDWLDOWDVNV KLJKHUDYHUDJHYDOXHVE\PHQ 7KH\RIWHQHPHUJH RQO\DWDFHUWDLQDJHDQGRUPDQLIHVWWKHPVHOYHVGLIIHUHQWO\LQGLIIHUHQWDJH JURXSV$VDUXOHSHUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHVFDQEHLGHQWL¿HGRQO\EHJLQQLQJDW DGROHVFHQFHHVSHFLDOO\DPRQJWKHKLJKHVWSHUIRUPHUV7KHGLIIHUHQFHVYDU\ depending on the particular area being considered. The biggest lead by boys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¿QLWLRQRQO\DYHU\VPDOOSURSRUWLRQRIWKHSRSXODWLRQDUHWRSSHUIRUP- HUVWKHUHPXVWDOVREHPDQ\PHQHPSOR\HGLQWHFKQLFDO¿HOGVZKRDUHQRWLQ WKHWRSRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHVSHFWUXP$QGLQWKHWRS±JHQGHUGLI- IHUHQFHVDUHDOUHDG\PLQLPDO,WLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWZRPHQHQJDJHG LQWHFKQLFDORFFXSDWLRQVDUHXQGHUUHSUHVHQWHGDWDOOSHUIRUPDQFHOHYHOVDQG QRWRQO\LQWKHWRS +DOSHUQ $OVRRILQWHUHVWLQWKLVFRQQHFWLRQ LVDVWXG\E\%HQERZHWDO  WKDWLQYHVWLJDWHGZKLFKSURIHVVLRQVZHUH FKRVHQE\PHQDQGZRPHQZKRDWDJHKDGEHHQFODVVL¿HGDVKLJKO\JLIWHG WRSRIWKHLUFRKRUW 2QO\DUHODWLYHO\VPDOOSURSRUWLRQRIWKHER\VZHUH ZRUNLQJLQDVFLHQWL¿FRUWHFKQLFDO¿HOGDWDJHDQGWKHSURSRUWLRQRIJLIWHG JLUOVZDVHYHQVPDOOHU,WVKRXOGDOVREHPHQWLRQHGWKDWIRUJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV LQWKHKLJKHVWSHUIRUPDQFHJURXSHWKQLFGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHLGHQWL¿HG,QWKH JURXSRI86SXSLOVRI$VLDQGHVFHQWIRUH[DPSOHWKHUHDUHQRJHQGHUGLI- IHUHQFHVLQWKHKLJKHVWSHUIRUPDQFHJURXSZLWKUHVSHFWWRPDWKHPDWLFDOWDVNV +\GHHWDO 

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

3HUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQER\VDQGJLUOVDUHDOVRFXOWXUDOO\GHSHQGHQW since tendencies are not identical in all countries. The 2009 PISA Study that WHVWHG WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI \HDUROG SXSLOV SURYLGHV D IHZ LQGLFDWLRQV SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 215

KHUH ,Q WKH DUHD RI UHDGLQJ VNLOOV JLUOV SHUIRUPHG VLJQL¿FDQWO\ EHWWHU WKDQ ER\VLQDOO2(&'FRXQWULHVZKHUHRQDYHUDJHJLUOVOHDGE\SRLQWVZKLFK FRUUHVSRQGVWRPRUHWKDQKDOIDFRPSHWHQFHOHYHOVFKRRO\HDU 6FKZDQGWQHU DQG6FKUHLQHU2(&' ,Q$XVWULDJLUOVRXWSHUIRUPHGER\VE\ SRLQWVLQ*HUPDQ\E\DQGLQ6ZLW]HUODQGE\JLUOVKDGVLJQL¿FDQWO\OHVV RIDOHDGLQWKH1HWKHUODQGV  WKH86DQG*UHDW%ULWDLQ  ZKHUHDVWKH\ ZHUHIDUDKHDGLQ%XOJDULD  /LWKXDQLD  DQG)LQODQG  7KLVPHDQV WKDWJLUOV¶UHDGLQJVNLOOVDVPHDVXUHGE\WKH3,6$6WXG\ZHUHVXSHULRULQHY- HU\FDVHEXWWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKWKH\RXWSHUIRUPHGER\VYDULHGFRQVLGHUDEO\ IURP FRXQWU\ WR FRXQWU\4 Furthermore, socioeconomic status had a greater LQÀXHQFHRQUHDGLQJVNLOOVWKDQJHQGHU±LHWKHVFRUHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKH WRS DQG ERWWRP TXDUWLOHV RI WKH SXSLOV¶ VRFLRHFRQRPLF GLVWULEXWLRQ$PRQJ 2(&'FRXQWULHV+XQJDU\  GLVSOD\HGWKHJUHDWHVWGLIIHUHQFHDQG,FHODQG  WKHOHDVW7KH2(&'DYHUDJHZDVSRLQWVZLWK$XVWULD  *HUPDQ\  DQG6ZLW]HUODQG  FRPLQJLQDERYHDYHUDJH 2(&'  :LWK UHVSHFW WR PDWKHPDWLFDO VNLOOV JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV DUH OHVV SUR- QRXQFHG,QWKH2(&'ER\VDYHUDJHSRLQWVKLJKHUWKDQJLUOV5,QRI WKHSDUWLFLSDWLQJFRXQWULHVER\VRXWSHUIRUPHGJLUOV,Q$XVWULDDQG6ZLW- ]HUODQGWKHER\V¶OHDGZDVLQ*HUPDQ\SRLQWV$PRQJ$XVWULDQSXSLOV VXUYH\HGWKHER\V¶DYHUDJHVFRUH  WRSSHGWKDWRIJLUOV  QHYHUWKH- OHVVLQVXFKFRXQWULHVDV.RUHD  )LQODQG  DQG6ZLW]HUODQG   JLUOV¿QLVKHG¿UVW )UH\HWDO  7KHVHHODERUDWLRQVVKRZWKDWERWKWKHH[WHQWDQGWKHGLUHFWLRQRIJHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHVYDU\IURPFRXQWU\WRFRXQWU\DQGDFURVVHWKQLFJURXSVD¿QGLQJ DOVRKLJKOLJKWHGE\UHFHQWPHWDDQDO\VHV (OVH4XHVWHWDO+\GHDQG 0HUW] 0RUHRYHUWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKHUHVSHFWLYHVFKRROV\VWHPDQGWKH H[WHQWWRZKLFKLWSURYLGHVHTXDORSSRUWXQLW\HGXFDWLRQFDQDPSOLI\RUGLPLQ- LVKSHUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHV(TXDORSSRUWXQLW\PDQLIHVWVLWVHOILQHQGHDYRUV WRPLQLPL]HFRPSHWHQFHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQVRFLDOO\SULYLOHJHGDQGGLVDG- YDQWDJHG\RXWKV,QDOOSDUWLFLSDWLQJFRXQWULHVVRFLDOEDFNJURXQGLQÀXHQFHG SXSLOV¶DFKLHYHPHQWVWKRXJKWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHLQWHUUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVR- FLRHFRQRPLFVWDWXVDQGFRPSHWHQFHGLIIHUVDPRQJWKHLQGLYLGXDOFRXQWULHV,Q )LQODQGIRULQVWDQFHSXSLOV¶DFKLHYHPHQWKDUGO\FRUUHODWHGZLWKWKHLUIDP- LO\¶VVRFLRHFRQRPLFVWDWXVLQ$XVWULDLWGLGWRDFRQVLGHUDEOHJUHDWHUH[WHQW

_7KHUDQJHLVGLIIHUHQFHSRLQWVLQWKH2(&'PHPEHUVWDWHVDQGGLIIHUHQFH points in the partner countries. 5 | OECD mean, girls: M=490, SD=0.6; boys: M=501, SD  )UH\HWDO  216 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

ZKHUHE\WKLVDSSOLHVHVSHFLDOO\WRWKRVHZKRVHLPPHGLDWHIDPLO\PLJUDWHGWR $XVWULD 6FKZDQGWQHUDQG6FKUHLQHU  *HQGHUVSHFL¿FSHUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHVDUHQHLWKHULPPXWDEOHQRULQGLV- SHQVLEOHDQGWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHJHQGHUVDUHRIWHQOHVVWKDQWKHGLI- IHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKH FRXQWULHV7KH IDFWRUV XQGHUO\LQJ QDWLRQDO GLIIHUHQFHV DUHPXOWLIDFHWHG1DWXUDOO\DFRXQWU\¶VHFRQRPLFVWUHQJWKDQGWKHTXDOLW\RI LWVHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPDUHNH\YDULDEOHV7KHGHJUHHRIJHQGHUVWUDWL¿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±RUHYHQYDQLVK DOWRJHWKHU±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¿QGLQJVFDQEHYLHZHGDVDQLQGLFDWLRQWKDW WUDLQLQJFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV±MXVWOLNHGHYHORSPHQWRIVSDWLDOWKLQNLQJE\ER\V ± GHSHQGV RQ WKH H[SHULHQWLDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV PDGH DYDLODEOH WR D FKLOG HJ FRPSXWHUJDPHVMLJVDZSX]]OHVVHWVRIEXLOGLQJEORFNVHWF  )LQDOO\LWVKRXOGEHPHQWLRQHGWKDWJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV KDYHDOVRFKDQJHGFRQVLGHUDEO\RYHUWLPH7KHGLIIHUHQFHVHVWDEOLVKHGE\QX- PHURXV±WKRXJKQRWDOO±WHVWVKDYHGLPLQLVKHG VHHWKHUHYLHZE\+\GH WKDWFRQVLGHUHGPHWDDQDO\VHV 7KHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQZRPHQDQGPHQ LQWKHWRSSHUIRUPDQFHVHFWRUKDVDOVRGHFUHDVHG +DOSHUQHWDO:DLHW DO 7KHSURSRUWLRQRIIHPDOHFROOHJHJUDGXDWHVKDVULVHQVKDUSO\DQG WKHSUREDELOLW\WKDWDZRPDQZLOOJUDGXDWHFROOHJHLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKHUWRGD\ WKDQLWZDV\HDUVDJR7KHJUDGXDWLRQSHUFHQWDJHRIZRPHQLVJUHDWHURU HTXDOWRWKDWRIPHQLQRI2(&'FRXQWULHV 2(&'  SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 217

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF COGNITIVE GENDER DIFFERENCES

$VDOUHDG\LPSOLHGLQSUHYLRXVVHFWLRQVWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHUHVXOWVSOD\V DGHFLVLYHUROHLQGLVFXVVLRQVRIFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV)RUH[DPSOHVFKRROFKLOGUHQ LQWKH86KDYHEHHQGRLQJSRRUO\LQFRPSDULVRQWRWKHLUSHHUVDEURDGLQWHVWV RQVFLHQWL¿FWHFKQLFDOVXEMHFWVIRU\HDUVQRZEXWWKLVKDUGO\OHDGVWRWKHSUH- VXPSWLRQWKDW$PHULFDQVKDYHOHVVRIDFKDQFHWRVXFFHHGLQVFLHQFH +LQHV  7KHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWKHORZSURSRUWLRQRIZRPHQLQVFLHQFHDQG WHFKQRORJ\FDQEHH[SODLQHGE\JHQGHUVSHFL¿FGLIIHUHQFHVLQFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV essentially asks whether women are less talented or less suited to technical oc- FXSDWLRQVWKDQPHQ,WDWWULEXWHVFHUWDLQFRJQLWLYHGH¿FLWVWRZRPHQHYHQLILW GRHVVRLQGLUHFWO\DQGVRPHWLPHVHYHQLQDEHQHYROHQWPDQQHU7KHTXHVWLRQLV additionally problematic in that it proceeds under the implicit assumption that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ÀXHQFHRISDUHQWVDQGSHHUVRUDFRQVHTXHQFHRIKRZPXFKHIIRUWZHQW LQWRQXUWXULQJLQWHUHVWLQVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ 7KLVIUHTXHQWO\REVHUYHG LPSOLFLW DFWRIHTXDWLQJLQERUQDFTXLUHGZLWKLPPXWDEOHPXWDEOHQHYHUWKH- OHVVSURYHVWREHHVVHQWLDOO\SUREOHPDWLFVLQFHELRORJ\LVQRWQHFHVVDULO\DQ HWHUQDOIDWH2WKHUZLVHPDQ\KHDOWKLQLWLDWLYHVZRXOGEHLQYDLQ±WKLQNRI VXUJLFDOLQWHUYHQWLRQVRUOLIHVW\OHPRGL¿FDWLRQVVXFKDVDEHWWHUGLHWDQGH[HU- FLVHWRORZHUWKHULVNRIKHDUWGLVHDVHRUGLDEHWHV,QPDQ\RWKHUVSKHUHVRIOLIH biologically-caused conditions most certainly are considered alterable, and no DWWHQWLRQLVSDLGWRGLIIHUHQFHVLQSHRSOH¶VELRORJLFDOPDNHXS JUH\KDLUFDQEH G\HGLOOQHVVHVPHGLFDWHGHWF $QGDIWHUDOOWKHHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPZRXOG EHREVROHWHLILWZHUHSUHGHWHUPLQHGDWELUWKZKRZRXOGODWHUGHYHORSZKLFK DELOLWLHVDQGEHVXLWDEOHIRUZKLFKRFFXSDWLRQ,QWKHFRJQLWLYHDUHDDVZHOO people in modern societies use medicine, technology, and training all the time WRLQÀXHQFHWKHLUDELOLWLHV 218 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

7KH OLIHORQJ SURFHVV RI GHYHORSLQJ FRJQLWLYH VNLOOV LV FDUULHG RXW LQ DQ HQYLURQPHQWLQZKLFKELRORJLFDOVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHVFRQVWDQWO\LQ- WHUDFWDQGUHFLSURFDOO\DIIHFWHDFKRWKHU&DSDELOLWLHVDUHQXUWXUHGE\PHDQVRI OHDUQLQJSURFHVVHVWKDWOLNHZLVHGLVSOD\ELRORJLFDOVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOIDFHWV +DOSHUQHWDO+DOSHUQ $FFRUGLQJO\SHRSOHKDYHWREHFRQVLG- ered biological and social beings in equal measure. It should also be kept in PLQGWKDWWKHUHDUHPDWXUDWLRQSURFHVVHV±IRUH[DPSOHLIGLIIHUHQFHVHPHUJH RQO\DWDFHUWDLQDJHWKLVFDQPHDQWKDWDGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQLVELRORJLFDOO\GHWHU- PLQHGWRRFFXULQDSDUWLFXODUSKDVHRIOLIHRULWPLJKWPHDQWKDWWKHGLIIHUHQFH WDNHVSODFHDWWKLVWLPHGXHWRVRFLDOL]DWLRQ7KHUHIRUHVRFDOOHGLQERUQJLIWV FDQRQO\PHDQDSRWHQWLDOPRUHRUOHVVDYDLODEOHDSUHGLVSRVLWLRQWKDWLQDVHW- WLQJWKDWIRVWHUVLWVGHYHORSPHQWLVKLJKO\FXOWLYDWHGRUQRW 7KHLQWHUSOD\RIELRORJLFDODQGVRFLDOLQÀXHQFHVDOVRPDQLIHVWVLWVHOILQ UHFLSURFDOLQWHUDFWLRQRIEUDLQVWUXFWXUHVDQGH[SHULHQFH,WLVQRWRQO\VRWKDW ELRORJ\LQÀ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displayed more symmetrical handedness as adults, as well as a thicker corpus FDOORVXPWKDQPXVLFLDQVQRWWUDLQHGWREHDPELGH[WURXV -lQFNHHWDO VHH6FKODXJHWDO 7KHVHVWXGLHVVKRZWKDWELRORJLFDOGLIIHUHQFHVFDQ DOVRUHVXOWIURPGLIIHUHQWH[SHULHQFHV DOVRVHH-RUGDQ

RYHUYLHZVHH+DLHU 7KHVHUHVHDUFKHUVKDYHIRXQGWKDWZKHQPHQWDNH DPDWKHPDWLFVWHVWWKHJUHDWHUWKHDFWLYDWLRQRIWKHWHPSRUDOOREHWKHKLJKHU WKHWHVWVFRUH$VIRUIHPDOHWHVWWDNHUVWKHUHZDVQRFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQDF- WLYDWLRQRIDUHJLRQRIWKHEUDLQDQGWKHVFRUHDFKLHYHG +DLHUDQG%HQERZ  7KHVHUHVXOWVDUHLQWHUHVWLQJEHFDXVHWKH\VKRZWKDWZRPHQDQGPHQ FDQSHUIRUPFRPSDUDEOHFRJQLWLYHWDVNVE\XVLQJGLIIHUHQWDUHDVRIWKHEUDLQ )LQGLQJVRIUHVHDUFKRQWKHIXQFWLRQRIEUDLQUHJLRQVDOVRVKRZVDUHODWLRQ- VKLSZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFHV±IRULQVWDQFHDPRQJVSHDNHUV RIDVHFRQGODQJXDJHDGLIIHUHQWDUHDRIWKHEUDLQLVDFWLYDWHGGHSHQGLQJRQ ZKHWKHUWKHVHFRQGODQJXDJHZDVOHDUQHGEHIRUHRUDIWHUIRXU\HDUVRIDJH VHH :DWWHQGRUIHWDO  $FXUUHQWO\YHU\ZLGHVSUHDGK\SRWKHVLVRQELRORJLFDOO\GHWHUPLQHGJHQ- GHUGLIIHUHQFHVKDVWRGRZLWKVH[KRUPRQHVEXWKHUHDVZHOOLQWKHDUHDRI FRJQLWLYHVNLOOVZHKDYHWRSURFHHGRQWKHEDVLVRIFRPSOH[UHFLSURFLWLHV,Q WKHEUDLQWKHUHDUHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVWKDWDUHLQGXFHGE\KRUPRQHVEXWWKH EUDLQ¶VGHYHORSPHQWLVVLPXOWDQHRXVO\LQÀXHQFHGE\H[SHULHQFHV+RUPRQHV XQGRXEWHGO\LQÀXHQFHEHKDYLRUEXWDWWKHVDPHWLPHKRUPRQDOVHFUHWLRQYDU- LHVGHSHQGLQJRQHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHV +DOSHUQHWDO 3HUIRUPDQFH GLIIHUHQFHVVHHPWRFRUUHODWHZLWKÀXFWXDWLRQVLQKRUPRQHEDODQFHEXWWKHVH ÀXFWXDWLRQVFDQEHWULJJHUHGE\VXFKLQÀXHQFHVDVVWUHVVZHDWKHUGLHWDQG psychological burdens. 7KXVWKHFRPPRQVLPSOL¿FDWLRQWKDWHTXDWHVELRORJLFDOZLWKXQDOWHUDEOH DQGVRFLDOZLWKVXEMHFWWRPRGL¿FDWLRQLVXQWHQDEOH6RFLDOH[SHULHQFHVDQG FLUFXPVWDQFHVLQÀXHQFHELRORJ\MXVWDVFRQYHUVHO\ELRORJLFDOLQÀXHQFHVSOD\ WKHLU UROHV LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK PRGHV RI VRFLDO EHKDYLRU DQG FRJQLWLRQ$V LQWHUHVWLQJDVWKHVHUHVXOWVPLJKWEHZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUGLI- IHUHQFHVLQFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFDQH[SODLQZRPHQ¶VOHVVHUGHJUHHRIUHSUHVHQWD- WLRQLQVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\WKLVQDWXUHYHUVXVQXUWXUHGLVFXVVLRQGRHVQRW JHWXVYHU\IDU$FFRUGLQJO\ZHQRZWXUQWRWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUH[LVWLQJ FRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFDQEHLQÀXHQFHGDQGFKDQJHGDQGLIVRKRZ

CAN COGNITIVE SKILLS BE INFLUENCED?

7KHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFDQEHLQÀXHQFHGEULQJVRXWGLYHUJHQW preconceptions since it implies that capability can be understood as both a stable FKDUDFWHULVWLFDVZHOODVRQHWKDWFDQEHLQÀXHQFHGRYHUWKHVKRUWRUORQJWHUP 7KLVGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQLVUHYHDOLQJIURPDWKHRUHWLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZDQGLVDOVRLP- 220 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

SRUWDQWIRUGHVLJQLQJPHDVXUHVWRHQVXUHIDLUQHVVZLWKUHVSHFWWRJHQGHU,QWKH IROORZLQJVHFWLRQZHZLOO¿UVWORRNLQWRZKHWKHUVLWXDWLYHGHWHUPLQDQWV VXFKDV XSGDWLQJVWHUHRW\SHV FDQLQÀXHQFHSHUIRUPDQFHE\PHQDQGZRPHQ7KHQZH ZLOOUHSRUWRQUHVHDUFK¿QGLQJVDVWRKRZSUHFRQFHSWLRQVRIZKDWVNLOOVFDQKDYH DQLPSDFWRQFRJQLWLYHSHUIRUPDQFH)LQDOO\ZHZLOODGGUHVVWKHTXHVWLRQRI ZKHWKHUFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVUHVSRQGWRORQJWHUPWUDLQLQJDQGLIVRWRZKDWH[WHQW

Situative Suggestability and Stereotype Threat

Female student 1: Does he tell jokes that demean women during the lecture? Female student 2: Yes! )HPDOHVWXGHQW%HIRUHDQH[DPLQDWLRQ Female student 4: Yes. )HPDOHVWXGHQW,IKHRQO\ZDQWVWRVWDUWDWTXDUWHUDIWHU DQGQRWDW¿YHPLQXWHVDIWHUKHVD\V³,¶OOWHOO\RXDTXLFN MRNH«´

7KLVH[FKDQJHWRRNSODFHGXULQJDJURXSGLVFXVVLRQLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKRXU VWXG\7KHIHPDOHVWXGHQWVDUHREYLRXVO\WU\LQJWRFRPHWRWHUPVZLWKH[SHUL- HQFHVWKH\KDYHKDGDVZRPHQ$PLVRJ\QLVWLFMRNHLVQRWXVXDOO\UHJDUGHGDV VHULRXVO\RIIHQVLYHEXWLWLVQHYHUWKHOHVVGLVFRQFHUWLQJIRUWKHVHIHPDOHVWX- GHQWV:KDWDUHZHWRPDNHRIDQLQVWUXFWRUOLNHWKHRQHPHQWLRQHGDERYH ZKRULJKWEHIRUHDWHVWWHOOVDMRNHWKDWGHPHDQVZRPHQ"&DQWKLVH[SHULHQFH LQÀXHQFHWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKRVHZKRZHUHWKHEXWWRIWKHMRNH" ,QVLJKWVLQWRWKLVLVVXHDUHSURYLGHGE\QXPHURXVVWXGLHVFRQGXFWHGLQFRQ- QHFWLRQ ZLWK WKH VRFDOOHG VWHUHRW\SH WKUHDW DSSURDFK IRU DQ RYHUYLHZ VHH ,Q]OLFKWDQG6FKPDGHU 7KHSKHQRPHQRQRIVWHUHRW\SHWKUHDWZDVGH- VFULEHGLQRUGHUWRH[SODLQSHUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQPHQDQGZRPHQ DVZHOODVEHWZHHQ:KLWHDQG%ODFNVWXGHQWV7KH¿UVWSXEOLVKHGVWXG\KDG WRGRZLWKSHUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ:KLWHVDQG%ODFNVLQWKH86 &06WHHOHDQG$URQVRQ 6WXG\SDUWLFLSDQWVZKRDUH%ODFNDQGSULRU WREHLQJDGPLQLVWHUHGDWHVWZHUHDVNHGWRVSHFLI\ZKHWKHUWKH\DUH%ODFNRU :KLWHJRWVLJQL¿FDQWO\ORZHUVFRUHVWKDQ%ODFNSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRVHDWWHQWLRQ ZDVQRWGLUHFWHGWRWKHLUVNLQFRORUEHIRUHWDNLQJWKHWHVW6WHUHRW\SHWKUHDW WKXVUHIHUVWRWKHH[SHULHQFHRIWKUHDWWKDWDSHUVRQ¶VSHUIRUPDQFHPLJKWEH LQWHUSUHWHGLQOLJKWRIKLVKHUPHPEHUVKLSLQDQHJDWLYHO\VWHUHRW\SHGJURXS 1HJDWLYHSHUIRUPDQFHH[SHFWDWLRQVZLWKUHVSHFWWRRQH¶VRZQJURXSFDQOHDG SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 221

WRVLWXDWLYHVWUHVVZKLFKLVGHWULPHQWDOWRSHUIRUPDQFH7KHPHUHDZDUHQHVVRI WKHH[LVWHQFHRIVWHUHRW\SHVFDQOHDGWRDSHUIRUPDQFHGHFOLQHVRLWLVQRWHYHQ QHFHVVDU\WRSXWFUHGHQFHLQWKHVWHUHRW\SH,QRWKHUZRUGVZKHQDQLQGLYLGXDO LVWHVWHGLQDQDUHDDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDQHJDWLYHVWHUHRW\SHDERXWWKHWHVWWDNHU¶V RZQJURXSWKHQDVXEFRQVFLRXV³WKUHDWLQWKHDLU´ &06WHHOH FDQEH RSHUDWLRQDODQGOLNHDVHOIIXO¿OOLQJSURSKHF\OHDGWRSRRUHUSHUIRUPDQFH 6LQFHWKHLQFHSWLRQRIWKLVFRQFHSWWKHUHKDYHEHHQPDQ\VWXGLHVRQVWH- UHRW\SH WKUHDW LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI ZRPHQ DQG PDWKHPDWLFVWHFKQRORJ\ HJ 'DUGHQQHHWDO*RRGHWDO,Q]OLFKWDQG%HQ=HHY4XLQQ DQG 6SHQFHU  6SHQFHU HW DO  VHH 1JX\HQ DQG 5\DQ  IRU D PHWDDQDO\VLV 7\SLFDOO\DWHVWLVDGPLQLVWHUHGWRPDOHDQGIHPDOHVWXGHQWV FRQWUROOLQJIRUSULRUFDSDELOLWLHV2QHJURXSLVWROGLQDGYDQFHWKDWLQWKHSDVW WKHWHVWUHVXOWVUHYHDOHGJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV ZKHUHE\PHQVFRUHGKLJKHUWKDQ ZRPHQ DQGDVHFRQGJURXSLVWROGWKDWQRJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVDUHH[SHFWHG $QGLQGHHGLQWKH¿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¿FLHQWO\ZHOO NQRZQWKHQLWHYLGHQWO\VXI¿FHVWRPHUHO\UHPLQGWKHWHVWWDNHUV±H[SOLFLWO\ RULPSOLFLWO\±RIWKHIDFWWKDWWKH\EHORQJWRWKLVJURXS0DQ\ZRPHQDUHZHOO DZDUHRIWKHVWHUHRW\SHWKDWZRPHQDUHOHVVJLIWHGWKDQPHQLQPDWKHPDWLFVVR WKDWWKLVFDQUHVXOWLQDUHDOGLPLQLVKPHQWRIWKHLUSHUIRUPDQFH 6WHUHRW\SHWKUHDWUHSUHVHQWVVLWXDWLYHSHUIRUPDQFHSUHVVXUHZKHUHE\ZRP- HQDUHPDGHWRIHHOWKDWWKH\KDYHWRUHIXWHWKHVWHUHRW\SHWKDWWKH\DUHOHVV mathematically or technically inclined than men. But it is precisely this high-

_,QVXFKFDVHVLQGLYLGXDOVDUHRIWHQQRWHYHQDZDUHWKDWWKHVWHUHRW\SHLVKDYLQJD GHOHWHULRXVHIIHFWRQWKHP%ODVFRYLFKHWDO  DGPLQLVWHUHGDWHVWWR%ODFNVDQG :KLWHVDQGFRQIURQWHGWHVWWDNHUVZLWKWKHVWHUHRW\SHWKDW%ODFNV¶WHVWUHVXOWVZHUHH[- pected to be lower. Blacks reported that, in the stereotype threat condition, they did not IHHOPRUHDQ[LRXVRULPSDLUHGGXHWRWKHVWHUHRW\SHQHYHUWKHOHVVWKHLUEORRGSUHVVXUH ZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKHUZKLFKFDQEHLQWHUSUHWHGDVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWHQVLRQDWWULEXWDEOH to the stereotype. 222 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

SUHVVXUHVLWXDWLRQWKDWDFWXDOO\GRHVLPSDLUWKHLUSHUIRUPDQFH,URQLFDOO\WKH VWURQJHVWVWHUHRW\SHWKUHDWHIIHFWVPDQLIHVWWKHPVHOYHVRQWKHSDUWRILQGLYLGX- DOVZKRDUHSDUWLFXODUO\JLIWHGDQGKLJKO\LQWHUHVWHGLQWKHUHVSHFWLYHVXEMHFW PDWWHU $URQVRQHWDO ±LHLQWKHSUHVHQWFRQWH[WYXOQHUDELOLW\WRVXFK VWHUHRW\SLQJLVJUHDWHVWDPRQJZRPHQZKRVWURQJO\LGHQWLI\ZLWKPDWKHPDWL- FDODQGWHFKQLFDOFRQWHQW7KHHIIHFWLVDOVRVWURQJHUDPRQJWKRVHZKRLGHQWLI\ ZLWKWKHLURZQJURXS 6FKPDGHU ±LHZRPHQIRUZKRPEHLQJIHPDOH LVDQLPSRUWDQWSDUWRIWKHLULGHQWLW\7KHVHSHRSOHDUHSDUWLFXODUO\FRQFHUQHG ZLWKGLVSURYLQJQHJDWLYHH[SHFWDWLRQV)XUWKHUPRUHWKHHIIHFWKDVWKHVWURQ- JHVWUHSHUFXVVLRQVZKHQWKHLQGLYLGXDOIDFHVDGDXQWLQJWDVN,IWKHDVVLJQ- PHQWLVHDVLO\FRPSOHWHGWKHQWKHPRWLYDWLRQWRUHIXWHWKHVWHUHRW\SHGRHVQRW KLQGHUFRPLQJWKURXJKZLWKÀ\LQJFRORUVLQIDFWSXWWLQJLQDELWPRUHHIIRUW ±VXPPRQHGIRUWKE\WKHGHVLUHWROD\DVWHUHRW\SHWRUHVW±FDQHYHQOHDGWR SHUIRUPDQFHHQKDQFHPHQW 2¶%ULHQDQG&UDQGDOO  ,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRHPSKDVL]HWKDWVWHUHRW\SHWKUHDWLVGH¿QHGDVDFRJQL- WLYHPHFKDQLVPWKDWGRHVQRWVSDUH:KLWHPHQHLWKHU)RUH[DPSOH$URQVRQ HWDO  FRQGXFWHGDVWXG\LQWKH86WKDWFRQIURQWHG:KLWHPHQZLWKD VWHUHRW\SHWKDWLVYHU\ZLGHVSUHDGLQWKDWFRXQWU\±WKDW$VLDQVDUHPRUHJLIWHG in mathematics than other American ethnic groups. In comparison to the con- WUROJURXSWKDWZDVQRWFRQIURQWHGZLWKWKLVVWHUHRW\SH:KLWHPHQWKDWZHUH FRQIURQWHGZLWKLWDFWXDOO\GLGVXIIHUDVLJQL¿FDQWGHFOLQHLQSHUIRUPDQFHRQD mathematics test. In such situations, men as well are susceptible to stereotype WKUHDWHIIHFWVGXHWRVRFLDOVWHUHRW\SHVWKDWSUHGLFWLQIHULRUSHUIRUPDQFH±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¿FDQW VRXUFHVRIVWUHVVIRUPHPEHUVRIVWHUHRW\SHGJURXSVDQGFDQFDXVHUHDOGLPLQ- LVKPHQWRISHUIRUPDQFH

Concepts of the Changeability of Intelligence

,I VWHUHRW\SHV DFWXDOO\ FDQ OHDG WR SHUIRUPDQFH LPSDLUPHQW WKHQ ZKDW FDQ EHGRQHWRSUHYHQWWKLV"$FDVXDOUHPDUNWKDWDWHVWLVJHQGHUQHXWUDODQGQRW SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 223

GHVLJQHGWRGHWHFWJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVPLJKWEHDOOLWWDNHVWRSURYLGHUHOLHIWR WKRVH WURXEOHG E\ VWHUHRW\SHUHODWHG IHDUV 6SHQFHU HW DO  4XLQQ DQG 6SHQFHU %XWVWHUHRW\SHVDUHRSHUDWLRQDOQRWRQO\LQWHVWVHWWLQJVEXW DOVRLQOHDUQLQJVLWXDWLRQVLQZKLFKLQGLYLGXDOVDUHFRQIURQWHGZLWKQHZPDWH- ULDO $SSHODQG.URQEHUJHU$SSHOHWDO ±IRUH[DPSOHDWWKH EHJLQQLQJRIXQGHUJUDGXDWHVWXG\ 6XFKVLWXDWLRQVFDQRIWHQEHGLVWUHVVLQJVLQFHZKHQSHRSOHEHJLQDQHI- IRUWWROHDUQVRPHWKLQJQHZLQLWLDOIDLOXUHWRFRPSUHKHQGLWLVOHVVWKHH[FHS- WLRQWKDQWKHUXOH,QGHHGWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKLVHVVHQWLDOO\QRUPDOVLWXDWLRQ VKRXOGQRWEHXQGHUHVWLPDWHG7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVLQRXUVWXG\ +RUZDWKHWDO  GLVFXVVHGWKLVSUREOHPRIWKHLULQLWLDOLQDELOLW\WRXQGHUVWDQGFRXUVHPD- WHULDODQGWKHDFFRPSDQ\LQJIHHOLQJRIVHOIGRXEW /RQJWHUP VWXGLHV VXPPDUL]HG LQ 'ZHFN   VXJJHVW WKDW ZRPHQ KDYHSDUWLFXODUGLI¿FXOW\GHDOLQJZLWKVXFKSHUSOH[LW\±LQIDFWWKHEULJKWHU WKH\DUHWKHKDUGHULWLV,QWHOOLJHQWER\VRQWKHRWKHUKDQGDUHRIWHQVSXUUHG RQE\IDLOXUHWRXQGHUVWDQG7KXVWKLVLVDFWXDOO\DPDWWHURIKRZVWXGHQWVGHDO ZLWKH[SHULHQFHVWKDWFDVWGRXEWRQWKHLUDELOLWLHV2INH\LPSRUWDQFHKHUHDUH FRQFHSWVRIZKDWDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VFDSDELOLW\DFWXDOO\LVDQLQERUQHQGRZPHQW RUDQDFTXLUHGVNLOO",IRQHFRQVLGHUVRQH¶VFDSDELOLW\DVDJLIWWKHQDVHWEDFN FDQTXLFNO\OHDGWRDORVVRIPRWLYDWLRQWRVWLFNWRLW VLQFHWKHIDLOXUHLVLQWHU- SUHWHGDVDODFNRIWDOHQW ,IRQWKHRWKHUKDQGRQHLVFRQYLQFHGWKDWDFKLHYH- PHQWFDQUHVXOWIURPKDUGZRUNDQGGHWHUPLQDWLRQWKHQWKHUHLVDKLJKHUSURE- ability one will display resilience in upsetting situations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¿HOGVPHQKDYHWKHULJKW VWXIIZRPHQKDYHOHVVRIZKDWLWWDNHV $FFRUGLQJO\ZRPHQZKRFRQVLGHU WKHLURZQKLJKSHUIRUPDQFHDVDJLIWDUHVXVFHSWLEOHWRVHWEDFNV%DGJUDGHV IRULQVWDQFHFDQHDVLO\OHDGWRIUXVWUDWLRQ,IRQWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHPHVVDJHLV 224 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

FRQYH\HGWRVWXGHQWVWKDWKDUGZRUNOHDGVWRVXFFHVVWKHQWKLVKDVDQHQFRXU- DJLQJHIIHFWRQERWKJHQGHUV7 1RZWHDFKHUVZKRZLVKWRHQFRXUDJHZRPHQFRXOGZDLWIRUVLWXDWLRQVLQ ZKLFKDZRPDQGRHVDJUHDWMREDQGWKHQSUDLVHKHUIRUKHUWDOHQWEXWSDUD- GR[LFDOO\WKLVLVSUHFLVHO\WKHSUREOHP$VHULHVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQVE\0XHOOHU DQG'ZHFN  IRUH[DPSOHVKRZWKDWSUDLVLQJVWXGHQWV¶WDOHQWV HYHQLQ UHVSRQVHWRDSHUIRUPDQFHWKDWDFWXDOO\ZDVRXWVWDQGLQJ FDQKDYHXQGHVLUDEOH VLGHHIIHFWV,WFDQLQGXFHVWXGHQWVWRKHVLWDWHWRHPEDUNRQWDVNVLQZKLFK WKHUHLVDQLQWULQVLFULVNRIIDLOXUH6RZKDWFDQEHGRQH"'ZHFNDQGKHUFRO- OHDJXHVSURFHHGXQGHUWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWWKHSRLQWLVWRLQÀXHQFHFRQYLFWLRQV DERXWZKDWWDOHQWDFWXDOO\FRQVLVWVRI DOVRVHH$URQVRQHWDO 2YHUWKH ORQJWHUPLPSDUWLQJWKHLGHDWKDWLQWHOOLJHQFHLVVXEMHFWWRPRGL¿FDWLRQDQG GHYHORSPHQW\LHOGVWKHKLJKHVWSUREDELOLW\RIKDYLQJDKHDUWHQLQJHIIHFW,Q FRQFUHWHWHUPWHDFKHUVVKRXOGLQVWLOOWKHFRQYLFWLRQWKDWFDSDELOLWLHVFDQEH XSJUDGHGWKURXJKLQGHIDWLJDEOHHIIRUW7KXVYLDDQHQFRXUDJLQJVXSSRUWLYH DWWLWXGHWKH\FDQKHOSZRPHQDQGPHQOHDUQWRRYHUFRPHIUXVWUDWLRQDQGQRW WRJLYHXSSUHPDWXUHO\ZKHQDVLWXDWLRQLQGXFHVVHOIGRXEW

Long-term Influence on and Training of Cognitive Skills

Calling upon educators to teach that capabilities are assets subject to enhance- PHQWUDLVHVWKHOHJLWLPDWHTXHVWLRQRIWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKFDSDELOLWLHVDFWX- DOO\FDQEHPRGL¿HG%\ZD\RIH[DPSOHZHZDQWWRIRFXVRQWKHDERYH PHQWLRQHGDUHDLQZKLFKWKHPRVWSURQRXQFHGJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVKDYHEHHQ HVWDEOLVKHG±VSDWLDODELOLWLHV0DUXOLVHWDO  SUHVHQWHGDPHWDDQDO\VLV RIWKHWUDLQDELOLW\RIWKLVVNLOOWKH\FRPHWRWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWERWKFKLOGUHQ DQGDGXOWVFDQWUDLQDQGLPSURYHWKLVVNLOOE\HQJDJLQJLQDVHULHVRIDFWLYL- WLHV VXFK DV WDVNUHODWHG SUDFWLFH PXVLFDO H[HUFLVHV DQG FRPSXWHU JDPLQJ $PHWDDQDO\VLVE\%DHQQLQJHUDQG1HZFRPEH FI1HZFRPEH  DOVRIRXQGWKDWVSDWLDODELOLWLHVFDQEHWUDLQHGDQGWKDWERWKPHQDQGZRPHQ

_&RQVLGHUDVZHOOWKHRSHQOHWWHUWKDW+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\SK\VLFLVW+RZDUG*HRUJLSXE- lished in the school newspaper in January 2005 in response to remarks made by President Larry Summers. Implicitly, Georgi aOVRPDGHLWFOHDUWKDWDFKLHYHPHQWVLQSK\VLFVDUH QRWWREHXQGHUVWRRGRQO\DVWKHUHVXOWRILQQDWHWDOHQWEXWRIFRQWLQXRXVKDUGZRUNWRR $YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZWKHFULPVRQFRPDUWLFOHDVS["UHI  DFFHVVHG)HEUX- DU\  SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 225

EHQH¿WIURPVXFKWUDLQLQJ5HSHDWHGWUDLQLQJVHVVLRQVFRQVWLWXWHWKHNH\WR HQKDQFHG SHUIRUPDQFH HJ &KHUQH\   6RUE\ DQG %DDUWPDQV   VHWXSDFRXUVHIRUIUHVKPHQDW0LFKLJDQ7HFKQRORJLFDO8QLYHUVLW\LQZKLFK VSDWLDOFRQFHSWXDODELOLWLHVZHUHWUDLQHG7KHHYDOXDWLRQVKRZHGDVLJQL¿FDQW LPSURYHPHQWLQSHUIRUPDQFHE\PHQDQGZRPHQDQGHYHQORZHUHGWKHGURS RXWUDWH*HUVRQHWDO  XVHGPXOWLPHGLDVRIWZDUHWRWUDLQIUHVKPHQ¶V VSDWLDODELOLWLHVUHVXOWLQJLQDUHGXFHGGURSRXWUDWHDPRQJIHPDOHHQJLQHHULQJ students. On the whole, the literature on training mental skills shows that abilities FHUWDLQO\FDQEHGHYHORSHGDQGVRPHVWXGLHVVXJJHVWWKDWJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV FDQEHUHGXFHG HJ)HQJHWDO6SHQFHHWDO7]XULHODQG(JR]L  ,QDFULWLFDODQDO\VLVRIWKHWUDLQLQJOLWHUDWXUHKRZHYHU&HFLDQG3D- SLHUQR  VHH9R\HU   SRLQW RXW WKDW WUDLQLQJ QHHG QRW QHFHVVDULO\ HUDVHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV6RPHWLPHVWKRVHZLWKEHWWHUVNLOOVDOVREHQH¿WPRUH IURPWUDLQLQJLQFUHDVLQJUDWKHUWKDQZHDNHQLQJH[LVWLQJJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV 2YHUDOO LW VHHPV WKDW ZRPHQ ODUJHO\ EHQH¿W IURP WUDLQLQJ HYHQ LI WKH\ GR QRWQHFHVVDULO\EHQH¿WPRUHWKDQPHQ0RUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQWKHTXHVWLRQRI ZKHWKHU RU QRW ZRPHQ FDQ µFDWFK XS¶VHHPV WR EH WKH LQVLJKW WKDW DELOLWLHV FDQEHVXFFHVVIXOO\GHYHORSHG7KHWUDLQLQJVWXGLHVVKRZWKDWWKHDYHUDJHLP- SURYHPHQWLQSHUIRUPDQFHLVRIWHQJUHDWHUWKDQWKHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVDQGLID FHUWDLQSHUIRUPDQFHVWDQGDUGLVVHWERWKVH[HVFDQEHWUDLQHGWRPHHWLW

CONCLUSION

,PSRUWDQWIRUWKHLVVXHXQGHULQYHVWLJDWLRQKHUHLVUHFRJQL]LQJWKDWFRJQLWLYH VNLOOVFDQEHLQÀXHQFHGERWKQHJDWLYHO\DQGSRVLWLYHO\$FRPSUHKHQVLYHUH- YLHZRIUHVHDUFKVKRZVWKDWZHKDYHDORWWROHDUQDERXWWKHLQÀXHQFHRIVWH- UHRW\SHVRQLQGLYLGXDOSHUIRUPDQFHWKDWSUHYDLOLQJDVVXPSWLRQVDERXWWKHQD- WXUHRILQWHOOLJHQFHDQGWDOHQWRXJKWWREHVXEMHFWHGWRFULWLFDOVFUXWLQ\LQFKLOG UHDULQJDQGHGXFDWLRQDQGWKDWUHOHYDQWVNLOOVFDQEHFRQVLGHUDEO\HQKDQFHG YLDSUDFWLFHDQGSHUVHYHUDQFH7KLVOHDGVXVWRFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHUHDUHERWK VLPLODULWLHVDQGGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHDYHUDJHSUR¿OHVRIPHQDQGZRPHQZLWK UHVSHFWWRFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV)XUWKHUPRUHWKHVHFDSDELOLWLHVDUHE\QRPHDQV ¿[HGUDWKHUWKH\PXVWEHVHHQDVFRQVWLWXWLQJGHYHORSPHQWDOSRWHQWLDOWKDW FDQFHUWDLQO\EHQXUWXUHG,QDQ\FDVHFRJQLWLYHGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHDYHUDJH SUR¿OHVRIPHQDQGZRPHQFDQKDUGO\EHVLQJOHGRXWDVWKHRQO\UHDVRQVIRU WKHORZHUSURSRUWLRQRIZRPHQDFWLYHLQWHFKQRORJ\DQGVFLHQFH 226 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

6FLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\HGXFDWLRQDUHFRQWH[WVLQZKLFKHTXDOLW\DQGGLI- IHUHQFHEHWZHHQPHQDQGZRPHQDUHERWKGLVFXVVHGRUJDQL]HGDQGSURGXFHG 7KLVLVZK\GLVFXVVLRQVRIJHQGHUMXVWLFHDQGFRJQLWLYHDELOLWLHVDUHRIHVVHQ- WLDOLPSRUWDQFHKHUH2XUDQDO\VLVVKRZVWKDWWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWKHUHDUH FRJQLWLYHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQZRPHQDQGPHQLVQRWHDV\WRDQVZHU$VZH KDYHHQGHDYRUHGWRVKRZ¿[DWLRQRQWKLVTXHVWLRQFDQDOVRIUHTXHQWO\OHDGWR DGHDGHQGVLQFHWKHNH\ZRXOGEHWRNQRZZKDWSUDFWLFDOUHOHYDQFHSRVVLEOH GLIIHUHQFHVKDYHLQHYHU\GD\OLIH$VIDUDVHGXFDWRUV¶DELOLW\WRLQWHUYHQHWKH TXHVWLRQRIKRZPHQ¶VDQGZRPHQ¶VFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVFDQEHLQÀXHQFHGVHHPV WRXVWREHHVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQW+HUHUHVHDUFKHUVKDYHEHHQYHU\DFWLYHDQG SURGXFHGLPSUHVVLYHHPSLULFDOUHVXOWVWKDWSHUPLWFRQFUHWHLQVLJKWVLQWRWKH SUDFWLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQVRIPRYLQJWRZDUGVJHQGHUMXVWLFH7KLVSDSHUKDVSUH- sented and discussed current scholarship on these issues.

7UDQVODWHGIURP*HUPDQE\0HO*UHHQZDOG

REFERENCES

$SSHO0DQG.URQEHUJHU1  6WHUHRW\SHVDQGWKHDFKLHYHPHQWJDS6WH- reotype threat prior to test taking. (GXFDWLRQDO3V\FKRORJ\5HYLHZ   ± $SSHO 0 .URQEHUJHU 1 DQG$URQVRQ -   6WHUHRW\SH7KUHDW LPSHGHV DELOLW\EXLOGLQJ(IIHFWVRQWHVWSUHSDUDWLRQDPRQJZRPHQLQVFLHQFHDQG technology. (XURSHDQ-RXUQDORI6RFLDO3V\FKRORJ\  ± $URQVRQ-)ULHG&DQG*RRG&  5HGXFLQJWKHHIIHFWVRIVWHUHRW\SH WKUHDWRQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQFROOHJHVWXGHQWVE\VKDSLQJWKHRULHVRILQWHO- ligence. -RXUQDORI([SHULPHQWDO6RFLDO3V\FKRORJ\  ± $URQVRQ-/XVWLQD0*RRG&.HRXJK.%URZQ-/DQG6WHHOH&0   :KHQ:KLWHPHQFDQ¶WGRPDWK1HFHVVDU\DQGVXI¿FLHQWIDFWRUVLQVWH- reotype threat. -RXUQDORI([SHULPHQWDO6RFLDO3V\FKRORJ\  ± %DHQQLQJHU0DQG1HZFRPEH1  7KHUROHRIH[SHULHQFHLQVSDWLDOWHVW SHUIRUPDQFH$PHWDDQDO\VLV6H[5ROHV ± ± %DNHU'3DQG-RQHV'3  &UHDWLQJJHQGHUHTXDOLW\&URVVQDWLRQDOJHQ- GHUVWUDWL¿FDWLRQDQGPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFH6RFLRORJ\RI(GXFDWLRQ   ± SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 227

%HQERZ&3/XELQVNL'6KHD'/DQG(IWHNKDUL6DQMDQL+  6H[GLI- IHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFDOUHDVRQLQJDELOLW\DWDJH7KHLUVWDWXV\HDUV later. Psychological Science  ± %ODVFRYLFK-6SHQFHU6-4XLQQ'DQG6WHHOH&  $IULFDQ$PHULFDQV DQGKLJKEORRGSUHVVXUH7KHUROHRIVWHUHRW\SHWKUHDWPsychological Sci- ence  ± &HFL6-DQG3DSLHUQR3%  7KHUKHWRULFDQGUHDOLW\RIJDSFORVLQJ:KHQ WKH³KDYHQRWV´JDLQEXWWKH³KDYHV´JDLQHYHQPRUHAmerican Psycholo- gist  ± &HFL6-DQG:LOOLDPV:0 HGV   Why Aren’t More Women in Science? 7RS5HVHDUFKHUV'HEDWHWKH(YLGHQFH. Washington, DC: American Psy- chological Association. &HFL6-DQG:LOOLDPV:0  <(67KHVFLHQWL¿FWUXWKPXVWEHSXUVXHG Nature  ± &HFL6-:LOOLDPV:0DQG%DUQHWW60  :RPHQ¶V8QGHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ in Science: Sociocultural and Biological Considerations. Psychological Bulletin  ± &KHUQH\,'  0RP/HW0H3OD\0RUH&RPSXWHU*DPHV7KH\,PSURYH My Mental Rotation Skills. 6H[5ROHV ± ± &RKHQ-  Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hills- dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. &URZOH\.&DOODQDQ0$7HQHQEDXP+5DQG$OOHQ(  3DUHQWVH[- SODLQPRUHRIWHQWRER\VWKDQWRJLUOVGXULQJVKDUHGVFLHQWL¿FWKLQNLQJ Psychological Science  ± &XGG\$-&)LVNH67DQG*OLFN3  :DUPWKDQGFRPSHWHQFHDVXQLYHU- VDOGLPHQVLRQVRIVRFLDOSHUFHSWLRQ7KH6WHUHRW\SH&RQWHQW0RGHODQG WKH%,$60DS,Q=DQQD03 HG $GYDQFHVLQ([SHULPHQWDO6RFLDO3V\- chology1HZ

(FNHV7  Geschlechterstereotype: Frau und Mann in sozialpsycholo- gischer Sicht.3IDIIHQZHLOHU&HQWDXUXV (FNHV7DQG6L[0DWHUQD,  /HXJQXQJYRQ'LVNULPLQLHUXQJ(LQH6NDOD ]XU(UIDVVXQJGHVPRGHUQHQ6H[LVPXV=HLWVFKULIWIU6R]LDOSV\FKRORJLH   ± (OVH4XHVW 10 +\GH -6 DQG /LQQ 0&   &URVV1DWLRQDO 3DWWHUQV RI *HQGHU'LIIHUHQFHVLQ0DWKHPDWLFV$0HWD$QDO\VLVPsychological Bul- letin   ± )HQJ-6SHQFH,DQG3UDWW-  3OD\LQJDQ$FWLRQ9LGHR*DPH5HGXFHV *HQGHU'LIIHUHQFHVLQ6SDWLDO&RJQLWLRQPsychological Science   ± )LVNH67&XGG\$-&*OLFN3DQG;X-  $PRGHORI RIWHQPL[HG  VWHUHRW\SHFRQWHQW&RPSHWHQFHDQGZDUPWKUHVSHFWLYHO\IROORZIURPSHU- FHLYHGVWDWXVDQGFRPSHWLWLRQJournal of Personality and Social Psychol- ogy  ± )UH\$+HLQ]H$0LOGQHU'+RFKZHEHU-DQG$VVHEXUJ5  0DWK- HPDWLVFKH.RPSHWHQ]YRQ3,6$±3,6$,Q.OLHPH($UWHOW &+DUWLJ--XGH1.|OOHU23UHQ]HO06FKQHLGHU:DQG6WDQDW3 HGV  3,6$%LODQ]QDFKHLQHP-DKU]HKQW0QVWHU:D[PDQQ± *HUVRQ+6RUE\6$:\VRFNL$DQG%DDUWPDQV%-  7KHGHYHORSPHQW DQGDVVHVVPHQWRIPXOWLPHGLDVRIWZDUHIRULPSURYLQJ'VSDWLDOYLVX- alization skills. &RPSXWHU $SSOLFDWLRQV LQ (QJLQHHULQJ (GXFDWLRQ    ± *OLFN3DQG)LVNH67  7KH$PELYDOHQW6H[LVP,QYHQWRU\'LIIHUHQWL- DWLQJ KRVWLOH DQG EHQHYROHQW VH[LVP Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  ± *OLFN3DQG)LVNH67  $Q$PELYDOHQW$OOLDQFH+RVWLOHDQG%HQHYROHQW 6H[LVPDV&RPSOHPHQWDU\-XVWL¿FDWLRQVIRU*HQGHU,QHTXDOLW\American Psychologist  ± *RRG&$URQVRQ-DQG+DUGHU-$  3UREOHPVLQWKHSLSHOLQH6WHUHRW\SH WKUHDWDQGZRPHQ¶VDFKLHYHPHQWLQKLJKOHYHOPDWKFRXUVHVJournal of Applied Developmental Psychology  ± *RXOG6-  The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton. *UDQW+DQG'ZHFN&6  &ODULI\LQJ$FKLHYHPHQW*RDOVDQG7KHLU,P- pact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  ± *XLVR/0RQWH)6DSLHQ]D3DQG=LQJDOHV/  &XOWXUH*HQGHUDQG Math. Science  ± SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 229

+DLHU5-  %UDLQV%LDVDQG%LRORJ\)ROORZWKH'DWD,Q&HFL6-DQG :LOOLDPV:0 HGV Why Aren’t More Women in Science? Top Researchers 'HEDWHWKH(YLGHQFH Washington, DC: American Psychological Associa- WLRQ± +DLHU5-DQG%HQERZ&3  6H[GLIIHUHQFHVDQGODWHUDOL]DWLRQLQWHPSRUDO lobe glucose metabolism during mathematical reasoning. Developmental Neuropsychology  ± +DOSHUQ ')  $ &RJQLWLYH3URFHVV 7D[RQRP\ IRU 6H[ 'LIIHUHQFHV LQ &RJQLWLYH$ELOLWLHV Current Directions in Psychological Science    ± +DOSHUQ')  6FLHQFH6H[DQG*RRG6HQVH:K\:RPHQDUHXQGHU- UHSUHVHQWDWHGLQ6RPH$UHDVRI6FLHQFHDQG0DWK,Q&HFL6-DQG:LO- OLDPV:0 HGV Why Aren’t More Women in Science? Top Researchers 'HEDWHWKH(YLGHQFH Washington, DC: American Psychological Associa- WLRQ± Halpern DF, Benbow CP, Geary DC, Gur RC, Hyde JS, and Gernsbacher MA  7KH6FLHQFHRI6H['LIIHUHQFHVLQ6FLHQFHDQG0DWKHPDWLFVPsy- FKRORJLFDO6FLHQFHLQWKH3XEOLF,QWHUHVW  ± +HGJHV/9DQG1RZHOO$  6H['LIIHUHQFHVLQ0HQWDO7HVW6FRUHV9DUL- DELOLW\ DQG 1XPEHUV RI +LJK6FRULQJ ,QGLYLGXDOV Science    ± +LQHV 0   'R 6H[ 'LIIHUHQFHV LQ &RJQLWLRQ &DXVH WKH 6KRUWDJH RI :RPHQLQ6FLHQFH",Q&HFL6-DQG:LOOLDPV:0 HGV Why Aren’t More :RPHQLQ6FLHQFH"7RS5HVHDUFKHUV'HEDWHWKH(YLGHQFH Washington, '&$PHULFDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO$VVRFLDWLRQ± +RIIPDQ0*QHH]\8DQG/LVW-$  1XUWXUHDIIHFWVJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV in spatial abilities. PNAS  ± +RUZDWK,.URQEHUJHU1DQG:|UWO,  )UDXHQUlXPHLP7HFKQLNVWXGL- XP6WLJPDWLVLHUXQJRGHU&KDQFH",Q717X1L)H9 HG Gezeiten- wechsel2OGHQEXUJ%,69HUODJ± +RUZDWK,.URQEHUJHU1DQG:|UWO,  7HTXDOLW\±7HFKQLN*HQGHU (TXDOLW\ 'DV 7HFKQLNVWXGLXPDXV GHU 6LFKW YRQ )UDXHQ XQG 0lQQHUQ Linz: Land Oberösterreich. +\GH-6  7KH*HQGHU6LPLODULWLHV+\SRWKHVLVAmerican Psychologist   ± +\GH-6DQG/LQQ0&  *HQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQYHUEDODELOLW\$PHWD analysis. Psychological Bulletin  ± 230 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

+\GH-6DQG0HUW]-(  *HQGHUFXOWXUHDQGPDWKHPDWLFVSHUIRUPDQFH PNAS  ± +\GH-6)HQQHPD(DQG/DPRQ6-  *HQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDW- LFVSHUIRUPDQFH$PHWDDQDO\VLVPsychological Bulletin  ± +\GH-6/LQGEHUJ60/LQQ0&(OOLV$%DQG:LOOLDPV&&  *HQGHU 6LPLODULWLHV&KDUDFWHUL]H0DWK3HUIRUPDQFHScience  ± ,Q]OLFKW0DQG%HQ=HHY7  $7KUHDWHQLQJ,QWHOOHFWXDO(QYLURQPHQW :K\)HPDOHV$UH6XVFHSWLEOHWR([SHULHQFLQJ3UREOHP6ROYLQJ'H¿FLWV LQWKH3UHVHQFHRI0DOHVPsychological Science  ± ,Q]OLFKW0DQG6FKPDGHU7  Stereotype Threat: Theory, Process, and Application.1HZ

0DUWHOO 5) /DQH '0 DQG (PULFK &   0DOH)HPDOH 'LIIHUHQFHV$ Computer Simulation. American Psychologist  ± 0DUXOLV/0+DQG//:DUUHQ&0DQG8WWDO'+ $SULO (IIHFWVRI WUDLQLQJRUH[SHULHQFHRQVSDWLDOFRJQLWLRQLQFKLOGUHQDQGDGXOWV$0HWD- analysis. Presented at the Biennial Meetings of the Society for Research on Child Development, Boston, MA. 0HQDFKHU 3   (UNOlUXQJVDQVlW]H IU JHVFKOHFKWVVSH]L¿VFKH ,QWHUHVVHQ XQG/HLVWXQJVXQWHUVFKLHGHLQ0DWKHPDWLN1DWXUZLVVHQVFKDIWHQXQG7HFK- nik. =HQWUDOEODWWIU'LGDNWLNGHU0DWKHPDWLN  ± 0XHOOHU&0DQG'ZHFN&6  3UDLVHIRU,QWHOOLJHQFH&DQ8QGHUPLQH &KLOGUHQ¶V0RWLYDWLRQDQG3HUIRUPDQFHJournal of Personality and Social Psychology  ± 1HZFRPEH 16   7DNLQJ 6FLHQFH 6HULRXVO\ 6WUDLJKW 7KLQNLQJ$ERXW 6SDWLDO6H['LIIHUHQFHV,Q&HFL6-DQG:LOOLDPV:0 HGV Why Aren’t 0RUH:RPHQLQ6FLHQFH"7RS5HVHDUFKHUV'HEDWHWKH(YLGHQFH Washing- WRQ'&$PHULFDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO$VVRFLDWLRQ± 1JX\HQ++'DQG5\DQ$0  'RHVVWHUHRW\SHWKUHDWDIIHFWWHVWSHUIRU- PDQFH RI PLQRULWLHV DQG ZRPHQ"$ PHWDDQDO\VLV RI H[SHULPHQWDO HYL- dence. Journal of Applied Psychology   ± 1RUWRQ0,9DQGHOOR-$DQG'DUOH\-0  &DVXLVWU\DQG6RFLDO&DWHJRU\ Bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  ± 2¶%ULHQ/7DQG&UDQGDOO&6  6WHUHRW\SHWKUHDWDQGDURXVDO(IIHFWVRQ ZRPHQ¶VPDWKSHUIRUPDQFHPersonality and Social Psychology Bulletin   ± 2(&'  %LOGXQJDXIHLQHQ%OLFN2(&',QGLNDWRUHQ Paris: Or- JDQLVDWLRQIUZLUWVFKDIWOLFKH=XVDPPHQDUEHLWXQG(QWZLFNOXQJ 2(&'  Science and innovation notes. Country Notes: Austria.$YDLO- DEOH DW KWWSZZZRHFGRUJGDWDRHFGSGI DFFHVVHG  )HEUXDU\  2(&'  3,6$5HVXOWV([HFXWLYH6XPPDU\ 4XLQQ'0DQG6SHQFHU6-  7KH,QWHUIHUHQFHRI6WHUHRW\SH7KUHDW:LWK :RPHQ¶V*HQHUDWLRQRI0DWKHPDWLFDO3UREOHP6ROYLQJ6WUDWHJLHVJour- QDORI6RFLDO,VVXHV  ± 5RORII &   *HVFKOHFKWHUYHUKlOWQLV XQG 6WXGLXP LQ 1DWXUZLVVHQVFKDIW XQG 7HFKQLN ± YRP Ä3UREOHP GHU )UDXHQ³ ]XP 0RGHUQLVLHUXQJVGH¿]LW GHU+RFKVFKXOH,Q1HXVHO$DQG:HWWHUHU$ HGV 9LHOIlOWLJH9HUVFKLH- GHQKHLWHQ *HVFKOHFKWHUYHUKlOWQLVVH LQ 6WXGLXP +RFKVFKXOH XQG %HUXI )UDQNIXUWDP0DLQ&DPSXV± 232 ILONA HORWATH, NICOLE KRONBERGER, MARKUS APPEL

5RORII&DQG(YHUW]%  ,QJHQLHXULQ N HLQHOHEEDUH=XNXQIW9RU8UWHLOH im Umfeld von Gymnasiastinnen an der Schwelle der Leistungskurswahl. :HLQKHLP%HOW]'HXWVFKHU6WXGLHQYHUODJ 5RVHQWKDO5DQG-DFREVRQ/  3\JPDOLRQLQWKHFODVVURRP7HDFKHUH[- pectation and pupils’ intellectual development. New York: Rinehart and Winston. 5XGPDQ/$DQG*OLFN3  The Social Psychology of Gender. How Pow- HUDQG,QWLPLF\6KDSH*HQGHU5HODWLRQV1HZMemory, and Cognition  ± 6SHQFHU6-6WHHOH&0DQG4XLQQ'0  6WHUHRW\SH7KUHDWDQG:RP- HQ¶V0DWK3HUIRUPDQFH-RXUQDORI([SHULPHQWDO6RFLDO3V\FKRORJ\   ± 6WDNH -( DQG 1LFNHQV 6'  $GROHVFHQW JLUOV¶ DQG ER\V¶ VFLHQFH SHHU UHODWLRQVKLSVDQGSHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHSRVVLEOHVHOIDVVFLHQWLVW6H[5ROHV  ± ± 6WHHOH&0  $WKUHDWLQWKHDLU+RZVWHUHRW\SHVVKDSHWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO LGHQWLWLHVDQGSHUIRUPDQFHRIZRPHQDQG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVAmerican Psychologist  ± 6WHHOH&0DQG$URQVRQ-  6WHUHRW\SH7KUHDWDQGWKH,QWHOOHFWXDO7HVW 3HUIRUPDQFHRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVJournal of Personality and Social Psy- chology  ± SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT? 233

6WHHOH-  &KLOGUHQ¶VJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDERXWPDWK7KHUROHRIVWHUHR- W\SHVWUDWL¿FDWLRQJournal of Applied Social Psychology  ± 6ZLP-.DQG6DQQD/-  +H¶V6NLOOHG6KH¶V/XFN\$0HWD$QDO\VLVRI 2EVHUYHUV¶$WWULEXWLRQVIRU:RPHQ¶VDQG0HQ¶V6XFFHVVHVDQG)DLOXUHV Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin  ± 7LHGHPDQQ-  3DUHQWV¶JHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDQGWHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVDVSUH- GLFWRUVRIFKLOGUHQ¶VFRQFHSWRIWKHLUPDWKHPDWLFDODELOLW\LQHOHPHQWDU\ school. -RXUQDORI(GXFDWLRQDO3V\FKRORJ\  ± 7]XULHO'DQG(JR]L*  *HQGHU'LIIHUHQFHVLQ6SDWLDO$ELOLW\RI

Gender Competence in Mathematics Teacher Education

ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

INTRODUCTION

,Q*HUPDQ\WKHSUHMXGLFHVWLOOH[LVWVWKDWµJLUOVDUHQ¶WJRRGDWPDWK¶1 The ‘male LPDJH¶ZKLFKPDWKHPDWLFVKDVLQVRFLHW\LVDWOHDVWSDUWLDOO\FUHDWHGLQVFKRRO ,QRUGHUWRFKDQJHWKLVJHQGHUHGLPDJHRIPDWKHPDWLFVEXWDOVRWRLQFUHDVH HTXDORSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUSXSLOVEH\RQGJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHGNQRZOHGJHDQGLQWHU- est domains, it is necessary that mathematics teachers act in a gender-compe- WHQWZD\,QGHHGVRPHUHVHDUFKLQGLFDWHVWKDWPDWKHPDWLFV±EH\RQGDUHOHYDQW VFKRROVXEMHFWDQGVFLHQWL¿FGLVFLSOLQH±LVDOVRDµFRUHGLVFLSOLQH¶IRUWKH¿HOG RIQDWXUDOVFLHQFHVDQGHQJLQHHULQJ VHH'09HWDO+HLQHHWDO  Thus, in the long term, gender-competent mathematics teaching could also help WRGLPLQLVKDJHQGHUEDVHGFKRLFHRI¿HOGVRIVWXG\DQGRFFXSDWLRQDQGWR SURPRWHHTXDORSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUPHQDQGZRPHQLQWKHODERUPDUNHW+RZHYHU LQ*HUPDQ\¶VµPDLQVWUHDPGHEDWHV¶ZLWKLQWKHFXUUHQWSURFHVVRISURIHVVLRQDO- L]DWLRQRIDFDGHPLFWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJWKHUHDUHIHZLQGLFDWLRQVIRUWKHH[LVWHQFH RIDJHQGHUSHUVSHFWLYHDQGJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHLVKDUGO\HYHULQFOXGHGLQWKH UHOHYDQWFXUULFXOD VHH/DQJIHOGWDQG0LVFKDX  Our interdisciplinary research project GenderMathematik2 µ*HQGHU0DWK- HPDWLFV¶ FRQVWLWXWHVD¿UVWVWHSWRZDUGVWKHLQWHJUDWLRQRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFH

_7KLVSUHMXGLFHDOVRH[LVWVLQRWKHUFRXQWULHVHJWKH*HUPDQVSHDNLQJFRXQWULHV$XV- tria and Switzerland. 2_7KHSURMHFWµ*HQGHU0DWKHPDWLN*HQGHUNRPSHWHQ]DOVLQQRYDWLYHV(OHPHQWGHU/HK- UHU,QQHQDXVELOGXQJIUGDV)DFK0DWKHPDWLN¶ µ*HQGHU0DWKHPDWLFV*HQGHUFRPSH- WHQFHDVDQLQQRYDWLYHHOHPHQWRIWKHSURIHVVLRQDOLVDWLRQRIWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJLQPDWK- HPDWLFV¶ ZDVIXQGHGIURP±E\WKH*HUPDQ)HGHUDO0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQDQG 236 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

ZLWKLQWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJLQ*HUPDQ\E\GHYHORSLQJDQH[HPSODU\FRXUVHIRU PDWKHPDWLFV WHDFKHU WUDLQLQJ ,Q WKLV SDSHU ZH ZLOO ¿UVW SUHVHQW WKH EDFN- JURXQGRIWKHSURMHFWLQSDUWLFXODUWKHXQGHUO\LQJGH¿QLWLRQRIJHQGHUFRP- SHWHQFHDQGWKHQJLYHDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHGHVLJQHGFRXUVH VHHDOVR/DQJIHOGW DQG0LVFKDX0LVFKDXDQG0HKOPDQQ 

THE PROJECT GENDERMATHEMATIK (‘GENDERMATHEMATICS’)

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µER\V¶ VXEMHFW¶ RU µPDOH GRPDLQ¶ ZKHUH JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV LQ PDWKHPDWLFVDOUHDG\EHFRPHDSSDUHQWDWWKHHQGRISULPDU\VFKRROHQWUHQFK WKHPVHOYHVLQWKHFRXUVHRIVHFRQGDU\VFKRROHGXFDWLRQDQGODWHURQEHFRPH PDQLIHVWLQDJHQGHUEDVHGFKRLFHRI¿HOGVRIVWXG\DQG¿HOGVRIRFFXSDWLRQ 2QHRIWKHHVVHQWLDOUHIHUHQFHSRLQWVRIWKHSURMHFWZHUHUHVXOWVRIHPSLUL- cal research, which show that gender-stereotypical attributions play an impor- WDQWDQGSUREOHPDWLFUROHLQWKHSURFHVVHVRIWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJPDWKHPDW- LFVDWVFKRRODVWKH\UHSURGXFHJHQGHUHGLPDJHVRIPDWKHPDWLFVDQGJHQGHUHG VFKRROVXEMHFWV VHHIRUH[DPSOH%RVHWDO=LPPHUHWDO ,Q RUGHUWREUHDNWKHµYLFLRXVFLUFOH¶ (UQHVW WKXVFUHDWHGUHVHDUFK- HUVZLWKLQJHQGHURULHQWHGGLGDFWLFVDQGHGXFDWLRQDOVFLHQFHKDYHHPSKDVL]HG WKDWEHVLGHVWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHGLGDFWLFVDWVFKRROLWLV DOVRQHFHVVDU\WRPDNHPDWKHPDWLFVWHDFKHUVDZDUHRIWKHLULPSDFWRQFUHDWLQJ DQGUHSURGXFLQJJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDQGJHQGHUHGVFKRROVXEMHFWV VHH&XUGHV 2007; Fischer and Rustemeyer, 2007; Jungwirth and Stadler, 2005a; Keitel,  7RJHWKHUZLWKRWKHUHOHPHQWVWKHWHDFKHUV¶JHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDERXW

5HVHDUFK7KHSURMHFWZDVDFROODERUDWLRQRIWKHXQLYHUVLWLHVRI%LHOHIHOG*LH‰HQDQG +DPEXUJ 6HH KWWSZZZXQLELHOHIHOGGH,))JHQGHUXQGPDWKHLQGH[KWPO DFFHVVHG )HEUXDU\  GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 237

WKHOHDUQLQJRIPDWKHPDWLFVPDWKHPDWLFDOVNLOOVDQGDFKLHYHPHQWDVZHOODV WKHLUSRWHQWLDOODFNRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFDQEHLGHQWL¿HGDVIXQGDPHQWDO UHDVRQVIRUJHQGHUELDVHVLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI\RXQJSHRSOH¶VLQWHUHVWVDQG FRPSHWHQFHVZLWKUHJDUGWRVFKRROVXEMHFWV VHH-RQHVHWDO-XQJZLUWK  .HOOHU  =LHJOHU HW DO   7KHUHIRUH SURVSHFWLYH  WHDFKHUV QHHGWRDFTXLUHJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHZLWKUHJDUGWRGLGDFWLFVDQGVXEMHFWVSHFLI- LFFRQWHQWVLQRUGHUWRRYHUFRPHJHQGHUVSHFL¿FELDVHVZLWKLQVFKRROVXEMHFWV Within our project, GenderMathematikZHGHYHORSHGDJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFH FRXUVHIRUWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJLQPDWKHPDWLFV7KHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\FRXUVHIRUPDW FRPELQHVUHVXOWVRIJHQGHUVWXGLHVIURPYDULRXVGLVFLSOLQHVOLNHPDWKHPDWLFV GLGDFWLFVRIPDWKHPDWLFVHGXFDWLRQDOVFLHQFHDQGVRFLDOVFLHQFHV:LWKUHJDUG WRWKHYDULRXVJHQGHUWKHRU\DSSURDFKHVWKHFRQFHSWRIWKHFRXUVHUHOLHVXSRQD FRQVWUXFWLYLVWSHUVSHFWLYHRQJHQGHULHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVDUHVHHQDVHIIHFWV RIVRFLDOSUDFWLFHDQGWKHUHODWHGH[FOXVLRQVDQGVRFLDOKLHUDUFKLHVDUHVHHQDV SURGXFWVRIJHQGHULQJSURFHVVHV VHHIRULQVWDQFH:LO]I  ,Q WKH ¿UVW VWHS RI WKH SURMHFW ZH FRQGXFWHG DQ LQTXLU\ LQWR WKH VWDWXV TXRKRSLQJWR¿QGEHVWSUDFWLFHPRGHOV:HGLVFRYHUHGWKDWJHQGHUFRPSH- tence with respect to mathematics teaching is not implemented as a mandatory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competence course in maths teacher training. %DVHGRQWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHSUHFHGLQJVWHSVZH¿QDOO\GHVLJQHGWKHFXU- ULFXODUGLGDFWLFDODQGPHWKRGRORJLFDOFRQFHSWRIRXUFRXUVHLQWKHOLJKWRID IXUWKHUGHYHORSHGPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOFRQFHSWRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHZKLFKZH XVHGDVDWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUN VHH/DQJIHOGWDQG0LVFKDX/DQJIHOGW HWDO0LVFKDXHWDO  $¿UVWYHUVLRQRIWKHJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFRXUVHµ0DWKHPDWLFV±6FKRRO± *HQGHU¶ZDVWDXJKWGXULQJWKHZLQWHUWHUPDWHLJKW*HUPDQXQLYHUVL- ties.37KHFRXUVHZDVRIIHUHGPDLQO\IRUEDFKHORUVWXGHQWVEXWDOVRIRUPDVWHU

_$XJVEXUJ%LHOHIHOG%UHPHQ*LH‰HQ+DPEXUJ/XGZLJVEXUJ/QHEXUJ3RWVGDP 238 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

VWXGHQWVDQGZDVWDXJKWE\FRRSHUDWLRQSDUWQHUVRIWKHSURMHFWZLWKLQWKHLU GLGDFWLFVRIPDWKHPDWLFVSURJUDPPHV4 Prior to the course, the lecturers had EHHQWUDLQHGLQDZRUNVKRSDQGKDGUHFHLYHGD&'520FRQWDLQLQJWKHFRXUVH PDQXDOWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOVDQGDOLVWRIVHOHFWHGOLWHUDWXUHIRUWKHUHVHUYHVKHOI In total, 160 students participated in the gender competence course, whereby ZHUHPDOHDQGZHUHIHPDOHVWXGHQWV $WWKHHQGRIWKHWHUPWKH¿UVWYHUVLRQRIWKHFRXUVHDVLWZDVWDXJKWLQ WKHH[HPSODU\WHDFKLQJZDVHYDOXDWHGDWVHYHQXQLYHUVLWLHV57KLVH[WHQVLYH IRUPDWLYH DQG VXPPDWLYH HYDOXDWLRQ FRPSULVHV WZR VWDQGDUGL]HG TXHVWLRQ- QDLUHV¿OOHGRXWE\WKHVWXGHQWV RQHDWWKHEHJLQQLQJFDSWXULQJDPRQJRWKHU WKLQJVWKHLUJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHEHIRUHWKHFRXUVHDQGH[SHFWDWLRQVUHODWHGWR WKHFRXUVHDQGRQHDWWKHHQGPHDVXULQJVXFKIHDWXUHVDVVDWLVIDFWLRQZLWKWKH FRXUVHDQGWKHLUJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHDIWHUWKHFRXUVH VHPLVWUXFWXUHGTXDOLWD- WLYHLQWHUYLHZVZLWKWKHOHFWXUHUVDQGVHPLVWUXFWXUHG VHOIDQGH[WHUQDO RE- VHUYDWLRQVZLWKVRPHFHQWUDOTXHVWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJHYHU\VLQJOHVHVVLRQZKLFK WKHOHFWXUHUVKDGWRDQVZHUSDUDOOHOWRWKHFRXUVH5HVXOWVRIWKHHYDOXDWLRQFDQ EHIRXQGLQ0LVFKDXHWDO  VRDWWKLVSRLQWRQO\DIHZEULHIFRPPHQWV VKRXOGEHJLYHQFRQFHUQLQJWKHµVWXGHQWV¶HYDOXDWLRQ¶ 7KHVXUYH\VFRQGXFWHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJDQGDWWKHHQGRIWKHFRXUVHUH- YHDOHGWKDWWKHFRXUVHZLGHO\PHHWVWKHVWXGHQWV¶GHPDQGVDQGH[SHFWDWLRQV FRQFHUQLQJDJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFRXUVH$WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHFRXUVHQHDUO\ RIWKHVWXGHQWVPHQWLRQHGDSHUVRQDOODFNRIGLGDFWLFDODQGPHWKRGRORJL- FDONQRZOHGJHLQGHDOLQJZLWKJHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV DVZHOODVZLWKRWKHUDV- SHFWVRIGLYHUVLW\DWVFKRRODQGWKHUHIRUHSURIHVVHGDNHHQLQWHUHVWLQLQQR- YDWLYHDQGGLIIHUHQWLDWHGWHDFKLQJPHWKRGV$ERXWRIWKHVWXGHQWVDOVR UHSRUWHGKDYLQJOLWWOHFRPSHWHQFHDQGH[SHULHQFHLQVHOIUHÀHFWLRQDQGDIDLU DPRXQWRIXQFHUWDLQW\DVWRWKHLUIXWXUHUROHDVWHDFKHUV$IWHUDWWHQGLQJWKH FRXUVHQHDUO\RIWKHVWXGHQWVGHFODUHGWKDWSDUWLFXODUO\WKHLUDELOLW\WR UHÀHFWRQWKHLURZQJHQGHUELDVHGYLHZVDQGDWWULEXWLRQVDQGWKHLUDZDUHQHVV RIWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWHDFKHUV¶JHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVRQWKHSXSLOV¶DFKLHYHPHQWV DQGVHOIFRQFHSWKDGLQFUHDVHG,QDGGLWLRQDERXWDOVRGHFODUHGWKDWWKHLU NQRZOHGJHRIKRZWRSODQPDWKHPDWLFVOHVVRQVZLWKJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHHGXFD-

_2QO\LQ+DPEXUJWKHFRXUVHZDVRIIHUHGDVDPDWKHPDWLFVVHPLQDU WDXJKWE\SURMHFW PHPEHU DQG PDWKHPDWLFLDQ $QGUHD %OXQFN  ,Q WKH %LHOHIHOG SURMHFW PHPEHU $QLQD 0LVFKDXFRWDXJKWWKHFRXUVHZLWKDFROOHDJXHIURPPDWKHPDWLFVHGXFDWLRQ _$W3+/XGZLJVEXUJWKHFRXUVHZDVWDXJKWLQDPRGL¿HGZD\VRIRUFRPSDUDELOLW\ UHDVRQVWKHHYDOXDWLRQZDVQRWFDUULHGRXWWKHUH GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 239

tional materials and methodological and didactical approaches had increased, DVZHOODVWKHLUNQRZOHGJHRQFRQFUHWHJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ PHWKRGVWKDWIRVWHUDELDVIUHHHQYLURQPHQWRIWKHVWXGHQWVVWDWHGWKDWWKH WKHPHµJHQGHU¶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

THE COURSE CONCEPT

7KH JHQGHU FRPSHWHQFH FRXUVH ZDV GHYHORSHG IRU SULPDU\ DQG VHFRQGDU\ teacher training in mathematics and comprises 14 lessons.77KH¿UVWOHVVRQ is an introductory one which presents the course programme and, in addition, DOVRGHVFULEHVIRUPDOFRQGLWLRQVOLNHH[DPLQDWLRQPRGDOLWLHV7KH¿QDOOHVVRQ JLYHVWKHVWXGHQWVWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRUHYLHZZKDWZDVOHDUQHG7KLVOHVVRQFDQ DOVREHXVHGIRUDFRXUVHIHHGEDFN7KHPDLQSDUWRIWKHFRXUVHFRQVLVWVRI WZHOYHOHVVRQVZKLFKDUHGLYLGHGLQWR¿YHEORFNVRIWZRRUWKUHHOHVVRQVHDFK ,QWKHFRXUVHPDQXDOSURYLGHGIRUOHFWXUHUVWKHGHVFULSWLRQRIHDFKOHVVRQ LVRUJDQL]HGDVIROORZV 6KRUWLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKHWRSLFVDQGLVVXHVRIWKH UHVSHFWLYH OHVVRQ   2YHUYLHZ RI UHODWHG VWDWH RI UHVHDUFK   3URSRVDO IRU PHWKRGVWREHXVHG /HDUQLQJJRDOV 6FKHGXOHRIWKHOHVVRQ 2XWORRN IRUWKHQH[WOHVVRQ0RUHRYHUWKHUHLVDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHZKROHFRXUVHLQ RUGHUWRSURYLGHWKHUHDGHUZLWKDµUHGWKUHDG¶WRIROORZ7KHFRXUVHPDQXDO

_,WVKRXOGEHSRLQWHGRXWWKDWWKHUHYLVHGFRXUVHZDVWDXJKWRQO\DIWHUWKHHQGRIWKH SURMHFWDQGWKDWLWZDVQRWHYDOXDWHG6RPHH[SHULHQFHVZLWKWHDFKLQJWKHUHYLVHGFRXUVH DUHGHVFULEHGLQ0LVFKDX   _$W*HUPDQXQLYHUVLWLHVDWHUPXVXDOO\FRPSULVHVZHHNVDQGDVHPLQDUXVXDOO\ FRQVLVWVRIRQHOHVVRQ PLQ SHUZHHN 240 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

LVVXSSOHPHQWHGE\DFROOHFWLRQRIWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOVXVHGLQWKHFRXUVH7KH PDLQFRQWHQWVJRDOVDQGPHWKRGVRIWKHFRXUVHDUHGHVFULEHGEHORZ ,Q WKH SURMHFW ZH IRUPXODWHG D GH¿QLWLRQ RI gender competence as an RFFXSDWLRQUHODWHGNH\TXDOL¿FDWLRQ VHH%UHPHUDQG0HKOPDQQ0HW] *|FNHODQG5RORII5RVHQNUDQ])DOOHJJHU ZKLFKLVIXQGDPHQWDO IRUWKHFRXUVH$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVGH¿QLWLRQJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFRPSULVHVIRXU DVSHFWVRUGLPHQVLRQVSURIHVVLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHPHWKRGRORJLFDODQGGLGDF- WLFDOFRPSHWHQFHLQWHUDFWLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHDQGVHOIFRPSHWHQFH VHH/DQJ- IHOGWDQG0LVFKDX/DQJIHOGWHWDO  Professional competence comprises basic and specialized knowledge in WKH¿HOGRIJHQGHUVWXGLHVLQSDUWLFXODUDERXWVRFLRFXOWXUDOFRQVWUXFWLRQVRI JHQGHUDQGWKHLULPSDFWRQVRFLHWDOVWUXFWXUHVLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGLQGLYLGXDOVDV ZHOODVDERXWWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIJHQGHUHGGLVFLSOLQDU\FXOWXUHV(dimension of gender knowledge). Methodological and didactical competence VLJQL¿HV FRPSHWHQFH ZLWK UHJDUGWRDJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHDUUDQJHPHQWRIWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJSURFHVVHV (dimension of the teaching framework). ,QWHUDFWLRQDOFRPSHWHQFH means competence in creating a gender-sensi- WLYHWHDFKLQJFXOWXUH(dimension of classroom interactions). Self-competenceFRQVLVWVRIWKHDELOLW\WRUHÀHFWRQRQH¶VRZQJHQGHUHGEL- RJUDSK\JHQGHUEDVHGYLHZVDQGDVVXPSWLRQVVRFLDOQRUPVVWHUHRW\SHVDQG WKHDELOLW\WRUHÀHFWJHQGHUEDVHGDWWULEXWLRQVH[SHFWDWLRQVDQGHYDOXDWLRQV GLPHQVLRQRIVHOIUHÀHFWLYLW\ . *HQGHUFRPSHWHQFHLQWKLVVHQVHLQFOXGHVVHQVLWLYLW\IRUWKHPHFKDQLVPV DQGFRQVHTXHQFHVRIJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SLFDODWWULEXWLRQVIRUWKHUHSURGXFWLRQRI JHQGHUEDVHGGRPDLQVRILQWHUHVWDQGNQRZOHGJH0RUHRYHULWLQFOXGHVWKH NQRZOHGJHRIWKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWVDVZHOODVGLGDFWLFDODQGPHWKRGRORJLFDO DSSURDFKHVZKLFKVKRXOGHQDEOH SURVSHFWLYH WHDFKHUVWRRIIHUJHQGHUVHQVL- WLYHPDWKHPDWLFVOHVVRQVDQGRSHQRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUSXSLOVWROHDUQPDWKHPDW- ics beyond gender-based restrictions. Finally, gender competence includes the DELOLW\WRFULWLFDOO\UHÀHFWRQH¶VRZQJHQGHUEDVHGYLHZVDQGDWWLWXGHVDVZHOO DVRQLQVWLWXWLRQDOIUDPHZRUNVOLNHFXUULFXODRUWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOWKHDELOLW\ WRUHÀHFW DQG±LIQHFHVVDU\±WRFKDQJH RQH¶VRZQSURIHVVLRQDOZD\VRIDFW- LQJLQWHUDFWLQJDQGFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWKUHVSHFWWR±SRVVLEO\XQLQWHQWLRQDO± JHQGHUVWHUHRW\SLQJHIIHFWV VHH0LVFKDXHWDO $VWKHIRXUGLPHQVLRQV RIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHGHVFULEHGDERYHV\VWHPDWLFDOO\LQWHUWZLQHWKH\KDYH EHHQLQWHJUDWHG±ZLWKYDU\LQJGHJUHHRIFRQFHQWUDWLRQ±LQWKHOHDUQLQJJRDOV IRUPXODWHGIRUHDFKOHVVRQ GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 241

$FFRUGLQJWRRXUGH¿QLWLRQJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFDQQRWEHUHJDUGHGDVµIRU- PXOD¶NQRZOHGJH7KH EDVLF PHWKRGRORJLFDO FRQFHSW RI WKH FRXUVHUHOLHVRQ WKHLGHDRIWHDFKHUVDVµUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLWLRQHUV¶ VHH$GOHU6FK|Q  ZKRUHÀHFWDQGFRQWLQXDOO\UH¿QHWKHLUVNLOOVWKURXJKDULJRURXVSURFHVVRIVHOI UHÀHFWLRQZKLOHDFWLQJLQWKHFODVVURRP 3URVSHFWLYH WHDFKHUVVKRXOGWKHUHIRUH EHLQVWUXFWHGWRLGHQWLI\WUDSVRIFRFRQVWUXFWLRQLQWKHLURZQDWWULEXWLRQVIRUPV RIWHDFKLQJVWUXFWXUHVSDWWHUQVRILQWHUDFWLRQHWFDVZHOODVWRTXHVWLRQWKHLU RZQSHUIRUPDQFHZLWKUHJDUGWRSRVVLEOH XQLQWHQGHG JHQGHUELDVHGHIIHFWV DQGWRGHYHORSVWUDWHJLHVWRFKDQJHWKHLUEHKDYLRU VHH0LVFKDXHWDO  7KHPHWKRGVDSSOLHGLQWKHFRXUVHDUHTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKRVHWKDW*HU- man mathematics students, studying to become teachers, usually encounter in WKHLUXQLYHUVLW\VHPLQDUV$VHPLQDULQPDWKHPDWLFVXVXDOO\PHDQVWKDWHDFK ZHHNDVWXGHQWSUHVHQWVDPDWKHPDWLFDOWRSLFE\JLYLQJDWDONDQGZULWLQJDF- companying notes on the blackboard. A seminar in educational science or peda- gogy means reading, presenting und discussing papers. For our course, how- HYHUXVLQJDYDULHW\RIPHWKRGVLVDIXQGDPHQWDOSDUWRIWKHGLGDFWLFDOFRQFHSW 2QHUHDVRQIRUWKLVLVWKDWYDULDWLRQRIPHWKRGVLVVXJJHVWHGE\PDWKHPDWLFV H[SHUWVZLWKUHJDUGWRµJRRG¶DQGµJHQGHUVHQVLWLYH¶PDWKHPDWLFVWHDFKLQJDW VFKRRO VHH-DKQNH.OHLQ/HXGHUV0H\HU  7KHFRQFHSWRIRXUFRXUVHIROORZVWKHµGLGDFWLFDOPHWKRGLFDOGRXEOHGHFN- HU¶DSSURDFK µGLGDNWLVFKPHWKRGLVFKHU'RSSHOGHFNHU¶VHH:DKO0LV- FKDXHWDO 7KHUHE\EHVLGHVSKDVHVRILQGLYLGXDOL]HGZRUNWKHVWXGHQWV H[SHULHQFHZLWKLQWKHFRXUVHYDULRXVIRUPVRIFRRSHUDWLYHDQGUHVHDUFKEDVHG OHDUQLQJPHWKRGVZKLFKDUHDOVRXVHGDWVFKRRODQGZKLFKDUHVXLWDEOHIRU GHYHORSLQJ JHQGHUVHQVLWLYH PDWKHPDWLFV OHVVRQV$PRQJ RWKHU WKLQJV ZH IRU H[DPSOH XVH MLJVDZ SX]]OHV µ*UXSSHQSX]]OH¶  WKLQNSDLUVKDUH µ,FK 'X:LU¶ DQGOHDUQLQJVWDWLRQV µ6WDWLRQHQOHUQHQ¶  VHH%DU]HOHWDO 8 ,QRUGHUWRLQFUHDVHVHOIUHÀHFWLYLW\WKHVWXGHQWVKDYHWRZRUNRQDSRUWIROLR WKURXJKRXWWKHFRXUVH7KLVSRUWIROLRLVXVHGIRUGRFXPHQWLQJDQGUHÀHFWLQJUH- VXOWVEXWDOVRIRUUHFRUGLQJH[SHULHQFHVIHHOLQJVLGHDVSUREOHPVDQGSHUVRQDO LPSUHVVLRQV)XUWKHUPRUHWKHSRUWIROLRLVXVHGWRZULWHGRZQDQGUHÀHFWXSRQD VWXGHQW¶VLQVLJKWVDQGSUREOHPVFRQFHUQLQJWKHVXEMHFWVDVWKH\ZHUHGLVFXVVHG IURPWKHSRLQWRIYLHZRIWKHIRXUGLPHQVLRQVRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFH3RUWIROLRV DUHDOVRXVHGDWVFKRRO %DU]HOHWDO=Z|OIHU VRWKLVFDQDOVREH VHHQDVDSDUWRIWKHµGLGDFWLFDOPHWKRGLFDOGRXEOHGHFNHU¶0RUHRYHULIQHFHV-

8_$GHVFULSWLRQRIWKHVHDQGPDQ\RWKHUPHWKRGVFDQDOVREHIRXQGLQ.5HLFK¶Vµ0HWKR GHQSRRO¶ PHWKRGSRRO KWWSPHWKRGHQSRROXQLNRHOQGH DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  242 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

VDU\ZHVXJJHVWXVLQJWKHSRUWIROLRDVFRXUVHZRUNWKDWZLOOEHJUDGHGDWWKH HQGRIWKHFRXUVH,QWKHIROORZLQJWKHWRSLFVRIWKHFRXUVHEORFNVDQGWKHPDLQ WKUHDGUXQQLQJWKURXJKWKHHQWLUHFRXUVHDUHGHVFULEHG VHHDOVR/DQJIHOGWDQG 0LVFKDX/DQJIHOGWHWDO0LVFKDXDQG0HKOPDQQ 

MAIN CONTENTS, GOALS AND METHODS OF THE COURSE

6HQVLWL]LQJWKHVWXGHQWVIRUWKHSUREOHPDWLFHIIHFWVRIJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHGDW- tributions by teachers and pupils in regard to the subject math in general and PDWKHPDWLFDODSWLWXGHLQSDUWLFXODULVDFHQWUDOIRFXVRIWKHFRXUVH7KLVLQ- FOXGHVGHDOLQJZLWKRQH¶VRZQH[SHULHQFHVDQGLGHDVRIPDWKHPDWLFVZKLFK ZHUHFKRVHQDVDVWDUWLQJSRLQWRIWKHVHPLQDU 7KH LQWURGXFWRU\ VHVVLRQ RI WKH VHPLQDU LQWURGXFHV WKH WKHPDWLF ¿HOG µ0DWKHPDWLFV 6FKRRO DQG *HQGHU¶ DQG RSHQV XS WKH GLIIHUHQW GLPHQVLRQV RI JHQGHU FRPSHWHQFH DV D SURIHVVLRQDO NH\ TXDOL¿FDWLRQ IRU SURVSHFWLYH  PDWKVWHDFKHUV7KLVLVIROORZHGE\WKH¿UVWEORFNZKLFKH[DPLQHVµ,PDJHV of Mathematics’ and their connections to the category gender in respect to WKHLULPSOLFDWLRQVIRUWKHODWHUVFKRROSUDFWLFHRIWKHVWXGHQWVVWXG\LQJWREH WHDFKHUV$VDSUHSDUDWLRQWKHVWXGHQWVDUHJLYHQWKHWDVNWRZULWHWKHLUµPDWK- HPDWLFDODXWRELRJUDSK\¶ VHH6FKDUODFKXQGDWHG IRUWKHµUHDFWLYDWLRQ¶RIWKHLU RZQH[SHULHQFHVZLWKPDWKDQGWKHLPDJHVRIPDWK,QVXEVHTXHQWVHVVLRQV students go back to their mathematical autobiography to connect and illustrate VFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJHZLWKVXEMHFWLYHH[SHULHQFH )RU WKH ¿UVW EORFN VHVVLRQ ZH FKRVH DQ LQWXLWLYH LQWURGXFWLRQ EDVHG RQ HPRWLRQV DQG H[SHULHQFHV ,Q D 3RZHU3RLQWSUHVHQWDWLRQ WKH VWXGHQWV DUH VKRZQLPDJHVRIPDWKHPDWLFVDQGRURIWKHWHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJRIPDWKHPDWLFV LQGLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WV7KHVWXGHQWVDUHJLYHQWKHWDVNWRFKRRVHWKHLPDJHWKDW PRVWFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHLURZQLGHDRIPDWKHPDWLFVRUWKHWHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJ RIPDWKHPDWLFVDQGWKHQUHÀHFWRQWKHLUFKRLFH7KHVXEVHTXHQWGLVFXVVLRQ LQWKHFRXUVHFUHDWHVPXWXDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJIRUWKHGLYHUVLW\RIWKHLPDJHVRI PDWKHPDWLFVWKHVWXGHQWVKDYHDQGDWWKHVDPHWLPHUHÀHFWVWKHXQGHUO\LQJ attitude towards mathematics and learning and teaching it. 7KHVWXGHQWV¶UHÀHFWLRQRQWKHLURZQLPDJHRIPDWKHPDWLFVLVVRPHWKLQJ WKDWXVXDOO\KDVQRVSDFHLQXQLYHUVLW\FRXUVHVIRUSURVSHFWLYHPDWKHPDWLFV WHDFKHUV+RZHYHUVXFKDUHÀHFWLRQLVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHWKHEHOLHIVDERXW PDWKHPDWLFV LQÀXHQFH WKH ZD\ RQH GHDOV ZLWK PDWKHPDWLFV &XUGHV HW DO GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 243

 6RWKHVWXGHQWV¶EHOLHIVZLOOKDYHDQLPSDFWRQWKHZD\WKH\ZLOO WHDFKPDWKHPDWLFVODWHURQ0RUHRYHUUHÀHFWLQJRQPDWKHPDWLFVDQGRQWKH SUHIHUHQFHVIRURUDYHUVLRQVDJDLQVWFHUWDLQDVSHFWVRIPDWKHPDWLFVPLJKWKHOS WKH VWXGHQWV VWXG\LQJ WR EHFRPH WHDFKHUV ± ZKR RIWHQ KDYH SUREOHPV ZLWK WKHDEVWUDFWµXQLYHUVLW\PDWKHPDWLFV¶±WR UH JDLQDSRVLWLYHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGV their subject. )LQDOO\WKHVWXGHQWV¶VXEMHFWLYHDVVHVVPHQWVDUHUHODWHGWRHPSLULFDOUH- VXOWV RI UHVHDUFK RQ PDWKHPDWLFDO EHOLHIV VHH IRU H[DPSOH %O|PHNH HW DO *ULJXWVFKHWDO6WLSHNHWDO ZKLFKXQGHUOLQHWKHLQÀXHQFH RIFRQYLFWLRQVDERXWWKHVWUXFWXUHRIPDWKHPDWLFVDQGWKHJHQHVLVRIPDWK- HPDWLFDOFRPSHWHQFHIRUWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJPDWKHPDWLFV 7KH VHFRQG EORFN VHVVLRQ VXEVHTXHQWO\ IRFXVHV RQ WKH FRQQHFWLRQ RI PDWKHPDWLFVDQGJHQGHU$QLQWURGXFWRU\H[HUFLVHYLDWKHPHWKRGRIµJHQGHU FDUGV¶RQWKHRQHKDQGDLPVDWDFULWLFDOORRNDWJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHGDWWULEXWLRQV URRWHGLQHYHU\GD\NQRZOHGJHDQGRQWKHRWKHUDWLQFUHDVLQJWKHDZDUHQHVV IRUWKHVWXGHQWV¶RZQ±SRVVLEO\XQFRQVFLRXV±VWHUHRW\SHGLGHDVLQUHJDUGWR PDWKHPDWLFDODSWLWXGH7KHPDLQIRFXVRIWKHVHFRQGVHVVLRQWKHUHIRUHOLHVLQ WKHKLVWRULFDOFXOWXUDOGHULYDWLRQRIWKHTXHVWLRQZK\PDWKHPDWLFVLVVWLOOVHHQ DVDµPDOHGRPDLQ¶E\WKHPDMRULW\RISHRSOHLQRXUFXOWXUH7KHµJHQGHULQJ¶RI PDWKHPDWLFVLVWKHUHE\V\VWHPDWLFDOO\XQIROGHGIURPGLIIHUHQWSRLQWVRIYLHZ ZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHFDWHJRU\RIJHQGHU%HVLGHVGHDOLQJZLWKJHQGHUVWHUHR- typed attributions regarding mathematical aptitude, which are, among others, UHSURGXFHGDQGSRSXODUL]HGYLDSLFWRULDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVWKHVWHUHRW\SLQJRI PDWKHPDWLFVDVDµPDOHGRPDLQ¶EDVHGRQFXUUHQWJHQGHUUHODWLRQVGDWDDUH H[DPLQHGPRUHFORVHO\DOVRIURPDKLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHUHJDUGLQJWKHH[FOX- VLRQRUPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQRIZRPHQLQPDWKHPDWLFVDVDµPDOHGLVFLSOLQH¶$LGHG E\WKHPHWKRGRIOHDUQLQJVWDWLRQVWKHVWXGHQWVDUHHQFRXUDJHGWRH[SORUHWKH DVSHFWRIDVXEMHFW¶VJHQGHULQJPRVWO\GLVUHJDUGHGLQWKHGLGDFWLFVRIPDWK- HPDWLFVDQGWRVKRZLWVLPSOLFDWLRQVIRUPDWKHPDWLFVOHVVRQVLQDVHOIGLUHFWHG DQGLQGLYLGXDOPDQQHUE\PHDQVRISUHSDUHGPDWHULDOV 7KH¿UVWEORFNSULPDULO\DLPVDWVHQVLWL]LQJWKHVWXGHQW¶VVHOIDZDUHQHVV DQGWULJJHULQJLQSDUWLFXODUWKHQHFHVVDU\SURFHVVHVRIUHÀHFWLRQRQWKHLP- SOLFDWLRQVRIWKHLURZQLPDJHRIPDWKHPDWLFVDQGWKHVWHUHRW\SLQJRIPDWK- HPDWLFVDVDµPDOHGRPDLQ¶IRUWKHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJRIPDWKHPDWLFVZLWK UHVSHFWWRWKHVWXGHQWV¶IXWXUHSURIHVVLRQDOSUDFWLFH 7KHFRPSDUDWLYHDQDO\VLVRI¿QGLQJVRIGLIIHUHQWDVVHVVPHQWVWXGLHVDERXW ‘Gender Differences Concerning Mathematic Achievements and Mathemati- cal Self-Concept’FRPSULVHV%ORFN,,RIWKHJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFRXUVH$VD 244 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

contrast to the widespread gender-stereotyped assessments which attribute an LQIHULRUPDWKHPDWLFDODSWLWXGHDQGWKXVORZHUSHUIRUPDQFHLQWKLV¿HOGWRJLUOV DQGZRPHQERWKVHVVLRQVRIWKHEORFNWDNHDFORVHUORRNDWWKHHPSLULFDO¿QG- LQJVUHJDUGLQJJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHVXEMHFWPDWKHPDWLFVLQWKHFRQWH[WRI DQLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRPSDULVRQ7KHVWXGHQWVDFFHVVWKHVHHPSLULFDO¿QGLQJVE\ ZD\RIH[DPSOHYLDDVHFRQGDU\DQDO\VLVRIVHOHFWHGUHVXOWVIURP3,6$ WR3,6$DQGWKHHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROVWXG\7,066 %RVHWDO 0DUWLQHWDO2(&' 7KHPDLQUHVXOWVDUHWKDW JHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFVSHUIRUPDQFHLQJHQHUDODQGZLWKUHJDUGWR PDWKHPDWLFDOFRQWHQWDUHDVFRPSHWHQF\FOXVWHUVRUJUDGHVYDU\FRQVLGHUDEO\ LQDGGLWLRQWKH\YDU\EHWZHHQFRXQWULHV7KHGLIIHUHQFHVDUHQRWDOZD\VLQ IDYRURIER\VDQGVRPHWLPHVWKH\DUHQRWSUHVHQWDWDOO 7KH ¿UVW VHVVLRQ LQYROYHV DQ H[DPLQDWLRQ RI LQLWLDOO\ JHQGHUEDVHG GLI- IHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFH±E\PHDQVRIDMLJVDZSX]]OH7KLV LQFOXGHVLQWHJUDWLQJLQWRWKHDQDO\VLV¿QGLQJVDERXWWKHPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRU- PDQFHRYHUDOOLQUHODWLRQWRSHUIRUPDQFHRQGLIIHUHQWFRPSHWHQFHOHYHOVDV ZHOODVLQWHUPVRIGLIIHUHQWPDWKHPDWLFDOFRQWHQWDUHDV7KHEORFN¶VVHFRQG VHVVLRQIRFXVHVRQWKHVHOHFWHGUHVXOWVUHJDUGLQJJHQGHUEDVHGGLIIHUHQFHVLQ VRFDOOHGVWXGHQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZKLFKZHUHVXUYH\HGLQWKHFRQWH[WRI3,6$ DQG7,066LQWHUPVRILQGLYLGXDOOHDUQLQJDELOLWLHVDQGZKLFKDUHEHLQJGLV- FXVVHGDVSRVVLEOHLQÀXHQFLQJIDFWRUVIRUPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFH7KHH[- HPSODU\DQDO\VLVFRPSULVHVIRULQVWDQFHWKHLQWHUHVWLQPDWKHPDWLFVIHDURI PDWKHPDWLFVWKHSRVLWLYHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVPDWKHPDWLFVDVZHOODVWKHPDWK- HPDWLFDOVHOIFRQFHSWDQGWDNHVSODFHLQSDUWQHUDQGJURXSZRUNVHWWLQJV,Q JHQHUDOLQWKH2(&'DYHUDJHDQGLQDOPRVWDOOFRXQWULHVER\VKDYHPRUH LQWHUHVWLQDQGOHVVIHDURIPDWKHPDWLFVDQGWKHLUPDWKHPDWLFDOVHOIFRQFHSWLV VLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKHUWKDQWKDWRIJLUOV,Q*HUPDQ\WKHVHGLIIHUHQFHVDUHSDU- ticularly pronounced. $FORVHORRNDWWKHGDWDLOOXVWUDWHVWKHVLPSOLFLW\RIPDQ\H[SODQDWLRQVHV- SHFLDOO\IRXQGLQWKHPHGLDZKLFKDWWULEXWHWKHGLIIHUHQWPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRU- PDQFHVEHWZHHQWKHVH[HVWRµQDWXUH¶+RZHYHUJHQGHUELDVDVVHUWLRQVVXFK DVµJLUOVFDQ¶WGRPDWKHPDWLFVDQGER\VFDQ¶WUHDG¶LJQRUHWKHIDFWWKDWWKHDV- VHVVPHQWVWXGLHVGRQRWVKRZDXQLIRUPSLFWXUHRIJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQSXSLOV¶ SHUIRUPDQFHLQUHDGLQJPDWKHPDWLFVRUQDWXUDOVFLHQFHV,QFRQWUDVWVWXGHQWV VKRXOGUHFRJQL]HWKDWDFRUUHFWDQGFULWLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHVWDWLVWLFDOGDWD SURYLGHGE\LQWHUQDWLRQDOVWXGLHVGHPRQVWUDWHVDZLGHYDULDWLRQRIJHQGHUGLI- IHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFDODFKLHYHPHQWDPRQJFRXQWULHVPRVWO\EXWQRWH[- FOXVLYHO\WRJLUOV¶GLVDGYDQWDJH$WWKHVDPHWLPHVWXGHQWVVKRXOGUHDOL]HWKDW GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 245

WKHIRUPVRIJHQGHUEDVHGGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHH[DPLQHGVWXGHQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFV DOVRYDU\EHWZHHQFRXQWULHVDQGUHVSHFWLYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVEXWWKDWRYHUDOO WKHVHJHQGHUEDVHGGLIIHUHQFHVLQFRPSDULVRQWRWKRVHLQPDWKHPDWLFDOSHU- IRUPDQFHFOHDUO\SURYHWREHUDWKHUPRUHKRPRJHQHRXVDQGVWDEOHRYHUWLPH 7KHDLPRIWKLVGHWDLOHGH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHHPSLULFDO¿QGLQJVLQTXHVWLRQ LVRQWKHRQHKDQGWRSUREOHPDWL]HWKH±VWLOOH[LVWLQJ±JHQGHUEDVHGµNQRZO- HGJHDQGLQWHUHVWWHUULWRULHV¶DVZHOODVWRVHQVLWL]HWKHVWXGHQWVIRUWKHLVVXH RISRVVLEOHVRFLRFXOWXUDOIUDPHZRUNFRQGLWLRQVDQGRULQÀXHQFLQJIDFWRUVUH- JDUGLQJWKHLUIRUPDWLRQDQGUHSURGXFWLRQ9 Both aspects underline not only the QHHGIRUDFWLRQUHJDUGLQJDFKDQJHLQOHVVRQGHVLJQIRUWKHVXEMHFWPDWKHPDW- LFVEXWDOVRDUHÀHFWLRQRQRQH¶VRZQUROHDVD IXWXUH WHDFKHULQFUHDWLQJDQG RYHUFRPLQJJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLWFUHDWHV WKHSUHUHTXLVLWHIRUDFULWLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHYDULRXVH[SODQDWRU\DSSURDFK- HVZKLFKDUHFRYHUHGLQWKHQH[WEORFNDQGZKLFKDUHWREHTXHVWLRQHGIRUWKH SODXVLELOLW\DQGVFRSHEDVHGRQWKHHPSLULFDO¿QGLQJV 7KHTXHVWLRQDERXWWKHUHDVRQIRUWKHGHWHFWHGJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWK- HPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFHDQGLQWKHPDWKHPDWLFDOVHOIFRQFHSWIRUPVWKHFHQWUH RI%ORFN,,,µ([SODQDWRU\$SSURDFKHVWR*HQGHU'LIIHUHQFHVLQWKH6XEMHFW Mathematics’ZKLFKMXVWOLNH%ORFN,,DFFHQWXDWHVWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIJHQGHU knowledge. 7KH¿UVWVHVVLRQRIWKLVEORFNIRFXVHVRQWKHNQRZOHGJHEDVHRIWKHVWX- GHQWVWKHPVHOYHV8VLQJWKHµWKLQNSDLUVKDUH¶PHWKRGRQWKHEDVLVRITXRWHV WDNHQIURPPDWKHPDWLFVVWXGHQWVLGHDV DIIHFWHGE\HYHU\GD\WKHRU\ DQGFRQ- YLFWLRQVDERXWDSWLWXGHWKHRU\DVZHOODVWKHVWXGHQWV¶VFLHQWL¿FNQRZOHGJH EDVHLQWKH¿HOGRIPDWKHPDWLFVDUHWDSSHGDQGPDGHDFFHVVLEOHIRUFULWLFDO H[DPLQDWLRQ10,QWKLVFRQWH[WDGLVWLQFWLRQLVLQWURGXFHGE\GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJEH- WZHHQWKHQDWXUHDQGWKHQXUWXUHSHUVSHFWLYHZKLFKSHUPLWVD¿UVWV\VWHPDWL- ]DWLRQRIWKHVSHFWUXPRIWKHVFLHQWL¿FH[SODQDWRU\DSSURDFKHVDWKDQG,QOLJKW

_6WXGHQWVVKRXOGEHPDGHWRUHDOL]HWKDWJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRU- PDQFHDQGVHOIFRQFHSWDUHQHLWKHULQHYLWDEOHQRUDµQDWXUDO¶RXWFRPHRIGLIIHUHQFHVEH- WZHHQWKHVH[HVEXWUDWKHUWKDWIDFWRUVVXFKDVWKHEURDGHUVRFLRFXOWXUDOFRQWH[W IRU H[DPSOHWKHIRUPDWLRQRIVRFLHWDOJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDQGJHQGHULQHTXDOLW\ DVZHOODV JHQGHUHGLPDJHVRIPDWKHPDWLFVRUHGXFDWLRQDOSROLFLHVDQGSUDFWLFHVLQÀXHQFHDQGUH- SURGXFHJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHV VHH&RUDGL9HOODFRWWHWDO(OVH4XHVWHWDO *XLVRHWDO1RVHNHWDO2(&'  _7KHLQWHUYLHZVZHUHFDUULHGRXWLQDUHVHDUFKSURMHFWRQGRLQJJHQGHULQPDWKHPDWLFV VHH0LVFKDXHWDO  246 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

RIWKHSHUVLVWHQFHRIJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHGDWWULEXWLRQVUHJDUGLQJPDWKHPDWLFDO FRPSHWHQFHVZKLFKDUHEDVHGRQµQDWXUDO¶GLIIHUHQFHVLQDSWLWXGHRQHRIWKH IRFDOSRLQWVRIWKHVHVVLRQOLHVLQWKHFULWLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIELRORJLFDOH[SODQ- DWRU\DSSURDFKHVLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHQDWXUHSHUVSHFWLYH7KHVHDSSURDFKHV FRQVLGHUIRUH[DPSOHJHQHWLFKRUPRQDODQGFHUHEURSK\VLRORJLFDOIDFWRUVDV DFDXVHIRUJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFH IRUDQRYHUYLHZ VHHIRULQVWDQFH%LHGLQJHU7DXVHQGSIXQG  7KHVHFRQGVHVVLRQLVGHGLFDWHGWRDFORVHUORRNDWH[SODQDWRU\DSSURDFKHV RIWKHQXUWXUHSHUVSHFWLYH+HUHWKHPDLQIRFXVLVRQVRFLDOL]DWLRQWKHRUHWLFDO approaches which assume that cultural gender-stereotypes and the stereotyp- LQJRIJHQGHUDVDµPDOHGRPDLQ¶±FRPPXQLFDWHGYLDJHQGHUEDVHGDWWLWXGHV H[SHFWDWLRQVDQGDWWULEXWLRQVE\SDUHQWVSHHUJURXSVDQGWHDFKHUV±KDYHD VLJQL¿FDQW LQÀXHQFH RQ WKH REVHUYHG JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHV UHJDUGLQJ WKH VXE- MHFWUHODWHGVHOIFRQFHSWDQGWKXVDOVRRQPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFH IRUDQ RYHUYLHZVHHIRUH[DPSOH%XGGH&RUDGL9HOODFRWWHWDO $GLI- IHUHQWLDWLRQEHWZHHQµLQWHUQDO¶DQGµH[WHUQDO¶IDFWRUVRULJLQDOO\LQWURGXFHGE\ &RUDGL9DOODFRWWHW DO   DQG IXUWKHU GHYHORSHG LQ WKLV SURMHFW VHUYHV DVDEDVLVIRURSHQLQJXSWKHVSHFWUXPRIUHOHYDQWLQÀXHQFLQJIDFWRUV$VD SUHSDUDWLRQIRUWKHVHVVLRQWKHVWXGHQWVDUHJLYHQWKHKRPHZRUNDVVLJQPHQWWR ZRUNRQH[FHUSWVZKLFKH[DPLQHWKHLQGLYLGXDODVSHFWVRIWKLVV\VWHPDWL]DWLRQ RQWKHEDVLVRINH\TXHVWLRQV,QWKHVHVVLRQLWVHOIWKHVWXGHQWV¶ZRUNUHVXOWV DUHJDWKHUHGDQGWKHUHVSHFWLYHLQÀXHQFLQJIDFWRUVDUHUHYLHZHGLQUHJDUGWR WKHLULPSRUWDQFHDQGWKHLULQWHUDFWLRQV&RQFHUQLQJWKHUHOHYDQFHRILQÀXHQF- LQJIDFWRUVLQVFKRROWKHGLVFXVVLRQZLOODOVRLQSDUWLFXODUIRFXVRQNH\¿QG- LQJVUHJDUGLQJDWWLWXGHVH[SHFWDWLRQVDQGDWWULEXWLRQVE\WHDFKHUVDVZHOODV WRZDUGVOHDUQLQJPDWHULDOVIRUPVRIWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJDQGDOVRLQWHUDF- WLRQSDWWHUQVEHWZHHQWHDFKHUVDQGSXSLOVLQPDWKOHVVRQV7KHVHDUHIXUWKHU H[DPLQHG LQ WKH VXEVHTXHQW EORFNV ‘Teaching Framework’ and ‘Classroom ,QWHUDFWLRQV¶. 5HJDUGLQJWKHVWXGHQWV¶VXEVHTXHQWSURIHVVLRQDOSUDFWLFHEORFN,,,H[SOLF- LWO\H[SORUHVDQGUHÀHFWVXSRQWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHUHVSHFWLYHH[SODQDWRU\ DSSURDFKHVIRUWKHGHVLJQRIWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJSURFHVVHVDQGLWVSRVVLELOL- WLHVDVZHOODVRQH¶VRZQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIRQH¶VUROHDQGSURIHVVLRQ,WGRHV VRE\H[DPLQLQJRQH¶VRZQ HYHU\GD\ NQRZOHGJHEDVHDVZHOODVE\ZRUNLQJ ZLWKWKHUHVHDUFKUHVXOWVDWKDQGUHJDUGLQJWKHJHQHVLVRIJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQ the subject mathematics. 7KHIRXUWKEORFN¶VFHQWUDOIRFXVFRPSULVHVVHOHFWHGDVSHFWVRIGHVLJQLQJ PDWKHPDWLFV OHVVRQV ZKLFK PD\ FRQWULEXWH WR WKH UHSURGXFWLRQ RI JHQGHU GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 247

based knowledge territories. In content, the three sessions, united under the headline ‘Teaching Framework’, connect to the research results regarding IRUPVRIWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJDQGOHVVRQPDWHULDOVDVµH[WHUQDO¶IDFWRUVIRU WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQPDWKHPDWLFDOSHUIRUPDQFHDQGLQ WKHPDWKHPDWLFDOVHOIFRQFHSWRXWOLQHGLQWKHVHFRQGVHVVLRQRIEORFN,,,)RO- ORZLQJWKHSUREOHPDWL]DWLRQRIWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHµGHYHORSLQJE\TXHV- WLRQLQJ¶PDWKOHVVRQVIRUWKHSXSLOV¶FODVVURRPSDUWLFLSDWLRQWKH¿UVWEORFN VHVVLRQIRFXVHVRQDFULWLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHERRNVXVHGLQPDWKOHVVRQV DQGWKHJHQGHULPDJHVWKH\FRQYH\)RUWKLVWKHVWXGHQWVDQDO\]HH[FHUSWV IURPVFKRROERRNVXVHGLQGLIIHUHQWJUDGHVWKH\GRVRLQLQGLYLGXDODQGJURXS ZRUNVHWWLQJV7KHWDVNOLHVLQLQVSHFWLQJWKHVHOHFWHGH[DPSOHVWRVHHLIDQGLQ ZKDWIRUPJHQGHUVWHUHRW\SHVDUHVWLOOUHSURGXFHGWRGD\LQWH[WVDQGLPDJHV $IXUWKHUDLPLVWRH[DPLQHZKHWKHULQWKHVHOHFWHGWRSLFVDQGWDVNFRQWH[WV WKH¿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µPHDQLQJIXOPDWKHPDWLFVOHVVRQV¶E\-DKQNH.OHLQ  DV ZHOODVWKHVXJJHVWLRQVSUHVHQWHGE\6FKO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µJRRG¶PDWKOHVVRQVDVGLVFXVVHGE\UHVHDUFKHUVIURP GLGDFWLFVRIPDWKHPDWLFV VHHIRUH[DPSOH%FKWHUDQG/HXGHUVI  7KHWKLUGVHVVLRQ¿QDOO\LQWURGXFHVDQGGLVFXVVHVWKHGLIIHUHQWPHWKRG- ological instruments which make it possible to design math lessons in a way WKDWLVHTXDOO\LQWHUHVWLQJIRUPDOHDQGIHPDOHSXSLOVDQGWKDWOHDYHVURRP 248 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

IRU¿QGLQJRQH¶VSHUVRQDODFFHVVWRPDWKHPDWLFVDQGJDLQLQJH[SHULHQFHLQ DFTXLULQJ VXEMHFWUHODWHG FRPSHWHQF\ &RQVLGHULQJ WKH NH\ LPSRUWDQFH RI PHWKRGRORJLFDO GLYHUVLW\ LQ PDWK OHVVRQV WKLV VHVVLRQ DOVR IHDWXUHV SDUWQHU DQGJURXSZRUNQRWRQO\ZLWKJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHOHVVRQPDWHULDOV VHH(FNHOW 6FKlW]DQG(LVHQWUDXW EXWSDUWLFXODUO\ZLWKPHWKRGVIRULQGLYLGX- DOL]LQJ DQG GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJ OHVVRQV WKDW VHHP HVSHFLDOO\ VXLWDEOH IRU JHQGHU VHQVLWLYH FODVVURRP ZRUN 6RPH RI WKHVH PHWKRGV VXFK DV MLJVDZ SX]]OHV OHDUQLQJVWDWLRQVWKLQNSDLUVKDUHSODFHPDW %DU]HOHWDO KDYHEHHQDS- SOLHGLQWKHVHPLQDULWVHOIPXFKLQWKHVHQVHRIWKHµGLGDFWLFDOPHWKRGRORJLFDO GRXEOHGHFNHU¶7KHPHWKRGRORJLFDOLQVWUXPHQWVRIWKHOHDUQLQJGLDU\DQGWKH QRWHERRNHQWU\ VHH=Z|OIHU DVZHOODVµ/HDUQLQJ0DWKHPDWLFVZLWK +LVWRU\¶ VHH-DKQNHDQG5LFKWHU DUHDOVRLQWURGXFHG ,QUHJDUGWRRXUGH¿QLWLRQRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHDQGLQYLHZRIODWHUSUR- IHVVLRQDOSUDFWLFHEORFN,9SXWVDVSHFLDOIRFXVRQUHOD\LQJGLGDFWLFDOPHWK- RGRORJLFDOFRPSHWHQFHVIRUDJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHGHVLJQRIWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ processes. %ORFN9µ&ODVVURRP,QWHUDFWLRQV¶DGGUHVVHVHVSHFLDOO\WKHWKLUG LQWHUDF- WLRQDOFRPSHWHQFH DQGIRXUWKGLPHQVLRQ VHOIUHÀHFWLYLW\ RIJHQGHUFRPSH- WHQFHDQGIRFXVHVRQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQWHDFKHUVDQGSXSLOV+HUHWKH PDLQIRFXVOLHVRQWKHRQHKDQGRQJHQGHUEDVHGGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHLQWHUDFWLYH EHKDYLRURIWHDFKHUVDQGWKHLULQÀXHQFHRQWKHUHSURGXFWLRQRIJHQGHUGLIIHU- HQFHVZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHSXSLOV¶PDWKHPDWLFDOVHOIFRQFHSWDQGPDWKHPDWL- FDOSHUIRUPDQFH VHHIRULQVWDQFH&RUDGL9HOODFRWWHWDO5XSSHQHWDO 5XVWHPH\HUDQG)LVFKHU 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYH RIµGRLQJJHQGHU¶LWLVPRUHFORVHO\H[DPLQHGKRZDQGLQZKDWZD\JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFHVZLWKUHJDUGWRGHDOLQJZLWKPDWKHPDWLFVDUHµFUHDWHG¶LQWKHLQWHU- DFWLRQVEHWZHHQWHDFKHUVDQGVWXGHQWV VHHIRUH[DPSOH)DXOVWLFK:LHODQGHW DO-XQJZLUWK-XQJZLUWKDQG6WDGOHUE  $VWKH¿UVWVHVVLRQ¶VPDLQIRFXVWKHVWXGHQWVDUHUHTXLUHGWRH[DPLQHLQ GHWDLOWKHUHVHDUFK¿QGLQJVUHJDUGLQJJHQGHUEDVHGGLVWULEXWLRQDOGLIIHUHQFHV RIWKHDWWHQWLRQDQGIHHGEDFNSXSLOVUHFHLYHIURPWKHLUWHDFKHUV7KHVHFRQG VHVVLRQGHDOVZLWKWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIWHDFKHUV¶IHHGEDFNRQSHUIRUPDQFHDQG WKHLUXQGHUO\LQJJHQGHUEDVHGDWWULEXWLRQRIDSWLWXGHDVZHOODVSXSLOV¶VHOI DWWULEXWLRQRIVXFFHVVDQGIDLOXUHZKLFKDUHLPSRUWDQWIRUWKHLUVHOIDVVHVVPHQW DQGWKHLUVWULYLQJIRUJRRGSHUIRUPDQFH,QERWKVHVVLRQVWKHPDLQWKHPDWLF IRFXVDUHDVDUHGHYHORSHGRQWKHEDVLVRIYLGHRIRRWDJHDQGDYHUEDWLPWUDQ- VFULSWRIWZROHVVRQVHTXHQFHVWDNHQIURPDPDWKOHVVRQZKLFKDUHDQDO\]HGE\ the students in group work settings. GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 249

7KHWKLUGVHVVLRQRIWKLVEORFNLQWURGXFHVWKHDSSURDFKRIµGRLQJJHQGHU¶ ZKLFKORRNVDWWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVUHJDUGLQJPDWKHPDWLFDO FRPSHWHQFHVLQRUFDXVHGE\FODVVURRPLQWHUDFWLRQLQPDWKOHVVRQVLQYROYLQJ ERWKWHDFKHUVDQGSXSLOV7KHPDWHULDOVXVHGIRUH[DPLQLQJWKLVSHUVSHFWLYH RQVXFKLQWHUDFWLYHHYHQWVDUHGUDZQIURPOHVVRQWUDQVFULSWVRIPDWKOHVVRQV LQ$XVWULDQJUDPPDUVFKRROV -XQJZLUWK-XQJZLUWKDQG6WDGOHU E 7KHVWXGHQWVDQDO\]HWKHP±DJDLQLQDZRUNVKDULQJJURXSZRUNVHW- WLQJEDVHGRQNH\TXHVWLRQV±IRUDQLPSOLHGJHQGHUEDVHGµSRVLWLRQLQJ¶ FRPS -XQJZLUWKDQG6WDGOHUE RIWKHSXSLOVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHLUDSWLWXGHIRUWKH subject mathematics. 6LPLODUWRWKHSURFHGXUHLQEORFN,9EORFN9DOVRGHDOVZLWKDOWHUQDWLYH FRXUVHVRIDFWLRQDQGSRVVLELOLWLHVIRULQWHUYHQWLRQ5HDWWULEXWLRQWUDLQLQJIRU instance, is something that is suggested as a suitable and appropriate pedagogi- FDOSRVVLELOLW\WRLQWHUYHQHLQIDYRURIHQFRXUDJLQJVHOIZRUWKDQGPRWLYDWLRQ SURPRWLQJDWWULEXWLRQVW\OHVLQSXSLOV VHHIRUH[DPSOH%XGGHI  5HJDUGLQJWKHUHOD\LQJRILQWHUDFWLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHVHPSKDVL]HGLQWKLV EORFNWKHPDLQJRDOLVWRVHQVLWL]HWKHVWXGHQWVIRUSUREOHPDWLFJHQGHUEDVHG SDWWHUQVRILQWHUDFWLRQDQGWKHJHQGHUEDVHGH[SHFWDWLRQVDWWULEXWLRQVDQGDV- VHVVPHQWVWKDWSURGXFHWKHPDQGWRFUHDWHDQDZDUHQHVVIRUWKHQHHGWRFRQ- WLQXDOO\UHÀHFWRQRQH¶VRZQOHVVRQSUDFWLFH ,QWKH¿QDOOHVVRQWKHVWXGHQWVDUHLQYLWHGWRUHÀHFWRQZKDWWKH\KDYH learned based on key questions. In doing so, the students will recapitulate their UHVSHFWLYHOHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFHVRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHLUSRUWIROLRDORQJWKHIRXU GLPHQVLRQVRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFH SURIHVVLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHPHWKRGRORJLFDO DQGGLGDFWLFDOFRPSHWHQFHLQWHUDFWLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHDQGVHOIFRPSHWHQFH  which were introduced in the introductory session. Furthermore, the students DUHHQFRXUDJHGWRHDFKJLYHWKHLUDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHUHOHYDQFHRIJHQGHUFRP- SHWHQFH IRU WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ PDWKHPDWLFV DQG IRU WKHLU IXWXUH UROH DV teachers, and subsequently discuss these with each other.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

7RGDWHWKHUHYLVHGFRXUVHKDVEHHQVXFFHVVIXOO\WDXJKW¿YHWLPHV11 The pub- OLFDWLRQRIWKHFRXUVHPDQXDOLVIRUWKFRPLQJ 0LVFKDXHWDO VRWKDW

_%\WKHKHDGRIWKHSURMHFW$QLQD0LVFKDXDVDYLVLWLQJSURIHVVRUDWWKH)8%HUOLQ VXPPHUWHUPZLQWHUWHUPDQGZLQWHUWHUP E\5HQDWH0RW]HU 250 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

LQWKHIXWXUHWKHFRXUVHFDQDOVREHWDXJKWE\RWKHUOHFWXUHUV7KXVPRUHXQL- YHUVLWLHV ZLOO JHW WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR RIIHU WKH JHQGHU FRPSHWHQFH FRXUVH LQ WKHLUWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJLQPDWKHPDWLFV7KHFRXUVH¶VPRGXODUGHVLJQSULQFLSOH SHUPLWVLQGLYLGXDOEORFNVWREHDOVRXVHGLQGHSHQGHQWO\DQGLQWHJUDWHGLQRWKHU courses. )URPWKHSRLQWRIYLHZRIWKHSURMHFWLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRLPSOHPHQWJHQGHU FRPSHWHQFH DV DQ RFFXSDWLRQUHODWHG NH\ TXDOL¿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ÀH[LEOHFXUULFXODUVWUXFWXUHVWKDWLPSHGHWKHLQWHJUDWLRQRI QHZFRXUVHV2XUH[SHULHQFHVVKRZWKDWDJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHFRXUVHIRU SUR- VSHFWLYH PDWKHPDWLFVWHDFKHUVFDQPRVWHDVLO\EHLPSOHPHQWHGLQPRGXOHVRI GLGDFWLFVRIPDWKHPDWLFVSURJUDPPHVWKDWDUHRSHQZLWKUHJDUGWRFRQWHQWV OLNHµVSHFLDODVSHFWVRIGLGDFWLFVRIPDWKHPDWLFV¶%XWUHVSHFWLYHPRGXOHVDUH QRWDYDLODEOHDWDOO*HUPDQXQLYHUVLWLHV $QRWKHUSUREOHPLVWR¿QGOHFWXUHUVLQPDWKHPDWLFVRUGLGDFWLFVRIPDWK- HPDWLFVZKRKDYHVSHFLDOLVWNQRZOHGJHRQJHQGHUDQGDUHDEOHDQGZLOOLQJQRW only to teach mathematical contents with gender aspects, but also to adopt an LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\SHUVSHFWLYHDQGWRSHUIRUPLQDJHQGHUVHQVLWLYHPDQQHU7KH course manual is designed to help lecturers acquire the necessary background NQRZOHGJH1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHQHFHVVLW\WRWUDLQ SRWHQWLDO XQLYHUVLW\OHFWXUHUV WKHPVHOYHVLQJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHUHPDLQVEXWVRIDU*HUPDQXQLYHUVLWLHVODFN VXLWDEOHKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQGLGDFWLFTXDOL¿FDWLRQSURJUDPV (YHQLIWKHSDWKWRDWWDLQLQJWKHJRDOPD\EHDURFN\RQHWKHV\VWHPDWLF DQGVXVWDLQDEOHLQWHJUDWLRQRIJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHLQWRWKHWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJLQ PDWKHPDWLFVIRUPVDQHVVHQWLDOEXLOGLQJEORFNLQSURIHVVLRQDOL]DWLRQVFLHQ- WL¿FLW\ DQG WKH VWUHQJWKHQLQJ RI DELOLWLHV DV ZHOO DV TXDOLW\ DVVXUDQFH RI D SURIHVVLRQDOO\RULHQWHGXQLYHUVLW\HGXFDWLRQRIPDWKHPDWLFVWHDFKHUV7HDFK-

D FRRSHUDWLRQ SDUWQHU DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI $XJVEXUJ ZLQWHU WHUP   DQG E\ &ODXGLD/DFNDFRRSHUDWLRQSDUWQHUDWWKH-XVWXV/LHELJ8QLYHUVLW\*LHVVHQ VXPPHU WHUP  GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 251

LQJH[SHULHQFHVWKXVIDUKDYHVKRZQWKDWVWXGHQWVZKRWDNHSDUWLQWKHJHQGHU FRPSHWHQFHFRXUVHSUR¿WLQVHYHUDOUHVSHFWVUHJDUGLQJWKHLUIXWXUHSURIHVVLRQ- DOOLIHDQGWKHLURZQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHLUSURIHVVLRQ VHH0LVFKDX  7KLVRIIHUVFDXVHIRUKRSHWKDWDQLQFUHDVHLQJHQGHUFRPSHWHQFHLQ IXWXUH  PDWKHPDWLFVWHDFKHUVZLOODFWXDOO\EUHDNWKHµYLFLRXVFLUFOH¶RIUHSURGXFWLRQRI gender-related knowledge domains.

REFERENCES

$GOHU6  7KHUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLWLRQHUDQGWKHFXUULFXOXPRIWHDFKHUHGXFD- tion. -RXUQDORI7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQ  ± %DUWRVFK,  8QGRLQJ*HQGHULP01,8QWHUULFKW$YDLODEOHDWKWWS LPVWXQLNOXDFDWLPVWZLNLLPDJHV/DQJIDVVXQJB%DUWRVFKSGI DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  %DU]HO%%FKWHU$DQG/HXGHUV7  Mathematik Methodik: Handbuch IUGLH6HNXQGDUVWXIH,XQG,, Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor. %LHGLQJHU 1   'LH HUVWHQ PDWKHPDWLVFKHQ )lKLJNHLWHQ YRQ 9RUVFKXO- NLQGHUQ8QWHUVFKHLGHQVLFK0lGFKHQXQG-XQJHQLPIUKHQ8PJDQJPLW =DKOHQ" $UEHLWVSDSLHUH:RUNLQJ 3DSHUV  0DQQKHLP 0DQQKHLPHU =HQWUXPIU(XURSlLVFKH6R]LDOIRUVFKXQJ %O|PHNH 6 0OOHU & )HOEULFK$ DQG .DLVHU *   (SLVWHPRORJLVFKH Überzeugungen zur Mathematik. In: Blömeke S, Kaiser G, and Lehmann 5 HGV  Professionelle Kompetenz angehender Lehrerinnen und Lehrer. 0QVWHU:D[PDQQ± %RV:%RQVHQ0%DXPHUW-3UHQ]HO06HOWHU&DQG:DOWKHU* HGV    7,0660DWKHPDWLVFKHXQGQDWXUZLVVHQVFKDIWOLFKH.RPSHWHQ]YRQ Grundschulkindern in Deutschland im internationalen Vergleich. 0Q- VWHU:D[PDQQ %UHPHU$DQG0HKOPDQQ6  Ä*HQGHU.RPSHWHQ]LQGHU/HKUHU,QQH- QDXVXQGIRUWELOGXQJ³±(LQ3URMHNWGHU$UEHLWVVWHOOH*HQGHU6WXGLHV ,Q /H *RXYHUQHPHQW GX *UDQG'XFKp GH /X[HPERXUJ 0LQLVWqUH HG  Rôle des femmes et des hommes et stéréotypes en éducation et en forma- tion./X[HPERXUJ0LQLVWqUHGHO¶(JDOLWpGHVFKDQFHV± %XGGH-  0DWKHPDWLNXQWHUULFKWXQG*HVFKOHFKW(PSLULVFKH(UJHEQLVVH XQGSlGDJRJLVFKH$QVlW]H ([SHUWLVHLP$XIWUDJGHV%0%) %RQQ%HUOLQ $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZEPEIGHSXEEDQGBGUHLVVLJBELOGXQJVIRUVFKXQJ SGI DFFHVVHG)HEUXDU\  252 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

%FKWHU$DQG/HXGHUV7  Mathematikaufgaben selbst entwickeln: Lernen I|UGHUQ±/HLVWXQJEHUSUIHQ Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor. &RUDGL9HOODFRWW0'HQ]OHU6*URVVHQEDFKHU6DQG9DQKRR\GRQFN6   Keine Lust auf Mathe, Physik, Technik? Zugang zu Mathematik, Natur- wissenschaften und Technik attraktiver und geschlechtergerecht gestalten. Aarau: SKBF. &XUGHV%  *HQGHUEHZXVVWH0DWKHPDWLNGLGDNWLN,Q&XUGHV%0DU[ 6 6FKOHLHU 8 DQG:LHVQHU + HGV  *HQGHU OHKUHQ ± *HQGHU OHUQHQ LQ GHU +RFKVFKXOH .RQ]HSWH XQG 3UD[LVEHULFKWH 2OGHQEXUJ %,69HUODJ ± &XUGHV%-DKQNH.OHLQ6/RKIHOG:DQG3LHSHU6HLHU,  Mathematik- studentinnen und -studenten: Studienerfahrungen und Zukunftsvorstell- ungen. Norderstedt: BoD. '09*'0DQG018  )UHLQPRGHUQHV/HKUDPWVVWXGLXPLP)DFK Mathematik. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 15: ± (FNHOW,  0DWKHPDWLNXQWHUULFKWLQGHU6HN,DXVGHU:HOWGHU-X- gendlichen.08('6FKULIWHQUHLKH0DWHULDOVDPPOXQJHQrd edn. Appel- KOVHQ08(' (OVH4XHVW10+\GH-6DQG/LQQ0&  &URVVQDWLRQDOSDWWHUQVRIJHQ- GHU GLIIHUHQFHV LQ PDWKHPDWLFV D PHWDDQDO\VLV Psychological Bulletin   ± (UQHVW3  9DOXHV*HQGHUDQG,PDJHVRI0DWKHPDWLFV$3KLORVRSKLFDO 3HUVSHFWLYH,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI0DWKHPDWLFDO(GXFDWLRQLQ6FLHQFH and Technology  ± )DXOVWLFK:LHODQG+:HEHU0DQG:LOOHPV.  Doing Gender im heu- WLJHQ6FKXODOOWDJ(PSLULVFKH6WXGLHQ]XUVR]LDOHQ.RQVWUXNWLRQYRQ*H- VFKOHFKWLQVFKXOLVFKHQ,QWHUDNWLRQHQ, 2ndHGQ:HLQKHLP-XYHQWD )LVFKHU1DQG5XVWHPH\HU5  )|UGHUXQJGHU(UIROJVHUZDUWXQJLP8Q- WHUULFKWVIDFK 0DWKHPDWLN ± .RQ]HSWLRQ 'XUFKIKUXQJ XQG (YDOXDWLRQ HLQHU,QWHUYHQWLRQVPD‰QDKPHIU/HKUNUlIWH,Q/XGZLJ3+DQG/XGZLJ + HGV (UZDUWXQJHQLQKLPPHOEODXXQGURVDURW(IIHNWH'HWHUPLQDQWHQ XQG.RQVHTXHQ]HQYRQ*HVFKOHFKWHUGLIIHUHQ]HQLQGHU6FKXOH Weinheim: -XYHQWD± *ULJXWVFK65DDW]8DQG7|UQHU*  (LQVWHOOXQJHQJHJHQEHU0DWKH- matik bei Mathematiklehrern. -RXUQDOIU0DWKHPDWLN'LGDNWLN± *XLVR/0RQWH)6DSLHQ]D3DQG=LQJDOHV/  'LYHUVLW\FXOWXUHJHQ- der, and math. Science  ± GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 253

+HLQH&:LOOLFK-6FKQHLGHU+DQG6RPPHU'  6WXGLHQDQIlQJHULP :LQWHUVHPHVWHU  :HJH ]XP 6WXGLXP 6WXGLHQ XQG +RFKVFKXO- wahl, Situation bei Studienbeginn.+,6)RUXP+RFKVFKXOH+DQQRYHU +,6+RFKVFKXO,QIRUPDWLRQV6\VWHP +5. +RFKVFKXOUHNWRUHQNRQIHUHQ]    (PSIHKOXQJ ]XU =XNXQIW GHU /HKUHUELOGXQJ DQ +RFKVFKXOHQ (QWVFKOLH‰XQJ GHV  3OHQXPV DP  %RQQ +5. $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZKUNGHXSORDGVW[B V]FRQYHQWLRQB%HVFKOXVVB/HKUHUELOGXQJSGI DFFHVVHG  )HEUXDU\   -DKQNH +1 DQG 5LFKWHU .   *HVFKLFKWH GHU 0DWKHPDWLN 9LHOIDOW GHU /HEHQVZHOWHQ±0XW]XGLYHUJHQWHP'HQNHQmathematik lehren± -DKQNH.OHLQ6  6LQQVWLIWHQGHU0DWKHPDWLNXQWHUULFKWIU0lGFKHQXQG Jungen%DOWPDQQVZHLOHU6FKQHLGHU9HUODJ+RKHQJHKUHQ -RQHV.(YDQV&%\UG5DQG&DPSEHOO.  *HQGHUHTXLW\WUDLQLQJ DQGWHDFKLQJEHKDYLRU-RXUQDORI,QVWUXFWLRQDO3V\FKRORJ\  ± -XQJZLUWK+  0lGFKHQXQG%XEHQLP0DWKHPDWLNXQWHUULFKW(LQH6WXG- LHEHUJHVFKOHFKWVVSH]L¿VFKH0RGL¿NDWLRQHQGHU,QWHUDNWLRQVVWUXNWXUHQ 5HLKH )UDXHQIRUVFKXQJ %DQG :LHQ %08.$EW IU 0lGFKHQ XQG Frauenbildung. -XQJZLUWK +   'LH 'LPHQVLRQ Ä*HVFKOHFKW³ LQ GHQ ,QWHUDNWLRQHQ GHV Mathematikunterrichts. -RXUQDOIU0DWKHPDWLN'LGDNWLN  ± -XQJZLUWK +   *HVFKOHFKWVVHQVLEOHU 8QWHUULFKW DOV ÃJHVFKOHFKWHUJHUH- FKWHVµ$PELHQWH ,Q %XQGHVPLQLVWHULXP IU %LOGXQJ:LVVHQVFKDIW XQG .XOWXU HG %HJDEXQJVI|UGHUXQJGXUFK*HVFKOHFKWVVHQVLELOLWlWLQ0DWK- HPDWLN1DWXUZLVVHQVFKDIWHQXQG7HFKQLN(UZHLWHUWH'RNXPHQWDWLRQGHV *HQGHU6HQVLWLYLW\3IDGHV GHV  ,QWHUQDWLRQDOHQ %HJDEWHQNRQJUHVVHV :LHQ%XQGHVPLQLVWHULXPIU%LOGXQJ:LVVHQVFKDIWXQG.XOWXU± -XQJZLUWK+DQG6WDGOHU+ D *HQGHU6HQVLELOLVLHUXQJYRQ/HKUNUlIWHQ Einstieg und organisierte Förderung durch die Fachdidaktik. In: Öster- UHLFKLVFKHV =HQWUXP IU %HJDEWHQI|UGHUXQJ XQG %HJDEWHQIRUVFKXQJ HG  Ä'LH )RUVFKHULQQHQ YRQ PRUJHQ³ %HULFKW GHV  ,QWHUQDWLRQDOHQ Begabtenkongresses in Salzburg.,QQVEUXFN:LHQ%R]HQ6WXGLHQ9HUODJ ± -XQJZLUWK + DQG 6WDGOHU + E  6HQVLELOLVLHUXQJ IU *HVFKOHFKWHUDV- pekte im Unterricht: Prozesse, Schwierigkeiten, Gestaltungsmöglich- NHLWHQ ,Q %XQGHVPLQLVWHULXP IU %LOGXQJ :LVVHQVFKDIW XQG .XOWXU HG  %HJDEXQJVI|UGHUXQJ GXUFK *HVFKOHFKWVVHQVLELOLWlW LQ 0DWKHPDWLN 1DWXUZLVVHQVFKDIWHQXQG7HFKQLN(UZHLWHUWH'RNXPHQWDWLRQGHV*HQGHU 254 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

6HQVLWLYLW\3IDGHVGHV,QWHUQDWLRQDOHQ%HJDEWHQNRQJUHVVHV Wien: Bun- GHVPLQLVWHULXPIU%LOGXQJ:LVVHQVFKDIWXQG.XOWXU± .HLWHO &   *HVFKOHFKWHUHU]LHKXQJ LQ GHU 0DWKHPDWLNOHKUHULQQHQDXV XQGIRUWELOGXQJ±(LQLPPHUQRFKYHUGUlQJWHV3UREOHP",Q.RUHXEHU0 HG *HVFKOHFKWHUIRUVFKXQJLQ0DWKHPDWLNXQG,QIRUPDWLN(LQH LQWHU GLV]LSOLQlUH+HUDXVIRUGHUXQJ%DGHQ%DGHQ1RPRV± .HOOHU&  *HVFKOHFKWHUGLIIHUHQ]HQLQGHU0DWKHPDWLN3UIXQJYRQ(UN- OlUXQJVDQVlW]HQ(LQHPHKUHEHQHQDQDO\WLVFKH8QWHUVXFKXQJLP5DKPHQ GHUÃ7KLUG,QWHUQDWLRQDO0DWKHPDWLFVDQG6FLHQFH6WXG\µ=ULFK=HQWUDO- VWHOOHGHU6WXGHQWHQVFKDIW /DQJIHOGW % DQG 0LVFKDX $   *HQGHUNRPSHWHQ] DOV %HVWDQGWHLO GHU /HKUDPWVDXVELOGXQJ LP )DFK 0DWKHPDWLN ± ]X LQQRYDWLY IU GHXWVFKH Hochschulen? =HLWVFKULIWIU+RFKVFKXOHQWZLFNOXQJ  ± /DQJIHOGW%0HKOPDQQ6DQG0LVFKDX$  *HQGHUNRPSHWHQ]± N HLQ 7KHPDLQGHUXQLYHUVLWlUHQ/HKUDPWVDXVELOGXQJLP)DFK0DWKHPDWLN,Q .OHLQ8+HLW]PDQQ' HGV Diversity und Hochschule: Gestaltung von Vielfalt an Hochschulen.:HLQKHLP-XYHQWD IRUWKFRPLQJ  /HXGHUV7  4XDOLWlWLP0DWKHPDWLNXQWHUULFKWGHU6HNXQGDUVWXIH,XQG ,, Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor. 0DUWLQ020XOOLV,96DQG)R\3  7,066,QWHUQDWLRQDO0DWK- HPDWLFV5HSRUW)LQGLQJVIURP,($¶V7UHQGVLQ,QWHUQDWLRQDO0DWKHPDWLFV DQG6FLHQFH6WXG\DWWKH)RXUWKDQG(LJKW*UDGHV Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. 0HW]*|FNHO6DQG5RORII&  *HQGHUNRPSHWHQ]DOV6FKOVVHOTXDOL¿- kation. Journal Hochschuldidaktik   ± 0H\HU+  Was ist guter Unterricht? Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor. 0LVFKDX$   *HQGHUNRPSHWHQ] LQ GHU /HKUDPWVDXVELOGXQJ 0DWKHPD- WLN0|JOLFKNHLWHQGHU,QWHJUDWLRQXQG9HUPLWWOXQJWissenschaftlerinnen- Rundbrief ± 0LVFKDX$DQG0HKOPDQQ6  *HQGHUNRPSHWHQ]IUDQJHKHQGH0DWKHPD- WLNOHKUNUlIWH.RQ]HSWLRQHLQHU/HKUYHUDQVWDOWXQJIU/HKUDPWVVWXGLHUHQGH GHV8QWHUULFKWVIDFKV0DWKHPDWLNVR]LDOHWHFKQLN=HLWVFKULIWIUVR]LDOXQG XPZHOWYHUWUlJOLFKH7HFKQLNJHVWDOWXQJ± 0LVFKDX$/DQJIHOGW%DQG0HKOPDQQ6  *HQGHUNRPSHWHQ]DOVLQQR- YDWLYHV(OHPHQWGHU3URIHVVLRQDOLVLHUXQJGHU/HKUHU,QQHQDXVELOGXQJIUGDV Fach Mathematik. Journal Netzwerk Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung NRW ± GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 255

0LVFKDX$/HKPDQQ-DQG'DQLHOV-  *HVFKOHFKWHUYHUKlOWQLVVH*H- VFKOHFKWHUDV\PPHWULHQXQG*HVFKOHFKWHUVWHUHRW\SHQ LQ GHU0DWKHPDWLN ±(UJHEQLVVHDXVHLQHUTXDOLWDWLYHQ6WXGLHXQWHU0DWKHPDWLNVWXGLHUHQGHQ ,)),QIR=HLWVFKULIWGHV,QWHUGLV]LSOLQlUHQ=HQWUXPVIU)UDXHQXQG*H- schlechterforschung   ± 0LVFKDX$ 0HKOPDQQ 6 %OXQFN$ DQG /DQJIHOGW %   Mathematik, Schule und Geschlecht: Konzeption einer Lehrveranstaltung zur Vermit- tlung von Genderkompetenz in der ersten Phase der Lehramtsausbildung IU GDV 8QWHUULFKWVIDFK 0DWKHPDWLN ,)))RUVFKXQJVUHLKH %LHOHIHOG IRUWKFRPLQJ  0LVFKDX$/DQJIHOGW%0HKOPDQQ6:|OOPDQQ7DQG%OXQFN$  $XI GHP:HJ]XJHQGHUNRPSHWHQWHQ/HKUHU,QQHQLP8QWHUULFKWVIDFK0DWKHPD- tik. Journal Netzwerk Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung15:± 0XOOLV,960DUWLQ02)LHUURV(**ROGEHUJ$/DQG6WHPOHU6(   *HQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQDFKLHYHPHQW,($V7KLUG,QWHUQDWLRQDO0DWKHPDW- ics and Science Study. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS International Study Center, Boston College. 1RVHN%$6P\WK)/6ULUDP1HWDO  1DWLRQDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQJHQGHU VFLHQFHVWHUHRW\SHVSUHGLFWQDWLRQDOVH[GLIIHUHQFHVLQVFLHQFHDQGPDWK DFKLHYHPHQWPNAS  ± 2(&'   /HUQHQ IU GDV /HEHQ (UVWH (UJHEQLVVH GHU ,QWHUQDWLRQDOHQ 6FKXOOHLVWXQJVVWXGLH3,6$ Paris: OECD. 2(&'  /HDUQLQJIRU7RPRUURZ¶V:RUOG)LUVW5HVXOWVIURP3,6$ Paris: OECD. 2(&'  3,6$9ROXPH'DWD Paris: OECD. 2(&'  (TXDOO\SUHSDUHGIRUOLIH"+RZ\HDUROGER\VDQGJLUOVSHU- form in school. Paris: OECD. 2(&'   3,6$  5HVXOWV :KDW 6WXGHQWV .QRZ DQG &DQ 'R 6WX- dent Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science9ROXPH3DULV OECD. 5RVHQNUDQ])DOOHJJHU (   *HQGHU.RPSHWHQ] (LQ WKHRUHWLVFKH XQG EHJULIÀLFKH(LQJUHQ]XQJ,Q/LHELJ%0H\HUKRIHU8DQG5RVHQNUDQ] )DOOHJJHU( HGV +DQGEXFK*HQGHU.RPSHWHQ](LQ3UD[LVOHLWIDGHQIU (Fach-)Hochschulen.=ULFKYGI+RFKVFKXOYHUODJ± 5XSSHQ 3 6WHLQHU ( DQG -DFTXHPHW 1 HGV    Mathematik und Ge- VFKOHFKW 8QWHUVXFKXQJ EHU GLH *UQGH XQWHUVFKLHGOLFKHU JHVFKOHFK- WHUVSH]L¿VFKHU0DWKHPDWLNOHLVWXQJHQYRQ6FKOHULQQHQXQG6FKOHUQLP Kanton Wallis.%ULJ3lGDJRJLVFKH+RFKVFKXOH:DOOLV 256 ANDREA BLUNCK, ANINA MISCHAU, SABINE MEHLMANN

5XVWHPH\HU 5 DQG )LVFKHU 1   *HVFKOHFKWVXQWHUVFKLHGH LP 8QWHU- ULFKWVIDFK 0DWKHPDWLN ± =XVDPPHQKlQJH PLW GHP VFKOHUSHU]LSLHUWHQ /HKUNUDIWYHUKDOWHQ ,Q /XGZLJ 3 DQG /XGZLJ + HGV  (UZDUWXQJHQ LQ KLPPHOEODXXQGURVDURW(IIHNWH'HWHUPLQDQWHQXQG.RQVHTXHQ]HQYRQ Geschlechterdifferenzen in der Schule.0QFKHQ-XYHQWD± 6FKDUODFK& XQGDWHG $UEHLWVEODWWÄPDWKHPDWLVFKH$XWRELRJUD¿H³$YDLODEOH DWKWWSZZZPDWKKXEHUOLQGHaVFKDUB8HEEOB$XWRELRJSGI DF- FHVVHG6HSWHPEHU  6FKlW]8DQG(LVHQWUDXW) HGV   'HOWD0DWKHPDWLNIU*\PQDVLHQ Bamberg: Buchner. 6FKOWHU .   8PJDQJ PLW GHU *HQGHUSUREOHPDWLN LP PDWKHPDWLVFK QDWXUZLVVHQVFKDIWOLFKHQ 8QWHUULFKW %HLWUlJH ]XU /HKUHUELOGXQJ    ± 6FK|Q'$  7KH5HÀHFWLYH3UDFWLWLRQHU+RZ3URIHVVLRQDOV7KLQNLQ$F- tion. New York: Basic Books. 6WLSHN'*LYYLQ.6DOPRQ-DQG0DF*\YHUV9  7HDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVDQG practices related to mathematics instruction. 7HDFKLQJDQG7HDFKHU(GXFD- tion± 7DXVHQGSIXQG0  +|KHUHV,QWHUHVVHVFKOHFKWHUH/HLVWXQJ*HVFKOHFKWV VSH]L¿VFKH/HLVWXQJVHUZDUWXQJLQGHU0DWKHPDWLNXQGLKU(LQÀXVVDXIGLH 7HVWOHLVWXQJLQGHU3,6$6WXGLH6FKULIWHQUHLKH³0DQQKHLPHUVR]LDO- ZLVVHQVFKDIWOLFKH$EVFKOXVVDUEHLWHQ´0DQQKHLP0$'2& :DKO'  0LW7UDLQLQJYRPWUlJHQ:LVVHQ]XPNRPSHWHQWHQ+DQGHOQ" =HLWVFKULIWIU3lGDJRJLN  ± :LO] 60   *HVFKOHFKWHUGLIIHUHQ]HQ ± *HVFKOHFKWHUGLIIHUHQ]LHUXQJHQ ,Q:LO]60 HG *HVFKOHFKWHUGLIIHUHQ]HQ±*HVFKOHFKWHUGLIIHUHQ]LHUXQ- JHQ(LQhEHUEOLFNEHUJHVHOOVFKDIWOLFKH(QWZLFNOXQJHQXQGWKHRUHWLVFKH Positionen.:LHVEDGHQ969HUODJ± :LVVHQVFKDIWVUDW  (PSIHKOXQJHQ]XUNQIWLJHQ6WUXNWXUGHU/HKUHUELO- GXQJ 'UXFNVDFKH  %HUOLQ.|OQ YRP $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZZLVVHQVFKDIWVUDWGHWH[WHSGI DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU   =LHJOHU$.XKQ&DQG+HOOHU.  ,PSOL]LWH7KHRULHQYRQJ\PQDVLDOHQ 0DWKHPDWLNXQG3K\VLNOHKUNUlIWHQ]XJHVFKOHFKWVVSH]L¿VFKHU%HJDEXQJ XQG0RWLYDWLRQ3V\FKRORJLVFKH%HLWUlJH  ± =LPPHU . %XUED ' DQG 5RVW -   .RPSHWHQ]HQ YRQ -XQJHQ XQG 0lGFKHQ,Q3,6$.RQVRUWLXP'HXWVFKODQG HG 3,6$'HU%LO- GENDER COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS TEACHER EDUCATION 257

GXQJVVWDQGGHU-XJHQGOLFKHQLQ'HXWVFKODQG±(UJHEQLVVHGHV]ZHLWHQLQ- ternationalen Vergleichs.0QVWHU:D[PDQQ± =Z|OIHU$   +HIWDXIVFKULHE XQG /HUQEXFK ± =ZHL /HKUPHWKRGHQ PLW EHUUDVFKHQGHQ *HQGHUDVSHNWHQ ,Q 0DUWLJQRQ / 1LHGHUGUHQN)HOJQHU &DQG9RJHO5 HGV Mathematik und Gender. Hildesheim: Franzbecker, ±

Contributors

MARKUS APPEL3K' 8QLYHUVLW\RI&RORJQH*HUPDQ\ LVDQ$VVRFL- DWH3URIHVVRURI3V\FKRORJ\DWWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI(GXFDWLRQDQG3V\FKRORJ\ -RKDQQHV.HSOHU8QLYHUVLW\RI/LQ]$XVWULD3DUWRIKLVUHVHDUFKLVIRFXVHGRQ VWHUHRW\SHDQGVRFLDOLGHQWLW\WKUHDW+HLVDOVRLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHLQÀXHQFHRI VWRULHVRQDWWLWXGHVDQGEHKDYLRUDQGLQQHZPHGLDDQGWKH,QWHUQHW

ANNE BALSAMO3K'LV'HDQRI7KH6FKRRORI0HGLD6WXGLHVDW7KH1HZ 6FKRROIRU3XEOLF(QJDJHPHQWRI1HZ

CORINNA BATH3K''LSO0DWKKROGVWKH0DULD*RHSSHUW0D\HU3URIHV- VRUVKLSIRU*HQGHU7HFKQRORJ\DQG0RELOLW\DWWKH)DFXOW\RI0HFKDQLFDO(Q- JLQHHULQJ78%UDXQVFKZHLJ6KHZDVSUHYLRXVO\YLVLWLQJSURIHVVRUDWWKH&HQ- WHUIRU,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\:RPHQ¶VDQG*HQGHU6WXGLHV =,)* 78%HUOLQZKHUH VKHWDXJKWJHQGHUVWXGLHVLQWKHSURJUDP³*(1'(53520,17´IRUVFLHQFH DQGHQJLQHHULQJVWXGHQWV2QHRIKHUUHFHQWSXEOLFDWLRQVLV*HVFKOHFKWHU,QWHU- 260 GENDER IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

IHUHQ]HQ:LVVHQVIRUPHQ±6XEMHNWLYLHUXQJVZHLVHQ±0DWHULDOLVLHUXQJHQ ZLWK +DQQD0HL‰QHU6WHSKDQ7ULQNDXV6XVDQQH9|ONHU/,79HUODJ 

ANDREA BLUNCK3K'LV3URIHVVRURI0DWKHPDWLFVDQG*HQGHU6WXGLHVDW WKH'HSDUWPHQWRI0DWKHPDWLFV8QLYHUVLW\RI+DPEXUJVLQFH3K'LQ PDWKHPDWLFVDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI+DPEXUJKDELOLWDWLRQLQPDWKHPDWLFV DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI'DUPVWDGW±UHVHDUFKVWD\DWWKH,QVWLWXWH RI*HRPHWU\9LHQQD8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\±VKHZDVYLVLWLQJ SURIHVVRUDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI+DPEXUJ5HVHDUFKDUHDVLQFLGHQFHJHRPHWU\ mathematics and gender.

CECILE K. M. CRUTZEN, Ph.D., Dipl.-Math., is researcher and author in com- puter science and gender studies. She published and lectured about interaction, object orientation, and ambient intelligence. Her critical analysis shows that FRPSXWHUVFLHQFHLVDSURFHVVRIQHJRWLDWLRQDERXWWKHUHGHVLJQRIVRFLDOLQWHU- DFWLRQVLQKXPDQJHQGHUHGHQYLURQPHQWV,QVKHZDVYLVLWLQJSURIHVVRU RQ*HQGHUDQG7HFKQRORJ\DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI9LHQQD

WALTRAUD ERNST3K'WHDFKHVDWWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI:RPHQ¶VDQG*HQ- GHU6WXGLHVDWWKH-RKDQQHV.HSOHU8QLYHUVLW\/LQ]$XVWULD6KHUHFHLYHGKHU 3K'LQLQSKLORVRSK\DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI9LHQQDDQGSXEOLVKHGDiskurs- SLUDWLQQHQ:LHIHPLQLVWLVFKH(UNHQQWQLVSUR]HVVHGLH:LUNOLFKNHLWYHUlQGHUQ 0LOHQD $IWHUDUHVHDUFKSRVLWLRQRQ³(URWLF(FRQRPLHVRI6FLHQFH´ VKHZDVDSSRLQWHGGLUHFWRURIWKH&HQWHUIRU,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\:RPHQ¶VDQG *HQGHU6WXGLHVDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI+LOGHVKHLP*HUPDQ\+HUPDLQUHVHDUFK DHUHDVDUHIHPLQLVWHSLVWHPRORJ\WKHRULHVDQGPHWKRGVRIJHQGHUVWXGLHVDQG gender in science and engineering.

WENDY FAULKNER, Ph.D. Her interest in gender, science, and technology spans ¿YH GHFDGHV 0RVW UHFHQWO\ VKH KDV FROODERUDWHG LQ WKH (8 SURMHFWV 6,*,6 DQG3520(7($DQGFRQGXFWHGH[WHQVLYHHWKQRJUDSKLF¿HOGZRUNRQJHQGHU G\QDPLFVZLWKLQHQJLQHHULQJZRUNSODFHV6KHZDVGHFLVLYHO\LQYROYHGLQWKH 8QLYHUVLW\RI(GLQEXUJK¶V3RVWJUDGXDWH3URJUDPPHLQ6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\ 6WXGLHV6LQFHUHWLULQJVKHRIIHUVWUDLQLQJLQGLDORJXHIRUSXEOLFHQJDJHPHQW

ILONA HORWATH3K'LV$VVLVWDQW3URIHVVRUDWWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI:RPHQ¶V DQG*HQGHU6WXGLHV-RKDQQHV.HSOHU8QLYHUVLW\/LQ]$XVWULD+HUFXUUHQW research interests are Gender and Organization, Gender in Science and Tech- CONTRIBUTORS 261

QRORJ\+DELWXDO&ROOHFWLYH2ULHQWDWLRQVDQG(TXDOLW\LQWKH)LUHVHUYLFH$ recent publication is Gleichstellung im Feuerwehrwesen. „Gut Wehr!“ und die +HOG,QQHQYRQ+HXWH 9HUODJIU6R]LDOZLVVHQVFKDIWHQ 

REBECCA JORDAN-YOUNG3K'LV$VVRFLDWH3URIHVVRURI:RPHQ¶V*HQGHU DQG6H[XDOLW\6WXGLHVDW%DUQDUG&ROOHJHDQGWKHDXWKRURIBrain Storm: The ÀDZVLQWKHVFLHQFHRIVH[GLIIHUHQFHV +DUYDUG DQGPDQ\RWKHUZRUNV RQVFLHQFHJHQGHUDQGVH[XDOLW\+HUFXUUHQWSURMHFWVLQFOXGHµJHQGHUYHUL¿- FDWLRQ¶RIHOLWHIHPDOHDWKOHWHVDQGGHYHORSPHQWRIEHVWSUDFWLFHJXLGHOLQHV IRUUHVHDUFKRQVH[JHQGHULQGRPDLQVLQFOXGLQJQHXURLPDJLQJDQGFOLQLFDO medicine.

NICOLE KRONBERGER3K'LV$VVLVWDQW3URIHVVRUDWWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI6RFLDO DQG(FRQRPLF3V\FKRORJ\-RKDQQHV.HSOHU8QLYHUVLW\RI/LQ]$XVWULD+HU UHVHDUFKLQWHUHVWVIRFXVRQWKHUROHRIEHLQJVWHUHRW\SHGIRUSHUIRUPDQFHDQG SHUVLVWHQFH VWHUHRW\SHWKUHDW ULVNSHUFHSWLRQYDOXHVDQGWKHPRUDOHYDOXD- WLRQRIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\FROOHFWLYHV\PEROLFFRSLQJZLWKLQQRYDWLRQ PHWDSKRULFDQGLPDJLQDWLYHUHDVRQLQJDQGVRFLDOUHVHDUFKPHWKRGV

SABINE MEHLMANN3K'HGXFDWLRQDOLVWDQGVRFLDOVFLHQWLVWLV5HVHDUFK2I- ¿FHUIRUWKH3K'&DUHHU&HQWHU8QLYHUVLW\RI2VQDEUFN+HUUHVHDUFKDUHDV are biopolitics, masculinities, education, and gender. A recent publication is Ä*HQGHUNRPSHWHQ]± N HLQ7KHPDLQGHUXQLYHUVLWlUHQ/HKUDPWVDXVELOGXQJ LP )DFK 0DWKHPDWLN"³ ,Q +HLW]PDQQ 'DQLHOD.OHLQ 8WD HGV  Diversity konkret gemacht.%HOW]-XYHQWD± WRJHWKHUZLWK%HWWLQD/DQJIHOGW DQG$QLQD0LVFKDX 

ANINA MISCHAUKROGVD3K'LQVRFLRORJ\)URP±VKHKDVZRUNHG DWWKH,QWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\&HQWHURI)HPDOH5HVHDUFKDQG*HQGHU6WXGLHV ,))  DWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI%LHOHIHOG&XUUHQWO\VKHKHOGDYLVLWLQJSURIHVVRUVKLSIRU ³*HQGHU6WXGLHVLQ0DWKHPDWLFVDQG'LGDFWLFVRI0DWKHPDWLFV´DWWKH'HSDUW- PHQWRI0DWKHPDWLFVDQG&RPSXWHU6FLHQFHDW)UHLH8QLYHUVLWlW%HUOLQ+HU main research and teaching areas are gender disparity and equal opportunity policies in higher education and science as well as gender in MINT subjects.

BARBARA ORLAND, Ph.D., PD, is a senior scientist at the Science Studies Pro- JUDP8QLYHUVLW\RI%DVHO,QVKHUHSODFHGWKHSURIHVVRUIRUKLVWRU\RI VFLHQFHDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI.RQVWDQ],QWKHZLQWHUWHUPVKHZDV 262 GENDER IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DZDUGHGWKH.lWKH/HLFKWHUJXHVWSURIHVVRUVKLSDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI9LHQQD ,QVWLWXWHRI(FRQRPLFDQG6RFLDO+LVWRU\&RQWHPSRUDU\+LVWRU\,QVWLWXWH  %HIRUHVKHZRUNHGDVDVHQLRUVFLHQWLVWDWWKH)HGHUDO,QVWLWXWHRI7HFKQRORJ\ =XULFKDPRQJRWKHUVDWWKHFKDLU³+LVWRU\RI7HFKQRORJ\´ ± DQG WKH&ROOHJLXP+HOYHWLFXP%HWZHHQDQGVKHZDVPDQDJLQJGLUHF- WRURIWKHQHZO\IRXQGHG&HQWHU³+LVWRU\RI.QRZOHGJH´IURPWKH)HGHUDO ,QVWLWXWHRI7HFKQRORJ\DQGWKH8QLYHUVLW\=XULFK+HUFXUUHQWUHVHDUFKLQWHU- HVWVFRYHUGLIIHUHQW¿HOGVRIWKHKLVWRU\RIOLIHVFLHQFHV$WWKHPRPHQWVKHLV ¿QLVKLQJDERRNRQWKHFXOWXUDOKLVWRU\RIQXWULWLRQDOVFLHQFHV ± 

ELS ROMMES3K'LV$VVLVWDQW3URIHVVRUDWWKH,QVWLWXWHIRU*HQGHU6WXG- LHV5DGERXG8QLYHUVLW\1LMPHJHQ+HUUHVHDUFKDQGSXEOLFDWLRQDUHDVLQFOXGH JHQGHUHGGHVLJQDQGXVHRI,&7VUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIVFLHQFHVLQWKHPHGLDDQG WHHQDJHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOFKRLFHV6KHLV FR DXWKRURIWKHERRNVGender Scripts DQGWKH,QWHUQHW  *HQGHU3HUVSHFWLYHVRQ,QIRUPDWLRQ6RFLHW\7HFKQRO- ogy  DQG7HFKQRORJLHVRI,QFOXVLRQ  

LENA TROJER3K'LVSURIHVVRUDQGKROGVDFKDLULQ,QIRUPDWLRQDQG&RP- PXQLFDWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\ ,&7 DQG*HQGHU5HVHDUFKDW%OHNLQJH,QVWLWXWHRI 7HFKQRORJ\.DUOVNURQD6ZHGHQ6KHLVKHDGRIUHVHDUFKDWWKH'HSDUWPHQW RI7HFKQRORJ\DQG$HVWKHWLFVDQGDGMXQFWSURIHVVRUDW1HOVRQ0DQGHOD$IULFD ,QVWLWXWHRI6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\$UXVKD7DQ]DQLD+HUPDLQDFDGHPLF LQWHUHVWVDUHIHPLQLVWWHFKQRVFLHQFH,&7'LQQRYDWLRQV\VWHPDQGGHYHORS- ment, media technology, and research policy.