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Liquid Air in the energy and transport systems Opportunities for industry and innovation in the UK Full Report CONTRIBUTORS PUBLICATION DATE Mark Akhurst, LCAworks 9 May 2013 ISBN: 978-0-9575872-2-9 Dr. Andy Atkins, Ricardo UK Prof. Ian Arbon. Engineered Solutions REPORT NO. Michael Ayres, Dearman Engine Company 021 Prof. Nigel Brandon, Imperial College London Richard Bruges, Productiv PUBLISHER Steve Cooper, Spiritus Consulting The Centre for Low Carbon Futures Prof. Yulong Ding, University of Leeds This report can be downloaded from Tim Evison, Messer Group www.liquidair.org.uk Nathan Goode, Grant Thornton This report explores the technical, environmental Dr. Phillip Grünewald, Imperial College London and business potential of Liquid Air as a new energy vector. Dr. Andrew L. Heyes, Imperial College London Dr. Yongliang Li, University of Leeds Dr. Christos Markides, Imperial College London ABOUT LIQUID AIR ENERGY NETWORK (LAEN) Dr. Rob Morgan, University of Brighton LAEN is a newly created forum to explore and Robin Morris, Independent Consultant promote the use of liquid air as an energy vector, with Stuart Nelmes, Highview Power Storage applications in grid electricity, transport and waste heat recovery. Nick Owen, E4tech Building on the findings of the Centre for Low Toby Peters, Liquid Air Energy Network Carbon Future’s report, LAEN will serve as the Anthony Price, Electricity Storage Network global hub where new ideas are demonstrated and shared, and promote liquid air as a potential energy John Raquet, Spiritus Consulting solution among researchers, technology developers, David Sanders, Cleantech Advisory manufacturers, energy producers and consumers, and government. Its membership will be drawn from Steve Saunders, Arup the same groups. To contact LAEN, please visit www. Dipl. Ing. Alexander Schlotmann, Messer Group liquidair.org.uk. Toby Peters, Founder LAEN Dr. Dongshen Wen, Queen Mary, University of London Mike Wilks, Pöyry Management Consulting Simon Wrigley, Ricardo UK CONTRIBUTORS/REVIEWERS Dr. Jonathan Radcliffe, Programme Director, CLCF Energy Storage Centre Prof. Richard A. Williams, OBE FREng FTSE, University of Birmingham THIS REPORT WAS SUPPORTED BY: EDITOR David Strahan THE CENTRE FOR LOW CARBON FUTURES PARTNERSHIP http://www.lowcarbonfutures.org LIQUID AIR IN THE ENERGY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS PUBLISHED 2013. Contents This Full Report should be read in conjunction with the Summary Report and Recommendations from the Centre for Low Carbon Futures, which contains the foreword, preface, executive summary and policy recommendations. List of Figures i List of Tables, Boxes and Appendices ii Chapter 1 Do we need a new energy vector? 1 Chapter 2 An introduction to liquid air 13 Chapter 3 Grid electricity 25 Chapter 4 Transport 45 Chapter 5 Waste heat 63 Chapter 6 Liquid air production and cost 74 Chapter 7 Infrastructure 82 Chapter 8 Manufacturing and pathways to deployment 90 Chapter 9 Safety 102 Chapter 10 Climate change 112 Chapter 11 Energy security 123 1 LIQUID AIR IN THE ENERGY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS PUBLISHED APRIL 2013 PUBLISHED APRIL 2013 LIQUID AIR IN THE ENERGY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Return to Contents List of Figures 1.1 UK energy flow chart 3.11 Diagram of the cryogenic energy storage- 1.2 Grid balancing techniques gas peaking plant 1.3 UK electricity capacity margins to 2017 3.12 UK LNG imports, history and 3 future scenarios. Source: National Grid 1.4 Storage compared to other grid balancing techniques 3.13 Isle of Grain LNG terminal 1.5 Slow progress of FCVs towards mass 4.1 UK energy consumption by end use, 2011 production 4.2 Liquid air vehicle 1903 2.1 Air separation unit 4.3 MDI compressed air car 2.2 Air liquefier 4.4 Work produced by adiabatic and 2.3 Schematic of a liquid air energy storage isothermal expansion of 1kg of liquid air system 4.5 Thermodynamic cycle of the Dearman 2.4 The Highview Power Storage pilot plant in Engine Slough 4.6 Incremental and disruptive technology 2.5 Schematic of liquid air energy storage innovation device 4.7 Recuperated Gas Turbine 2.6 Schematic of Cryogen Set 4.8 Recuperated diesel cycle with high 2.7 The Dearman Cycle compression ratio and isothermal compression 2.8 Specific work from the expansion of liquid 4.9 Carnot efficiency of liquid air and ORC 2.9 Combined cycle gas turbine 4.10 Direct refrigeration by liquid nitrogen 2.10 Recaptured diesel cycle with high compression ratio and isothermal 4.11 Power and energy densities of selected compression energy storage technologies 3.1 Projections of future generation mix in 5.1 Map of UK waste heat resource 2050 compared with 2011 5.2 Theoretical maximum efficiency of waste 3.2 Forecast increase in UK electricity heat conversion to work demand 5.3 The impact of renewable intermittency on 3.3 Maximum and minimum daily demand hourly power pricing profiles in 2011 and forecast for 2030 and 6.1 Maps of major UK industrial gas 2050 production sites 3.4 Forecast of additional capacity and 6.2 Per kilometre of Dearman engine car additional fast response plant to balance compared to ICE and EV the network 7.1 Potential liquid air suppliers and users 3.5 Projected future role of storage in a low 8.1 NAIGT Technology Roadmap carbon power network 9.1 Oxygen and nitrogen phase diagram 3.6 Effect of efficiency on the value of 9.2 EIGA LTIR 1977-2012 storage in 2030 and 2050 9.3 LTIR comparison between EIGA and 3.7 Illustration of the role of storage is related industries and companies capturing excess wind generation 9.4 EIGA LTIR accidents by cause. Source 3.8 Four potential grid balancing solutions 10.1 Generating Mix evolution in 2050 3.9 Power rating and duration of various grid- scale storage technologies 10.2 The impact of storage on emissions with 40GW wind capacity 3.10 Illustration of main components of liquid air energy storage facility. 10.3 Reducing emission factors in Grassroots scenario PUBLISHED APRIL 2013 LIQUID AIR IN THE ENERGY AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS i Return to Contents List of Tables, Boxes and Appendices TABLES 1.1 Grid storage technologies compared 8.1 Supply chain evaluation of key 2.1 Energy Consumption Oxygen, Nitrogen components of liquid air energy storage 3.1 Requirements of a liquid air storage systems device 8.2 Assumed storage market and liquid air 3.2 Key characteristics of a Cryogen set capacity compared to incumbent technologies. 8.3 GDP and employment impact of LAES to 3.3 Key characteristics of a LA Energy 2050 Storage device compared to market 8.4 NAIGT common research agenda summary. requirements 9.1 Relative severity of cryogenic fluid 3.4 Strengths and weaknesses of grid hazards balancing technologies 9.2 Hazards and mitigation in transport 3.5 Grid storage technologies compared applications 4.1 Relative importance of energy storage 10.1 Assumed emissions factors criteria to various vehicle types 10.2 Emission factors in the DECC Grassroots 4.2 The ability of liquid air to satisfy key scenario energy storage criteria 10.3 Well-to-wheels emissions of various 4.3 How well does liquid air match the energy powertrains compared storage requirements of various vehicle 10.4 Embedded emissions of various types? powertrains compared 4.4 Vehicles’ suitability for liquid air / liquid 10.5 Lifecycle emissions of various powertrains nitrogen auxiliary power compared 5.1 Comparison of petrol, hydrogen and 10.6 DE heat hybrid emissions compared to electrical storage systems in four leading diesel and biodiesel emissions vehicles 10.7 Annual CO2 emissions from refrigeration 6.1 UK industrial Gas industry by diesel and liquid nitrogen compared 6.2 Capital Costs at discount rates of 6% and 11.1 Potential energy security benefits of 9% liquid air 6.3 Capital costs at load factors of 100% and 75% 6.4 Energy costs of liquid air production 6.5 Energy costs of liquid air production at BOXES finer electricity prices 6.6 Effective O&M costs per tonne of liquid air 2.1 Liquid Air energy storage process 6.7 Total liquid air production costs at 6% 3.1 District Network Operators and discount rate Transmission Operators 6.8 Total liquid air production costs at 9% discount rate 6.9 Impact of reduced capital costs on total costs at 6% discount rate APPENDICES 6.10 Impact of reduced capital costs on total costs at 9% discount rate 6.11 Impact of reduced energy consumption These Appendices can be found at for reduced capital cost scenario at 6% www.liquidair.org.uk discount rate 6.12 Impact of reduced energy consumption Appendix 1 Highview Power Storage for reduced capital cost scenario at 9% Technology and Performance discount rate Review 6.13 Delivered cost of liquid nitrogen Appendix 2 Pöyry Management Consulting 6.14 Costs per kilometre of Dearman Engine The different sources of car compared to ICE and EV flexibility and their relative 7.1 Comparison of several liquid air transport merits applications by technology and refuelling Appendix 3 Ricardo liquid nitrogen split cycle options engine patent Appendix 4 Material Safety Data Sheets Whilst reasonable steps have been taken to ensure that the information contained within this publication is correct, the authors, the Centre for Low Carbon Futures, its agents, contractors and sub- contractors give no warranty and make no representation as to its accuracy and accept no liability for any errors or omissions. Nothing in this publication shall be construed as granting any licence or right to use or reproduce any of the trademarks, service marks, logos, copyright or any proprietary information in any way without the Centre for Low Carbon Futures’ prior written permission. The Centre for Low Carbon Futures enforces infringements of its intellectual property rights to the full extent permitted by law.
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