What Is the Scientific Method?

Full file at

CHAPTER

/ 2 / SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Full file at

WHAT IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?

Defining the Problem

Reviewing the Literature

Formulating the Hypothesis

Collecting and Analyzing Data

Developing the Conclusion

In Summary: The Scientific Method

MAJOR RESEARCH DESIGNS

Surveys

Ethnography

Experiments

Use of Existing Sources

ETHICS OF RESEARCH

Confidentiality

Conflict of Interest

Value Neutrality

FEMINIST METHODOLOGY

THE DATA- RICH FUTURE

Applying Sociology

Initiating Policy

SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH: STUDYING HUMAN SEXUALITY

APPENDIX I: USING STATISTICS AND GRAPHS

APPENDIX II: WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Boxes

Trend Spotting: Overcounting and Undercounting in the U.S. Census

Research Today: Surveying Cell Phone Users

Research Today: What’s in a Name?

Taking Sociology to Work: Dave Eberbach, Research Coordinator, United Way of Central Iowa

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

/

WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 2

1. Define the scientific method.
2. Discuss formulating the hypothesis.
3. Differentiate correlation from causation.
4. Describe the processes of collecting and
analyzing research data.
5. Define validity and reliability in
research.
6. Describe the various research methods
used in sociology.
7. Discuss the ethics of social research.
8. Discuss sociological efforts to understand sexual behavior. /

• Revised Mapping Life Nationwide Map, “Educational Level and Household Income in the United States”
• Discussion of nonrespondents to Current Population Survey
• Trend Spotting Box: Overcounting and Undercounting in the U.S. Census
• Discussion of the need the adjust survey questions in response to changes in society
• Coverage of ethnography as a major research design.
• Coverage of content analysis of gender stereotyping in children’s coloring books and of television coverage of men’s versus women’s sports
• Discussion of epidemiologists’ use of Google topic searches in tracking spread of H1N1 virus
• Revised figures showing median age of first sex
• Revised figure, “People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age, 2010”
• Discussion of vastly increased amount of data now available to sociologists

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Sociologists are committed to the use of the scientific method in their research. The basic steps in the scientific method are defining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating the hypothesis, selecting the research design, and collecting and analyzing the data. Finally, the researcher develops a conclusion based on the findings of the research.

An operational definition is an explanation of an abstract concept that allows a researcher to assess or measure the concept. A review of the relevant literature helps to refine the problem and reduce avoidable mistakes. A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are measurable traits or characteristics that are subject to change under certain conditions. The variable hypothesized to cause orinfluence another variable is called the independent variable. The variable that is changed or dependent on the independent variable is called the dependent variable. A correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other. Correlation should not be confused with causation. Causal logic involves the relationship between a condition or variable and a consequence, with one event leading to the other. Causation cannot be determined simply from correlation alone.

In most studies, social scientists carefully select a sample. A sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of the population. In a random sample, every member of the population being studied has the same chance of being selected for the study.

The scientific method requires both validity and reliability. Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results. Sociological studies sometime fail to support the original hypothesis and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. Control variables are those factors that are held constant to test the strength of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

A research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining or collecting data. Surveys are a common method of quantitative research used by researchers to collect data. Surveys may consist of oral interviews or written questionnaires. Ethnography is the study of an entire social setting and way of life through extended systematic observation. Observation is the basic technique of ethnography although the ethnographic approach is often combined with other methods such as interview. Observation is a qualitative research method, which allows researchers to collect data through everyday interaction with a group or community under study. Experiments are artificially created situations in which researchers can manipulate variables. Typically, an experimental group is exposed to the independent variable and the control group is not. Analyzing existing data that has been previously collected is called secondary analysis. Content analysis involves the systematic coding and objective recording of data, such as using newspapers, periodicals, and other common documents or venues to interpret and test the significance of data. All researchers must abide by a code of ethics to ensure that researchers are not causing harm or violating a person’s privacy. Most research seeks to remain value neutral in its judgments when interpreting research results. However, some have suggested neutrality may be impossible to attain. As the feminist perspective gains influence among sociological researchers, feminist methodology is changing both how issues are defined and how data is collected. Computers and the Internet are exciting technologies that are having an impact on research.

RESOURCE INTEGRATOR

Focus Questions / Resources

1. What is the scientific method?

/ IN THE TEXT
Key Terms: scientific method, operational definition, hypothesis, variable, independent variable, dependent variable, causal logic, correlation, sample, random sample, validity, reliability, control variable
Boxes: Research In Action, “Adolescent Sexual Networks”; Taking Sociology to Work, “Dave Eberbach, Research Coordinator, United Way of Central Iowa”
Visual Support: Figure 2-1 The Scientific Method; Photo of college graduates; Figure 2-2 Educational and Household Income in the US; Figure 2-3 Causal Logic; Figure 2-4 Impact of College Education on Income; Trend Spotting: Overcounting and Undercounting in the U.S. Census
IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
Additional Lecture Ideas: 2-6
Classroom Discussion Topics: 2-1; 2-2
Topics and Sources for Student Research and Assignments: Social Theory
Video Resources: Doing Sociological Research; Scientific Method and Values; Sociological Thinking and Research
REEL SOCIETY CD
Topic Index: Scientific Method

1. What are the major research designs in sociological research?

/ IN THE TEXT
Key Terms: research design, survey, interview, questionnaire, quantitative research, qualitative research, ethnography, observation, experiment, experimental group, control group, Hawthorne effect, secondary analysis, content analysis
Boxes: Research Today, “Surveying Cell Phone Users”; Research Today, “What’s in a Name?”; Taking Sociology to Work: Dave Eberbach, Research Coordinator
Visual Support: Doonesbury cartoon on polling; Photo of survey instrument; Photo of army social scientist in Afghanistan; Photo of Beyonce Knowles; Table 2-1 Reasons for Sex; Table 2-2 Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research; Table 2-3 Major Research Designs
IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
Additional Lecture Ideas: 2-1; 2-2; 2-3; 2-4; 2-5; 2-6
Classroom Discussion Topics: 2-3; 2-4; 2-6; 2-7; 2-8; 2-9; 2-10
Topics and Sources for Student Research: Content Analysis—Comic Superheroes; Content Analysis—Newspapers; Feminist Methodology
Video Resources: Sociological Inquiry; Research Methods for the Social Sciences; Sociological Thinking and Research; Statistics; Statistics: For All Practical Purposes
Internet Connection: Oral History Society; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
Social Policy: How Americans Feel—An Introduction to Survey Research

1. What are the key ethical issues in sociological research?

/ IN THE TEXT
Key Terms: code of ethics, value neutrality
Boxes: Taking Sociology to Work: Dave Eberbach
Visual Support: Photograph of Exxon Valdez tanker
IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
Additional Lecture Ideas: 2-4
Classroom Discussion Topics: 2-7
Video Resources:

1. What are the key issues in feminist methodology?

/ IN THE TEXT
Visual Support: Photograph of foreign sex workers
IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
Classroom Discussion Topics: 2-8

1. How has technology affected sociological research?

/ IN THE TEXT
Visual Support: Photograph of CarnegieMellonUniversity data truck

1. What are the main controversies in sociological research on human sexuality?

/ IN THE TEXT
Visual Support: Figure 2-5 Percentage of television shows that contain sexual content; Figure 2-6 Median age of first sex
Video Resources: Portraits in Human Sexuality: The Business of Sex

LECTURE OUTLINE

I.What Is the Scientific Method?

• A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and

consistency in researching a problem.

• Requires precise preparation in developing useful research; otherwise, the research data

collected may not prove accurate.

A. Defining the Problem

• An operational definition is required to assess the concept. Example: using

membership in exclusive social clubs as an operational definition of status.

B.Reviewing the Literature

• Refines the problem under study, clarifies data collection techniques, and

eliminates or reduces avoidable mistakes.

C.Formulating the Hypothesis

• Hypothesis: A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more

variables (a measurable trait or characteristic).

• Independent variables cause or influence change in dependent variables.

• Dependent variables are changed by the independent variables or are dependent

of them.

• Causal logic refers to the relationship between a condition or variable and a

particular consequence, with one event leading to the other. Example: Time

spent studying may result in a higher grade on an exam.

• Correlation is an indication that causality may be present.

D. Collecting and Analyzing Data

• Research designs guide researchers in collecting data.

1.Selecting the Sample

• Sample: a statistically representative selection from a larger population.

• A random sample occurs when every member of an entire population

has the same chance of being selected for the study.

2.Ensuring Validity and Reliability

• Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or scale accurately

reflects the phenomenon under study.

• Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent

results.

E. Developing the Conclusion

• Conclusion represents both an end and a beginning in research.

1.Supporting Hypothesis

• Some studies refute a hypothesis, which leads to reformulations about a

conclusion and adjustments in research designs.

2.Controlling for Other Factors

• A control variable is a factor held constant to test the relative impact of

the independent variable. Example:surveying attitudes of smokers and

nonsmokers.

F.In Summary: The Scientific Method

• The data support the hypothesis that education level influences income.

II.Major Research Designs

• A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.

A.Surveys

• Generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, providing researchers

with information about how people think or act. Example:Gallup poll.

• The survey is an example of quantitative research, which collects and reports

data primarily in numerical form.

• Skillful interviewers can go beyond written questions and probe a subject’s

underlying feelings; questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper to

administer.

B. Observation

• Qualitative research offers more depth and detail than quantitative analysis.

This type of research relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings,

and often focuses on small groups and communities. Observation is the most

common form. Example:studying gangs, or service organizations.

• William F. Whyte’s work is a classic example of participant observation

research, when he moved into a low-income Italian neighborhood in Boston

(1930s).

• Ethnography: The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic

observation. The Adlers’ study of self-injury, described in the

chapter opening, was an ethnographic study.

C. Experiments

• Artificially created situation. Typically involves the use of an experimental

group exposed to an independent variable, and a control group, which is not

exposed to the independent variable.

• Sociologists do not rely on classic forms of experiment/control groups, due to

the danger they might cause to humans.

• Hawthorne effect refers to subjects of research who deviate from typical

behavior because they are under observation.

D.Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis refers to making use of previously collected or publicly

accessible information and data. Example: Census data.

• Existing data is nonreactive, since it does not influence people’s behavior; thus,

researchers can avoid the Hawthorne effect by using secondary analysis.

Example: Durkheim’s research on suicide.

• Content analysis is the systematic coding and objective recording of data.

Example: Analyzing the content of films to determine if there has been an

increase in the depiction of smoking in movies.

III.Ethics of Research

• Code of Ethics, ASA first published in 1971.

• Objectivity, integrity, privacy, protection from harm, confidentiality, informed consent,

acknowledge collaboration and assistance, and disclose sources of financial support.

A.Confidentiality

• Rik Scarce jailed for refusing to divulge what he knew about a 1991 raid on a

university lab by animal rights activists.

• The Supreme Court has failed to clarify the rights of scholars preserving the

confidentiality of research subjects.

B. Research Funding

• When accepting funding for their research, sociologists must be careful that the

funding source does not taint the objectivity of the research. Example:Exxon

funded research on jury deliberations after the Valdez disaster.

C. Value Neutrality

• Weber and value neutrality in research.Neutrality may be impossible.

IV.Feminist Methodology

• Impact of feminist perspective on current researchers. Example: Research now being

conducted on integration of work and family, rather than viewing the two topics as

unrelated.

• Historically, sociologists researched men’s work, associations, communities, and

generalized this research to all people, resulting in a biased picture of social life.

• Frequently employs a multidisciplinary approach to the research itself and its

application.

V.Technology and Sociological Research

• Impact of computers and Internet on research. Example: Software programs.

• Web-based surveys are promising, but may not be random samples.

VI.Social Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human Sexuality

A.The Issue

• Human sexuality is a difficult topic to research, yet a scientific understanding

of human sexuality is important, especially in an age of devastating sexually

transmitted diseases.

B. The Setting

• There have been few reliable studies of patterns of sexual behavior in the U.S.

The sensitive nature of the subject makes it difficult to obtain accurate

information, and until the AIDs crisis, there was little scientific demand for data

on sexual behavior.

• Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial.

C. Sociological Insights

• Sociologists may fear studying and objectively reporting findings for fear of

losing government funds, in the event the research criticizes government

policies.

D.Policy Initiatives

• In 1987, the federal government’s National Institute of Child Health and Human

Development sought research proposals for a national survey of sexual behavior.

• In 1991, the U.S. Senate voted to forbid funding any survey on adult sexual

practices.

• Researchers secured private funding for the research to go forth: National

Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS). Careful procedures helped establish

validity of the NHSLS findings.

• Authors of the study contend their data will allow sociologists and policymakers

to better address such issues such as AIDS, sexual harassment, welfare reform,

sex discrimination, abortion, teenage pregnancy, and family planning.

• The research findings countered notions about abortion and birth control.

Example: They found that women do not regularly use abortion for birth control

and that affluent women are more likely to have abortions than poor teens.

KEY TERMS

Causal logicThe relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other.

Code of ethicsThe standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession.

Content analysisThe systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale.

Control groupThe subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher.

Control variableA factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable.

CorrelationA relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other.

Cross-tabulation A table that shows the relationship between two or more variables.

Dependent variableThe variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable.

EthnographyThe study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation.

ExperimentAn artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables.

Experimental groupThe subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher.

Hawthorne effectThe unintended influence that observers or experiments can have on their subjects.

HypothesisA speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Independent variableThe variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in a second variable.

InterviewA face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information.

Mean A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values.

Median The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of values.

Mode The single most common value in a series of scores.

ObservationA research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation and/or closely watching a group or community.

Operational definitionAn explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept.

Percentage A portion of 100.

Qualitative researchResearch that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data.

Quantitative researchResearch that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form.

QuestionnaireA printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent.