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0618

15 June 2018 Monthly Year 2

Collaborators of the Apostles and the Reform of the Roman Curia

After the Candlelight Revolution in .6 o South Korea

Laudato Si’ and Ethical Business Management in Africa

OLUME 2, N 2, OLUME Putin and the Beginnings of the V Ukrainian Crisis

2018 Some Aspects of Christian : Reflections on the Letter Placuit Deo

Toward an Economy of Reconciliation

Techno-Theological Narratives

Against the of Fierceness

CONTENTS 0618

BEATUS POPULUS, CUIUS DOMINUS DEUS EIUS

Copyright, 2017, Union of Catholic Asian Editor-in-chief News ANTONIO SPADARO, SJ

All rights reserved. Except for any fair Editorial Board dealing permitted under the Hong Kong Antonio Spadaro, SJ – Director Copyright Ordinance, no part of this Giancarlo Pani, SJ – Vice-Director publication may be reproduced by any Domenico Ronchitelli, SJ – Senior Editor means without prior permission. Inquiries Giovanni Cucci, SJ, Diego Fares, SJ should be made to the publisher. Francesco Occhetta, SJ, Giovanni Sale, SJ

Title: La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Emeritus editor Virgilio Fantuzzi, SJ ISSN: 2207-2446 Giandomenico Mucci, SJ GianPaolo Salvini, SJ ISBN: 978-1-925612-48-6 (paperback) Contributing Editor 978-1-925612-49-3 (ebook) Luke Hansen, SJ 978-1-925612-50-9 (kindle) Contributors Published by Federico Lombardi, SJ (Italy) Union of Catholic Asian News George Ruyssen, SJ (Belgium) Fernando De la Iglesia, SJ () P.O. Box 80488, Cheung Sha Wan, Drew Christiansen, SJ (USA) Kowloon, Hong Kong Andrea Vicini, SJ (USA) Phone: +852 2727 2018 David Neuhaus, SJ (Israel) Fax: +852 2772 7656 Camilo Ripamonti, SJ (Italy) www.ucanews.com Vladimir Pachkow, SJ (Russia) Publishers: Michael Kelly, SJ and Arturo Peraza, SJ (Venezuela) Robert Barber Bert Daelemans, SJ (Belgium) Production Manager: Thomas Reese, SJ (USA) Rangsan Panpairee Paul Soukup, SJ (USA) Grithanai Napasrapiwong Friedhelm Mennekes, SJ (Germany) Marcel Uwineza, SJ (Rwanda) Marc Rastoin, SJ (France) CONTENTS 0618

15 June 2018 Monthly Year 2

1 Collaborators of the Apostles and the Reform of the Roman Curia Gerald O’Collins, SJ

16 After the Candlelight Revolution in South Korea Seil Oh, SJ

28 Laudato Si’ and Ethical Business Management in Africa François Pazisnewende Kaboré, SJ

38 Putin and the Beginnings of the Ukrainian Crisis Giovanni Sale, SJ

53 Some Aspects of Christian Salvation: Reflections on the Letter Placuit Deo José Luis Narvaja, SJ

61 Toward an Economy of Reconciliation: An alternative to liberalism and nationalism Matthew Carnes, SJ

68 Techno-Theological Narratives Juan Carlos Henríquez Mendoza, SJ

80 Against the Spirit of Fierceness Diego Fares, SJ ABSTRACTS

ARTICLE 1 COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA

Gerald O’Collins, SJ

This article looks to the ancient traditions that can offer a broad vision for a possible reform of the Roman Curia. The confirm the teaching of Vatican II regarding the fact that Peter and the “eleven” constituted a single apostolic college. But we have very little information about the “collaborators” of Peter. Instead, seven authentic letters from Paul show apostolic collaborators who acted with Paul on his mission. The Christian men and women who collaborated with him provide an inspiring image for the reform of the Roman Curia. The author teaches at the Australian Catholic University.

ARTICLE 16 AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA

Seil Oh, SJ

South Korea experienced sweeping change with the Candlelight Revolution in 2017. The new government is seeking to introduce reforms to address the nation’s chronic ills and is pursuing new solutions to geopolitical and diplomatic problems. After tracing the history of the two faces of Korean society – the conservative and progressive groups – the article focuses on prospects for national integration and peace, on the possibility of dialogue with North Korea, on the ’s commitment to provide humanitarian assistance to those in need, and on promoting peace on the Korean Peninsula. The author is Professor of Sociology at Sogang University in Seoul.

ABSTRACTS

ARTICLE 28 LAUDATO SI’ AND ETHICAL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA

François Pazisnewende Kaboré, SJ

The emergence of multinational corporations as transnational actors in most African countries, together with their impressive economic power, shows the importance of ethical business management and the urgent need for a redefinition of corporate social responsibility. Considering the negative effects on people and the of the work of corporations, this article shows how the encyclical Laudato Si’ could be used as a compass for the conversion of the human heart at the microeconomic and macroeconomic levels with a shift from social responsibility to an obligation for corporate social accountability. The author is director of the Jesuit University Institute at the Center for Research and Action for Peace in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.

FOCUS 38 PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS

Giovanni Sale, SJ

After the collapse of the USSR and the humiliations suffered by Russia in the past, President Vladimir Putin has been able to give back to his country a sense of pride in being a great nation. After years of absence or exclusion, Russian citizens consider favorably the reappearance of their country on the international political chessboard. It is important, in particular, to trace the events that pushed Putin to annex Crimea, an event that has invigorated Russian patriotic sentiment. In fact, this event is intertwined with complex geopolitical and geostrategic issues and with the so-called “second revolution” in Kiev, whose outcome is not yet completely resolved. ABSTRACTS

LIFE OF THE CHURCH 53 SOME ASPECTS OF CHRISTIAN SALVATION: REFLECTIONS ON THE LETTER PLACUIT DEO

José Luis Narvaja, SJ

On February 22, 2018, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the published the letter Placuit Deo. It is addressed to the of the and speaks of some aspects of Christian salvation. The letter invites us to consider some forms of contemporary culture that can make us perceive salvation incorrectly, as occurred in antiquity with and . In other words, cultural transformations can create a conceptual framework that hinders a correct understanding of the mystery of salvation and, consequently, it may lead us to seek the encounter with the of our salvation only in a partial manner.

FOCUS 61 TOWARD AN ECONOMY OF RECONCILIATION: AN ALTERNATIVE TO LIBERALISM AND NATIONALISM

Matthew Carnes, SJ

The liberal model that has dominated almost the entire post-war era has led to considerable economic growth and a widening breach of inequality. An alternative today is to promote an economic model based on solidarity and reconciliation. This is the proposal made by the 36th General Congregation of the Society of , as well as by . It places in close connection care for people and care for our common home, the earth. And it requires a concerted effort, not only to make future growth more equitable and sustainable, but also to repair the broken relations of the present time. The author is a Political Science professor at Georgetown University in Washington. ABSTRACTS

ARTICLE 68 TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES

Juan Carlos Henríquez Mendoza, SJ

Among many contemporary narratives, there is one that can arouse disturbing readings of the transcendent and our relationship with it. Science fiction and fantasy films offer provocative materials that stimulate public debate on matters such as mortality and , opacity and transparency, monstrosity and innocence. This article presents a narrative consideration of technology as a form of metaphorical representation of other and proposes a close relationship between technological and theological discourses. The author is a professor at the Communications Department of the Ibero-American University of Mexico City.

ARTICLE 80 AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS

Diego Fares, SJ

The “spirit of fierceness” pervades the history of humanity. It changes its form, but it is always the same dynamic that leads some people to rage against others: usually the weakest or the holiest. This is the story of and Abel. This spirit of fierceness is demonic, destructive and self- destructive. In a 1987 work titled “Letters of the Tribulation,” recently republished by La Civiltà Cattolica, Fr. Jorge Mario Bergoglio proposed some remedies to resist this evil spirit without being infected by it. LCC 0718:

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Gerald O’Collins, SJ

Do we have data about the collaborators of Peter that would support an analogy between them and the Roman Curia? Do the letters of Paul testify to a variety of “co-workers” who might provide a vision illuminating the Curia and its reform? Where might we find some precedents, or at least some ancient analogy 1 that could provide a vision for illuminating theologically a reform of the Roman Curia that would go beyond mere legal changes and a bureaucratic restructuring?1

Apostolic leaders and their collaborators The letters of St. Paul, the Acts of the Apostles, and further sources report the exercise of apostolic leadership by Peter, Paul and others in the very early Church. Peter himself left Jerusalem to preach, for instance, in Lydda and Joppa (Acts 9:32-43), but we know little of his activity outside Palestine.2 His visit to Antioch prompted a famous difference with Paul (Gal 2:11-21); he was traditionally said to have become later the head (“”) of its church. He may have visited Corinth (1 Cor 1:12). There is a possible reference to Peter’s activity in (Rom 15:20), and he was martyred there, probably in A.D. 64.

1.Cf. M. Faggioli, “The Roman Curia at and after Vatican II: Legal-Rational or Theological Reform?” in Theological Studies 76 (2015) 550-571. 2.Peter (along with John) also visited (Acts 8:14-25) and was in Caesarea for his important meeting with Cornelius (Acts 10:24; cf. 12:19). On Peter and his activity cf. R. E. Brown - K. P. Donfried - J. Reumann (eds.), Peter in the New Testament: A Collaborative Assessment by Protestant and Roman Catholic Scholars, Minneapolis, Augsburg, 1973; M. Bockmuehl, The Remembered Peter: In Ancient Reception and Modern Debate, Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2010; M. Hengel, : The Underestimated Apostle, Grand Rapids (Mi), Eerdmans, 2010. GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

It is only from long after his martyrdom that we have clear and convincing evidence of the existence of a monarchical Bishop of Rome.3 He may have written 1 Peter, a letter sent from Rome (1 Pet 5:13) to Christian communities in five Roman provinces (1 Pet 1:1). The ancient tradition about Peter being associated with Mark in writing the second has been vigorously argued by Richard Bauckham.4 The Acts of the Apostles, right up to the in Acts 15, provide many details about Peter acting collegially with John, Paul and other apostles. But, apart from a tantalizing reference to Silvanus and Mark (1 Pet 5:12-13) and to “six brothers” who accompanied Peter on his visit to Cornelius (Acts 10:23,45; 11:12), the New Testament provides little direct 2 witness about non-apostles who collaborated closely with Peter. With Paul, the other outstanding apostolic leader who, like Peter, was martyred in Rome and who continues to be celebrated as the co-founder of its Church, we have, however, some indications about his immediate collaborators, albeit collaborators not normally in leading some settled community but in his traveling ministry as a missionary apostle. Could that collaboration provide some vision and inspiration for a kind of theological reform of the Roman Curia?

Timothy as collaborator of Paul With the aim not only of simplifying matters but also of examining thoroughly a limited amount of data, I propose restricting myself largely to the seven letters that by general agreement were directly composed by Paul and so constitute the earliest body of Christian literature: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. We can begin by investigating three collaborators of the apostle: Timothy, Titus and Epaphroditus.5

3.Cf. P. Lampe, From Paul to : Christians at Rome in the First Two Centuries, Minneapolis, Fortress, 2003. 4.Cf. R. Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The as Eyewitness Testimony, Grand Rapids (Mich.), Eerdmans, 2006, 155-182. 5.For summaries of the New Testament data on these three figures, cf. J. Gillman, “Epaphroditus,” in Anchor Dictionary, vol. 2, New York, COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA

After recommending Phoebe (Rom 16:1-2) and sending his own greetings to many people in the Christian community of Rome (Rom 16:3-15), Paul adds a general greeting from “all the Churches of Christ” (Rom 16:16), a warning against those who cause dissent (Rom 16:17-20a), and a concluding blessing (Rom 16:20b). He then sends greetings from eight companions, starting with Timothy: “Timothy, my co- 6 worker, greets you” (Rom 16:21-23). Presumably Timothy is with the apostle when he dictates his letter. But can we also presume that Timothy is known to some or even many of the Christians in Rome? Timothy being named, sometimes without explanation, in other letters suggests that he was widely known in various scattered Christian communities. In Paul’s earliest 3 extant writing he is named as sending the letter with the apostle: “Paul, Silvanus7 and Timothy, to the church of the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ: grace to you and peace” (1 Thess 1:1). Later in the same letter the apostle recalls how at a time of persecution he had dispatched Timothy to the Thessalonian Christians: “We sent Timothy our brother and co-worker for God in proclaiming the gospel of Christ, to strengthen and encourage you for the sake of your faith, so that no one would be shaken by these persecutions” (1 Thess 3:2). Paul is “an apostle of Christ Jesus,”8 but he associates Timothy with him when writing to

Doubleday, 1992, 533-534; J. Gillman, “Timothy,” in ibid., vol. 6, 558-560; J. Gillman, “Titus,” in ibid., vol. 6, 581-582. Cf. F. F. Bruce, The Pauline Circle, Grand Rapids (Mi), Eerdmans, 1985; W.-H. Ollrog, Paulus und seine Mitarbeiter, Neukirchen - Vluyn, Neukirchener Verlag, 1979. 6.Although some scholars still disagree, many argue convincingly that Rom 16 belongs to Paul’s letter to the Romans: cf. B. Byrne, Romans, Collegeville (Mi), Liturgical Press, 1996, 29; J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, New York, Doubleday, 1992, 49-50; R. Jewett, Romans: A Commentary, Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2007, 8-9; D. J. Moo, The , Grand Rapids (Mi), Eerdmans, 1996, 5-9; 912. 7.Sylvanus is the form of Silas, whom Acts mentions as a traveling companion of Paul (Acts 15:22-18:5), and whom Paul names as being with him at the founding of the Corinthian church (2 Cor 1:19). 8.In 1 Thess 2:7, the phrase “apostles of Christ” may include Timothy along with Paul (and Silvanus). GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

the Corinthians: “Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, and Timothy our brother to the Church of God that is in Corinth” (2 Cor 1:1). We will see below how Timothy was no stranger to the Corinthian Christians.9 Paul is in prison awaiting trial (Phil 1:12-26) when he and Timothy, “servants/slaves of Christ Jesus” (Phil 1:1) send a letter to the Philippians. Below we will see how Timothy is known to the Christians in Philippi, a major city in Macedonia and a Roman colony. Without clarification, Timothy joins with Paul in a personal and public appeal to Philemon, Apphia and Archippus, as well as to the community that meets in one of their homes: “Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, to Philemon, 4 our dear friend and co-worker, to Apphia our sister [a fellow Christian and probably Philemon’s wife], to Archippus, our fellow soldier, and to the community in your house: grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus 10 Christ” (Philemon 1-3). In short, Timothy is no anonymous companion of the apostle Paul but someone widely known in the young Christian communities.11 What is Timothy known for and what motivates Paul in calling him “my co-worker” and “brother”? The story of three communities of Christians fills out an answer. First, Paul obviously

9.Since Paul wrote 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (1 Cor 16:10) and sent Timothy from that city to Corinth (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11), we can presume that Timothy was also known at least to some Ephesian Christians. According to 1 Tim 1:3, he would be urged to remain in Ephesus and correct misleading teaching that was being disseminated there. 10.Cf. J. D. G. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossians and Philemon, Grand Rapids (Mi), Eerdmans, 1996 311-313. 11.Other New Testament sources yield further evidence that Timothy was widely known. In Col 1:1 and 2 Thess 2:1 he is presented as being the co- sender of both letters; according to Acts 16:3, he was a companion of Paul. In the practical instructions and greetings which make up the final chapter of Hebrews we read: “I want you to know that our brother Timothy has been free; and if he comes in time, he will be with me when I visit you” (Heb 13:23); cf. C. R. Koester, Hebrews: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, New York, Doubleday, 2001, 580-581. Finally, whatever we hold about the authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy, the fact that two letters attributed to Paul are addressed to Timothy suggests the latter’s known standing as a co-worker of the apostle, at least among later Christians. COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA has great affection for the congregation he had founded in Thessalonica, the capital of the Roman province of Macedonia: “you are our glory and joy” (1 Thess 2:20). Separated from them and worried about them, the apostle sent Timothy to “strengthen and encourage them for the sake of their faith” (1 Thess 3:2). Second, Timothy worked with Paul when they proclaimed “the Son of God, Jesus Christ” in Corinth and so became a co- founder of the local Church there (2 Cor 1:19; cf. Acts 18:5). Later, when troubles break out in that community, Timothy acts as Paul’s representative (1 Cor 4:17; 16:10-11; cf. Acts 19:22). What Timothy has done encourages the apostle to name him not merely with respect as “our brother” (2 Cor 1:1) but also as “my beloved and faithful child in the Lord” (1 Cor 4:17). This latter passage and its context call for close attention as it shows 5 how Timothy’s mission for Paul has gone to the very heart of the apostle’s existence and, indeed, Christian existence. Paul presents that mission in this way: “In Christ Jesus I became your father through the gospel. I appeal to you, then, be imitators of me. For this reason I sent you Timothy, who is my beloved and faithful child in the Lord, to remind you of my ways in Christ Jesus, as I teach them everywhere in every Church” 12 (1 Cor 4:15-17). Having reminded the Corinthian Christians that he is their one and only “father” because he brought them to birth in Christ Jesus through the Gospel, Paul draws the conclusion: “The picture is one of a father who has instructed his children in proper behavior by his own example. They are to be ‘like father, like children’.”13 By modeling their lives on Paul’s example and teaching, that is, his “ways in Christ,” the Corinthians will in fact be imitating Christ himself. Later in the same letter Paul says just that: “Be imitators of me, as I am of Christ” (1 Cor 11:1; cf. 1 Thess 1:6). Since he comes in the place of Paul, Timothy should be regarded by the Corinthians “as though Paul himself were present among them.”14 By helping the Corinthian community

12.Cf. J. A. Fitzmyer, First Corinthians, New Haven (Co), Yale University Press, 2008, 221-224. 13.G. D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 186. 14.G. D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 188. GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

to remember Paul’s “ways in Christ Jesus,” Timothy is entrusted with mediating among them nothing less than the imitation of Christ that they had seen modeled by Paul himself. This is a delicate and profound mission that goes to the heart of Christian existence. One can understand why in this context the apostle is not content to describe Timothy simply as “co- worker,” “brother” or “fellow servant/slave,” but characterizes him tenderly as “my beloved and faithful child.” Here “faithful” indicates that Timothy is worthy of the trust Paul places in him; Timothy displays the faithfulness God requires of his servants (cf. 1 Cor 4:2). It is as “son” that Paul represents Timothy when writing from jail to the Philippians – a letter to a third community that 6 fills out the apostle’s picture of Timothy: “I hope in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you soon, so that I may be cheered by news of you. I have no one else like him (isopsychos) who will be genuinely concerned for your welfare. All of them are seeking their own interests, not those of Jesus Christ. But Timothy’s worth you know, how like a son with a father he has served/slaved with me in the work of the gospel. I hope therefore to send him as soon as I see how things go with me, and I trust in the Lord that I will also come soon” (Phil 2:19-24). Here we have Paul’s fullest and finest tribute to Timothy. Timothy obviously is not to be aligned with those who “are seeking their own interests, not those of Jesus Christ.” Rather, he is “equal or like (isopsychos)” with Paul (and with the Philippians), someone who “sees things as I/we do.” More than simply being a “co-worker,” Timothy has served “like a son with his father.”15 The Christians of Philippi, evidently from previous contacts (cf. Acts 16), “know” his “worth.” His record and character are known to them. Moreover, he will be “genuinely concerned” for their “welfare.” He shares in what Paul calls elsewhere “my anxiety for all the Churches” (2 Cor 11:28). Since Timothy

15.Cf. J. Reumann, Philippians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, New Haven (Conn.), Yale University Press, 2008, 422. COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA

shows all these qualities, he is obviously the right person to be sent by the imprisoned apostle as his delegate or emissary to the community of Philippi. The seven authentic letters of Paul yield a picture of Timothy and his relationship with the apostle that models what should be expected from members of the Roman Curia in their relationship with the pope. In all that Paul says about Timothy, no hint of careerism comes through; Timothy is no church official “seeking his own interest,” anxiously planning for higher office. No faceless bureaucrat, he is widely known for having proclaimed the gospel in Corinth and having, “with and under” Paul, co-founded the local Church there. Other Christians, such as those who make up the communities in Rome, Thessalonica, Philippi or who are 7 associated with Philemon, have met Timothy or are at least aware of him. He is a missionary of proven worth, totally trusted by Paul as a “brother,” “son” and fellow “slave” of Jesus Christ, and a “faithful” servant of God, who sees things as Paul does and who helps Christians to model their lives on Paul’s teaching and example and so promotes the “imitation” of Christ himself. The regular descriptions of Timothy as Paul’s “traveling companion,” “envoy,” “delegate” or “representative” can mask the full of how Timothy “slaved” away with the apostle. Even the term “co-worker” fails to summarize all that Paul says about his experience of being on mission with Timothy. The full account of Timothy supplies a challenging narrative for those called to collaborate with the pope in the Roman Curia. This holds true also of Titus, especially in the area of handling money.

Titus as collaborator of Paul Gentile (“Greek”) by birth, Titus may have been converted and baptized by Paul himself. He joined the apostle on a visit to the Christian leaders and community in Jerusalem.16 Some Jewish Christians held that conversion to the practices of

16.Cf. J. L. Martyn, Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, New York, Doubleday, 1998, 187-228. GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

Judaism formed a precondition for entry into , and required the circumcision of Titus. This was a concession that Paul vigorously rejected. Titus provided Paul with a test case for accepting uncircumcised Gentiles into the Church and not imposing on them other such prescriptions of the . Peter, John and James (the relation of Jesus and not one of the Twelve) agreed with Paul continuing his mission among the uncircumcised Gentiles. They “asked only one thing,” that Paul “remember the poor” Christian community in Jerusalem – something that he was “eager to do” (Gal 2:1-10). In fact, he organized among the churches that he had founded a collection on behalf of the Church in Jerusalem – a project of financial assistance in which 8 Titus played a central role.17 Like Timothy and Silvanus (2 Cor 1:1,19), Titus was involved in Paul’s relations with the Christian community in Corinth. He probably carried there the apostle’s “letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:3-4; 7:8). He brought back to Paul, who had traveled to Macedonia (2 Cor 2:13), the news that this letter had been favorably received by the Corinthians: “God who consoles the downcast consoled us by the arrival of Titus, and not only by his coming, but also by the consolation with which he was consoled about you, as he told us of your longing, your mourning, your zeal for me, so that I rejoiced even more ” (2 Cor 7:6-7). Having already alerted the Corinthians to “the consolation with which he [Titus] was consoled about you,” Paul underlined the joy of Titus himself over the happy outcome of his mission that firmly reestablished the community’s obedience to Paul, the apostle who had founded their Church: “In addition to our own consolation, we rejoiced still more at the joy of Titus, because his mind has been set at rest by all of you. For if I have been

17.Barnabas joined Paul on that visit to Jerusalem and was obviously involved with him in the mission to the Gentiles (Gal 2:1, 9). When Paul confronted Peter in Antioch, he feared that Peter was leading Barnabas astray in compelling Gentile Christian to live like Jews (Gal 2:13). In another letter Paul refers to the way he and Barnabas did not press their right to be supported financially by the communities (1 Cor 9:6). Yet in the seven certainly authentic letters of Paul, he says little about Barnabas, a central figure in Acts 4-15, and never names him as his “co-worker.” COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA somewhat boastful about you to him, I was not disgraced. But just as everything we said to you was true, so our boasting to Titus has proved true as well. And his heart goes out all the more to you, as he remembers the obedience of all of you, and how you welcomed him with fear and trembling” (2 Cor 7:13-15). After helping to put things right in Corinth, Titus rejoiced to recall how things worked out in Corinth just as Paul had promised. At once we learn of Titus being pressed into service in another project. Paul appealed to the Corinthians to complete their contribution to a collection for the Christian community in Jerusalem, a collection intended not only to relieve its economic poverty but also to express the union between it and the relatively well-off and largely Gentile churches around the Mediterranean.18 Paul 9 had started this collection among other Churches and in Corinth (1 Cor 16:1-4; cf. Rom 15:25-27), and now wanted Titus to “complete this generous undertaking” among the Corinthians (2 Cor 8:6). The apostle was delighted at the spontaneous response of Titus, whom he called “my partner and co-worker in your service” (2 Cor 8:23): “thanks be to God who put in the heart of Titus the same eagerness for you that I have. For he not only accepted our appeal, but since he is more eager than ever he is going to you of his own accord” (2 Cor 8:16-17). Before 2 Corinthians ends, we learn that Paul had to answer charges that he and Titus had taken advantage of the community in Corinth to enrich themselves. Some Corinthians evidently accused Paul and Titus of skimming the collection funds, a charge that Paul vigorously denied (2 Cor 12:14-18). He mentions one or two anonymous “brothers” sent with Titus to Corinth, who could witness to the honesty of the proceedings (2 Cor 8:18, 22-23; 9:5; 12:18). At the risk of being anachronistic, one might see the accusations concerning the collection foreshadowing fictitious or well-founded accusations of financial wrongdoing involving members of the Roman Curia.

18.Cf. S. J. Joubert, “Collection, The,” in K. D. Sakenfeld (ed.), The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, vol. 1, Nashville, Abingdon, 2008, 698-699; K. F. Nickle, The Collection: A Study in Paul’s Strategy, London, SCM, 1966. GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

All in all, on his two visits Titus seems to have been involved both in resolving grave difficulties over Paul’s missionary activity (which provoked the apostle’s “letter of tears” to the Corinthian community) and in promoting the collection (which occasioned the charge of financial irregularities). Paul was obviously grateful for the generous and successful collaboration Titus offered on both occasions.19 Even though the apostle very likely never wrote these words, his sentiments were reflected when, according to the Letter to Titus, he called Titus a “loyal child in the faith” (Tit 1:4). Paul’s known, even widely known, regard for this collaborator helped provide plausibility for this letter encouraging Titus to complete a mission on the island of Crete (Tit 1:5).

10 Epaphroditus as collaborator of Paul It is only in Philippians 2:25-30 and 4:18 that Paul mentions Epaphroditus.20 He brought gifts to Paul from Philippi. When he returned, he was most likely the courier who carried Paul’s Letter to the Philippians. Those are the headlines; let us now see the small print. As regards the Philippians, Epaphroditus is their “messenger and minister.” For Paul, he is “my brother, co-worker and fellow soldier” and “minister (leitourgos) to my need” (Phil 2:25). Paul reaches for cultic language to describe the gifts that have come at the hands of this leitourgos: “I have received from Epaphroditus the gifts you sent, a fragrant offering, a acceptable and pleasing to God” (Phil 4:18). The apostle’s language about Epaphroditus being his “co- worker and fellow soldier” seems to imply more than someone arriving with gifts from a Christian community and then returning home with a letter for that community. But Paul offers no details about any ongoing collaboration that would clearly justify speaking about Epaphroditus as sharing with him the “work” and “battle” of missionary activity.

19.The two visits may have taken place in reverse order, with Titus first visiting Corinth to administer the collection for the Church in Jerusalem and returning later to negotiate a reconciliation between Paul and the Corinthians, who had come to doubt the apostle’s legitimacy and financial reliability. 20.Cf. J. Reumann, Philippians, 423-434, 438-439, 442-450, 666-670. COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA

Epaphroditus risked his life to visit Paul, fell ill and almost died. In describing what has happened, the apostle evokes his own feelings, as well as those of his visitor and his community: longing, distress, sorrow, eagerness, rejoicing and anxiety. “He has been longing for all of you, and has been distressed because you heard that he was ill. He was indeed so ill that he nearly died. But God had mercy on him, and not only on him but also on me, so that I would not have one sorrow after another. I am the more eager to send him, in order that you may rejoice at seeing him again, and that I may be less anxious. Welcome him then in the Lord with all joy, and honor such people, because he came close to death for the work of Christ, risking his life to make up for those services that you could not give me” (Phil 2:26-30). 11 To sum up, Epaphroditus symbolizes a wonderful blend of the material and the spiritual that collaboration with an apostolic leader could entail. He brings to Paul financial support, and then takes home to the community at Philippi an affectionate, very joyful and utterly Christ-centered letter.

Further collaborators of Paul Any list of Pauls’ “co-workers” should take in Phoebe, Prisca and Aquila, and Urbanus – all mentioned in the final chapter of Romans. Phoebe had brought Paul’s letter to the Christians of Rome.21 Paul spoke of Phoebe as “our sister” and “a deacon of the Church at Cenchreae.”22 The Cenchreae in question was a port serving the nearby city of Corinth, from which Paul wrote to the Roman Christians. As “our sister,” Phoebe was a fellow Christian of the Corinthian community with whom Paul was then staying. The apostle asked the Church of Rome to welcome and help her “in

21.On Phoebe, cf. B. Byrne, Romans, cit., 47-48; J.A. Fitzmyer, Romans, cit., 728-733; F. M. Gillman, “Phoebe,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, cit., vol. 5, 348-349. 22.Fitzmyer comments: “Diakonos may designate her generically as an ‘assistant’ or ‘minister’ in the church or specifically as a ‘deacon,’ a member of a special group in the church. There is no way of saying whether the term refers at this time to the diaconate, an ‘order’ which clearly emerged in the church by the time of ” (Romans, cit., 729). GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

whatever way she may require from you,” as “is fitting” for a fellow Christian, one of “the saints” (Rom 16:1-2). But Phoebe was not merely a Christian who acted as a courier for Paul. “She has been,” Paul wrote, “a patroness (prostatis) of many here and of myself too” (Rom 16:2). While many commentators have understood the title figuratively as helper or benefactor, Fitzmyer points out that, like the Latin patrona, it “denoted a person of prominence in the ancient Greco-Roman world.” So Paul was acknowledging “the public service that this prominent woman has given to many Christians at Cenchreae,” as a leader of their community. Fitzmyer comments: “she probably owned a house there and, as a wealthy, influential person involved in commerce, was in a 12 position to assist and other Christians who traveled to and from Corinth. We can only speculate about the kind of assistance she gave: hospitality? championing their cause before secular authorities? furnishing funds for journeys?” Paul also “acknowledges the debt he owes Phoebe. She perhaps played hostess to him when he visited Cenchreae at times during his three-month stay in Corinth.”23 Unlike Phoebe, who seems to have been a Gentile Christian, Prisca (sometimes called by the diminutive “Priscilla”) and Aquila were a Jewish-Christian couple who, around A.D. 49, had been banished from Rome, along with other Christians, by 24 an edict of the Emperor Claudius (Acts 18:2). They created a Church community in their home (1 Cor 16:19) and became “fellow workers” of Paul (Rom 16:3), sharing in his mission of evangelization either at Corinth (Acts 18:3) or at Ephesus (1 Cor 16:19; Acts 18:26). It is plausible to think with Fitzmyer that, when Nero permitted Jews (and Jewish Christians) to return to Rome, “it was Paul who urged them [Prisca and Aquila] to return to Rome as a ‘vanguard’ to assemble a and prepare for his arrival.” They were “undoubtedly Paul’s source of information about the contemporary situation in the Roman community.”25

23.J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans, cit., 731. 24.Peter Lampe, “Prisca,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, cit., vol. 5, 487-488. 25.J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans, cit., 735. COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA

As well as having been “co-workers,” Prisca and Aquila had “risked their necks” for Paul (Rom 16:4). Fitzmyer comments: “Paul gratefully recalls some intervention of Prisca and Aquila on his behalf which endangered them as well, either at Ephesus (perhaps at the riot of the silversmiths: Acts 19:23), or during some Ephesian imprisonment, to which Paul may refer in 1 Cor 15:32 and 2 Cor 1:8-9. They may have attempted to use some of the influence that their wealth and social position gave them.”26 In the course of his greetings to Roman Christians, Paul also saluted “Urbanus, our co-worker in Christ” (Rom 16:9) but added no details about the place and nature of their collaboration. When dealing with the rivalry that the ministry of Apollos had triggered in Corinth, Paul wrote: “We are God’s servants, working together” (1 Cor 3:9). Thus Urbanus 13 and Apollos belong with Timothy, Titus, Epaphroditus, Aquila and Clement among Paul’s treasured “co-workers.” But that group also included Phoebe and Prisca and, as we shall see, some other women. Two women leaders among the Christians of Philippi were Euodia and Syntyche.27 Paul recognized how these women “have struggled (sunēthlēsan) beside me in the work of the gospel, together with Clement and the rest of my co-workers” (Phil 4:2-3). This language recalls Paul’s earlier injunctions about “struggling (sunathlountes) side by side for the faith of the gospel,” not being “intimidated by your opponents,” and having the same struggle (agōna) that you saw I had and now hear that I have” (Phil 1:27-30). Some disagreement had broken out between Euodia and Syntyche, and was having a bad effect on the Church of Philippi and causing factions. Paul asked “my loyal companion,” an unknown but obviously influential person to mediate between the two women.28 But the current difficulty took nothing away

26.J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans, cit., 735. 27.Cf. F. M. Gillman, “Euodia,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2, 670-71; J. Gillman, “Syntyche,” ibid., vol. 6, 270; J. Reumann, Philippians…, cit., 607-11, 625-633. 28.The Greek word for “companion” could possibly be translated as a proper name, Syzygus. GERALD O’COLLINS, SJ

from Paul’s esteem for Euodia and Syntyche, his co-workers, “whose names are in the book of life” (Phil 4:3). In their closing greetings to Philemon, Paul and Timothy mention “co-workers” who also send greetings: Mark, Aristarchus, Demas and Luke (cf. Philemon 24; Col 4:10-14). But nothing further is indicated, at least here, about the collaboration of these four in the mission of the apostle (Philemon 24).

Conclusion From this examination of the seven certainly authentic letters of Paul, we can see how some of the collaborators were men and some were women; some were Gentile Christians (Titus) and some Jewish Christians (Prisca and Aquila); some were closely 14 associated for a long time with Paul’s ministry (Timothy), while with others (Urbanus) we have no idea of such details. How the collaborators were recruited to share in Paul’s mission remains, for the most part, obscure. Even in the case of Timothy, we do not learn from Paul himself but only from Acts 16:2-3 that the apostle chose Timothy because of his “ reputation.” Even then, we are not told what this reputation was based on. Nevertheless, Paul does let us see what these collaborators whom he called his “co-workers” did, and we can draw two conclusions about them. First, their mission covered a range of activities: from co-founding a Church (Timothy) to acting as couriers for Paul’s letters (Epaphroditus and Phoebe), from resolving difficulties for the apostle (Titus) to bringing him financial support (Epaphroditus), from being co-senders of Paul’s letters (Timothy) to making their home into a house church (Prisca and Aquila), from promoting among others the imitation of Paul, and so of Christ (Timothy) to fundraising for the Jerusalem church (Titus), from being a “patroness” of Paul and others (Phoebe) to “working for the gospel” (Euodia and Syntyche), from “risking their neck” for Paul (Prisca and Aquila) to bringing him good news (Titus); from fulfilling a local, residential ministry (Eudodia and Syntyche in Philippi, and Phoebe in Cenchreae) to being on the road as itinerant missionaries with Paul and for Paul (Timothy and Titus). COLLABORATORS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE REFORM OF THE ROMAN CURIA

The collaborators of Paul gave themselves to a variety of missions, working with the apostle who was to become in martyrdom the co-founder of the Church of Rome. They can be seen as prefiguring the many tasks given in our time to the members of the pope’s Curia. Second, for most of his “co-workers” Paul has nothing but praise. In the case of Euodia and Syntyche there are personal conflicts to be dealt with. Paul values them highly and has no doubts about inscribing them in God’s “book of life.” So we can recognize in the apostolic collaborators, whom Paul presents in his seven certainly authentic letters, an inspiring vision and model for reforming the Roman Curia.

15 After the Candlelight Revolution in South Korea

Seil Oh, SJ

The of Korea (South Korea) experienced a drastic change in the course of and after the Candlelight Revolution of 2017. Koreans, like many peoples in the world, have suffered tremendously from a brutal war and the division of the 16 country. They have held demonstrations in recent years to stop a corrupt government and reestablish the nation by lighting candles as a sign of hope and nonviolence. The South Korean National Assembly removed President Park Geun-hye from power, bringing an end to what has been rightly called the Candlelight Revolution. It had begun quietly on October 29, 2016. For six weeks, by candlelight, South Koreans descended into the public squares as the sun set each Saturday evening. Up to 2 million people gathered. The new government, in power since May 2017, is strongly supported by the people’s desire for social justice. It has faced up to the reform of chronic social diseases, including the imprisonment of the two latest presidents1 and the creation of new solutions for geopolitical and diplomatic problems. Nonetheless, on the Korean Peninsula justice cannot kiss peace (in the words of Psalm 85:11) without the tensions stemming from the South-North division of the country after World War II being resolved. The Korean Catholic Church has faithfully prayed and endeavored to witness to the possibility of the treasured kiss.

1.On April 6 the former president of South Korea was declared guilty of abuse of power and coercion. She was sentenced to 24 years in prison. AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA

Two faces of modern South Korea: development and long- accumulated ills South Korea established high-speed economic development and industrialization through the so-called “ on the Han River” in the ashes and ruins after the Korean War (1950-1953) and went on to achieve political democratization with the 1987 National Referendum. It enhanced its national status by holding the 1988 Seoul Olympics, co-hosting the 2002 Korea-Japan World Cup, and recently hosting the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics. Though the nation has proudly joined the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, or OECD, as a developed country, it has suffered seriously from decline in the quality of life, marked by ever-increasing social polarization and the highest suicide rate among OECD nations. In a nutshell, 17 like light and shadow, the outer development and the inner troubles in Korean society reflect divisions within this society. Armed with ideologies centered on national security and economic growth, conservative groups have been strongly anti- communist and pro-United States, while progressive groups aim at enhancing human rights, social justice and peace. How will these two faces of Korean society develop? Let us approach this question by examining the nation’s socio- historical stages. At the first stage, Koreans could not face up to the task of historical reflection on the scars of the people left by the Japanese Occupation of 1910-1945 or demand the punishment of collaborators. In September 1948, the National Assembly initiated a Special Committee for Prosecution of Anti-National Offenders and set out to bring to justice the “pro-Japanese traitors” who assisted the Japanese colonial empire and persecuted national liberation activists. In June 1949, however, the first president, Syngman Rhee, forcibly dissolved the committee, set the pro-Japanese collaborators free, praised them as “Anti- Communists,” and regarded them as his political allies. As the Cold War continued after the division of the Korean Peninsula following the Korean War (1950-1953), the pro-Japanese forces maintained their vested rights as elite groups in the South on the strength of their anti-communism. Thus, from the beginning SEIL OH, SJ

of the Republic of Korea, the realization of social justice and democracy was endangered by the governing politicians, who took advantage of the South-North divide. At the second stage, dictatorial military regimes from 1961 to 1992 justified the exploitation of the marginalized (farmers, laborers, the urban poor) and ignored their basic human rights as they drove a top-down totalitarian process of industrialization, relying on chaebols, that is, huge conglomerates. Freedom of the press and speech were suppressed in the name of anti- communism and opposition to pro-North Korean ideology. Critical voices were suppressed by governmental reinforcement of the ethos of a free market economy, expressed in slogans such as “Growth prior to distribution” and “Only when companies 18 survive does the nation survive.” In 1998, moreover, the Korean economy began to receive the supervision of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the neoliberal free-market systems that the IMF backed have painfully changed the Korean economic structure and led to ever-increasing polarization. The participatory governments (1998-2008) of Presidents Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun, the first two presidents in Korean history from the Democratic Party, were able to overcome the surveillance of the IMF, but they failed to secure the promised “continuous economic stability and development” of the global neo-liberal economic system. On a positive note, however, those two presidents respectively visited North Korea for summits with Kim Jong-il, the father of the current leader Kim Jong-un and they succeeded in dialogues for collaboration between the two Koreas in a mood of reconciliation and peace. At the third and present stage (2008-2017), there have been neo-liberal and conservative governments. During the presidency of President Lee Myung-bak (2008-2013) came the Korea-USA Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the “Four River Reconstruction Project,” which caused great damage to the lives of the people and the environment but brought huge benefits to some entrepreneurs and politicians. Under the administration of the most recent former president, Park Guen-hye, the collusion of politics and business and problems of behind-the-door activities became more and more intense. Many have observed AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA how, pursuing private benefits, these governments failed to support social justice and peace and escalated the tensions between the two Koreas. Now the two former presidents Lee and Park are imprisoned.

The Candlelight Revolution and the impeachment of former president Park President Park Geun-hye (hereafter Park), the eldest daughter of the late President Park Chung-hee (1963- 1979) who achieved power in a military coup in 1961, was inaugurated on February 25, 2013, with the honor of being the first woman president in South Korea. Ever since her election, however, there was continuous disorder and division in Korea’s national administration. Although she initially received 19 popular support and sympathy thanks to the aura of her late father, who led the economic development of Korea, in the wake of the disclosure of the so-called “Park & Choi Gate,”2 she had to give way to the large protest movement across the country. Because of civil solidarity and the aspirations of the Candlelight Rallies that had been going on every weekend for over six months, the impeachment of Park was passed in the National Assembly on December 9, 2016 (234 for, 56 against); and it was unanimously approved by the Constitutional Court on March 10, 2017. Subsequently, special prosecutors are involved in an ongoing investigation of Park & Choi Gate and Samsung’s illicit practices.

2.The exclusive news report from JTBC, a cable television channel, on Choi Soon-sil’s tablet computer became a clear trigger to demonstrating the incompetence and irresponsibility of Park to the people. Choi is a controversial figure. She is the daughter of the founder of a religious with a strong influence over President Park. In Choi’s computer, there was not only a large portion of her corrected versions of Park’s public addresses, but also numerous traces of national administrative monopolization in accepting illegal monetary sponsorship from conglomerate corporations and in establishing privately owned organizations with the support of the government. With the exposure of Samsung’s $3 million support for riding horses for Choi’s daughter Chung Yoo- and of Chung’s Ewha Womans University college entrance scandal, the blazing fury of the people found expression in the Candlelight Rallies. Journalist Marcellino Shon Suk-hee, the president of the JTBC, was awarded the grand prize for Catholic mass communication on May 30, 2017. SEIL OH, SJ

The biggest problem of Park’s government lay in the avoidance of public accountability, that is, of the responsibility to explain specific problems or issues that came to light in the public sphere. For example, Park’s government did not take responsibility with regard to the Sewol Ferry Disaster of April 16, 2014, in which 304 citizens, mostly school pupils, drowned. While the ferry was sinking, Park was absent for more than seven hours, a fact she kept as a national secret. On the contrary, when Pope Francis visited Korea in August 2014, he met and consoled the bereaved families of that disaster, saying, “There is no neutrality in the face of human suffering.”3 The 2017 Candlelight Rallies started as national gatherings, with candles lit in the dark to manifest nonviolent 20 resistance to Park, and they evolved into cultural demonstrations, peacefully lifting high the longings of common citizens like the smoke of incense. The rallies sprang initially from an incident which poured oil on citizens’ fiery aspirations for political change. Against the opposition of his bereaved family, the police had tried to control the findings of an autopsy of the body of Immanuel Baek Nam-ki, head of the Association of Catholic Farmers, who was in a vegetative state and near-death coma for 10 months after being injured by police water cannons in November 2015. The hospital recorded the cause of his death as disease, not external causes. Religious organizations and citizens at large strongly opposed the government’s mobilization of police to manipulate an autopsy pointing to the cause of his death as disease. The government and police blamed Baek himself for his death.4 The mass Candlelight Rallies began in the wake of Baek’s funeral on November 5, 2016. Anyone could participate with a lit candle to express their ardent yearnings for a “better nation” and “new order” in which the people are truly the nation.

3.Cf. A. Spadaro, “Il viaggio di papa Francesco nella Repubblica di Corea: Custodia, empatia, consolazione,” in Civ. Catt. 2014 III 403-418. 4.The episode reminds us of the biblical incident in which King Ahab and his wife Jezebel took the land of Naboth, killed him and then tried to justify his death (1 Kings 21:1-10). AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA

The Candlelight Rallies were held at Kwangwhamun Plaza, downtown Seoul, and in major cities nationwide for six months from October 19 to April 29 every Saturday, a total of 24 rallies. At the sixth Candlelight Rally on December 3, 2016, just before the passing of the resolution of impeachment by the National Assembly, about 1.7 million people in Seoul and 2.3 million nationwide gathered together. Although the Flag Rallies, the counterprotests of conservative groups, were backed up by the government, which reflected the division in civil society, the great majority of South Koreans supported the Candlelight Rallies.5 There is no denying the fact that the rallies brought about the institutional political outcome, though the impeachment itself was the work of the National Assembly and Constitutional Court. From the perspective of the history of world social movements, 21 there are many extraordinary moments in the development of the Candlelight Rallies. The most outstanding is that civil society groups ran these “peace rallies” during a struggle of more than six months. At the beginning, there were a few violent attempts of angry people to break through the police barricades by climbing on the buses of the police who tried to block marches after the official rallies. However, a majority of the citizens continuously called out “peace, peace, peace,” exhorting the people to stage peaceful demonstrations; and they saw to it that there were no casualties and injuries involving both the citizens and the police due to violent confrontations. Later, as an expression of resistance to the police, people plastered posters on the sides of their buses; but conscientious citizens voluntarily removed them so as not to hurt the innocent young police officers’ sensibilities. Many young families with children participated at the living historical sites of the rallies as if enjoying a festival. They earnestly strove for peaceful demonstrations as a lesson for their children. In addition, at 11 p.m. when a rally was coming to a

5.Conservative groups have accused the organizers of the Candlelight demonstrations of attempting to harm national security and produce and spread “fake news,” such as the claim that JTBC invented the contents on Choi’s tablet computer. In the midst of their demonstration against Park’s impeachment on March 10, 2017, several citizens were killed. SEIL OH, SJ

close, middle and high school students and numerous citizens showed sympathy for the clean-up workers by collecting trash and putting it in plastic bags. Moreover, although participants marched nearer to the Blue House (the presidential residence) as the national rage against the political monopolization was getting more furious, no single violent accident occurred. Citizens’ voluntary three-minute speech relays were held continually on the “podium for free speech” at the Seoul Gwanghwamun Plaza and shopping throughout the country. Through the whole process, the earnest aspiration for democracy and the level of political of the citizens of the Republic of Korea have been greatly enhanced. Through the collective conscience of the citizenry at the rally sites, “bottom- 22 up participatory democracy” was being formed; and it came to have a strong influence in the institutional political realm. The burning flames enkindled by the citizens’ nonviolent rallies in the end realized a lawful and peaceful turnover of political power. Their six-month-long mass gatherings in the harsh winter of 2016-2017 opened a new era. The democratization which had achieved the direct presidential voting system three decades earlier in 1987 encountered a crisis of democracy owing to the limits of the representative governmental system, the collusion between political and economic forces, and years of accumulated corruption. The Candlelight Revolution stood as a declaration of “the people’s sovereignty of the nation.” It awakened the power of the people as a political agent and accomplished a bottom-up democracy based on the citizens’ solidarity and strong longing for a righteous nation. The presidential impeachment and the process of electing a new president stood as a way to fulfill people’s deep and ardent desires for justice and democracy, which was confirmed by the lawful authority of the legislature and judiciary.

On a new journey of national integration and peace The newly elected President Moon Jae-in is a well-prepared . He served as chief of the secretariat to the 16th president Roh Moo-hyun and committed himself to politics after Roh’s suicide in 2009. After Moon’s defeat in the 18th AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA presidential election in 2012, he participated in the tearful hunger strike of the bereaved families of the Sewol Ferry tragedy for 10 days in 2014, joined the Candlelight Revolution and has gone on to rebuild the movement for reform and trust in the Democratic Party. Moon, a devout Catholic, was elected as president on May 10, 2017, with 41 percent of the total vote, and his approval rating has risen to over 80 percent.6 The president is striving to reestablish the foundation of the nation in many areas through reforms of the police, the press, education and conglomerates and – for the protection of the environment and people’s safety – to maintain firm control over a variety of development plans, including nuclear plant projects. Currently, however, South Korea has a whole stack of 23 challenges inside and outside. Like other nations, it faces economic instability due to international financial fluctuations. Not only the owner of Samsung, but also former president Lee Myong-bak have been under legal investigation for fraud and bribery; and no solution has yet been found for the layoff of non-permanent workers in the labor markets. In particular, South Korea is experiencing both the external pressure of the global neo-liberal capitalist markets and the threat to security emerging from the Cold War confrontation between the North and South of Korea. Nonetheless, despite all the problems and challenges, South Korea has strenuously tried to find a way to national and international integration; and successfully hosted the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics.

6.This is thanks to his affable and informal personality and non- authoritarian style. For instance, President Moon approached without hesitation and warmly hugged a young woman who read a letter expressing sorrow for the loss of her father during the Gwangju Democratic Movement of 1980. This sight gave great consolation to the hearts of the people. For her part, as the First Lady was about to move into the Blue House, she embraced a weeping woman asking for help with her civil petitions, invited the woman into the presidential mansion, and served her instant noodles. The spontaneous, natural and humble attitudes of the President and First Lady are welcomed as examples of the kind of “humane leader” for whom the people long. On September 19, 2017, President Moon was awarded the “World Citizen Prize” by the Atlantic Council of America for arousing citizen consciousness and developing democracy with the Candlelight Revolution. SEIL OH, SJ

The conundrum of peace in the Korean Peninsula Let us now turn to the relationship between the two Koreas, South and North. All Koreans know that there is no justice without peace on the Korean Peninsula, where geo-political tensions accelerated in 2017. Though North Korea acceded to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) banning the spread of nuclear weapons in 1985, it announced its withdrawal and endeavored to develop nuclear weapons7 already in 1993; and most clearly in the past year, it has continued to develop nuclear weapons despite the unanimous opposition of all the neighboring countries. North Korea’s announcement that they succeeded in the sixth nuclear test of an Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) in September 2017 shocked South 24 Korea, Japan, the U.S., China, Russia and other nations. The war of words between the leader of North Korea, Kim Jong- un, and U.S. President Donald Trump has increased anxiety about national security and the possibility of impending war.8 The United States has held the military operational control authority over South Korean Forces since the Korean War, and the South Korean government, under political pressure from the U.S., built and occupied a naval base on Jeju Island from 2007- 2016 and deployed the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system in the country in 2016 in line with the its geo- political strategies against China in alliance with Japan. With his strong emphasis on protecting the domestic economy, moreover, President Trump has put pressure on the Korean economy by enforcing special tariffs on some Korean and re-negotiating the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between the two countries. At the same time, South Korea has faced a harsh backlash in the form of shadow boycotts from China in that country’s efforts to cancel the deployment of THAAD. In sum, the United States and China have been pushing South Korea into a corner. In order to overcome current political uncertainties, however, President Moon successfully resumed dialogue with North

7.Cf. A. Macchi, “Il ritiro della Corea del Nord dal trattato di non proliferazione nucleare,” in Civ. Catt. 2003 I 337-344. 8.Cf. G. Sale, “North Korea and the nuclear crisis” in Civ. Catt. English ed. Jan. 2018 pp. 63-78. AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA

Korea. In January of this year, South and North Korean deputies forged agreements about peaceful co-participation in the Winter Olympic Games, which led Pope Francis to say that the traditional Olympic truce takes on a particular significance as a sign of hope for a “world in which conflicts can be peacefully resolved through dialogue and mutual respect.”9 The North Korean leader’s younger sister, Kim Yo-jung, who attended the games, gave South Koreans a very positive impression by her admirable behavior; and North Korean athletes, cheerleaders and singers warmed people’s cold-hearted sensibilities toward North Korea. It was a clever maneuver that won popular support. The combined entrance of athletes from the North and South at the opening ceremony and the presence of the unified Korean ice hockey team ignited the flame of reunification in 25 Koreans’ hearts, and the reconciliatory atmosphere paved the way for a new summit between the leaders of the two Koreas in late April of this year. Koreans eagerly awaited that summit, and the decision to hold it has triggered the possibility for another extraordinary meeting, that between Kim Jong-un and Donald Trump. Of course, each leader has his own interest in the summits for his political and economic agenda. Kim Jong-un is, no doubt, trying to reduce economic sanctions and pressures; but it is yet far from clear whether the summits can lead to nuclear disarmament on his part. South Koreans are deeply concerned about how President Moon can assure the sovereignty of the nation so that world powers cannot violate peace on the peninsula.10

The public role of the Korean Catholic Church In all of this the Catholic Church has played a significant role. It sprang up in Korea in 1784 but went through 100 years of persecution. During the colonial period of Japanese occupation in the first half of the 20th century, the Church’s authority decreased

9.Cf. Philippa Hitchen, “Pope says Korea’s Winter Olympics offer hope for peace,” February 7, 2018, at www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2018-02/pope- audience-peace-korea-winter-olympics.html. 10.Cf. A. Spadaro, “Korea’s Present and Future: Interview with Archbishop Hyginus Kim Hee-joong” in Civ. Catt. English ed. Dec. 2017 pp. 78-89. SEIL OH, SJ

due to the influence of some foreign missionaries, including an Apostolic Vicar who single-mindedly maintained the separation of religion and politics and thereby opposed Korea’s independence movements in order to protect the Church. In the past half century, however, the Church’s prestige has substantially increased with the rising public confidence in Church leaders. The Catholic population currently stands at about 8 percent of the total population,11 but public trust in the Catholic Church is reported as being the highest among all the in the nation.12 The Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Korea (CBCK) and the Committee of Justice and Peace in each diocese have continually delivered the social messages of the Gospel during the turbulent times of 26 national governmental chaos. In particular, during the nationwide democratic struggle in 1987, the Korean Catholic Church made a historic contribution. Cardinal Kim Soo-hwan (Archbishop of Seoul from 1969-1998) was a leading symbolic figure resisting the dictatorial regime, and Myeong-dong Cathedral acquired the name, “Holy Site of Democratization.” The Catholic Priests Association for Justice (CPAJ) also played a noteworthy role. In 1987 it demanded the abolition of the dictatorial protection of indirect presidential election, revealed the death by police torture of a university student, Park Jong-cheol, and rekindled the dying embers of democratic struggle. It has gone on to criticize the nation’s totalitarianism, militarism and unfettered market economy, and it has taken the initiative on many social

11.According to the census of 2015, the religious population of Korea is as follows: Protestants 19.7 percent, Buddhists 15.5 percent, Roman Catholics 7.9 percent, no religion 56.1 percent. The ratio of Korean Catholics showed a slight decrease from 10.8 percent in 2005. For a discussion of the Church crises and pastoral reflections in the post-secular context, cf. Seil Oh, “The Crisis of Korean Catholic Church in the Post-Secular Society: In the Light of the Legitimacy Crisis,” in Catholic Theology and Thought 76 (2015) 83-113. 12.As a result of the 2017 poll conducted by the Christian Ethics Movement of Korea, the Korean citizens’ most trusted religion is Catholicism (32.9 percent), (22.1 percent) and (18.9 percent). Cf. Christian Ethics Movement of Korea, “Result of the Poll of the Social Trust in the Korean Church,” 2017. AFTER THE CANDLELIGHT REVOLUTION IN SOUTH KOREA issues, including opposition to the Korean-American military pact and the construction of the naval base on Jeju Island, as well as strong support for environmental movements. In 2014 and 2015 the Catholic Church carried out its vital social role by continually holding candle-lit supporting bereaved families of the Sewol Ferry Disaster and offering street Masses to reveal the truth of that tragedy and the death of the farming leader Immanuel Baek Nam-ki. In 2017, moreover, through the spearheading efforts of the CPAJ, along with the Coalition of Religious Orders and Lay Social Activist Federation, the Church made lasting contributions to the Candlelight Revolution. The division of South and North Korea, initially enforced by Russia and the United States in 1948 and consolidated 27 after the Korean War, has still influenced overall aspects of the Church and South Korean society. The division comes to the fore in civil society in the progressive forces of the Candlelight Rallies and the conservative forces of the Flag Rallies. The Korean Catholic Church needs to further guide people into integrative ways in which justice can kiss peace.

*** During his visit to Korea in August 2014, Pope Francis offered the following prayer: “Let us pray, then, for the emergence of new opportunities for dialogue, encounter and the resolution of differences, for continued generosity in providing humanitarian assistance to those in need, and for an ever greater recognition that all Koreans are brothers and sisters, members of one family, one people.”13 All Koreans, in both the South and the North, hope that the pope’s prayer will be realized in the near future.

13.Francis, Homily during the Mass for Peace and Reconciliation, in the Cathedral of Myeong-dong in Seoul, August 18, 2014, in w2.vatican.va/content/ francesco/en/homilies/2014/documents/papa-francesco_20140818_corea- omelia-pace-riconciliazione.html; Cf. A. Spadaro, “Il viaggio di papa Francesco in Corea: Custodia, empatia, consolazione,” in Civ. Catt. 2014 III 403-418. Laudato Si’ and Ethical Business Management in Africa

François Pazisnewende Kaboré, SJ

Introduction The last two decades have seen the emergence of new nongovernmental transnational entities that substantially influence the life of African nations. For this reason, the current 28 president of the African Union (AU), Alpha Condé, strongly affirmed that Africa’s problems are primarily due to external influences.1 The impact that companies have on the environment falls within the field of corporate social responsibility (CSR), understood and experienced as all that they do, beyond what is strictly legal, for the good of the various parties involved. If CSR is applied on a voluntary basis, is it possible to leave the destiny of our African “common home”2 to discretionary will, especially considering the fact that some companies have an economic power that surpasses that of entire nations? Given the advanced state of environmental degradation,3 particularly in West Africa, and the recommendations in the encyclical Laudato Si’ (LS) on “the care for our common home,” should not companies consider CSR to be an obligation of social accountability? This reflection, divided into three points, demonstrates that Laudato Si’ provides a solid foundation for greater corporate responsibility and more ethical management of activities

1.Cf. C. Balde, “Tous les problèmes de l’Afrique viennent des ingérences extérieures,” in Vision Guinee.info, July 14, 2017, http://www.visionguinee. info/2017/07/14/alpha-conde-tous-les-problemes-de-lafrique-viennent-des- ingerences-exterieures. 2.An expression used in Laudato Si’ by Pope Francis to indicate the land, environment and entire ecosystem. 3.In 2015 the pope instituted, together with the Orthodox Church, the “World Day of Prayer for Creation,” which is celebrated on September 1. LAUDATO SI’ AND ETHICAL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA in Africa.4 The first point will define the challenges and the urgency of ethical business management in Africa. The second point will show how Laudato Si’ can be a true compass for integral ecology. Finally, the third point will indicate the reasons for taking seriously the implications of the encyclical to transform social responsibility into an obligation for businesses to be socially accountable.

Environmental degradation and ethical business management challenges in Africa According to data from the Ivorian Ministry for the Environment and Sustainable Development, the surface area covered by forests in Ivory Coast went from 16 million hectares in 1900 to 9 million in 1975, with a loss of 65 percent between 29 1960 and 2014.5 In a recent report, the NGO Mighty Earth also accuses businesses involved in the chocolate trade of buying cacao coming from protected forests, and the director of the Forest Development Society (Sodefor) confirms that 40 percent of Ivorian cacao comes from protected areas.6 Unfortunately, the environment in Central Africa does not seem to be any more protected than that of West Africa. According to the 2000 Global Forest Watch Report on the situation in the Central African forests, the forested area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and of Cameroon are expected to go from 108.3 million hectares to 60,000 hectares and from 19.6 million hectares to around 100,000 hectares, respectively, by 2025. Of the forest concessions in the Cameroon, almost a third

4.For a more economic approach to corporate social responsibility, cf. F. Kaboré, Responsabilité sociétale des entreprises et management éthique en Afrique: Prolégomènes, implications et implémentations, Abidjan, CERAP, 2017. 5.Law No. 2014-427, from July 14, 2014, of the Forestry Code strengthens law No. 65-255, from August 4, 1965, related to the protection of fauna and hunting practices, and law No. 65-425, from December 20, 1965, concerning the Forestry Code. 6.“Cacao ivoirien: une ONG accuse les grands groupes de favoriser la déforestation,” in Jeune Afrique, September 13, 2017, www.jeuneafrique. com/474040/societe/cacao-ivoirien-une-ong-accuse-les-grands-groupes-de- favoriser-la-deforestation. FRANÇOIS PAZISNEWENDE KABORÉ, SJ

(31 percent) is in the hands of only three French multinationals: Thanry, Bolloré and Coron. Among the “wounds” inflicted upon the environment are not only deforestation, but also soil degradation and pollution, especially since the rehabilitation of mining sites is rare. The same phenomenon can be seen in Burkina Faso, with the cultivation of genetically modified cotton, which was done in collaboration with the American company Monsanto. The low productivity, the reduced length of the cotton fiber and the consequences of intensive pesticide use on farmers’ health, in addition to their regular indebtedness for the seasonal genetically modified seed purchase, have led to a suspension of this experiment on the part of the new government of the 30 country’s president, Roch Marc Christian Kaboré. With regard to pollution caused by mining activity, the Burkinabé government recognizes that “mining […] contributes to environmental degradation. We can foresee a drastic increase in environmental pollution due to the use of products such as mercury or cyanide; an increase in the exploitation of water as a result of excessive pumping by the mining companies; the covering-up of some waterways; deforestation, accompanied in some cases by the devastation of protected areas; the degradation of soil and the destruction of fauna and flora.”7 Given environmental destruction, the dismantling of methods of production for the populations, forced migration and tensions between animal breeders and farmers that result from this, the distribution of contractual power is not always favorable to public authorities. This obviously poses ethical problems in the management of the companies. A common denominator between ethics and morality lies in the fact that ethics refers to individual actions in view of the good, and therefore is rooted in morality, which is an entire system of values into which the individual is inserted. What then is meant by “ethical management”? If the company is conceived

7.Ministry of the Economy and Finances, “La place des ressources minières dans l’économie du Burkina Faso,” July 2013. LAUDATO SI’ AND ETHICAL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA of as an instrument that combines factors of production aimed at making a profit, ethical management defines the conditions for making a profit. In other words, ethical management calls for discernment so that both the pursuit of profit and the promotion of human dignity are at the center of the company’s activity. The result is the necessity to harmonize human rationality, social rationality and the environment with the rationality of 8 homo oeconomicus (the economic person). As a result of this brief conceptual clarification, and given the state of substantial degradation of the environment, what is the primary challenge for ethical management? As a result of independence, nation states in Africa enjoy a certain legitimacy, at least in law. The fact is, however, that this seems to have changed with the emergence of multinational 31 companies as transnational actors. With economic liberalism and the programs for structural adjustment supported by the Breton Woods institutions (World Bank and International Monetary Fund) in West Africa, governments have largely withdrawn from vital sectors (water, electricity, telecommunication, etc.) to the benefit of a private sector primarily dominated by multinational companies whose economic power can overshadow the capacity of a country to be the guarantor of the common good. The asymmetry of economic power between the multinational companies and African nation states is clear if we compare the revenue of some companies with the public spending by the countries of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). The 2016 net revenue for Bolloré, one of the smallest companies involved in UEMOA, exceeded the total amount of public expenditure for Togo, the country with the lowest level of expenditure. The 2016 revenue of the most powerful company, Apple, was 46 times the expenditure of the UEMOA country with the largest economy, Ivory Coast, and 342 times the total public spending of the country with the smallest economy, Togo.

8.Cf. F. Kaboré, “Ndomba, éthique et RSE,” in Ibid., Responsabilité sociétale des entreprises…, cit., 68-89. FRANÇOIS PAZISNEWENDE KABORÉ, SJ

If we consider, however, that all of the UEMOA countries consistently accumulate deficits,9 the imbalance would be even more pronounced if the comparisons were made with revenue, rather than with expenses. As was clearly highlighted by Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum, consent alone is not enough to make a contract fair. The imbalance in the ability to negotiate contracts between certain countries and companies led the World Bank to launch a project to strengthen the legal capacities of the countries and to support the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative.10 Even the Church could make its own contribution so that the future of entire nations is not left to private companies alone, which in themselves are born to defend private interests. 32 Laudato Si’: a manifesto on integral ecology in Africa The encyclical Laudato Si’ forms a part of the great tradition of the Church, in particular that of the pastoral constitution Gaudium et Spes (GS), which invites the Church to align itself with “the joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the people of today” (GS 1). Fundamentally, the injuries inflicted upon “our common home,” the environment, are the result of exploitative structures (macroeconomic), but they also take root in human hearts (microeconomic foundations). On the macroeconomic level, the ascendancy of the economic sphere in African politics – consider, among other things, the imbalance of economic power, which has already been discussed – favors environmental degradation. Elsewhere, the subjugation of politics to technology and finances is manifested in the failure of world summits on the environment.11 Laudato Si’ denounces the “throwaway culture” that comes from a consumerist society.12 “We note that often the businesses which operate this way are multinationals. They do here what

9.The deficit from a country’s annual budget is the negative difference between its income and expenses. The country’s debit is the accumulated sum of its deficits in a given period. 10.Cf. “Who we are,” EITI, https://eiti.org/who-we-are. 11.Cf. LS 54. 12.Cf. LS 22. LAUDATO SI’ AND ETHICAL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA they would never do in developed countries” (LS 51). This is how in 2006, with the so-called “Trafigura Case,” thousands of people died because tons of toxic industrial waste were transported by sea to the Ivory Coast. As environmental, human and ethical degradation are intimately linked to each other, it is important to begin with human behavior. At the microeconomic level, the human person, as an economic actor, acts to preserve his or her own interests. Smith believed that the way to better defend the collective interest is also through the defense of individual interest, hence his theory of the “invisible hand”: “It is certainly not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our lunch, but from the fact that they care for their 13 interests.” From Pope Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum to more 33 recent official documents, the Church has always defended private property but has also clearly stated the fact that God gave the earth for all humankind to use, notwithstanding the legitimacy of private property.14 Is it not, perhaps, a highly ethical act to choose to buy or not buy goods and services from a company that uses child labor, that takes advantage of an unstable socio-political situation to exploit mines15 and that pays its employees less than a dignified salary? “Inasmuch as we all generate small ecological damage” (LS 8), we are called to recognize our share of responsibility – large or small – in the disfigurement and destruction of creation. If there is no such interior change on an individual level, the solutions to environmental problems will have effects on symptoms rather than on the causes, particularly in Africa, where the management of emergencies can prevail over a more proactive and radical approach toward the challenges of the continent. The Catholic Church, through its hierarchy, has always looked at the sufferings, the joys and the pains of the African people. Thus, the apostolic exhortation Ecclesia in Africa and the post-synodal

13.A. Smith, Indagine sulla natura e le cause della ricchezza delle nazioni, Milan, Isedi, 1973, 18. 14.Cf. Leo XIII, Encyclical Rerum Novarum, No. 7. 15.The film Blood Diamond, set in West Africa (Sierra Leone and Liberia), reflects this situation. FRANÇOIS PAZISNEWENDE KABORÉ, SJ

exhortation Africae Munus speak of the Church in Africa “at the service of reconciliation, justice and peace.” These exhortations contribute to strengthening in Africa a Church-family reconciled with itself, with its environment, with its diverse nations and with the rest of the world. Is this not what Pope Francis is inviting? “A precious treasure is to be found in the soul of Africa, where I perceive a ‘spiritual lung for a humanity that appears to be in a crisis of faith and hope,’ on account of the extraordinary human and spiritual riches of its children, its variegated cultures, its soil and sub-soil of abundant resources.”16 The last General Assembly of the Symposium of Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar (SECAM), held in Luanda (Angola) in 2016, had as a theme, “The family in 34 Africa, yesterday, today and tomorrow, in the light of the Gospel.” This concern is also shared with the various Episcopal Conferences of West and Central Africa. For example, the 11th Plenary Assembly of the Association of Episcopal Conferences of the Central African Region (ACERAC), which took place in July 2017 in Yaoundé, Cameroon, focused on the theme of and interreligious dialogue. The encyclical Laudato Si’ constitutes an opportunity for the African Church because it invites her to look not only at the immediate socio-political problems of insecurity and instability, but also, and above all, at the environmental and economic problems which, in respect to socio-political problems, are sometimes only secondary phenomena. Following the publication of the Brundtland Report,17 sustainable development has been understood as development that allows the needs of the current generation to be met without compromising the ability of future generations to satisfy their own needs. In light of the demands of Gaudium et Spes and Laudato Si’, should not the ethical responsibility of a company be expressed in terms of an obligation for corporate social accounting?

16.Cf. Benedict XVI, Apostolic Exhortation Africae Munus, No. 13. 17.Cf. World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Com- mon Future, 1987. LAUDATO SI’ AND ETHICAL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA

From social responsibility to the obligation of social accountability According to Gaudium et Spes, “economic development must remain under human determination and must not be left to the judgment of a few people or groups possessing too much economic power or of the political community alone or of certain more powerful nations” (GS 65). For this to become effective, the responsibility of companies must be understood at the individual and collective levels. In light of the signs of the times,18 what is the role of business managers? The debates on CSR could make one think that the action of the company is to be found only at the supra-individual level. However, this comes from the decisions of people who have an ethical conscience and act under the responsibility of a manager who is accountable to a decision- 35 making body. The transition from social responsibility to the obligation of social reporting for companies, therefore, presupposes an awareness from every manager of being the only person responsible – if not before people, at least before one’s own conscience – for the impact of a company on nature and the environment. In the encyclical Veritatis Splendor, John Paul II correctly described the conscience as an inviolable “sanctuary” of the person. Gaudium et Spes also invites the laity to participate in development work, because “it is generally the function of their well-formed Christian conscience to see that the divine law is inscribed in the life of the earthly city” (GS 43). From this derives, for the Church, the duty to educate all people of goodwill so that, while encouraging technology, innovation and entrepreneurial spirit, all of this human energy is directed toward the service of the person. Taking seriously the analysis of Laudato Si’ on the degradation of our “common home” and the implications of the Church’s social teachings should lead to a more ethical business management in which profit is not the only criterion for evaluation. What would a business be, then, if private property were not ? The enterprise could be conceived as an entity that

18.Cf. GS 4. FRANÇOIS PAZISNEWENDE KABORÉ, SJ

connects production factors (capital, labor, land, technology) for obtaining benefits, while preserving the environment as a common good. Such a definition of the company internalizes the potential negative consequences of the company itself, so that it cannot produce lasting negative effects on the environment without having first assessed whether or not they should be remedied. From the point of view of economic theory, the objective of the company should be the maximization of its particular interest under the constraint of the common or universal interest. In other words, the common interest must be placed first. Instead of defining CSR as everything that the company commits itself to doing beyond what is strictly legal, 36 responsibility could be divided into two parts: one mandatory and one discretionary. The mandatory part corresponds to what the company must necessarily do to protect the environment; the discretionary part corresponds to what the company intends to undertake after having satisfied the mandatory part. From this perspective, what is needed, as suggested by Hurstel,19 is a legal framework that puts economic activity back at the service of the human person who seeks to grow in relationship with others (present and future) and with respect for nature.

Conclusion: ecological transition and integral ecology The level of degradation of the human environment in Africa is quite worrying and originates from agricultural, mining and industrial exploitation. Behavioral change is needed to achieve sustainable and inclusive development that enables today’s Africans to meet their needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. In this regard, in anticipation of recent models of analysis from interested parties, Gaudium et Spes has already called for company management that takes into account all interested parties. Or rather, it launched an appeal in these terms:

19.Cf. D. Hurstel, “Organiser la société commerciale à partir du projet d’entreprise plutôt qu’à partir du profit,” in G. Giraud – C. Renouard (eds.), Vingt propositions pour réformer le capitalisme, Paris, Flammarion, 2009, 45-60. LAUDATO SI’ AND ETHICAL BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA

“Developing nations […] should bear in mind that progress arises and grows above all out of the labor and genius of the nations themselves because it has to be based, not only on foreign aid, but especially on the full utilization of their own resources, and on the development of their own culture and traditions. Those who exert the greatest influence on others should be outstanding in this respect” (GS 86). These changes on the systemic (macroeconomic) level would lead companies to transform their social responsibility into a social reporting obligation. In fact, companies can sometimes be holders of colossal economic means that place them above sovereign nations. However, the conditio sine qua non of this macroeconomic transformation lies in the very concept of private property and of the individual’s ethical behavior as 37 an economic actor. This is why Laudato Si’ invites us to a true metanoia, a conversion of the heart. The Church in Africa and all people of goodwill have an urgent role to play in view of the reconciliation of the person not only with themselves, with our peers and with God, but also with the environment. It is on this basis that a more ethical business management and an obligation of social accountability will emerge for the benefit of integral development for the people of Africa. Putin and the Beginnings of the Ukrainian Crisis

Giovanni Sale, SJ

Vladimir Putin: between nationalism and an economic crisis Following Russia’s Syrian campaign in support of the government in Damascus and after the Sochi summit on November 22, 2017, that was defined by some as the “Middle 38 Eastern Yalta,”1 Russian President Vladimir Putin is seen as one of the most important and influential world leaders, on whom depends much of the future of the . At home, Putin has continued to maintain a high satisfaction rating in public opinion polls, having reached the maximum consensus following the occupation of Crimea. In fact, according to a 2016 survey conducted by the Levada Center – the only independent research institute in Russia – he enjoyed

1.Russia hosted a summit at Sochi in November 2017 attended by the Turkish president, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, and the Iranian head of government, Hassan Rouhani. Putin was more than just the summit’s host looking for solutions to the difficult “Syrian crisis,” a concern shared by his new allies in the fight against . Two days previously in Sochi, Putin had met Bashar al-Assad to deal with the Syrian problem (cf. G. Agliastro, “Vertice sulla Siria dei capi di Stato di Turchia, Russia, Iran: Putin guida Yalta del Medio Oriente,” in La Stampa, November 22, 2017, at http://archivio.lastampa.it/articolo?id=1b9478eb3ee2d91 177b02b33cd19411506cac294&dal). In fact, he proposed dividing the country into different zones of influence: Shiite-Alawi, Sunni, Kurdish, along with a safe zone along the Israeli border. It seems that this solution, which received support from the international community, including the United States and China, would profoundly change the balance of power throughout the region. The Sochi Peace Conference of January 30, 2018, organized by Putin to stem the war in Syria failed to deliver because the Syrian and most of the anti- Assad opposition did not participate. Cf. G. Sale, “La Turchia e le enclave curde in Siria,” in Civ. Catt. 2018 I 476-490. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS the support of 82 percent of Russian citizens. Today, according to the most recent polls, this percentage is lower, but nonetheless still notable.2 The recent presidential elections (March 18, 2018) strategically took place to coincide with the fourth anniversary of the annexation of Crimea. The confirmation of Putin’s fourth term as leader was “almost plebiscitary” (76.7 percent), an unprecedented, victorious achievement (in 2012, Putin received 63.6 percent of the votes).3 Even voter turnout was higher than in previous elections (67 percent),4 although his historical opponent, Alexei Navalny, whom Russian judges had prevented from running in presidential elections, conducted a campaign to young voters to boycott the election. In addition, the narrative of a Russia surrounded by external 39 enemies, that is, by some Western countries like the United States, France and the United Kingdom, was further favored by the most recent diplomatic clash with the British Prime Minister. In fact, Theresa May directly accused Putin of being the instigator of the attempted murder (poisoning with the Novichok nerve agent) of a former spy and his daughter in Salisbury. Even this fact, which was heavily condemned by numerous governments around the world, was cleverly exploited by propaganda, and may have contributed to Putin’s sensational victory. In actual fact, before the elections, Putin’s problem was not that of winning, but rather of “how to win without exaggerating” in order to avoid suspicions of fraud at the presidential elections, a pointless risk, given his foreseeable

2.In view of the forthcoming presidential elections, Putin announced he would be standing as an independent candidate, thus distancing himself from the United Russia Party, which was not enjoying a good reputation among the electorate, especially among young voters, due to various scandals. During his campaign, moreover, he took a hard line against his opponents, in particular against “the oligarchs who fish golden fish in a sort of swamp as they did in the nineties.” Cf. F. Dragosei, “Putin,” in Corriere della Sera, December 15, 2017. 3.Putin will remain in office until 2024, unless there are future renewals: a possibility, which for the moment he has excluded. Cf. Ibid., “Vittoria larga e facile per Putin: ‘Siamo condannati al successo,’” March 19, 2018. 4.In the 2012 elections the turnout was 65.3 percent. Cf. Ibid. GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

success.5 According to some analysts, the immense popularity of the president, in addition to the results garnered at the international level, is due to the control exercised against every form of opposition. Despite the economic difficulties the country is experiencing, partially because of sanctions introduced (and recently further exacerbated) by the US and the EU, Putin is considered by the majority of Russians as the one who is able to guarantee a certain economic stability to the country. “The high degree of consensus for Putin’s policies is based,” according to the director of the Levada Center, sociologist Lev Gudkov, “in addition to the current wave of patriotic-military enthusiasm, on the lack of alternatives and on some illusions.”6 Among Russians, the scholar observes, 40 there is the conviction that their president will continue to guarantee the people their current level of well-being. From a political point of view, however, the limitations imposed by the Russian leadership on the freedoms of individuals and social groups should not be underestimated. In fact, commencing in 2012, Putin imposed limits on both the freedom of the press and the right to express political dissent. Furthermore, in 2016 he created the National Federation Guard (Rosgvardia), a police force under his direct control which has the task of repressing all forms of opposition.7 Apparently, however, these critical elements did not bring much influence to bear on the presidential vote. It should be remembered that the present Russian economic situation is anything but thriving, even if the president, at the end of year press conference (December 14, 2017), declared that “by now the worst is over” and that inflation in the next year

5.Seven other political figures, from both the extreme right and the extreme left, participated in the elections. In fact, they achieved a very modest result; only Pavel Grudinin, the new face of the Communist Party, achieved a double-digit result (12 percent). According to some commentators, they had the function of giving to the elections a “semblance of democracy.” Indeed, some of them were suspected of being “candidates of convenience” chosen by Putin himself. 6.D. Welle, “La farsa della democrazia nel regno di Putin,” in Internazionale, March 16, 2018, 24. 7.Cf. D. Welle, “La farsa della democrazia nel regno di Putin,” cit. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS will fall to 2.2 percent and GDP rise by 1.6 percent.8 But certain important factors continue to hinder the economic recovery of the country. Among them, we highlight here the persistence of economic sanctions imposed mainly by the US and the EU initially in relation to the annexation of Crimea (March 18, 2014), the collapse of the price of oil on the international market, and the recent military spending on the war in Syria. According to the International Monetary Fund, the Russian GDP has gone from US$2.2 trillion in 2013 to US$1.2 trillion last year, which has seen the country drop to eighth place on the league table of the global economic powers, behind Italy, Spain and South Korea. In short, Russia is a giant with feet of clay, whose economic power, as well as its military power, according to statesman Henry Kissinger, has always been overestimated for 41 political reasons. It should, however, be remembered that in March 2017 Russia was hit by a wave of youth protests, triggered by lawyer and activist Alexei Navalny. The young demonstrated in many places, in a peaceful manner, against the corruption of the government and its administration.9 This indicates that in Russia a new generation is developing – one that has grown up on social networks – that does not feel fully represented by Putin. They probably deserted the ballot boxes.10 How can the phenomenon of Putin’s popularity in his country be explained? In fact, despite the economic difficulties mentioned above, Russians continue to believe in him and to elect him as their head of state. According to analysts, this support has increased by a third since the annexation of Crimea, which is when the economic crisis was felt most severely. “We Russians are worse off than before, but that does not mean that we are so badly off,” one of the president’s many supporters

8.Putin went on to say that from 2000 to the present “GDP has risen by 75 percent.” It is a pity that the young, he continued, who are the substantial part of the opposition, do not remember “the tormented nineties.” G. Agliastro, “Mosca, show di Putin a reti unificate,” in La Stampa, December 15, 2017. 9.Cf. O. Kashin, “La nuova primavera del dissenso,” in Internazionale, March 31, 2017, 20. 10.Cf. V. Pachkov, “Le elezioni presidenziali in Russia,” in Civ. Catt. 2018 I 246-255. GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

replied to a Western journalist. “Putin gave the Russians their self-confidence back. We are a great and strong country.”11 Following the collapse of the USSR, and after the humiliations suffered in the past by Russia, Putin has been able togive back to his country a sense of pride in being a great nation. This patriotic feeling reached its peak with the annexation of Crimea, considered by Russians as an integral part of the nation. Furthermore, Russia’s reappearance in the international political arena – for example, in the Middle East and Syria – after years of absence and exclusion, is considered by the Russians to be just and proper. People’s lives may also be miserable, “but the important thing is that Russia will return to being a respected, or even better, feared nation.”12 42 It is worthwhile to retrace the events that pushed Putin to pursue the annexation of Crimea. These events were intertwined with complex geopolitical and geostrategic issues – in particular, with increasingly tense relations between the EU and Russia – and, ultimately, with the so-called “second revolution” in Kiev whose outcome is not yet completely resolved.

The “second revolution” in Ukraine Following the Orange Revolution in 2004 led by pasionaria Yulia Tymoshenko, the “second revolution” of Ukraine, also called Euromaidan, broke out in 2013. This revolution occurred when negotiations concluded between the Ukrainian government and the European Union concerning the signing of a trade association agreement aimed at creating a free trade area between Brussels and Kiev. The signing of the treaty was scheduled for the end of November, but the Ukrainian pro- Russian president, Viktor Yanukovych, initially favorable to the agreement, eventually decided to postpone it. He changed his mind after a meeting with Putin on November 9, 2013, at the Moscow military airport. This change, however, cannot be attributed solely to the “convincing arguments” and opportunity to choose an alternative direction, which the Russian President

11.M. Sundeen, “Perché tutti amano Putin,” in Internazionale, September 16, 2016, 38. 12.Ibid., 39. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS was able to present to his interlocutor, but also the serious economic crisis facing Viktor Yanukovych’s government, in part due to widespread corruption and poor governance. This shift thrust the political opposition and the pro-Western forces that supported the EU agreement into a state of frenzy, and they set about pressuring the government to sign the agreement. So thousands of people were mobilized and for weeks they occupied Independence Square (Maidan), in the center of Kiev, as had happened on other important occasions. As an alternative to the EU agreement, the Ukrainian government, in part following a suggestion from Putin, proposed the establishment of a commission formed by the EU, Ukraine and Russia to discuss shared economic issues and create a sort of single Euro-Asian market that would be beneficial to all the 43 participant countries. However, Brussels rejected the proposal. Putin, meanwhile, was committed to creating a customs union – Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) – between Russia and some former members of the USSR, such as and Kazakhstan, and wanted Ukraine, which was its largest trade partner in the region, to be part of it.13 The EEU, which would have been founded the following year, was modeled in part on the European Union and would have favored exchanges, the movement of people, goods and financial capital among the member countries. According to Sergio Romano, the EEU also had a very significant political purpose, that of “creating a Eurasian space, which would have had more or less the dimensions of the USSR.” With its participation, Ukraine, according to Putin, would have convinced other countries in the region to enter the Union; its absence, on the other hand, would “have gifted to the EU, and sooner or later also to NATO, a Slavic country that was linked to Russia by historical and religious bonds.”14 Ukraine was too fragile to be an independent country and, abandoned to its fate, would have ended up in the orbit of Poland and the United States. Putin could not in any way permit this, and so to prevent it he was even willing to resort to force.

13.Cf. S. Romano, Putin e la ricostruzione della grande Russia, Milan, Longanesi, 2016, 117. 14.Ibid. GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

According to the opposition parties, the signing of the agreement would have brought Ukraine closer to Europe and would have given new strength to the weak national economy, which had been undergoing a recession for years and was close to bankruptcy. For them, Europe represented a dream of social well-being. Meanwhile, police attacks on protesters in Independence Square had the effect of exacerbating the clash between the rebels – who were determined to go ahead with violence – and the government. The square was controlled by a sort of well-organized and efficient “revolutionary garrison,” which ensured that the demonstrators’ pressure was continuous and did not give any truce to the government. Thanks to a sophisticated logistics system, many buses transported new 44 demonstrators every day from the western provinces (those who were more hostile to the current Government) to the capital. For the EU and the United States it was important that Ukraine – considered a “buffer” state between Russia, the EU and the NATO zone – was strategically controlled by Brussels rather than by Moscow. In a major publication in 1997, political scientist Zbigniew Brzezinsky (the national security advisor for US President Jimmy Carter) wrote that Ukraine was the geopolitical hinge of the region, “in the sense that its very existence as an independent state contributed to the transformation of Russia. Without Ukraine, this would have ceased to be a Eurasian empire,”15 something that Putin wanted to ward off. But this meant that the so-called “border country” was forced to choose between the two contenders, that is, between two different zones of political-military influence: either to take refuge under the protective umbrella of Russia, or to shelter itself under NATO.16

Ukraine between Europe and Russia A European Union summit, held in Prague on May 7, 2009, had set the basic criteria of the EU’s policy toward the Eastern countries. On that occasion, an ambitious program was drawn

15.Z. Brzezinsky, La grande scacchiera. Il mondo e la politica nell’era della supremazia americana, Milan, Longanesi, 1998, 71. 16.Cf. Ibid., 66. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS up, titled “Eastern Partnership,” which was intended to help the former Soviet republics to progress on the path to democracy, freedom and economic well-being, without excluding their future entry into the EU. Adhering to this program would have led to a substantial alignment of those countries with EU directives in both economic and political matters, a fact which presupposed their distancing themselves from Moscow. In fact, the European Union, above all following the conflict in Georgia (August 2008), took steps to enter into an agreement with Ukraine, because it considered the country strategically more important than any other country from the former Soviet Union. The two parties decided to define their collaboration by signing the “association agreement” that envisaged a sort of partnership between Kiev and Brussels in various sectors. 45 Alternatively, or rather, in opposition to the Brussels project, Putin proposed to the former Soviet countries the creation of a “customs-commercial union” formed by the new EEU and the EU. These, in turn, on an equal footing, would have established the rules of the common market together, valid for an economic area that would have extended from Vladivostok to Lisbon. This project was presented by Putin in Berlin, in November 2009, to German entrepreneurs, but without finding the desired consensus. According to the Russian president, both sides would benefit from such an agreement.17 President Yanukovych, until November 2013, continued negotiations with both Brussels and Moscow to evaluate the most advantageous proposal for his country. The EU offered economic aid amounting to US$700 million to Ukraine in exchange for signing the “association agreement,” a large sum, but insufficient to settle the enormous debt accumulated by the country over the years. In fact, in the following months, Ukraine would have to repay approximately US$17.5 billion to creditors, and the monetary reserves were almost exhausted. The International Monetary Fund was willing to grant credit to Ukraine, but under the same conditions as those for Greece: cutting state subsidies, increasing the tax burden, depreciating

17.Cf. H. Seipel, Putin. Ora parla lui, Milan, Piemme, 2017, 228. GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

the local currency. For Yanukovych, these were unacceptable conditions. From a political point of view, the adoption of such restrictive measures would certainly have undermined his prospects in the 2015 elections. The EU, among other conditions, also included complete respect for human rights by the public authority, and in particular the immediate release of former Ukrainian Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko. This heroine of the Orange Revolution and bitter enemy of the current president was sentenced to seven years in prison for embezzlement of public funds. The Europeans, on the other hand, by adopting the cause of the opposition, considered these accusations to be groundless and dictated only by motivations of a political nature. 46 In the end, to fill the empty State coffers and for “national security reasons,” Yanukovych postponed the signing of the “association agreement” and accepted Putin’s generous offer, which included the payment of US$15 billion and a 30-percent discount on gas. For its part, Ukraine pledged to establish closer trade relations with Russia, so as to “make the internal market ready for an equal relationship on a par with the European one,” which was the goal that Putin intended to achieve with the aforementioned customs union.18 Over the coming weeks the protests in Independence Square became increasingly heated.19 The uprising was led by some opposition parties and the bellicose right-wing nationalist party, Pravyi Sektor (Right Sector), who responded violently to the police and riot police attacks. On February 18, when the police tried to evacuate Maidan Square, the clash between demonstrators and police became more violent; urban warfare ensued when the protesters, led by the ultra-nationalists, set off to storm the Parliament building.20 This led to many victims, with 18 dead, seven of them policemen. When news spread that the government had given orders to clear Independence Square and forcibly eliminate the leaders,

18.Cf. Ibid., 236. 19.Cf. “Gli scontri di Kiev,” in il Post, February 18, 2014, at https://www. ilpost.it/2014/02/18/live-proteste-kiev-ucraina/. 20.Cf. G. Sangiuliano, Putin. Vita di uno zar, Milan, Mondadori, 2015. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS the tension increased, causing more casualties on both sides. The events of Maidan Square, as expected, were read and evaluated by foreign offices and the press in different ways. For some (especially for Putin’s allies), it was an insurrection organized by extreme right-wing groups to overthrow a government legitimately elected by the Ukrainians; for others (above all the European press), it was a people’s struggle to reestablish democracy and respect for human rights in Ukraine, trampled on by a president who was subservient to Russia. On the morning of February 20, in fact, some unidentified snipers fired into the crowd, killing more than 70 people and injuring around a hundred. Among the victims were both demonstrators and police officers on duty. Whose orders were the snipers following? To this day this has yet to be clarified.21 47 To avoid a civil war, French President François Hollande and German Chancellor Angela Merkel contacted Putin by telephone, in order to offer themselves as mediators between the warring parties, and to help restore order as soon as possible. During the night of February 20, an agreement was signed between the opposition and the government, with the mediation of foreign ministers from Germany, France, Poland and Russia. It required that President Yanukovych resign as soon as possible and that new elections be called by December 2014. In addition, in the coming days, a transitional government would have to be formed. When two members of the opposition who had participated in the negotiations went on stage to announce the outcome, they were greeted with whistles and insults, because of their dealings with the “tyrant.” At that moment the nationalist leader Volodymyr Parasyuk – head of a militant group of former soldiers, founded in recent weeks by the Council of Euromaidan, the movement that arose from the protests of Independence Square – took the floor

21.Cf. M. Eckel, “Kiev snipers: Who was behind them?” in The Christian Science Monitor, March 8, 2014, www.csmonitor.com. It should not be forgotten that the interpretation of the February 20, 2014, events is very controversial. An investigation by the Ukrainian general procurator is underway to identify who was responsible. There are also suggestions about the responsibility of the State Police. GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

and said: “I speak on behalf of my group. If by tomorrow at 10 a.m. it is not confirmed that Yanukovych has resigned, with our weapons we will set off a fire storm. It is a promise.” During the night of February 21, President Yanukovych fled to Moscow and sought shelter and protection from Putin. The following day, the self-defense units of Euromaidan leader Andrei Parubiy occupied the historic center of Kiev and all the centers of power, demanding the resignation of the president. Immediately afterward, the majority of Ukrainian parliamentary deputies (328 of 450 total), gathered for an extraordinary session and voted in favor of his dismissal. The evening before, Tymoshenko, who had just been released from prison, announced her willingness to stand for election as president. 48 Putin considered Western powers to be responsible for the coup d’état; after all, it was they who would have favored, and perhaps even orchestrated, a regime change in Kiev following the “tearing up” of the agreement reached the night before between all sides. According to the Russian president, Europe should in any case have distanced itself from the revolt and the new political leadership, thereby delegitimizing it, but this had not happened. For Putin, the coup d’état in Ukraine represented the crossing of the so-called “red line,” long established by the Kremlin. In this regard, the president recalled how the US and nongovernment organizations had fomented popular dissatisfaction in countries such as Georgia and Ukraine to favor a change of regime with an anti-Russian orientation.22 From the beginning of his presidency, Putin has reminded Western governments of the agreement reached between the EU and Russia following the fall of the Berlin Wall, which stipulated that NATO would not seek to extend its influence beyond the member countries of the Union. This is a reassurance that has been reiterated in various circumstances and that was one of the conditions set by the former Soviet Union for German reunification.23 Another of Putin’s contentions with Western governments – in particular with the United States – concerned the anti-missile

22.Cf. H. Seipel, Putin. Ora parla lui, cit., 254. 23.Cf. Ibid. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS shield installed in Europe. According to NATO leaders, it was directed against Iran. From Putin’s perspective, however, it was primarily a threat to his country, since the missiles positioned in Romania and Poland could reach Russian targets within minutes. Moscow’s heated rants against what had happened in Kiev and Putin’s assurances that Russian-speaking citizens would not be abandoned to an uncertain destiny provided the backdrop to the preparations for the annexation of Crimea and the resistance to the Kiev coup d’état from some parts of the Donbass region, the land of origin of the removed president that is traditionally linked to Russia.

The annexation of Crimea to Russia The relationship between Ukraine and Russia became even 49 tenser when the newly formed government abrogated the law on linguistic minorities that had been approved in 2012 by the previous executive. The law stated that if a language was spoken by at least 10 percent of a region’s population it could become an official language. Crimea’s population is composed of more than 50 percent Russian native speakers, hence Russian had become the official language; however, with the provisions included in the new law, it would have been considered just a local language.24 The abrogation of the law officially started the protest. In fact, it seems that Putin had already decided to proceed with the annexation of Crimea at an emergency meeting, convened during the night of February 22. The meeting was attended by the heads of Russian Special Forces and the Minister of Defense, and he announced his decision “to save the life of the Ukrainian president” and “to bring Crimea back to Russia.”25 In fact, in 1954, Crimea was “donated” by Russian President Nikita Khrushchev

24.Cf. S. Romano, Putin e la ricostruzione della grande Russia, cit., 123. 25.Cf. “Vladimir Putin aveva deciso di annettere la Crimea già a febbraio del 2014,” in Internationale, March 9, 2015, https://www.internazionale.it/ notizie/2015/03/09/vladimir-putin-aveva-deciso-di-annettere-la-crimea- gia-a-febbraio-del-2014. According to news published by the Ministry of the Interior of the Russian Federation, the Russian general consulate in Simferopol (Crimea) had already begun issuing Russian passports to members of the Berkut, i.e., the Ukraine special police corps on February 28, 2014. In short, Russia had GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

to Ukraine, to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav between the Ukrainian Cossacks and Russia.26 Disputed between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire for two centuries, this small peninsula is strategically and militarily very important for Russia. Crimea contains the Sevastopol naval base, which is rented to Moscow until 2042, as well as a series of barracks and important military posts. The locality of the base allows the Russian fleet to reach the Mediterranean, the Balkans and the Middle East, in particular Tartus, in Syria, quickly. Sevastopol is Russia’s only warm water base, and the only naval base in Russia’s possession outside its own territory. After these events, the State Council of Crimea set March 50 16, 2014, as the date for a referendum on the annexation of the peninsula to Russia. According to the organizers of the electoral consultation, more than 97 percent of the voters (about a million and a half people) voted in favor.27 The United States and the European powers protested against the violation of Ukraine’s sovereignty and the provisions of the 1994 Budapest Memorandum, by which Russia had pledged not to violate the territorial integrity of the former Soviet Republic. To these objections, Putin replied that the measures taken by his government were entirely reasonable in light of the recent events in Kiev. To Obama’s request not to proceed with the annexation of Crimea, which would have had serious consequences in terms of international law, Putin replied: “The vote was lawful; it was supervised by international observers and hundreds of journalists – even Americans – who were present there, and who were able to wander freely at the polling stations.” And to reassure the US president, he added: “However, there will not be any other annexations, and above all I undertake to deal with Ukraine and to calm the situation.”28

begun large-scale preparations for the issuing of Russian passports two weeks before the referendum. 26.Crimea had been part of the Russian Empire since the time of Catherine II (1783). 27.Cf. G. Sangiuliano, Putin. Vita di uno zar, cit., 255. 28.Ibid., 256. PUTIN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE UKRAINIAN CRISIS

On March 18, 2014, in the Kremlin, Putin ratified the annexation of Crimea to Russia. On March 27, the UN General Assembly, with resolution number 68/262, condemned Russia’s move and rejected the validity of the referendum on March 16. The international community, in particular the EU, immediately applied the threatened economic sanctions, which were subsequently exacerbated by the situation in the Donbass. These were measures that the Russian president had already foreseen, yet judging by economic indicators, they have been effective. In fact, in recent years these sanctions have contributed to the sharp slowdown of the Russian economy, which now also has to cope with the fall in oil prices and the devaluation of the ruble.29

The beginning of the conflict in the Donbass 51 In the Donbass, located in eastern Ukraine, the Donesk, the Luhansk and the Kharkiv regions, the struggle between pro-Russian independence fighters and pro-government forces continued. The Kiev government accused Putin of fomenting the conflict, which had already claimed several thousand victims, and of supplying arms to the rebels. Putin reiterated that he would not abandon the Russians in Ukraine, or those who lived in other countries. The Russians who fought alongside the independence fighters did not wear military uniforms and told the Western observers that they were volunteers. Putin declared that he was in favor of finding a negotiated solution between the parties in order to end the war. Representatives from Ukraine, Russia, the separatist movement, and delegates from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe met in Minsk, the capital of Belarus, to discuss an agreement. The protocol signed by the participants on September 5, 2014, was rather pretentious and established the core elements of a process aimed at bringing peace to the region. It contained 13 points that included, among other things, a ceasefire, an exchange of prisoners, the recognition of the special status of the Donesk and Luhansk regions, and the

29.Cf. G. Cuscito, “Putin, la Russia e la Crimea un anno dopo l’annessione,” in Limes, March 19, 2015, www.limesonline.com/putin-la-russia-e-la-crimea- un-anno-dopolannessione/76470. GIOVANNI SALE, SJ

agreement to remove heavy weapons from the front line. The tripartite Commission then continued to work on the protocol without reaching an actual agreement. In February 2015, once again in Minsk, the talks resumed, with Germany and France acting as mediators. The points discussed were still those from the earlier protocol. All this happened while the conflict continued and the number of casualties, unfortunately, rose. Putin sent a very clear message to the European powers and to the United States: he would never accept Ukraine’s entry into the political zone of the European Union and that it would be defended from NATO’s protective umbrella. Meanwhile, many voices from the international community have repeatedly said that peace can be achieved 52 only by respecting the rights of the populations involved and international law. Some Aspects of Christian Salvation: Reflections on the Letter Placuit Deo

José Luis Narvaja, SJ

On February 22, 2018, the prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Archbishop Luis Ladaria, published the letter Placuit Deo (PD) on some aspects of Christian salvation. It is addressed to the bishops of the Catholic Church.1 This letter was made all the more important by the subsequent 53 publication on April 9, 2018, of the third apostolic exhortation of Pope Francis, titled Gaudete et Exsultate (GE), on the theme of “holiness in the world today.” In the second chapter of the exhortation, he treats two dangerous ideologies: Gnosticism and Pelagianism (Nos. 35-62). The letter, which we will present here briefly, treats some contemporary conceptions of salvation that have some similarities with these two errors from antiquity.

A dialogue between God and humankind Starting with Vatican II, the letter reminds the reader that the teaching on salvation must continually be deepened (cf. PD 1). Salvation is made possible thanks to an encounter between humanity and God and this encounter occurs each time we open ourselves to God and allow ourselves to be transformed by God. This is not only an event that took place 2,000 years ago, something that belongs exclusively to history; rather, this is a reality that occurs here and now, because the Word of God is “living and active” (Heb 4:12), reaching out to all men and women, to the ends of the earth and until the end of time.

1.It is important to note that the letter is addressed to bishops. This influences the language used and it allows Archbishop Ladaria to make implicit theological allusions that are obvious to bishops and to those with a theological formation. JOSÉ LUIS NARVAJA, SJ

In this context, we can note that the deepening of the understanding of the mystery of salvation is clearly presented in two ways in the letter. The first is the effort to describe humanity today in the concrete situation in which people live. The second is found in the use of Sacred Scripture, in constant references to the revealed Word. This takes place because human life is constructed in dialogue with God and only in listening to this Word can we deepen our understanding of the mystery of the salvation that encompasses our entire lives.

Two aspects of popular culture today The letter presents itself as underlining some aspects of the 54 salvation that men and women – those for whom salvation is intended – can have difficulty understanding because of recent cultural changes. To this end, Archbishop Ladaria proposes that we consider those aspects of today’s culture that can lead us to an erroneous understanding of salvation. In other words, cultural transformations create a conceptual framework that can impede a correct comprehension of the mystery of salvation and, consequently, it can be the case that we seek to encounter the God of our salvation in a merely partial way. The experiences of our culture to which the letter draws attention are, principally, two. It is obvious that the letter is speaking in generalities. It is not possible to include the entire world in a uniform way, in a single cultural matrix. Nevertheless, the letter deals with tendencies and thoughts that are widespread enough to allow for some generalizations. In a society where there is a sincere and appreciable interest in reflection, contemplation and contact with the transcendent following different methods and traditions, we experience a separation between these important forms of interior research and the relationship between the person and the exterior world. Men and women recognize that those times when we can meditate, reflect and pray are an oasis in lives marked by the speed and multiplicity of information, activities and duties. And yet, this interior life does not have an impact on the world. REFLECTIONS ON THE LETTER ‘PLACUIT DEO’

On the other hand, it is true that in all societies – from one end of the world to the other – we see many signs of generosity, solidarity and a struggle for common ideals. But, in other ways, men and women find it difficult to grow professionally: obtaining a position that allows one to achieve a better-than- average life requires a consistent effort in which one hours of recreation, sleep and interpersonal interactions. The letter Placuit Deo takes up these two aspects of contemporary experience and expresses the concern that, beginning with these tensions, people can develop two erroneous ideas about salvation. One is based on those spiritual experiences where we find peace in a turbulent world, a world over which, however, we have no direct or concrete influence. The other stems from the exhausting race to be competitive in a limited 55 job market. These are the repercussions that contemporary culture can have on the ideas of salvation in the minds of men and women of our day.

The whole of the human person, all men and women The letter recognizes that these two possible conceptions of salvation have some similarities with two errors from the past: Gnosticism and Pelagianism. It clarifies that these terms are helpful in describing the current situation of men and women who are always and repeatedly called to salvation (cf. PD 3). In order to understand what it is the letter wants to tell us by referring to these two errors, we do not need to enter into the history of the controversies nor do we need to analyze the arguments used in those ancient debates. It is enough to note that both trends proposed a clear division between the world and the spirit: Gnosticism proposed a spirit without the world and Pelagianism a world without the spirit. Specifically, Gnosticism proposed that one could be saved by being concerned only about the spiritual, without worrying about material things, without taking into account the body. Pelagianism, on the other hand, proposed a salvation of humankind to be obtained by a difficult path, through and the search for the perfection of self, without taking into consideration the action of the Spirit of God and the gracious gift of salvation. JOSÉ LUIS NARVAJA, SJ

In this brief description of the ancient trends mentioned in Placuit Deo, we can discover the relationship with the cultural aspects we described above, and the central concern that animates the entire letter: the idea of an individualistic and partial salvation, as if only one part of us were to be saved, as if men and women could be saved by their own efforts alone. The exhortation Gaudete et Exsultate takes up this same problem, but from a different perspective. It shows how, when men and women have a partial or individualistic view of salvation, the logical consequence is that they conform their lives to this conception of salvation. Abstract models of holiness come from this, models based on intellectualism or the self-sufficiency that 56 Pope Francis decries.

Salvation in Jesus Christ After having described contemporary culture and the impact that it can have on the idea of salvation – unilateral, partial and individualistic – the letter recalls that the aspirations of men and women and their desire for salvation “can be fulfilled completely only if God himself makes it possible, by drawing us toward himself” (PD 6) and that “the good news of salvation has a name and a face: Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior” (PD 8). The salvation of humanity resides in a person, Jesus Christ, in whom God has sealed a new and has fulfilled all of the promises of the . It is Jesus Christ who frees us from and death and makes us sons and daughters of God (cf. PD 9). In Jesus Christ, true God and true man, the tensions that divide God and humankind are resolved. In men and women there is not one part that is more divine than the rest; all of humanity was created by God, and God calls to salvation the totality of each person. We should not think that in the history of humanity there are times in which God does not seek out women and men to offer them the gift of salvation and to bring it about that the salvation offered is realized. The letter Placuit Deo affirms that the person of Jesus, the Son of God made man, “bears witness to the absolute primacy of REFLECTIONS ON THE LETTER ‘PLACUIT DEO’ the gratuitous action of God” (PD 9). God does not take the initiative only because he is the first to desire this encounter with humankind, but also because he continues, consistently and insistently, to seek out men and women, and he never ceases to offer them the means and the graces necessary to encounter him. Faced with this God who precedes us, the proper attitude is that of “humility in receiving the gifts of God,” recognizing that they are gifts that he gives to us graciously, “prior to all our works.” Immediately afterward, the letter states that this is “essential in order for us to be able to respond to his salvific love” because the humility to recognize ourselves as recipients of a gift supplants the self-satisfaction of those who give importance to their own achievements. 57 On the other hand, the interior attitude of humility necessarily affects the way in which we live in the world. The person of Jesus, God and man, reminds us that “the Father wanted to renew our actions, so that, conformed to Christ, we are able to fulfill ‘the good works that God has prepared in advance, that we should live in them’ (Eph 2:10)” (PD 9). Therefore, it is in Christ that humanity finds salvation. In fact, it is God who offers us his work of salvation and itis always he who invites us to be more like him, to become one with him.

The body: reality and concreteness of salvation The key to understanding and realizing the mystery of salvation is found in Jesus Christ, God and man. Jesus is the God who became incarnate in order to be close to us. God took the initiative to come toward us in this way, as a man. At the same time, he is the God who calls us to come to meet him, so that we, for our part, draw close to him (cf. Luke 10:36) not only with our hearts but “with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind” (Luke 10:27). In this encounter between the God who became flesh and the flesh that is called to be like God is found salvation. This consists neither in abstract ideas nor in the efficaciousness of our actions, but in the encounter with Christ. JOSÉ LUIS NARVAJA, SJ

Therefore, the letter speaks of the concreteness of this encounter in the body, in both the ecclesial and the sacramental sense. It is precisely the body that is at the center of the tensions described in the first part of the letter: a tension between body and soul and a tension between nature and grace. The conclusion becomes obvious in the course of the analysis: these tensions are resolved in the body of Christ. The vision becomes richer when we keep in mind the fact that the terminology used today to designate and distinguish these two realities of the body of Christ has a long history. Contemporary theology makes use of two expressions. The first, “the mystical body of Christ,” refers to the Church; the second, “the real body of Christ,” is used to designate 58 the Eucharist. But this was not always the case. In the first centuries of Christianity, the Fathers of the Church used these expressions in an inverse manner, as a meticulous and acute analysis by French Jesuit, Henri de Lubac, revealed.2 For the Fathers of the Church, both the Eucharist and the Church are the body of Christ in a real manner. In order to understand the distinction, we must first clarify what the word “mystical” means. This term means “hidden.” And the Eucharist, for the Fathers, is the mystical body of Christ because, even though it is truly his body, we only see bread and wine. In the bread and the wine, truly present as his body and blood, Christ is hidden. I see bread, but it is the body of Christ. I see wine, but it is the blood of Christ. Body and blood are hidden under the forms of bread and wine. The Church, on the other hand, is the material body of Christ. It is in this that we see the flesh of the Son of God, who “became flesh” (John 1:14) for us and for our salvation (cf. PD 2). In this way, when I see the flesh of man, I see the flesh that Christ assumed in his . It is not an image, but it is really flesh. I must respect Jesus hidden in the body of my brother not only because he is a sanctuary in which God dwells; more profoundly, that body is the body of Christ.

2.Cf. H. de Lubac, Corpus Mysticum: The Eucharist and the Church in the , Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame Press, 2006. REFLECTIONS ON THE LETTER ‘PLACUIT DEO’

Hilary of Poitiers, a bishop of the fourth century, illustrates the mystery of the Church as the body of Christ by referencing the story of the creation of . God caused Adam to fall into a deep sleep and, taking one of his ribs, formed woman. When Adam awoke, he recognized what Eve truly was: “This at last is bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh” (Gen 2:23). Hilary proceeds by saying that this was prophetic of Christ. In fact, when Jesus awoke from the sleep of death, he saw the Church that had been formed from his rib and recognized in it “bone of his bones and flesh of his flesh.”3 St. Paul refers to this when he says, “For no one ever hates his own body but rather nourishes and tenderly cares for it, just as Christ does for the church” (Eph 5:29-30). In the celebration of the Mass, Saint Augustine used a formula 59 that expressed the unity of the sacramental body with the body of the Church. Before communion, showing the consecrated bread and wine, he would say to the faithful: “Receive what you are, the Body of Christ, so that you may become what you receive, the Body of Christ.”4 Therefore, in the body of Christ is the remedy for our shortcomings. Our salvation is inscribed in this body. It is in this way, as on the day of judgment, described by Matthew, that we will be judged, namely, by how we have treated this flesh: “Truly I tell you, just as you did it to one of the least of these who are members of my family, you did it to me” (Matt 25:40). The letter Placuit Deo reminds us of the necessity of placing Christ at the center of our lives. This is not some vague ideal of a good example. This is not merely a protection against evil acts, but it is much more than this. It is God in us who makes us go out from ourselves. It is God who transforms us and assimilates us to himself so that he “may be all in all” (1 Cor 15:28). It is God who wants to “create a new heaven and a new earth” and “who makes all things new” (Rev 21:1-5), and wants to do so through men and women, through their fleshly bodies.

3.Hilary of Poitiers, Spiegazione dei Misteri, I, 3-5, Rome, Città Nuova, 2013, 46-51. 4., Discorsi, 272, 1, ibid., 1984, 1042-1045. JOSÉ LUIS NARVAJA, SJ

The apostolic exhortation Gaudete et Exsultate reiterates this centrality, putting us on guard against the risk of conceiving of “a mind without a body, incapable of touching the suffering flesh of Christ in others, locked up in an encyclopedia of abstractions.” In the end, removing the mystery from the Incarnation, the neo-Gnostics prefer “a God without Christ, a Christ without the Church, a Church without her people” (GE 37).5 On the other hand, citing St. Basil the Great, Francis reminds us that “the faithful glory in God alone, for ‘they realize that they lack true justice and are justified only through faith in Christ’” (GE 52)6, and not thanks to “their own efforts, the of the human will and their own abilities, which results in a self- centered and elitist complacency, bereft of true love” (GE 57).7 60 *** The publication of the exhortation Gaudete et Exsultate and that of the letter Placuit Deo, separated only by a few weeks, helps us focus on the themes of salvation and holiness at the same time.

5.Cf. Francis, Homily at the Mass at Santa Marta, November 11, 2016. 6.Cf. Basil the Great, Homily on Humility: PG 31, 530. 7.Cf. Francis, , No. 95. Toward an Economy of Reconciliation: An alternative to liberalism and nationalism

Matthew Carnes, SJ

From the liberal economic model to the proposal of a global economy Solidarity and shared purpose – both within and across nations – seem to be in short supply in the current world economy. Nevertheless, the current state of affairs may offer an important opportunity for thinking in creative new ways 61 about what an economy based on solidarity and reconciliation might entail. The year 2016 saw an unprecedented swing in views of worldwide economic relations; at no time in the last 70 years has the basic orientation of the economy been more widely questioned. With the vote of the United Kingdom to leave the European Union and the rise of nationalistic political contenders in many countries, the seeming consensus toward a liberal capitalist model of economic relations – in which open trade and free competition were expected to yield shared prosperity – has shown fundamental fissures. Longstanding concerns about equity and inclusion have been joined by a growing rejection of the cosmopolitan worldview that liberalism seemed to embrace. For the first time, perhaps, thinkers from across the political spectrum have come to see the reigning economic model as broken in either big or small ways. The liberal model held sway for nearly all of the postwar era, promising to foster efficiency and productivity, and to bind nations together through trade agreements and fluid financial flows. This open model delivered significant growth: at no point in have as many people moved out of abject poverty. This is a massive accomplishment. But the model did not benefit all people equally. Nor did it ensure their stability in better circumstances. Instead, the MATTHEW CARNES, SJ

separation between the most prosperous and least prosperous members of society has grown in the majority of countries around the world. Middle-class status has proven remarkably tenuous, with frequent layoffs and wages subject to volatility and the loss of value through inflation. Thus, the economy that produced such incredible growth was accompanied by a growing increase in social inequality. One response has been growing nationalism, which emphasizes a perceived need to protect national interests over collective interests and, in many cases, directs resources toward majority groups at the expense of minorities. Seeing other nations as rivals, and migrants from those nations as less deserving and in some ways suspect, this instinct seeks to go it alone and take care 62 of oneself (or one’s nation) first. It is individualism writ large, at the national level, and it replicates itself in individualism writ small, at the personal and group levels for ethnic and religious majority populations. The result is an ever greater fracturing and fragmentation of social bonds both globally and locally.

An economy of solidarity and reconciliation An alternative response to liberalism and nationalism is to propose an economy of solidarity, and to achieve it, an economy of reconciliation. This is the response proposed by the 36th General Congregation of the , and by Pope Francis, and it both builds upon and challenges the existing liberal economic model. It affirms the efficiency and productivity of individual effort in the market, while also noting the essential role for states and international cooperation in fostering inclusive participation in economic and social life. It links care of persons and care of our common home, the earth, together in an integral way. And it calls for a concerted effort not just to make future growth more equitable and sustainable, but to repair the broken relationships that currently exist. What might an economy of reconciliation look like? Most fundamentally, it is based on twin foundations. The first is the dignity and worth of each human being, created by God and intended to flourish through the use of each person’s unique gifts and abilities. And the second is the affirmation that such TOWARD AN ECONOMY OF RECONCILIATION flourishing occurs in what is called the common good. As developed richly in Catholic social teaching, the common good is more than simply the summation of the individual goods enjoyed by various members of society. It necessarily involves a social good, the good of the society as a whole, in which the needs of the poorest in society, as well as the well-being of the environment and the well-being of future generations, are pursued simultaneously. In many ways, this vision is consistent with the postwar liberal economic model. Individual creativity, initiative and work are valued both as ends in themselves and for the positive contribution they make to overall growth and productivity. And likewise, the gains that come through exchange and collaboration are seen to play a crucial role in promoting 63 shared growth and a shared sense of community at the national and international level. Societies that enable all their members to contribute, in accordance with their age and health and other conditions, reap gains in not just their bonds of comity but also in their bottom line output, because they exclude the contributions of no one. But an economy of solidarity and reconciliation also recognizes that human beings are by nature diverse, and by social construction they are unequal. They are born with varied gifts and they grow up in conditions of widely divergent opportunities and resources. This asymmetry, which has been reified in longstanding social structures, has been further exacerbated in the last three decades through an inequitable distribution of capital. Wealth has become concentrated in the hands of a small minority of the world’s population; nearly half the world’s population has no assets to call their own. In addition, the burden arising from the use of the earth’s resources has been uneven, with some experiencing the effects of environmental degradation, climate change and pollution far more acutely than others. These asymmetries have often built upon, and reinforced, existing social hierarchies of race, ethnicity, gender and religion. And finally, these hierarchies are reflected in, and reinforced by, unequal relations of power in the political sphere. MATTHEW CARNES, SJ

An active effort to face the imbalance An economy of solidarity and reconciliation thus must seek to respond not to an ideal or hypothetical set of social relations, but to the current reality of widely divergent starting points and outcomes. To do so, it necessarily recognizes that an active effort must be made to address these asymmetries; the market model, of itself, has not shown an ability to sufficiently ensure access or opportunity to all human beings. Some further action – driven not just by the self-interest of those with resources, but by a decisive “preferential option” – must be undertaken to actively promote the opportunities and well-being of those whose birth or circumstances have hindered or marginalized their well-being. And among these, 64 particular attention must be paid to those who have not shared in the prosperity of recent years, and especially those that have been dislocated or harmed by it. Some elements of an economy of solidarity and reconciliation are already well recognized, but they require significant expansion and improvement. Basic health care and quality education are two of the best proven investments societies can make to increase the health and well-being of their citizens. In particular, preventative health care services, such as immunizations and regular check-ups, especially for expectant mothers and young children, greatly increase the likelihood of healthy births and enhance physical and cognitive development. Adults, too, benefit greatly from ready access to doctors for preventative services and counseling on diet and exercise; they stay healthier longer in life and are less likely to suffer catastrophic health events and need for extended care. They are able to lead productive lives and contribute to the needs of their families. Yet too many countries are either unable, or unwilling, to provide these services. An economy of solidarity recognizes that health care is a lifetime need that is difficult, if not impossible, for an individual to provide for herself or himself. Rather, shared mechanisms of insurance – often coordinated or managed by the state – are necessary so that all can be adequately protected and enabled to realize their full potential. TOWARD AN ECONOMY OF RECONCILIATION

Similarly, education is central to an economy of solidarity. Such education needs to be universal, of high quality and attuned to the needs of local economies. It also should draw on and encourage the cultivation of the best of our humanity, embracing not just productive skills but also the wonders of the arts and sciences, sparking our curiosity and intellectual wonder. And increasingly, education will be a life-long need. As markets rapidly shift and new jobs are both destroyed and created as new technologies develop, individuals need opportunities to expand and enhance their skill sets during their lifetimes. An economy of solidarity will thus take into account education not only for the young, although this has a special priority, but also seek to expand opportunities for mid-career and older workers to pursue new skills and learning and to grow 65 intellectually throughout their lifetime. The recent experience of several countries around the world has pointed the way toward policies that can increase the use and benefits of both health care and education. Many states have made productive use of carefully targeted and designed transfer programs. One strand of these, called conditional cash transfers, provides small monthly cash payments to families that ensure their children receive regular medical care and immunizations and that keep their children enrolled and attending school. These payments offset the cost of time or work forgone in attending to doctor’s appointments or going to school, and they ensure that the costs of basic supplies like uniforms and exercise books do not prevent a child from attending school. They have been shown to increase the number of years the students stay in school (rather than prematurely entering the workforce), increase the nutrition level in the family, and they are associated with improved health throughout childhood. And they do so at a relatively low cost, especially when compared with spending on traditional social programs. Yet the state is not the only actor to play an important role in the economy of solidarity and reconciliation. Private sector actors and non-governmental organizations have embraced a variety of credit solutions that make financial resources available MATTHEW CARNES, SJ

to small producers who would otherwise be left outside the banking market. These have unleashed incredible creativity and productivity, in an entrepreneurial spirit, among people whose lives had been on the economic margins, especially women. Expanding access to credit, and providing financial and business education – as well as legal protections against predatory lending – for those who make use of it, have allowed a new dynamism to emerge. They have the potential to do even more.

Social and environmental reparation Even more radically, an economy of solidarity and reconciliation may very well require a further step. It might 66 involve a need for an explicit recognition of, and even apology for, the significant harm that has been done to social relations and to the planet in the name of the economy. If our world is indeed more fractured than perhaps at any other time in recent decades, then a concerted effort must be made to address that fracture (or set of fractures). And like all meaningful reconciliations, it will require a firm commitment to make amends. This need not be a kind of finger-pointing or vilification of any particular group. Instead, it would involve a solidarity and shared effort to ensure not just the inclusion, but the centrality, of those previously left out or displaced. An economy of solidarity would actually place these people and the environments in which they live at the center of economic discussions – most notably women, the indigenous and refugees. Indeed, Pope Francis has highlighted in Laudato Si’ that such people should be the protagonists and “principal dialogue partners” in addressing the economy. Real choices, with real costs, to address their needs and the needs of our planet, would take precedence over others that could benefit those who are already secure and healthy. Shared sacrifice, and even a kind of reparations, might very well be necessary to achieve social reconciliation and together to restore and replenish our planet’s ecosystem. And it is likely that consumption will need to be modified so that our use of natural resources is sustainable for future generations. TOWARD AN ECONOMY OF RECONCILIATION

An economy of solidarity and reconciliation would thus mark an important departure from much of the existing liberal model and its excesses. While preserving an appreciation for human work and creativity, it necessarily adds a sense of responsibility to ensure that all people – who are born diverse and shaped by their social circumstances – have access to the opportunity to fully develop their bodies and minds and families. It sees both the private and public sector, as well as civil society, as essential to this effort. And it adds a crucial additional task: to address the broken world we have inherited, both socially and environmentally. The test of an economy of solidarity and reconciliation will be seen in its ability to respond to the real needs of a new set of protagonists. Their voices will create new opportunities, and 67 will help set the tone for a new model of economic life. Techno-Theological Narratives

Juan Carlos Henríquez Mendoza, SJ

And goes. Always. As if the experience that gave rise to that belief were to perceive the need to flee the limited body of the person who sensed it, and its only strategy were to transform into a symbol. That is where belief goes as it circulates around 68 and around in society. Usually, we forget that behind each symbol in circulation there is an experience that can be “symbolized” and that tries to recreate itself by putting into circulation the symbolic form that represents it. We can say that the construction, the consumption, the reconstruction and the putting back into circulation of a symbolic form are a collective effort to ensure that a previous experience rises up anew. This idea of representation as an effort to make newly present an absent reality connects by analogy with two of the most radical Christian realities: the Incarnation and the . These see the body as a real presence and ground of action in the world. In this anthropological perspective, image, symbol and are representative realities and so they “re-actualize,” that is, they are able to act in the dynamics of the world. If we accept what has been written so far, the phenomenon of “theology and communication” or of “belief and its social circulation” goes beyond the limited field of the elaboration of messages and opens up to the recognition of fields where not just the messages or symbolic forms transit and are exchanged, but also – and this is the most interesting thing – they become the constructors of its meanings, or meaning-makers. Science fiction and fantasy films have always been among the most provocative subjects of theological and transcendental TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES interpretations.1 Many films of this genre2 have even brought into the social conversation theological and philosophical debates that in some way had been reserved to the academy or to the ecclesial sphere. In the specific case of the analysis of science fiction interpreted from the perspective of a believer, we can see three ideas or shared presuppositions. 1) A theory of constructive intelligence3 that differentiates the moment of experiencing a reality from the moment of naming it; and in this latter moment it distinguishes the process of construction of meaning of the lived experience, the elaboration of its symbolic form, and its social circulation or communication. 2) A notion of the “field”4 or “universe of meaning” as an interpretive framework where meanings are structured and also as a social space where meanings are constructed and circulate. 69 3) A narrative consideration of technology5 where its manifestations and abilities articulate a metaphorical discourse

1.Cf. G. Consolmagno, “Science Fiction and Catholic Sensibility: One man’s experience,” in Civ. Catt. Sept., 2017 English Ed. pp.80-87. Cf. also M. Rastoin, “What Becomes of Religion in a Post-Apocalyptic World?” Civ. Catt. Jan. 2018 English Ed. pp.79-84. 2.I mention just three films that have stimulated public discussion and have been at the center of a number of articles and essays published in favor of a theological reading: 2001: A Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick, 1968); Star Wars (George Lucas, 1977); Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982). At the end of the 1970s, many fans of fantasy and sci-fi films read a text by J. Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), after George Lucas had declared it influenced the writing of Star Wars. We have here a public adoption of a first theoretical framework for a mythological and religious analysis and reading of this type of film. 3.Constructivists like Bateson, Gergen, Watzlawick, Maturana and White agree in considering intelligence as an entity that reconstructs experience and awareness, ordering them and modeling them. This is an approach that has its roots in Kant but finds its antecedents also in the prospectivism of Ortega y Gasset. 4.It is important not to confuse this notion with that of “semantic field.” The latter refers to the relation of the meanings (a set of words connected by their meaning). The field we refer to does not order minimal aspects of meaning (semi), but “sentiments” and “senses” according to narrative logic. Anyhow, the field of sense precedes, establishes and hosts the field of meaning (or semantic field). 5.According to Bruner there are two ways of knowing reality: the paradigmatic form, whose objective is the consensus attained by the scientific community; and the narrative form, that vindicates the credibility of what is known in as much as it becomes coherent (makes sense) with the discourse of a story. Cf. J. Bruner, Actual Minds, Possible Worlds, Cambridge (Mass.), Press, 1986. JUAN CARLOS HENRÍQUEZ MENDOZA, SJ

of other realities, including those of the human body, mortality and divinity. This discourse includes the dialectics of opacity and transparency, monstrosity and innocence, that share technology, language, the body and God. This consideration allows us to perceive the intimate relationship between technological discourse and theological discourse, a correlation that ends up offering stories of that I wish to call “techno- theological narratives.”

Constructive intelligence The reality that I sense has a sense or meaning. This sense is not something that is discovered; it is constructed invisibly. This idea is implicit in the theories of intelligence where a distinction 70 is made, at least analytically, between the moment in which a reality is experienced and the moment in which it is named and put into circulation. In theories like that of Xavier Zubiri,6 the naming of the thing is the cosmic moment of intelligence, for what is experienced is inserted into an order or universe according to a functional placing in a structure of meanings. So the reality that is perceived has a “meaning” not in itself, but in as much as it is functionally ordered following a system of meanings. Nevertheless, the meaning that is attributed to it is not arbitrary, nor does it depend on the individual subject, but it is fundamentally intersubjective: it results from a threading together by subjects who share the same field of interpretation. What someone feels individually ends up having a meaning that is attributed intersubjectively, and this is its “naming,” or resulting symbolic form which is incorporated into language. Sensing and naming, then, are operations that bring a convergence between what is experienced and the meaning, in a way that is more or less synchronic. Yet there are realities that seem to break the simultaneity of such moments. This is the case with the transcendental realities, where meaning is constructed and is generally expressed in structures that are not closed,

6.Xavier Zubiri (1898-1983) develops this theme in the first part of his book Inteligencia sentiente under the title “Inteligencia y Realidad.” TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES that is, under symbolic forms that are decidedly metaphorical. In virtue of their openness, these forms are susceptible to theological and transcendental readings. In other words, open forms can be used as theological products independently of their initial intentionality, for their theological character does not rest mainly in the elaboration of the message but rather in the dynamic that generates its circulation. An example that clearly expresses the provocative potential of 7 deliberately open-ended symbols is 2001: Space Odyssey (1968). Initially, the plot was based on the narrative of The Sentinel (1951) by Arthur C. Clarke and had two versions: the film script, co- written by Stanley Kubrik and Clarke, and the novel that was written by Clarke alone.8 When the film is compared to the novel, the first thing to stand out is that while Kubrik presents 71 and maintains the mystery of the monolith, Clarke clarifies its identity and its intentions in the first chapters.9 The novel poses an epistemological question about the supercomputer HAL 9000: Can there be intelligence without conscience and without emotions? But the film puts all its weight behind the disquieting apparition of the monolith, a figure who has no voice in the text, but whose actions and the consequences of whose presence are dramatically essential from the opening scenes. This way, Kubrik asks a question that is not only epistemological but also metaphysical, if not theological: what or who is this person, whose presence alone causes “transfigurative leaps”?

7.A monolith buried in the moon emits a signal directed toward the edge of the solar system. To study the phenomenon, some scientists depart on board a ship guided by a supercomputer HAL 9000. After a series of incidents caused by HAL, the astronaut David Bowman floats into space. A series of spiritual and physical changes transform the astronaut into a stellar embryo. 8.At that time the film was a failure and received bitter criticism. The New York Times called it “immensely boring.” Arthur Schlesinger Jr. judged it “morally pretentious, intellectually obscure and inordinately long.” It is surprising that over time the film became a compulsory reference point to approach philosophical, introspective and transcendental questions from the genre of fantasy cinema. Meanwhile the novel and the written saga by Clarke have passed by almost unnoticed. 9.Clarke’s idea of the monolith was that of an alien object – he called it “the Sentinel” – which, after visiting the earth in the past, now had its civilizing mission in a non-specified place near Jupiter. JUAN CARLOS HENRÍQUEZ MENDOZA, SJ

The apparition of the monolith transfigures the ape into a man; the second apparition transfigures a person who is contained by the limits of the earth into an interplanetary person; the third transfigures a human creation (HAL 9000) into conscience and emotion; and finally it transfigures the interplanetary person into a star child, without time and omnipresent, old and in a fetal state, here and there at the same time. We note that the theological reading of this work by Kubrik is just one possibility for the spectator and does not necessarily represent the intention of its author, who certainly never considered 2001: A Space Odyssey as a text with theological and transcendental intentions. Such an interpretation by the public is only one possibility, but it is justified and valid as 72 the film develops using open-ended symbolical forms that are hence equivocal. Narratives that are deliberately constructed with symbolic structures and elements that are open-ended indirectly assume the premise of a constructive intelligence by the consumers of such symbolic forms, which in turn become constructors of meaning for these open forms. In the case of the narratives of science fiction, the premise of constructive intelligence generally appears at two levels. At the level of the plot, the stories usually include the issue of the lived reality (sensed reality) as compared to the interpreted reality (the sense). The search for heroes implies a solution to the dilemma between the “sensed” reality and its “sense.” In terms of welcoming and circulating this, the consumer is considered as a constructor of sense and so exercises the freedom to take the narration and insert it into a field of reference, for example, a theological or spiritual one. The premise of a constructive intelligence allows a science-fiction story not only to metaphorically evoke the texts of revelation but also to become in some way like a text of revelation.

A notion of field The means of communication (always technological) and the constructors of meaning belong to the same genre, for the construction of meaning occurs within the narrations previously established by the environment and especially in the TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES environment. This means that the symbolic forms are part of the technological environment within which they circulate. If a construction of meaning is of a theological order, then that symbolic form constitutes a theological narrative and at the same time a technological one. Theology and technology are not two distinct discourses but two possible approaches to the same narrative phenomenon: from the theological approach a technological discourse can be seen, and from a technological approach the theological sense can be perceived. A symbolic form is not just inserted into a field, but its very construction takes place within a field where it circulates. The field is the social space from which a symbolic formis interpreted, constructed and realized. The field where meanings circulate and are created – including those of beliefs – is always 73 intersubjective and constructs itself beginning with a reference or a language that is already structured between the subjects. Language then is not a regulated code (a grammar) but a field of understanding. A fundamental characteristic of the field is its regeneration. The construction of a meaning that expresses itself in a symbolic form is not only generated and inserted into its field of origin, but in turn it “regenerates” the field, that is, it creates autonomous fields, or universes of meaning. In other words, it is not the product (the content) or the reception that generates the field, but the circulation. In the ecclesial sphere, something analogous occurs: it is not the discourses on belief () or deep attachment to worship (ortholatry) that recreate the community sacramentally, but the dynamic circulation of such elements () by believers.10 The creation of an autonomous field of meaning in the final analysis is a constant practice in the socialization of discourses, from the play of children to narratives of the final meaning of life. What disturbs the social imagination is the fact that the creation of an “autonomous field of meaning” materializes and no longer produces a field, but a “real autonomous world.” One

10.“For just as the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without works is also dead” ( Jas 2:26). JUAN CARLOS HENRÍQUEZ MENDOZA, SJ

of the recurrent themes in sci-fi narratives is the presupposition that in any given moment we are capable of materializing the fields of meaning and that we create real worlds that are parallel and autonomous with respect to the world on the basis of which meanings are constructed. The fascination and the terror from which some sci-fi narratives stake inspiration consist in the fact that the worlds we have created become autonomous, and we remain trapped in them (total immersion is one of the basic elements of fictions like , eXistenZ or Solaris). Total immersion in an autonomous world different from the one in which we live fascinates as a technological horizon, but the possibility of it being monstrous is terrifying. Often the imagination of created autonomous worlds and 74 total immersion in them are a sort of secular and pragmatic response to the anthropological desire for eternal life. William Gibson, the novelist who is considered the precursor to cyberpunk and postmodern science fiction, imagines the creation of autonomous technological worlds and the possibility of accessing them without the need for interface. His characters11 are obsessed with overcoming the conditioning of the biological body (obsolete hardware), transferring memory, emotion and other cerebral operations (software) in interconnected cyberspace. Eternal life obtained this way certainly overcomes the spatial and temporal limits imposed by the biological body: there is no more sickness and no more death; the characters become omnipresent and immortal. Gibson’s sky is the actualized technological version of other narratives on , all tied to the Greek notion of immortality, where the spatial-temporal aspects alone are freed, while the rest of the immanent condition is maintained.12 The narratives of the heaven of Olympus, vampires and cyberspace are symbolic elements that circulate and are verified casually in

11.Especially in works like Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988) but also Neuromancer (1984) and Count Zero (1986). 12.Other theories, like the Hebrew and Christian ones, conceive eternal life not only as a liberation from the spatial-temporal aspects, but above all as the entry into a dimension of the transcendent fullness and radical communion with God. TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES fields of understanding that are mainly secular. Gustave Flaubert states: “When the were no longer […], there came a single moment […] where there was only the human person.”

A narrative consideration of technology: a techno-theology The word “technology” is undoubtedly a term that has spread together with the development of the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century. As Jean-Claude Beaune13 notes, the different definitions of the term “technology” always imply the notion of new and processes through which material is elaborated to create final products that satisfy the needs of the people. Regardless of the definition used, many ideas revolve around technology, including those about implied beliefs.14 There are various studies that explore the theological discourse 75 of the different definitions of the word “technology”; however, an interesting exercise is to expand the concept temporarily, giving it a less restrictive meaning and look to the etymological meaning of its roots. The word “technology” comes from two Greek terms: technē and logos. In and in the medieval period the term technē was translated asars (art). While the ars mechanica was certainly highlighted in the medieval period as that which would later be called technics or technology,15 technē in its original sense referred to the realization (in the 16 sense of making real) of an idea or an aim. Technē implies the reification, the entry of an idea into a world where phenomena can be perceived by the senses. We can think of technology as the discourse that considers the phenomenon of materialized aims and ideas. As the phenomena of belief are narratives that circulate in a field of understanding, so too the technology used for

13.Cf. J.-C. Beaune, La technologie introuvable. Recherche sur la définition et l’unité de la Technologie à partir de quelques modèles du XVIII et XIX siècles, Paris, J. Vrin, 1980. 14.“At each stage of its history technology is the resultant of many interacting factors such as the available materials, the accumulated skill […] economic and social conditions, religious and ethical tenets and philosophical doctrines” (R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology, t. 2, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1965, p. 80). 15.Cf. J. Ferrater Mora, Diccionario de filosofía, Madrid, Alianza, 1980. 16.Cf. W. Brugger, Diccionario de filosofía, Barcelona, Herder, 1958. JUAN CARLOS HENRÍQUEZ MENDOZA, SJ

the materialization of those narrations functions not only as a material condition (there is no narration without technology) but also as a narrative itself. The link between the religious and the technological goes beyond the instrumental. Technology conditions the circulation of the religious (construction, consumption and reconstruction), but it is also a discursive analogy of the religious. We have already said that sci-fi films are able to provoke theological reactions and put into circulation serious themes sometimes of interest only to specialists. The link between theology and technology and the discourses they occasion – even when they are more evident in products like science fiction – were present as soon as the first technology was developed. In 76 fact, the primary technology, the first reification of an idea is the word itself and this then unfolds itself through different stages, from the oral word to writing, to its spread through printing and so on. The consideration of technology as the actualization of a materialized aim has a direct impact on the theological field. The theme of reification, of incarnation, of “becoming body” as the condition for action in the world is the newness revealed in the Christian faith. The intention of the God of Christians, which in Johannine theology is expressed as “bringing together Grace and Truth”17 in fullness, is made possible by the reification of God’s aim.18 So could we think of the word, including the divine Word, as technology? At least the exercise of reconsidering the origin of the Greek technē allows us to use this allegory and, starting from this, allows us to consider the metaphor of Jesus as a technē of God. One controversial notion is that of the word as the first technology; even all those who sympathize with this idea have to recognize a certain strangeness when language is spoken of as a

17.“And we have seen his glory, the glory as of the Father’s only son, full of grace and truth” ( John 1:14b); “The law indeed was given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ” ( John 1:17). Some versions translate it as “truth and love,” and we note that from the word charis derives gratuity and charity. 18.“And the Word became flesh and lived among us” ( John 1:14a). TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES technological manifestation. Things could not be different. We are so used to our mother tongue that it seems that it has always been part of us; yet languages are something that is acquired at a huge cost in terms of time and commitment. Language is one of the technologies less approachable for new users, even if it certainly manages to introduce itself into the body of the initiated speakers. When this occurs, oral technology stops being opaque and conscious and becomes so transparent that it is only with difficulty that we are aware of its presence. This dialectic between opacity and transparency, perceived and non-perceived, the conscious and non-conscious, is shared by other realities, such as the body and divinity.19 The dynamic of opacity and transparency is shared by all technologies, including those of the word. The same 77 dynamic is also experienced in relation to the body. Perhaps we should say that the dialectic of opacity and transparency is seen in technology in as much as it is an extension of the body. More often than we think, technology and the body, having reached levels of transparency, suddenly enter into phases of opacity. The mark of transparency is unawareness and hence absence. The mark of opacity is awareness and discomfort with its presence. Opacity “shows” that which transparency hides. The transparency that is closest to us is our own body. When it is healthy, it is something absent, a matter of indifference, hidden from awareness. Its presence is revealed by alarms from the language of sickness. In sickness, as in pleasure, the opacity of our body comes out, and with it one of its most typical characteristics: the loss of control. Both in pain and pleasure, we see the extraneous aspect of what has been assumed as our own. Opacity plays a revelatory role for bodies. This condition has an immediate consequence in theological discourse, more precisely at the ecclesiological level. In , the

19.Paul sees the theme of obscurity and light not as problems but as a mysterious reality: “And even if our gospel is veiled…” (2 Cor 4:3a); “For it is the God who said, ‘Let light shine out of darkness,’ who has shone in our hearts” (2 Cor 4:6a); “But we have this treasure in clay jars” (2 Cor 4:7a). JUAN CARLOS HENRÍQUEZ MENDOZA, SJ

incarnation event is diffusive and inclusive: the Church is the body of Christ and, in as much as a body, it participates in the dynamic of transparency and opacity. The joy and the passion of that body are privileged moments of opacity – sometimes violent – where its final identity is forcefully revealed, that of being casta et peccatrix, saint and sinner, intimately personal and extraneous to its self. The same ambiguity of our body (and of the ecclesial body) can be applied to the media – an extension of the body – with which we interact.20 The media – both traditional (radio, television, cinema, press) and the digital interactions – have moved through this change and counter-change, and continue to do so, as their consolidated languages dare to 78 break consensual rules. Today we see innocuous cinematic productions and also dark and disturbing cinema. The media fluctuate dialectically between these two categories. At depth, there is a discomfort in the stagnation of each of these: absolute opacity results in something so dark as to end up with a lack of meaning, and absolute transparency is so innocuous as to become insignificant. This dialectic is also part of the shared premises of the narratives of science fiction that are open to a theological reading. “Monstrosity” (literally the “showing” of what was hidden) is the main theme of films such as those of David Cronenberg,21 but it is also present in the remainder of the narrative production of science fiction and fantasy cinema that have stimulated theological interpretations. The narrative consideration of technology, the recognition of a generative field of symbolic forms put into circulation, and the affirmation of a meaning-making intelligence are three hinges tied to the moment of analysis of mass consumer products that are interpreted as discourses of belief. The symbolic forms that are not closed and the insinuations that

20.An expression by Marshall McLuhan, which Jean Baudrillard accentuates when he refers to the media as “expulsions of the body” and Paul Virilio interprets as “expulsions of the city.” 21.Especially in the films The Fly (1986), Naked Lunch (1991), Crash (1996) and eXistenZ (1999). TECHNO-THEOLOGICAL NARRATIVES are provoked by the dynamics of transparency and opacity turn out to be an language to articulate belief discourse in our days. Theology – at least as elaborated in the postmodern or late- modern spheres – is closer to the negative theology of Nicholas of Cusa22 than to the speculative and positive that were developed especially around the 13th century and then resurfaced in the Renaissance and in the modern era. Reality, especially the final reality, when considered from a contemporary position is “apophatic,” as it eludes the names and limitations of a definitive and stable narrative.23 For constructors of sense, only figures such as metaphor and metonymy allow us to access a reading that is reflexive and transcendental. But the reading of products that manage to disturb and provoke this 79 type of transcendental reflection suppose, on the part of those reading them, a prior recognition of an absolute and salvific center that gives responses to the ultimate meaning. We can call this prior affirmation the “transcendental premise,” for the salvific source is conceived as an absolute and as an external to the subject. This “premise” does not necessarily need to be shared by the original constructor of the symbolic form: it suffices that the reader-constructor (consumer) of the form holds it for it to generate the discourse of belief. In this sense, the conscious or subconscious intention of the author is irrelevant for the validation of a theological reading of a product put into social circulation.24

22.Cf. N. Cusano, La dotta ignoranza, l. I, chap. XXVI. 23.Apophasis: negation. This particular theological term is associated particularly with the monastic tradition of the Orthodox Church. It holds that God cannot be totally known in terms of declarative categories. The idea is consonant with the cognitive positions of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jacques Derrida and Gianni Vattimo. 24.An earlier version of this article was published in Peter Horsfield - Mary E. Hess - Adán Medrano, Belief in Media: Cultural Perspectives on Media and Christianity, Aldershot, Ashgate 2004. Against the Spirit of Fierceness

Diego Fares, SJ

The “spirit of fierceness” pervades human history. Its form may change but it is always the same dynamic: one of opposition against “the other.” We see it first in the anger of Cain, when it drove him to kill his brother. And it continues 80 to be unleashed in the fury of the who, unable to kill the woman, a symbol of the Church, turns its anger against the “rest of her children” (cf. Gen 4:6; Rev 12:17). New forms of this spirit today include “bullying” and “media persecution.” In a recent homily at Casa Santa Marta, Pope Francis reflected on the mystery of evil that is revealed in bullying, in the act of “attacking the weakest.” He noted that “psychologists might have other explanations for the strong abusing the weak … but even children can have this trace of , the work of .”1 The fact that he refers to Satan tells us something about the spiritual character of this attitude, which, according to some words we use to name it – accanimento in Italian or encarnizamiento in Spanish – would lead us to think that it is something animalistic or carnal, but this is not entirely the case.2 Mixed and confused with this carnal dimension, there is a hidden addition of ferocity and of gratuitous cruelty which, when we see its effects, produces enormous discomfort and mental confusion. Consider, for example, the teenager driven to suicide because she cannot cope with the idea that a private image has been shared online and gone viral.

1.Pope Francis, Homily at Santa Marta, January 8, 2018. 2.Besides fierceness, the Italian word accanimento can also mean fury, aggression, anger, excessive zeal and ferocity. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS

This spirit of fierceness is diabolical, in the sense that it is against the law of nature: it is not only destructive but also self- destructive. It is contagious and it produces negative effects at a social level: feelings of abandonment and discouragement, disorientation and confusion. Since it is hidden and often gets confused with other phenomena, it is necessary to expose it to the light of spiritual discernment so that we do not misdiagnose the best remedy for it. It is possible to succumb to the contagion of its perverse dynamism even while fighting against some of its effects. It is important to take into account the fact that, besides obviously destructive ferocity, there is another, more “polite” form, more subtle but involving equal and systematic cruelty.3 Is it not perhaps symptomatic that we use the terms “inhuman” 81 and “barbaric” without thinking sometimes that we do not mean “animal” by them but rather something else? A brief phenomenology of the “spirit of fierceness” will help us to recognize it and better understand its malice, so that we foster our desire to resist it with the help of the Spirit, reject it, and drive it out from our hearts and the social structures in which it is embodied. As the hymn Veni Creator says, Hostem repellas longius (“Drive the enemy far from us”). To understand how we can resist it without being infected, we will keep in mind a recommendation of Pope Francis given in his meeting with Jesuits in Peru, during his most recent apostolic trip to Latin America. On that occasion he referred to a little 4 booklet, Las cartas de la tribulación (“Letters of the Tribulation”),

3.But there is also “another persecution of which we do not talk much,” a persecution “disguised as culture, disguised as modernity, disguised as progress: it is a ‘polite’ persecution – I would say, a little ironically. [...] The head of this educated persecution, Jesus named him: the prince of this world” (Pope Francis, Homily at Santa Marta, April 12, 2016). 4.L. Ricci - J. Roothaan, Las cartas de la tribulación, Buenos Aires, Diego de Torres, 1988. At the beginning of 1987, after returning from Germany where he had worked on his doctoral dissertation on Romano Guardini, the then Father Jorge Mario Bergoglio asked his Jesuit superior, Dan Obregón, a Latinist, to translate the Cartas for publication. These are some letters written to the Jesuits by two of their superiors general – Lorenzo Ricci and Jan Roothaan – in times when the Society of Jesus suffered persecutions (one of which was so fierce that it resulted in the suppression of the Order for 41 years, from 1773 to 1814). The DIEGO FARES, SJ

saying that “these contain marvelous criteria of discernment, criteria of action so as not to allow ourselves to be dragged down by institutional desolation”5 and “to find the path to follow … when the tempest of persecutions, tribulations, doubts and so forth, is raised by cultural and historical events … There are various temptations that mark this moment: challenging ideas, not paying attention to the events, becoming fixated with the persecutors … dwelling on our own desolations.”6 Among various temptations that arise in times of tribulation, we will highlight that of the “spirit of ferocity,” through which the evil spirit tempts us not only to resist grace, but takes a further step: it involves us and makes us become accomplices of his desire to destroy our own flesh. 82 Phenomenology of ferocity Whenever we encounter ferocity, we react instinctively. The various languages refer to this phenomenon emphasizing different aspects. In Italian, the term accanimento refers to the subject – the cane (dog) – which stresses the subject of this ferociousness. In Spanish, encarnizamiento refers to “carne” (flesh), considering the object on which fury is exercised. English and French use “fierceness” and “ferocité,” respectively, underlining the violence of the action itself. In German, Hartnäckigkeit means “stubbornness” and underlines a physical trait revealing a ruthless determination or unscrupulous pursuit of a goal. If we analyze the phenomenon of bullying, for example, we see that it is not easily categorized, although certain recurring characteristics – premeditated aggression, its systematic nature and asymmetry of power – allow us to put individual

preface to this book, written by Father Bergoglio, is translated and published online by La Civiltà Cattolica under the title The Doctrine of Tribulation. 5.Pope Francis, “Where have our people been creative? Conversations with Jesuits in Chile and Peru,” in Civ. Catt. February 2018. 6.Pope Francis, Encounter with the priests, religious, consecrated, and seminarians. Santiago, Chile, January 16, 2018, in w2.vatican.va/. Cf. J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS episodes in this context.7 However, the description of some traits that are common in the abstract does not penetrate the core of the phenomenon, its apparently unmotivated evil, which at some point intensifies exponentially and becomes contagious. Characteristics such as these lead us to realize that this is not a merely instinctive and animal issue, but something more. Contagion is a distinctive element to keep in mind in interpreting the spirit of ferocity. Not all of us experience the spirit of fierceness in the same way or at the same time, but there is a common element: when we are faced with someone aggressive, it awakens a strong mimetic impulse both in those who match the aggressor’s ferocity and in those who, according to a similar dynamic, defend the victim. And when there is such 83 fury, the seed of vengeance is planted, and the contagion spreads over time. Another element to be considered is that, although it may seem that human cruelty has always been the same and that with modern civilization certain things no longer happen, in reality the contrary is true: as technology becomes more sophisticated, the spirit of aggression becomes crueler in its daily effect, and more politically correct in modality. Is it not symptomatic of this that we judge a remotely operated missile to be less ferocious than hand-to-hand fighting in a bloody melee? That we “see less blood” does not mean that the spirit of aggression has diminished; if anything, it has become more precise, more systematic and even more inhumane. Finally, here is a paradox. At the same time, the weakness and resistance of the flesh encourages, sustains and exacerbates this fierceness. One cannot rage against something as solid as iron, nor against something that offers no resistance such as water or air. This paradox leads us to discover a contradiction. “Ferocity against flesh” is intrinsically senseless since after a certain point it ceases being an adequate object for an excess of fury. At a certain point what comes naturally is the appeal

7.Cf. G. Cucci, “Bullying and cyberbullying: two phenomena on the rise,” in Civ. Catt. English ed. Mar. 2018 pp. 34-47. DIEGO FARES, SJ

to stop the aggression and to have pity. However, if there is anything that leads us to “put our fingers in our ears and attack again with renewed fury” a defenseless victim, it is this spirit of ferocity. It is therefore proven that it is not merely instinctive, but the fruit of a lucid and free decision “to do evil for its own sake.” All this is to say, to discern, unequivocally, that it is correct to speak of a “spirit of fury” rather than of instinct. In reality, when we use expressions like “killer instinct” or “blood-thirsty animal” we project on the animal world a cruelty actually chosen with a clarity and lucidity that the animal world does not have. And if it has been so chosen, it follows the rhythm dictated by the impulse and satisfaction of instinct, each time sudden and 84 impossible to plan in the long term.

When fierceness damages dialogue This leads us to analyze in a different way the phenomenon of “media persecution.” If the spirit of ferocity remains confined to the world of words and violence does not become physical – but at most, manifests itself in tone and gestures – this does not mean that we have left the sphere of aggression and find ourselves on a more civilized . Quite the opposite! It is precisely in violent words, lies, slander, defamation, detraction and gossip that the spirit of fury dwells, and it prowls out from there. Francis unmasks some temptations clearly and drastically. Some comment ironically – as if to say that the pope was exaggerating – on the fact that he told a group of cloistered that if they gossiped, they were “terrorist sisters.”8 Words, by their dynamic, tend to become reality. Therefore it is important to understand that it is contradictory to “discuss aggressively.” Being fierce in dialogue is counterproductive. The of dialogue is not the words spoken or the speeches made, but the reciprocal approach of the interlocutors to a reality which requires explanation. When someone formulates

8.Pope Francis, Homily during midday prayer with contemplative women religious, January 21, 2018. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS a judgment, he or she proposes it for the other’s consent, so as to be able to complement it by his or her own point of view. If dialogue is nothing more than a façade behind which there is an objective of imposing our view or disdaining other people’s views, then there is no dialogue. Ferocity is not a result of instinct, but of logic – and the logic is that of the “father of lies” (John 8:44). It is confronted by a different logic, that of truth, as Jesus attested in the gospel and which the discerns in every situation. The logic of the Incarnation is opposed to the logic of aggression.

Remedies against ferocity in ‘Las cartas de la tribulación’ In Las cartas de la tribulación, mentioned above, Bergoglio finds some remedies to resist this evil spirit without being infected. This 85 is the so-called “doctrine of tribulation.” The letters “constitute a treatise about tribulation and how to endure it.”9 Celebrating vespers in the Church of the Gesù in Rome on September 27, 2014, Pope Francis said: “While reading the letters of Fr. Ricci, one thing struck me: his ability not to be ensnared by these temptations and [rather] to propose to the Jesuits, in times of tribulation, a vision of things that anchored them even more in the of the Society.”10 For context, we add that the instruction on how to bear and resist temptation, presented by Bergoglio in his short preface to Las cartas is complemented by two other texts, forming a 11 trilogy: one earlier, La acusación de sí mismo, first published in 1984; and another, written in the first months of his transfer to 12 the residence in Córdoba, titled Silencio y palabra.

9.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. There are seven letters of Ricci and one of Roothaan. 10.Pope Francis, Celebration of Vespers and Te Deum, in the Church of the Gesù, September 27, 2014. 11.Cf. J. M. Bergoglio, Reflexiones espirituales, Buenos Aires, Diego di Torres, 1987. The text “La acusación de sí mismo” contained therein had originally appeared in Boletín de espiritualidad de la Provincia argentina de la Compañía de Jesús, No. 87, 1984. An Italian translation is available under the title Umiltà: La strada verso Dio, Bologna, EMI, 2013. 12.J. M. Bergoglio, “Ensañamiento,” in Reflexiones en esperanza, Buenos Aires, Usal, 1992. The following references are to the Italian translation DIEGO FARES, SJ

First of all, it should be said that Las cartas are not an abstract elaboration of spiritual criteria, but rather the source and fruit of an attitude which led an entire institution – the Society of Jesus – to accept its own suppression (which caused the death of many Jesuits) in obedience to the Church, without returning evil for evil. This paradigmatic behavior in a “great persecution” gives us a spiritual context for confronting any other. This follows the spirit of the First Letter of Peter when he tells us to be 13 unsurprised by the fiery ordeal of persecution (1 Peter 4:12). The attitude mirrors the Letter to the Hebrews which recalls that we have not yet “in the struggle against sin, resisted to the point of shedding blood” (Hebrews 12:4). 86 With the same spiritual paternity of those superiors general of the Society of Jesus, Bergoglio identifies the most efficient defense against the risk of victimization in exaggerated persecutions. A paternal care of the wheat, without prematurely getting rid of the chaff, is the remedy that can “rescue the body from spiritual distress and rootlessness.”14 However, he does not do this by opposing an attack from the outside, but like a father he helps his children “assume an attitude of discernment”15 that allows them to defend themselves. The most devastating effect of the spirit of ferocity attacking the weakest is seen in the faithful people of God: it falls upon those who are simple and childlike, who, when they see this ferocity unleashed against the defenseless, who are among the greatest, will experience abandonment, despair and a sense of uprootedness. A paternal attitude consists in protecting the little ones from scandal. This was the first concern of Our Lord when the time of his passion came: to pray to the Father so that his own would not be scandalized.

“Silenzio e Parola” in Non fatevi rubare la speranza, Milan, Mondadori, 2013, 85-108. Hereafter SeP. 13.Cf. Pope Francis, Press conference during the flight on the return from the apostolic visit to Chile and Peru, January 21, 2018. 14.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. 15.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS

Humble yourself to resist evil The defenses against the spirit of ferocity do not try to “defeat evil with evil.” This results in contamination by its dynamic. On the contrary, they aim to strengthen our ability to resist evil by finding ways to endure tribulation without giving in. This resistance to evil is completely different from that other kind of resistance, against the Spirit, that the practices by provoking and instigating anger. Let us examine the characteristics. In some cases the resistance to persecution will consist of a “flight into ,” as Joseph made to save the Child and his Mother: “We need to always have an ‘Egypt’ close at hand – even in our heart – to humble and empty ourselves in front of the excess of someone who doubts”16 or is persecuting 87 us. Therefore, the first option is to retreat, not to react by attacking or following the instinct of a direct opposition. Going to this place in our hearts, where we can always find exile whenever persecuted by a Herod, is the source of the peace the Lord gave to Bergoglio when he understood that he would be elected bishop of Rome. The pope himself has told the story many times, asking for prayer so that he never loses this peace.17 However, in other cases the resistance would be to face the evil spirit openly, giving public witness to the truth firmly, but graciously. On this point, Pope Francis shows a special grace, which is – to put it plainly – that of “drawing out the evil spirit” who in this way reveals himself.18 When temptation is based on a half-truth, it is very difficult to light and clarify things by intellectual means. “How can we be of help in such circumstances?” Bergoglio asked himself in Silencio y parola. “It

16.SeP 94. Guardini indicates this immeasurability or unbridledness (Ausschweifen) as characteristic of a person who is “dissolute, violent, corrupted by power and inner insecurity” (R. Guardini, Der Herr, Würzburg, Werkbund, 1964, 22). 17.Cf. A. Spadaro, “Interview with Pope Francis” in Civ. Catt. 2013 III 450. Published in English as “A Big Heart Open to God: An interview with Pope Francis” in America, September 30, 2013. 18.Cf. “Five years of Pope Francis: The Path of the Pontificate Gradually Unfolds,” in Civ. Catt. English ed. Apr. 2018 pp. 1-8. DIEGO FARES, SJ

is necessary to let the evil spirit show himself” and the only way to do that is make space for God, because Jesus is the only one who can force the devil to reveal himself: “There is only one way to make space for God, and this has been taught by Jesus himself: humiliation, (Phil 2:5-11). Be silent, pray and humble oneself.”19 Bergoglio says, “We should focus on ‘time’ more than on the ‘light.’ Let me explain: the light of the Devil is strong, but brief – like the flash of a camera – while the light of God is meek, humble, unimposing – but offers itself, and is lasting. We need to know how to wait, praying and asking for the intervention of the Holy Spirit until the period of the intense light has passed.”20

88 Political dimension of the fight against the spirit of fierceness It is important to understand what is at stake in this humbling of the self to make room for Jesus. It is not a simply punctual and subjective religious attitude. In the dialogical process of “focusing on time” and “showing oneself weak” and accepting the real humiliation of not being able to explain everything, “another dimension” opens up.21 In the way of dialogue which resists “primordial cruelty inherent within us, which is rebellion against God,” a political dimension of war, the “war of God,” reveals itself. Bergoglio uses the example given by a religious to describe this dimension: “Once, a religious, referring to a particularly difficult situation, said, ‘I understood that this was awar between God and the Devil. And if we humans take up arms, we are destined to destruction.’”22 The awareness of this “political dimension” of the struggle against the spirit of fury is linked to the clarity with which Francis faces all conflicts – both internal to the Church, and external to it. It is this awareness that it is a war of God that makes him safe in peace, strengthens him in patience, and induces him to go out and go on.

19.SeP 102f. 20.SeP 102. 21.Cf. SeP 102. 22.SeP 105. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS

Meekness will show us weaker As Austen Ivereigh wrote: “The Cross would eventually oblige the devil to reveal himself, because the devil mistakes gentleness for weakness.”23 Bergoglio affirms: “In moments of darkness and great tribulation, when the ‘tangles’ and ‘knots’ cannot be undone, nor can things be clarified, then we must keep silent: the meekness of silence will show us even weaker, and then it will be the same Devil who, emboldening himself, will manifest himself in the full light, and show his true intention, no longer disguised as an angel of light, but fully self-evident.”24 This “showing ourselves even weaker” is the attitude that overcomes the insidiousness of the evil spirit. And it is the best approach against gossiping, scandalous remarks, attacks that are easily spread through social media, and even by publications 89 calling themselves “Catholic.” In these circumstances we must resist in silence. In this sense, the reflections by Maximus the Confessor quoted by Bergoglio in Silencio y Parola are interesting. They affirm that when Christ in his passion was becoming weaker – until death on the Cross, alone, with his disciples fleeing – the devil seemed to gain in strength and became brazen, even thinking himself victorious. But in the end it is the weakened body of Christ that becomes the bait the devil takes, in his ferocity. And it is in this way that he takes both the bait and the poison that neutralizes him.25 Some accuse Pope Francis of being confusing when he does not aggressively defend the righteous and condemn the sinners, imposing rules, defining with papal infallibility the lines we cannot cross, etc. But they do not understand that, in reality, what he is confusing is the evil spirit that motivates them. In a world where politicians and religious leaders debate and insult each other through tweets, Francis, with his way of resisting aggression through dialogue, “stands firm (Ephesians

23.A. Ivereigh, The Great Reformer: Francis and the Making of a Radical Pope. Henry Holt, 2014. 24.SeP 105. 25.Cf. Pope Francis, apostolic exhortation Gaudete et Exsultate, No. 115; SeP 104. DIEGO FARES, SJ

6:13) but with the same attitude of Jesus,”26 and opens around him a different political space, that of the Kingdom of God, in which the Lord is the real champion of the battle, not us. This “passive resistance of evil” – the same that Bergoglio has always emphasized as the grace which belongs to the people, and upon which they build patiently and wisely their culture27 – amends, among other things, three attitudes that are typical of a “politics of aggression” and are at the basis of all partisan politics. Bergoglio describes these behaviors as they present themselves in the Passion of our Lord. The first one is the behavior of the people who “persecute those who they believe to be weaker.”28 The powerful did not dare to oppose Jesus when the people followed him, but they were brave enough to do 90 so when, after having been betrayed by one of his own, they saw him weakened. The second attitude is characterized this way: “At the root of all cruelty there is a need to unload one’s own faults and limits […] the mechanism of the scapegoat is repeated.”29 The third attitude belongs to those who, like Pilate, in the face of such ferocity decide to wash their hands of it and walk away.30

Self-accusation On the other side, “showing oneself weak” in imitating Jesus consists of a very specific attitude. Bergoglio says that “Jesus forces the devil to ‘show himself,’ he makes room for this.”31 Of course, it is not possible to imitate what God obtains through his innocence and his unconditional self-gift into the hands of the Father for the salvation of all, even forgiving his enemies. But there is a way – accessible to us sinners – to make our own weakness innocent: it consists of the “accusation of oneself,” an attitude diametrically opposed to one of ferocity toward others.

26.SeP 105. 27.Cf. D. Fares, “Io sono una missione: Verso il sinodo dei giovani,” in Civ. Catt. 2018 I 431. 28.SeP 103. 29.SeP 103f. 30.SeP 104. 31.SeP 105. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS

Self-accusation, not in a generalized way, but in something very concrete, is to “show oneself as weak,” so that we can be “defended by the Paraclete,” in the same way that a defendant confides in and relies upon his lawyer to defend him most effectively in the face of his accusers. This idea was explored by Bergoglio in his commentary on Dorotheus of Gaza in the 32 treatise Sobre la acusacion de si mismo. In fact, the latter alludes to how good it is to shape one’s own heart through the exercise of “self-accusation,” since it concerns “interior attitudes,” even small ones, which have their repercussion at this level of the institutional body.”33 “It is not uncommon to meet – in religious communities, be they local or provincial – factions struggling to impose a hegemony of their own thought and preferences. This happens 91 when charitable openness to one’s neighbor is replaced by each person’s own ideology. The whole of the family is no longer defended, just the part that concerns me. We no longer adhere to unity […] but to conflict […]. He who accuses himself makes room for God’s mercy.”34 In Las cartas Bergoglio shows that bearing witness to the truth is something very different than merely “telling the truth.” In the tribulation which leads to the suppression of the Society of Jesus, “it is not of God to defend truth at the price of charity, nor charity at the price of truth, nor equilibrium at the price of both of them. In order to avoid becoming a truthful destroyer or a charitable liar or a confused paralytic, you need to discern.”35 We must be vigilant against this “ferocity” – especially when it shows itself in an educated manner, even using the truth – because “Satan does not always tempt with lies. At the basis of a temptation there could be a truth – even if lived out with an evil spirit. This is the attitude of Blessed Peter Faber [later

32.Cf. J. M. Bergoglio, Umiltà..., cit. The text reports and comments on a translation of “Instruction No. 7” from the spiritual teachings of Dorotheus of Gaza. 33.J. M. Bergoglio, Umiltà..., 12. 34.J. M. Bergoglio, Umiltà..., 11-12 and 27. 35.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. DIEGO FARES, SJ

proclaimed saint].”36 Bergoglio shows that an ideological truth must always be judged not for its content but for the spirit [the will] which sustains it, which is not exactly the Spirit of truth.37 As a remedy, a safer antidote to fierceness, Bergoglio supports the idea of “recourse to Jesuit ” as made by the superiors general who – in a merely discursive perspective, rather than discernment – would describe themselves as totally unaware of the external confusion caused by persecutions. “What happens is not a matter of chance: there is here a dialectic proper to the situational context of discernment: to seek interiorly within oneself a state of being similar to the external one. In this case seeing oneself solely as persecuted could engender the bad spirit of ‘feeling like a victim,’ like an object of injustice, etc. Outside, 92 on account of persecution, there is confusion… In considering his own sins the Jesuit asks for ‘shame and confusion for himself.’ This is not the same thing, but it seems so; and in this way one is better disposed to discernment.”38 Bergoglio highlights that the superiors general “focus their reflection on the confusion” that the ideology underlying persecution produces “in one’s own heart” (of the Jesuits, in that case). “Confusion dwells in the heart: it is the coming and going of different spirits.”39 And he continues: “Ideas are discussed, situations are discerned.” The situation is one of confusion, and the cause of confusion is rooted in the dynamics of fierceness, that coming and going of thoughts which show up when one is under pressure by a fierce and persistent attack typical of those who are “stubborn.”40 Resistance to the Holy Spirit, to its grace and the splendor of its truth, is that typically diabolic impetus which, in order to remain unseen itself, unleashes a fury against the flesh of the other. Faced with this merciless, accusatory dynamism, the

36.J. M. Bergoglio, Umiltà..., 85, note 1; cf. P. Faber, Memoriale, No. 51. 37.J. M. Bergoglio, Umiltà..., 86. 38.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. 39.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. 40.“You stiff-necked people [...], you are forever opposing the Holy Spirit” (Acts 7:51): it is the accusation that Stephen addresses to those who, in response, will respond furiously against him. AGAINST THE SPIRIT OF FIERCENESS interior attitude is – paradoxically – the accusation of oneself, sincerely and simply, without frills and without the fury of guilt: the accusation of self in the face of the mercy of God and the community.

A new letter of tribulation A real example of this attitude was given by Francis recently in a kind of new “Letter of Tribulation.” This was sent on April 8, 2018, to the Chilean bishops, after having read the report by Archbishop Charles J. Scicluna who had listened “with heart and humility” to the testimonies of witnesses and victims of abuses committed by the presbyterate and episcopate in that country. The spirit of the pope’s letter, addressed to his brother bishops, is that of a father speaking to grown children who are themselves 93 parents. This is the profound sense of the letter, which is also the spirit Bergoglio perceived behind the letters written by the superiors general of the Society.41 The paternal spirit is contrary to the spirit of fierceness. At the heart of this fatherly journey there are the victims and the country itself, Chile, which bleeds for the sins of the Church. The first tool of a spiritual father is discernment. The pope, as he writes to the bishops, wants “to humbly urge your collaboration and assistance in discerning the measures to be taken in the short, medium and long term.” Francis invites the to put itself “in a state of prayer” with the aim of “repairing, as much as possible, the damage of the scandal and restoring justice.” The evils the pope refers to have “marred our spirit and cast us into the world, weak, fearful, shielded in our comfortable winter palaces.” They produce “distress and rootlessness”42 among the people of God. Therefore, to be able to restore and heal the wounds we should first of all accept to be forgiven and consoled by God. The radical attitude to take, when desolation is so deep, is, as we said, to accuse and humble oneself – which is what Francis here is the first to do, without unloading blame

41.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. 42.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation. DIEGO FARES, SJ

onto a scapegoat, as many have tried to do, but taking them upon himself. In fact, he writes: “With regard to myself, I recognize, and I would like you to convey this faithfully, that I have made serious errors in the assessment and perception of the situation, in particular through the lack of reliable and balanced information. I now beg the forgiveness of all those whom I have offended and I hope to be able to do so personally, in the coming weeks, in the meetings that I will have with representatives of the people interviewed.”43 These are the attitudes which allow wounds to heal, wounds that have been caused by evil and sin in society. This is the way that strengthens our belonging to Christ and the body of the Church.44 94

43.Pope Francis, Letter to the bishops of Chile following the report delivered by Archbishop Charles J. Scicluna, April 8, 2018. 44.J. M. Bergoglio, The Doctrine of Tribulation.