NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. James McGurn, your : An Illustrated History of . London: John , 1987, p. 160 and Robert Hurst, The Art of Cycling: A Guide to Bicycling in 21st Century America. Guildford, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 2007, p. 22. 2. The International Cycling History Conference (ICHC) was formed in 1990 as a forum for bicycle historians and academics. Several popular histories have appeared which interweave derivative (and not always accurate) historical infor- mation with personal memoir and anecdotes. See Robert Penn, It’s All About the Bike. London: Penguin, 2011 and Bella Bathurst, The Bicycle Book. London: HarperCollins, 2011. These confirm that bicycling is once again a topical issue and a popular leisure pursuit. For standard histories, see David Herlihy, Bicycle: The History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004; Frederick Alderson, Bicycling: A History. Newton Abbot, 1972: David and Charles; McGurn, On Your Bicycle; Robert Smith, A Social : Its Early Life and Times in America. New York: American Heritage Press, 1972; and Rob Van der Plas, The Penguin Bicycle Handbook. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1983. For a more recent technical his- tory that exposes some of the myths of earlier histories, see Tony Hadland and Hans-Erhard Lessing, Bicycle Design: An Illustrated History. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014. 3. The modern Olympics was relaunched in 1896, by which bicycle racing in the US and Europe was already well established. 4. Edward Howland, ‘A Bicycle Era’, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 1881, p. 283. 5. Wendy Griswold, Cultures and Societies in a Changing World. London: Sage, 2004, p. 13.

1 INVENTION: THE TECHNICAL EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN BICYCLE

1. Reported in discussion following paper by George Lacy Hillier, ‘Cycling: Historical and Practical’, Journal of the Society of Arts, London, 1897, 2 April.

156 NOTES, PP. 9–12 157

2. The technical history of the bicycle and its manufacture were popular topics at the Society in the 1890s. Other speakers included whose paper is discussed below. 3. Even though the original Lallement patent was for a front-driven , Albert Pope was able to apply it to the high-wheeled Ordinaries which were imported from Europe and later manufactured by Pope and others (under Pope’s licence) in the US. The Lallement patent continued to add cost to all American and stifled innovation. Herlihy reports that Lallement was engaged in making ‘children’s coaches’ in when he hit upon the idea of adding cranks and pedals to the front of a velocipede (David V. Herlihy, Bicycle: The History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004, pp. 208–209). 4. Patents tailed off dramatically by 1900, showing that by then the design of the bicycle had stabilised (Andrew Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry 1870–1939, PhD Thesis, University of , 1999. Accessed at the National Cycle Archive, Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick, MSS 328/N29/15/1/1, p. 9). 5. Replicas of the Macmillan bicycle have been installed in the London Science Museum and the Museum of . Although the Macmillan was originally claimed to have been built in 1845, it was not ‘discovered’ until much later and it resembles rear-driven bicycles built by Gavin Dalzell and Thomas McCall in the 1860s. Other priority claims are more blatantly chau- vinistic or mischievous according to Hans-Erhard Lessing, who together with other cycle historians at the International Conference of Cycle History has sought to debunk the major priority hoaxes (Tony Hadland and Hans-Erhard Lessing, Bicycle Design: An Illustrated History. Cambridge, USA: MIT Press, 2014, pp. 494–502; see also this chapter, ‘Origins and pre-texts – ulterior motives in bicycle historiography’). 6. For examples of some ingenious approaches to human-powered transport see references to the Mechanics’ Magazine and, from 1865, the English Mechanic, cited in Andrew Ritchie, King of the Road: An Illustrated . London: Ten Speed Press, 1975, pp. 31–49. Note that the first mention of Kirkpatrick Macmillan appears in the English Mechanic in 1869 (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 37). 7. One notable example was Willard Sawyer of , who produced a range of four-wheeled ‘self-locomotives’ commercially, showed one at the Great Exhibition of 1851 and supplied to the Royalty of Britain, and Europe (Ritchie, King of the Road, pp. 39–40). 8. See, for example, recent Proceedings of the ICHC, which, as we might expect, emphasise international bicycle research; David Herlihy’s greater focus on the US in his Bicycle (2004); Claude Reynaud’s recent book, Le Grand Bi (2011), pressing the claims for France’s Eugène Meyer; and Hans Erhard-Lessing’s emphasis on the contribution of ’s Karl Drais and greater prominence given to the in Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design. 9. The Michaux factory in was already importing wrought-iron frames in bulk from a foundry in Marseille in 1868 (Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 96), while the bicycle producers were drawing on component suppliers across the UK by the 1870s. Most of the inventors and suppliers of components have been ignored by 158 NOTES, PP. 13–22

history, with the notable exception of John Boyd Dunlop, who began commer- cial development of the pneumatic tyre in 1888 (see also, below, J. K. Starley’s acknowledgement of the essential contribution of component makers). 10. Although Lessing presents arguments to the contrary in Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design and Hans-Erhard Lessing, ‘What Led to the Invention of the Early Bicycle?’ Cycle History, 2001, 11: 28–36. 11. The summer of 1869 appears to be the moment when a form of high-wheeler made its first appearance on the racetrack. It had an immediate impact and was soon the machine of choice for racers from France and England (Nick Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny-Farthing”?’ Cycle History, 1997, 7: 31–42, p. 35). 12. David V. Herlihy, ‘Mind the Gap: An Explanation for the Primitive Bicycle’s Surprisingly Low Profile from 1864 to 1867’, Cycle History, 2009, 20: 157–159. 13. Frederick Alderson, Bicycling: A History. Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972, p. 25. 14. The suspension wheel was a great advance. According to J. K. Starley, early versions were made by ‘heading the , screwing down screw nipples into the hubs, and tightening them with lock nuts’. Clayton credits Meyer with the invention of the suspension wheel in 1869 (Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny-Farthing”?’), but E. A. Cowper of England took out a patent for a velocipede using suspension made with ‘hollow felloes and steel wire spokes’ in December 1868. According to J. K. Starley, W. H. J. Grout also pat- ented a radially spoked, nipple-adjusted wheel in 1870 (John Kemp Starley, ‘The Evolution of the Cycle’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 1898, 46: 601–612, p. 603). According to Clayton, the Cowper patent was ‘probably filed … on behalf of a French principal’ (see Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny-Farthing”?’, p. 41). 15. According to reports in the local press and a letter written to the English Mechanic in October 187[0] (the same publication which announced the Kirkpatrick machine to the world) – see Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny- Farthing”?’, p. 36 (the date seems to be misprinted in Clayton’s article). 16. Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny-Farthing”?’ and Reynaud, Le Grand Bi. 17. Starley, ‘The Evolution of the Cycle’, p. 603. 18. Frank J. Berto, The Dancing Chain: History and Development of the Bicycle. San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2009, pp. 24–25. 19. Although Guilmet was killed in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Meyer company continued to produce bicycles after the war: Watson and Gray, The Penguin Book of the Bicycle, p. 109. See also Nick Clayton, ‘The Meyer-Guilmet Bicycle 1869 or 1879?’, Cycle History, 1991, 1: 41–56. 20. The rear wheel was geared to 56” on the 1886 . The 1884 Rover had a 36” front wheel, and 30” rear wheel geared to 55” (see Berto, The Dancing Chain, p. 38). 21. There have been several families involved in bicycle production, including and his sons in Paris and the Starleys of Coventry whose dynasty spanned the development of the high-wheeler and the . 22. The price of Ordinaries between 1875 and 1889 averaged £12–£18; safeties from 1875–1890 averaged £15–£19, but cheaper models of £6 were being pro- duced by 1889. Wages in 1900 averaged £1 10 shillings a week (20 shillings = £1); see Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry 1870–1939, p. 188. Hire Purchase agreements were also becoming NOTES, PP. 23–28 159

commonplace, and it was possible to buy new or second-hand bicycles in 1893 for 1 shilling a week, see, for example, advertisements in Cycling, 28 January 1893, 5: 106. 23. The 1816 global ecological ‘event’ is usually attributed to the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora on the Indonesian island of Sumbawa. As well as local devas- tation, the eruption affected weather systems across the western world through 1816, causing crop failures, riots and starvation. The near-coincidence of Drais’ invention and the ‘’ (1816), when crops failed and the price of oats increased eightfold, supports the theory that the lack of horses was an impetus to the development of this form of ‘horseless’ transport (see Lessing, ‘What Led to the Invention of the Early Bicycle?’). But the price of oats, as Drais must surely have realised, was bound to fall again. 24. Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelite, and Bulbs: Towards a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995, p. 25. 25. Alderson, Bicycling: A History, p. 14. 26. Herlihy, Bicycle, pp. 44–45. 27. Roger Street, ‘Johnson’s 1819 Tour of England’, Cycle History, 2002, 11: 23–27. 28. The name was probably only used to help obtain a patent, which Johnson acquired in 1819 – the machine was more commonly referred to as a ‘veloci- pede’ (Roger Street, Dashing Dandies: The English Hobby-horse Craze of 1819, Christchurh, England: Artesius Publications, 2011, p. 19). 29. Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine and the Letters of John Keats (Letter to George and Georgiana Keats, March 1819). On the ‘fickleness of fashion’ and other rea- sons for the demise of the hobby-horse, see Roger Street, ‘Who Killed Cock Robin? – The Early Demise of the Pedestrian Hobby-Horse’, Cycle History, 2011, 21: 64–70. 30. Anon, The Saturday Review, September 14, 1895, 80 (99): 343–344. 31. Street, ‘Who Killed Cock Robin?’, pp. 64–70. 32. Apart from the well-publicised taunt that it was the ‘nothing of the day’, the moniker ‘’ was damage enough. George Lacy Hillier, in 1897 admit- ted that as a cyclist for 20 years, it was only recently that the appellation ‘Cads on Castors’ had begun to wear off, and people stopped expecting him to be ashamed of riding a bicycle (Hillier, ‘Cycling: Historical and Practical’). 33. See Jack Rennert, 100 Years of Bicycle Posters. New York: Harper and Row, 1973 – discussed further in Chapter 2. 34. If Johnson was selling his machines for about £8–£10 (Street, ‘Who Killed Cock Robin?’, p. 68), this was more than the average annual wage for most farm workers, servants and labourers, who constituted the majority of the population of Victorian England, where workers’ wages were higher than in many other countries at the time. 35. According to Drais, a British engineer rode one of his hobby-horses from Pau to (300 miles) in 1820, although there is no evidence to corroborate this (Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design). 36. Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design. 37. Street, ‘Who Killed Cock Robin?’, p. 67. 38. Street gives the inevitability of hernias and ruptures as the main reason for the demise of the hobby-horse (Street, Dashing Dandies, p. 91). 39. As Charles Vernon Boys put it, ‘One peculiarity of the bicycle […] is that the plane of the machine always lies in the direction of the resultant force, that the 160 NOTES, PP. 28–33

machine leans over to an amount depending on the velocity and the sharpness of the curve described.’ (Charles Vernon Boys, ‘Bicycles and ’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 1884, 32: 622–633, p. 623. 40. One of the several competing claimants for the ‘inventor’ of the front-wheel drive mechanism is , who worked at a perambulator and chil- dren’s factory in Nancy in the early 1860s. He later moved to Paris where he continued to work on children’s and claimed to have developed a prototype bicycle privately in 1862. He later emigrated to America and lodged the first patent for a bicycle there in 1866. For an account of the competing claims for the invention of the velocipede, see Herlihy, Bicycle, pp. 84–93. 41. Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 91. 42. Ibid., p. 96. But according to Millward, the Michaux factory was producing 200 machines a day by 1869; Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry 1870–1939, p. 11. 43. Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 78. 44. Ibid., p. 144. 45. David V. Herlihy, ‘The Velocipede Craze in Maine’, Cycle History, 1998, 8: 9–14, p. 10. 46. Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 78. 47. Ritchie also suggests that British mechanics were less impressed by the new fad than their American counterparts as they had been working on their own veloci- pedes for some time (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 67). 48. In July 1869, Mr. R. J. Klamroth is reported to have made the journey from Edinburgh to London, at an average of 7.5 miles an hour (Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 150). Not all the feats reported were actually completed, however. According to Ritchie, two of the riders accompanying John Mayall on the first London to Brighton bicy- cle ride in 1869 finished the journey in a coach (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 70). 49. A letter from a schoolteacher in a provincial town in February 1868 enquiring about purchasing a velocipede shows the degree to which its popularity had quickly moved beyond Paris (see Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 79). 50. Vie Parisienne, 28 January 1868 (cited in Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 83). 51. Christopher S. Thompson, The Tour de France: A Cultural History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006, p. 9. 52. See, for example, the frequently reprinted engraving commemorating the event in Harper’s Weekly, 19 December 1868. 53. Thompson, The Tour de France, p. 11. 54. Ibid., p. 55. 55. Joel Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’, 1998, http://faculty. wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf [accessed 23 February 2012], p. 7. 56. By 1870, the English middle class and skilled workers could be earning between £50 and £150 a year, and this group had swelled to nearly 10% of the popula- tion. Although much of this would be needed for rent, food and clothing, many would have been able to afford the necessary £8 for a new Ariel Ordinary. 57. Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’, p. 2. 58. Vaclav Smil, Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact. : Oxford University Press, 2005. See also, Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’. 59. Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’, p. 9. NOTES, PP. 33–40 161

60. Ibid., p. 9. 61. Road networks in Britain improved greatly in the period. The Macadam method was pioneered by Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam in 1820, and a net- work of hard-surfaced roads had been built by the time of the safety boom of the 1890s. Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley in 1901 (Ralph Morton, Construction UK: Introduction to the Industry. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2002, p. 51). 62. Between 1875 and 1900, areas on the outskirts of London, such as Hackney – which in Dickens’ novels are presented as uninhabited wastelands – were turned into a dense network of suburban houses and roads. The invention of the mod- ern bicycle is contemporaneous with this process of suburbanisation. 63. The famous section of the Portsmouth Road (now the A3) between the Angel Inn at Thames Ditton and the Anchor Inn at Ripley. Both inns were meeting points for the Cyclists’ Touring Club (CTC). This section of the road was known in the 1880s as the ‘Blue Riband’, and according to McGurn it was regarded as the ‘best kept road in the world’ (James McGurn, On Your Bicycle: An Illustrated History of Cycling. London: John Murray, 1987, p. 155). 64. According to Duncans, the construction of a first-grade bicycle in 1898 should have cost about £10, and with a fair trade profit the selling price would then be £13, but the large manufacturers more than doubled this to allow for ‘Advertising expenses’, including ‘fees to influential directors … expense of staff of racing men and prizes for demonstration of much vaunted superiority’. All of which led to the total cost of a bicycle rising to £28 (Duncans (1898) ‘The Cycle Industry’, The Contemporary Review, 73: 500–511, p. 505). 65. W. G. George, ‘Ancient Cycling’ (notes sent to the BBC by W. G. George, October, 1939) in Papers of A. Josey (1869–1974), MSS.328 N93/1/B21, National Cycling Archives, Warwick Records Office, University of Warwick. 66. Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 66. 67. For the demise of velocipede development in the US, see Herlihy, Bicycle, pp. 124–126. 68. Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 144 and Robert Štˇerba, ‘The Early Days of Bicycle Production – History of Michaux and Compagnie Parisienne – New Questions and Answers’, Cycle History, 2013, 23: 172–178. 69. Reynaud, L’ère du grand bi en France, p. 51 (English translation by Rebecca Welland). 70. Inventors included William Sawyer of Dover, who produced four-wheeled veloci- pedes in the 1840s and 1850s, mainly for the upper classes and royalty of Europe (see Herlihy, Bicycle, pp. 56–57). 71. For examples of some ingenious approaches to human-powered transport see ref- erences to the Mechanics’ Magazine, and from 1865 the English Mechanic (Ritchie, King of the Road, pp. 31–49). Note that first mention of Kirkpatrick Macmillan appears in the English Mechanic in 1869 (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 37). 72. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelite, and Bulbs, p. 34. 73. Charles Spencer, The Bicycle Road Book (1881), cited in Alderson, Bicycling: A History, p. 28 (emphasis added). 74. To appropriate the theory of Walter Benjamin in his ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ (1936). 162 NOTES, PP. 40–46

75. For a detailed engineering specification of early bicycles and tricycles, see Archibald Sharp, Bicycles and Tricycles: An Elementary Treatise on Their Design and Construction. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1977, p. 149. 76. James Starley introduced a bicycle for ladies in 1874, but it was difficult to steer as its two wheels did not track. This gave rise to the Coventry tricycle, patented in 1876, soon followed by a ‘’, and the successful Coventry Salvo tri- cycle of 1877 (Starley, ‘The Evolution of the Cycle’, p. 605); see also Glen Norcliffe, ‘The Coventry Tricycle: , Gender and Buzz’, Cycle History, 2010, 19: 136–143, p. 136. 77. Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’, p. 7. 78. It is beyond the scope of this work, but it could also be argued that the factory system itself was the product of social factors – it was certainly driven by the economic and ideological forces of industrial capitalism. 79. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelite, and Bulbs, p. 6. 80. Ibid., p. 45. 81. The metal suspension wheel made it possible to produce wheels larger than 40" in diameter, which had been a practical limit of wooden wheels. 82. Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny-Farthing”?’, p. 35. 83. In 1884, the first geared safety bicycles fitted with steel ball bearing races would bring the record down to 2 min 41 s and by 1898, with the addition of the pneumatic tyre and other improvements, the record would be slashed to 1 min 35 s (Starley, ‘The Evolution of the Cycle’, p. 611). 84. Between 1870 and 1914 infant mortality was halved and life expectancy increased as prosperity brought better nutrition, cleaner water and greater emphasis on hygiene. Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’, p. 13. 85. Edward Howland, ‘A Bicycle Era’, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 1881, 63: 281–286, p. 281. 86. This necessity is starkly portrayed in the Italian social realist movie, The Bicycle Thieves (Vittorio De Sica, 1948), in which the bicycle is the difference between work and unemployment, and the family’s only material asset. 87. Mokyr, ‘The Second Industrial Revolution 1870–1914’, p. 7. 88. Joseph Pennell, ‘Cycles and Motors in 1900’, Contemporary Review, 1901, 79 (January–June): 98–108, p. 100. 89. Nick Clayton, ‘The Quest for Safety: What Took So Long?’, Cycle History, 1998, 8: 15–20, p. 16. 90. According to Clayton in ‘The Meyer-Guilmet Bicycle, 1869 or 1879?’, although other historians have dismissed the earlier version as a fake. 91. Jean Baudrillard, The System of Objects [1968], trans. James Benedict. London: Verso, 1996, p. 6 citing, Gilbert Simondon, Du mode d’existence des objets tech- niques. Paris: Aubier, 1958, pp. 25–26. 92. Jean Baudrillard, The System of Objects, p. 7. 93. Starley, ‘The Evolution of the Cycle’, p. 608 – further references to this article are given as a page number in the text. 94. See for example comments made a few months earlier to the Royal Society of Arts by the American, Leonard Waldo, in which he complained about ‘the scant NOTES, PP. 46–50 163

attention to the American Wheel’ in Archibald Sharp’s history. In the discussion that followed, Joseph Pennell (also an American and one of the most intrepid bicycle tourists of the day) complained that the Columbia wood-rimmed wheels were inferior, and it was impossible to get one of Pope’s machines repaired ‘without sending back to the factory’. One tourist found it impossible to get rid of his Columbia (Leonard Waldo, ‘The American Bicycle: Its Theory and Practice of Construction’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 1897, 46 (December): 46–55, p. 55). 95. See for example the case for Lallement in Herlihy, Bicycle, pp. 86–88, 208–209; although a number of bicycle histories still credit Michaux. 96. According to Herlihy the velocipede appeared ‘in , the Pacific, northern and southern , and even Central and South America’, between 1869 and 1870 (Bicycle, p. 144). As with later versions of the bicycle, these sightings would have been very few and far between, restricted mainly to European colo- nies and international enclaves (see below Chapter 3). 97. Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 147. 98. See Clayton, ‘Who Invented the “Penny-Farthing”?’ and ‘The Meyer-Guilmet Bicycle, 1869 or 1879?’. 99. See sketch of ‘Price’s Improved Bicycle’ in Scientific American, 12 June 1869, reproduced in Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 125. 100. This was cheaper than a hobby-horse in 1819 (about £10) and considerably cheaper than the $100 charged by Pope for importing English high-wheelers into the US while controlling inferior domestic production of machines with wooden wheels (see Waldo in note 94). 101. For a detailed account of chain technology, see Berto, The Dancing Chain, pp. 28–31. 102. O. A. van Nierop, A. C. M Blenkendaal and C. J. Overbeeke, ‘The Evolution of the Bicycle: A Dynamic Systems Approach’, Journal of Design History, 1997, 10(3): 253–267, p. 254. 103. In 1883, a London gathering of tricyclists attracted about 400 participants, and at least one UK manufacturer was exporting tricycles to the colonies (Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 214). 104. According to Ritchie, there were 20 manufacturers in Coventry alone, employ- ing 1,000 or so workers and producing over 100 models (King of the Road, p. 112). 105. In a letter to the Club, one class-conscious tricyclist counts ‘Princes, Princesses, Dukes, Earls’ among their number, and refers to tricyclists as ‘altogether a better class than Bicyclists’ (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 113). 106. Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 227. The Bicycle Touring Club (est. 1878) was renamed the Cyclists’ Touring Club in 1883, partly to accommodate tricyclists. 107. James Starley introduced a collapsible tricycle in 1879 in an attempt to circum- vent this problem (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 116). 108. For a technical comparison see, Boys, ‘Bicycles and Tricycles’, p. 623. 109. See for example, special edition of Cycling magazine for the National Cycle Show at Crystal Palace on 20–28 January 1893, where dozens of adverts for suppliers of safety bicycles are juxtaposed with several for geared Ordinaries: Cycling magazine (28 January, 1893), 5: 106. 164 NOTES, PP. 51–56

110. There were other versions of the safety from France, such as the disputed machine of Meyer and Guilmet – see Reynaud, Le Grand Bi, and other British and American early safety models: the Facile, the Kangaroo, American Star and Lawson’s Bicyclette, which pioneered a rear-wheel driven low mount machine using chain and drive – see above, this chapter, and Herlihy, Bicycle, pp. 216–217. 111. Alberto E. Minetti, John Pinkerton and Zamparo Paolo, ‘From Bipedalism to Bicyclism: Evolution in Energetics and Biomechanics of Historic Bicycles’, Royal Society Proceedings: Biological Sciences, 2001, 268(1474): 1351–1360. 112. The record for 100 miles was set by George Smith in September 1885 on a Rover (7 h, 5 min, 16 s), although it was broken a month later (Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 130). 113. Although when the Japanese began to manufacture safeties, they reduced the standard size of the English frame and wheels for the Asian market (see Chapter 3). 114. Ritchie, King of the Road, p. 94. 115. Baudrillard, The System of Objects, p. 4. 116. For analysis of how it might be used, see B. F. S. Baden-Powell, ‘The Bicycle for War Purposes’, Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 1899, 43(257): 715–737. For use of the bicycle in French, Swiss, Dutch and Austro-Hungarian armies in the 1880s and 1890, see Michael Plavec, ‘Usage of Bicyclists in K.U.K Armee [sic] During Field Manoeuvres in Lanskroun Area in 1894’, Cycle History, 2010, 21: 36–40. 117. Hadland and Lessing, ‘Debunked Priority Hoaxes’ Bicycle Design, pp. 493–502. This very useful appendix to Lessing and Hadland’s new book provides the lat- est, but probably not the last word on some of the more well-known hoaxes. My thanks to Hans Lessing for giving me access to this resource. 118. The name was apparently used to describe four-wheeled diligences; see Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design, p. 494. 119. As reported in Alderson, Bicycling: A History, pp. 12–13. 120. H. V. Morton (c1940) Travel in Wartime, pamphlet by B.S.A. Bicycles, Birmingham [see MSS.328/N10/Papers of Alexander A. Josey (1869–1974) in The National Cycle Archive, Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick], p. 11; a similar idea is presented in Alderson Bicycling: A History, p. 11. 121. ‘The Origin of Velocipedes’, in the ‘Papers of Alexander A. Josey (1869–1974)’ MSS.328/N10/B14, National Cycling Archives, Warwick Records Office, University of Warwick. 122. Lessing, ‘What Led to the Invention of the Early Bicycle’, pp. 28–29. 123. Jonathan Bate was the first to draw to my attention the link between the eco- logical disaster and literature of the period at a conference on Ecocriticism at Warwick University in 1994. See also, Jonathan Bate, Romantic Ecology: Wordsworth and the Environmental Tradition. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. 124. As suggested by Ritchie, in King of the Road, p. 37. 125. See Nicholas Oddy, ‘Non-Technological Factors in Early Cycle Design’, Cycle History, 1994, 4: 63–68, p. 65; Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 67; Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design, p. 497. NOTES, PP. 57–66 165

126. From the Gallovidian No. 4 – 1899, ‘The First Bicycle’ by James Johnston. This article established Macmillan as the inventor of the first bicycle – the myth that he fitted cranks and pedals to a Draisine that had found its way to Mr Charteris – a wood turner in Dumfries (p. 2). Macmillan fitted driving gear in the shape of cranks and levers (p. 3). See below, this chapter, for debunking of bicycle priority claims. NB according to Lessing, Johnston began his cam- paign in 1892 (Hadland and Lessing, Bicycle Design). The Johnston article was accessed at Warwick National Records Office, University of Warwick. National Cycling Archive MSS.328/N10/B9 Papers of Alexander A. Josey (1869–1974). 127. Oddy, ‘Non-Technological Factors in Early Cycle Design’, p. 65. 128. McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 31. 129. Oddy, ‘Non-Technological Factors in Early Cycle Design’. 130. To paraphrase Maurice Leblanc in Voici Des Ailes (See Chapter 2). 131. Bernstein, ‘Beauty and the Bicycle’, pp. 76–78. 132. Baudrillard, The System of Objects, p. 5. 133. Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, p. 3. 134. The safety bicycle boom in the 1890s led to a surge in patents in the UK – over 1,000 per year, tailing off dramatically by 1900 (Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry, p. 9). 135. Pennel, ‘Cycles and Motors in 1900’, p. 100. 136. Briese, ‘The German “Markenfahrad”’, pp. 127–129. 137. Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, p. 35. 138. Duncans, ‘The Cycle Industry’, p. 504. 139. Baudrillard, The System of Objects, p. 7. 140. The e-bike may be considered by some to be a further significant technological development of the bicycle, which would eventually displace the pedal-driven bicycle, but it is perhaps akin to and more of a threat to the motorbike – at least once the prices of electricity and gasoline are on a par (see Chapter 4). 141. The Recumbent was first introduced in 1914 by Peugeot of France. A later version – the of 1932, designed by Charles and ridden by Francois Faure – broke the mile and kilometre speed records for a bicycle (‘History of the Bicycle’, Hero Cycles Ltd., , 2010). 142. Nicholas Oddy, ‘Cycling: A Game for All Players’, Cycle History, 1994, 17: 11–16, p. 15. 143. Berto, The Dancing Chain, p. 227. 144. Frank J. Berto, ‘Who Invented the ?’, Cycle History, 1998, 8: 25–48, pp. 30–33. 145. Berto, The Dancing Chain, p. 291. 146. Bodkin, ‘Fixed-Gear Bicycles’, p. 169. 147. Including European lightweight models, touring bikes, BMX, mountain bikes, recumbents, the Moulton and carbon fibre racing bikes. Although many of these have always been manufactured in Asia, only in the last 20 years has there been a significant Asian market for them. 148. Production beginning in , India and eventually . Competition was mainly on price and quality rather than design. Chinese manufacturers made only very slight modifications to the basic English – the main altera- tion was to shorten the frame – see Chapter 3. 166 NOTES, PP. 67–72

2 MOBILITY: THE PRACTICAL AND CULTURAL IMPACT OF BICYCLING IN THE WEST

1. See for example, Susan B. Anthony’s claim – ‘Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel’ (c. 1898), cited in Lynn Sher, Failure is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in her Own Words. New York: Random House, 1995, p. 277. 2. Editorial by Charles P. Sisley, Lady Cyclist, March 1896, 2(1): 7. 3. Sylvia Alving, ‘“Daisy Daisy, Give me your answer do” – “Join the Clarions”’, 12 August 2012, http://ourhistory-hayes.blogspot.hk/2012/08/daisy-daisy-give-me- your-answer-do-join.html (accessed 23 January 2013). 4. Although we also learn that the Princess of Wales could not be persuaded to upgrade to a bicycle from her now ‘entirely obsolete Coventry Rotary [tricycle]’. According to Sisley, Lady Cyclist, p. 8. 5. Max Beerbohm, ‘Fashion and her Bicycle’ [1899], in Max Beerbohm (ed.), MORE. London: Bodley , 1921, p. 150. 6. Glen Norcliffe, The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869–1900. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001, p. 187. 7. Robert A. Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle: Its Early Life and Times in America. New York: American Heritage Press, 1972, p. 74. 8. A daily commute of three to four miles was easily achieved in 20 minutes, giving an extensive catchment area for employers in the new towns and suburbs. 9. Beerbohm, ‘Fashion and her Bicycle’, p. 149. 10. Marshall Berman, All That is Solid Melts Into Air. London: Verso, 1982, pp. 15–36. 11. Edward Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory, London: Verso, 1989, p. 29. 12. See the work of Samuel Beckett and Flann O’Brien between the 1930s and 1960s, and the discussion of examples later in this chapter. 13. Between the wars, there was an upsurge in , climbing, cycling and camp- ing in the UK, which corresponded to an older outdoor tradition in Germany, (James McGurn, On Your Bicycle: An Illustrated History of Cycling. London: John Murray, 1987, pp. 144–145). 14. See, for example, Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle; Frederick Alderson, Bicycling: A History. Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972, p. 45; Andrew Ritchie, King of the Road: An Illustrated History of Cycling. London: Ten Speed Press, 1975; McGurn, On Your Bicycle; Norcliffe, The Ride to Modernity; and David V. Herlihy, Bicycle: The History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004, p. 300, all cited frequently in this book. 15. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993, p. 6. 16. Innovations such as pneumatic tyres, suspension wheels, steel tubing, gears, ball bearings and chain drives all led directly towards development of the motor and aeroplane (Herlihy, Bicycle, p. 300). 17. Ibid., p. 278. 18. Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space 1880–1918. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press, 1983, pp. 1–2, emphasis added. Although Kern’s the- sis is restricted to Europe prior to the First World War, modern technology NOTES, PP. 73–76 167

and the concomitant transformation in the experience of space and time was, by the end of the , already global. Apart from the US, it had spread to , Canada, Russia and Japan, and to European colonies in Asia and Africa. The bicycle was one of several modern objects whose arrival signalled the advent of western modernity as it rippled out across the globe (see Chapter 3). 19. Soja, Postmodern Geographies, p. 120. See below for discussion of the impact of the bicycle on non-western societies (Chapter 3) and postmodern society (Chapter 4). 20. The famous section of the Portsmouth Road (now the A3) between the Angel Inn at Thames Ditton and the Anchor Inn at Ripley. Both inns were meeting points for the Cyclists’ Touring Club (CTC). This section of the road was known in the 1880s as the ‘Blue Riband’, and according to McGurn, it was regarded as the ‘best kept road in the world’, (McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 155). 21. T. H. S. Escott, Social Transformations of the Victorian Age. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1897, pp. 94, 165–166. 22. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism [1905], trans. Talcott Parsons, London and New York: Routledge, 2001, p. 123. 23. Hagen Schulze (1981), cited in Rüdiger Rabenstein, ‘The History of the German Workers’ Cycling Association, Solidarity’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 160–168; see also McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 133. 24. Rabenstein, ‘History of the German Workers’ Cycling Association’, p. 161. 25. Ibid., p. 165. 26. The Scout, May 1895, p. 16, quoted in Rubenstein, ‘Cycling in the 1890s’ and cited in McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 134. 27. See Paul Smethurst, Travel Writing and the Natural World. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p. 114; and Esther Moir, The Discovery of Britain. London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1964. 28. Cited in Nicholas Oddy, ‘The Flaneur on Wheels?’, in David Horton, Paul Rosen and Peter Cox (eds), Cycling and Society. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007, pp. 97–112. Oddy suggests the flaneur on wheels might share the same interests as Inglis, but on this evidence, Inglis is more of a traditional home tourist. 29. To paraphrase R. K. Ensor’s (1941) comments on the Clarion movement, cited in McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 134. 30. Cited in Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, p. 247. 31. See Michel Foucault, ‘Of Other Spaces’, trans. Jay Miskowiec, Diacritics, Spring, 1986, 16: 22–27. 32. Iris Murdoch, The Red and the Green. London: Chatto and Windus, 1965, p. 162. 33. John Attridge, ‘Steadily and Whole: Ford Madox Ford and Modernist Sociology’, in MODERNISM/modernity, 2008, 15(2): 302. 34. For an extended discussion of Thomas’s bicycle travelogue, see Smethurst, ‘A Flâneur on Wheels?’. 35. The phrase is used by Attridge to refer to Ford’s ideal of modern sociology (see Attridge, ‘Steadily and Whole’). E.M. Forster uses the phrase in Howards End as an ideal to counter the fragmented nature of modernity, it being ‘impossible to see modern life steadily and see it whole’, (E. M. Forster, Howards End [1910]. London: Penguin, 1992, p. 165). 168 NOTES, PP. 77–80

36. See for example the work of John Urry, Mike Featherstone and Scott Lash over the last two decades in the journal Theory, Culture and Society. 37. Contemporary studies on peripatetic mobility in modern life often refer to Walter Benjamin’s appropriation of the flaneur in Das Paris des Second Empire bei Baudelaire (The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire) 1938, and Michel de Certeau’s chapter ‘Walking in the ’ in his The Practice of Everyday Life (1984). Certeau’s essay is one of the most frequently cited in the humanities. It rode the double wave of post-structuralist thinking on spatiality/textuality, and post- Freudian fascination with the city’s unconscious being, as suggested in what Guy Debord termed psychogeography in his La société du spectacle (1967), (Nigel Thrift, ‘Driving in the City’, Theory, Culture and Society, 2004, 21(4/5): 41–59. 38. Cited in Attridge, ‘Steadily and Whole’, p. 305. 39. Robert Hurst, The Art of Cycling: A Guide to Bicycling in 21st Century America. Guildford, Conn: Globe Pequot Press, 2007, p. 2. 40. In an attempt to persuade the then UK Minister of Transport, Ernest Marples, to consider the provision of cycle paths in the towns and of England, E. C. Claxton pointed out that traffic flowed at little more than 10–12 mph dur- ing rush hours; average journey distances to work in London were under three miles, which could be accomplished door-to-door by bicycle as fast as by car, (E. C. Claxton, ‘The Future of the Bicycle in Modern Society’, Journal of Royal Society of Arts, January 1969, 116(5138): 114–134). 41. Mike Featherstone, John Urry and Nigel Thrift (2004), Automobilities, in Special Edition of Theory Culture and Society, 21(4–5), London: SAGE, p. 1. 42. Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. London: Verso, 1995. 43. Jean Baudrillard, The System of Objects [1968], trans. James Benedict, London: Verso, 1996, pp. 66, 68. 44. For a discussion of this concept as presented by Martin Buber in ‘Distance and Relation’ (1957) with reference to Sartre and Lefebvre, see Soja, Postmodern Geographies, pp.131–133. 45. Soja, Postmodern Geographies, p. 132. 46. Thrift, ‘Driving in the City’, p. 45. 47. Edward Thomas, ‘The Icknield Way’, in Roland Gant (ed.), Edward Thomas on the Countryside. London: Faber and Faber, 1977, pp. 17–19. 48. LAW formed a Committee on the Improvement of Highways in 1889. In 1891, they published the Good Roads Magazine to encourage better road-building. Albert Pope was involved in the project, and with the support of over a million bicyclists LAW started to bring about improvements by shaming and educating farmers and local authorities in the 1890s (Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, pp. 206–214). In the UK, the National Cycling Union (NCU) and the CTC formed the ‘Roads Improvement Association’, and from 1880 the Bicycle Union had erected thousands of Danger boards to warn bicyclist of hazards ahead (Alderson, Bicycling: A History, p. 45). 49. James Johnston, ‘The First Bicycle’, The Gallovidian, 1899, 4: 2–3. Accessed in MSS.328/N10/B4 ‘The Papers of Alexander A. Josey (1869–1974)’ at the Warwick National Records Office, National Cycling Archive. 50. Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, pp. 183–203. NOTES, PP. 80–89 169

51. Ibid., pp. 215–219. 52. ‘In Defence of the Cyclist’, a pamphlet of the Cyclists’ Touring Club, 1939. Accessed in MSS.328/N10/B28/1 ‘The Papers of Alexander A. Josey (1869–1974)’ at the Warwick National Records Office, National Cycling Archive. 53. Andrew Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry, p. 315. 54. John Foster Fraser, Round the World on a Wheel [1899]. London: Methuen, 1907, p. vi. 55. Author unknown, Cycling, 8 June 1916, 51(1325). In the same issue, petrol rationing in England was seen as a means to promote cycling. Presumably there was no lack of rubber in the UK. 56. McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 94. 57. Iain A. Boal, ‘Towards a World History of Cycling’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 16–22. 58. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, p. 211. 59. John Urry uses the term ‘system’ to incorporate the with whatever is nec- essary to its mobility. The impact on the environment is the result of the ‘com- plex’ or ‘system’, which for the motor car includes elevated urban highways, parking areas, autoroutes, garages, service areas, car manufacturing and distri- bution, and the petroleum supply industry (Featherstone et al., Automobilities, pp. 25–26). Clearly the system of bicycle mobility, while sharing some of the road system, has had far less detrimental impact on the environment. 60. McGurn, On Your Bicycle, p. 132. 61. Richard Harmond, ‘Progress and Flight: An Interpretation of the American Cycle Craze of the 1890s’, Journal of Social History, Winter, 1971, 5(2): 245. 62. Scientific American (1896), cited in Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, p. 112. 63. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, p. 7. 64. Harmond, ‘Progress and Flight’, p. 249. 65. Smith, A Social History of the Bicycle, p. 113. 66. H. G. Wells, The Wheels of Chance. London: Everyman, 1896, pp. 105, 117. 67. Leblanc, Voici des Ailes (1898), cited in (and translated from the French by) Philippe Gaboriau, ‘Cycling and Functional Aesthetics in Maurice Leblanc’s novel ‘Voici des Ailes’ (1898)’, Cycle History, 1992, pp. 117–19. 68. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, p. 11. 69. Heidegger, cited in Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, p. 10. 70. In ‘The Painter of Modern Life’ (1861), Charles Baudelaire describes moder- nity as that ‘half of art’ that represents ‘the transient, the fleeting, the contin- gent’, as opposed to ‘the eternal and the immutable.’ The work of the artist and social commentator, he advised, was to seek the two strands and the tensions between. 71. Harmond, ‘Progress and Flight’, p. 246. 72. Attridge, ‘Steadily and Whole’, p. 304. 73. This is the central argument in his book, The Culture of Time and Space 1880–1918. 74. Norcliffe, The Ride to Modernity, p. 190. 75. Janet Wolff, ‘The Invisible Flaneuse: Women and the Literature of Modernity’, Theory Culture and Society, 1985, 2(3): 37. 170 NOTES, PP. 89–97

76. Phillip Gordon Mackintosh and Glen Norcliffe, ‘Men, Women and the Bicycle: Gender and the Social Geography of Cycling in the Late Nineteenth Century’, in David Horton, Paul Rosen and Peter Cox (eds), Cycling and Society. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007, p. 153–177. 77. Alderson, Bicycling: A History, pp. 42–6. 78. Mackintosh and Norcliffe, ‘Men, Women and the Bicycle’, p. 160. 79. Octave Thanet, ‘The Stout Miss Hopkin’s Bicycle’, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, December 1896, 94: 409–419. 80. Escott, Social Transformations, p. 193. 81. Ibid., p. 94. 82. Jacoba Steendijk-Kuypers, ‘Freedom on the Bicycle: Women’s Choice’, Cycle History, 2001, 10: 131. 83. Patricia Marks, Bicycles, Bangs and Bloomers: The in the Popular Press. Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2000, p. 176. 84. Marks, Bicycles, Bangs and Bloomers, p. 197. 85. Sisley, Lady Cyclist, p. 430. 86. Charlotte Smith, Eagle, 20 August 1896, cited in Sue Macy, Wheels of Change, Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2011. 87. Frances E. Willard, A Wheel Within a Wheel: How I Learned to Ride a Bicycle. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1895, pp. 24, 27. 88. Harmond, Progress and Flight, p. 243. 89. E. B. Turner, ‘Health on a Bicycle’, Contemporary Review, January–June, 1898, 73: 640–648, p. 641. 90. Mackintosh and Norcliffe, ‘Men, Women and the Bicycle’, p. 165. 91. Marks, Bicycles, Bangs and Bloomers, p. 185. 92. A. Wheeler, Obviously a nom de plume.Wheels a Bicycle Romance, New York: Dillingham, 1986. 93. See for example, ‘Common place book and diary of Emily Sophia Coddington’. National Cycling Archives, University of Warwick (MSS 328/N28). The cycling diary of a young woman who was a close acquaintance and probably the future wife of G. Herbert Stancer, later secretary to the Cyclists’ Touring Club. Her diary lists a series of rides, often unaccompanied, between 1893 and 1896. In 1895, she rode a total of 1,458.5 miles. Although sometimes meeting with the Coventry Cycling Club, many of her rides were solo from her home in the northern suburbs of Leeds. Probably about 20 years old, she seems to have been independent enough to ride out in the moonlight alone and attend Club meet- ings at pubs. Many of her entries record meetings with ‘GHS’ and other men. 94. Jinya Huang, ‘Queen of the Road: Bicycling, Femininity, and the Lady Cyclist’, Cycle History, 2007, 17: 69–76. 95. See Wolff, ‘The Invisible Flaneuse’, pp. 37–46. 96. See E. M. Forster, A Passage to India, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1989), where the plot hinges on Aziz’s bicycle getting a flat tyre; and Iris Murdoch, The Red and the Green, where the bicycle moves characters around, is used in an insurrection and acts as the sign of a visitor. 97. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, p. 23. 98. Scotford Lawrence, ‘The Bicycle in Art and the Problem of Representation of the Moving Image’, Cycle History, 2000, 10: 117. NOTES, PP. 97–107 171

99. The ‘first film’ of the Lumière brothers, Leaving the Lumière Factory, was one of a series of ‘actualities’. It is available on YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=JGugm8Dzmuc [last accessed on 18 December 2014]. 100. Later depicted in Fritz Lang’s Metropolis, 1927 and Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times, 1936, for example. 101. Jack Rennert, 100 Years of Bicycle Posters. New York: Harper and Row, 1973, p. 3. The poster reproduced here appears on p. 62. 102. Matt Seaton, On your Bike: The Complete Guide to Cycling. London: Black Dog, 2006, p. 20. 103. Rennert, 100 Years of Bicycle Posters, p. 4. 104. Jerome K. Jerome, Three Men on the Bummel. Bristol: Arrowsmith, 1900, pp. 225–226. 105. See Paul N. Humble, ‘Duchamp’s Readymades: Art and Anti-art’, British Journal of Aesthetics, 1982, 22(1): 52–64 (58–59). 106. Janet Menzies, ‘Beckett’s Bicycles’, John Piling (ed.) The Journal of Beckett Studies, 6, Autumn 1980, [electronic publication http://www.english.fsu.edu/jobs/ num06/Num6Menzies.htm - accessed 27 December 2012], p. 6. 107. Scientific American LXXX (January–June 1899), p. 292. 108. First published as ‘Le Calmant’, one of four French novellas written in 1946, but not published until 1955. The extract is from Samuel Beckett, Four Novellas, London: John Calder, 1977, p. 62. 109. Ibid. This a postwar text, and the loss of pain in the legs might refer to the injuries caused by the war. In All That Fall, Nagg and Nell lose their legs in the Ardennes in a tandem accident on the road to Sedan. Hamm asks Clov for two wheels, but after the war there are ‘no more bicycle wheels’; see C. J. Ackerley and S. E. Gontarski, The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett. New York: Grove Press, 2004, p. 55. 110. Yoshiki Tajiri, Samuel Beckett and the Prosthetic Body: The Organs and Senses in Modernism. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, p. 42. 111. Daniel Katz, ‘“Beckett’s Measure’s” Principles of Pleasure in Molloy and “First Love”’, MFS Modern Fiction Studies, Summer 2003, 49(2): 249 and Ackerley and Gontarski, The Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett, p. 498.

3 CROSSINGS: THE DIFFUSION OF ACROSS ASIA AND AFRICA

1. For a summary of different positions on technology transfer in non-western socie- ties, see David Arnold and Erich DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment? The Bicycle and Everyday Technology in Colonial India and ’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2011, 53(4): 971–2. 2. See also Hunt, who in A Colonial Lexicon of Birth Ritual, Medicalization and Mobility in the Congo refers to bicycles in colonial and postcolonial contexts as emblems of modernity, agents of social and material mobility and bearers of postcolonial nostalgia (cited in Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 973 (n. 10)). 3. On the question of resistance to modernity as a ‘foreign’ import, see Harry Harootunian, History’s Disquiet: Modernity, Cultural Practice, and the Question of Everyday Life. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000, p. 65. 172 NOTES, PP. 107–112

4. Frank Dikotter, Exotic Commodities: Modern Objects and Everyday Life in China. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 3. 5. See for example, the advertising strategies used by western firms in Africa in the 1930s in Timothy Burke, Lifebuoy Men, Lux Women: Commodification, Consumption and Cleanliness in Modern Zimbabwe. Durham: Duke University Press, 1996. 6. Emily Hahn, The Soong Sisters. London: Robert Hale, 1942, p. 12. 7. Ibid. 8. During the Boxer Rebellion of 1898–1901, the Empress Dowager declared war on foreigners, with Christian missionaries becoming a main target. This precipitated a strong multinational response, the defeat of the Imperial Army and eventually the demise of her dynasty. 9. ‘Faltering’ because western-style modernisation was first resisted, then nation- alised, then ‘re-invented’ under communism, then finally embraced by under the ‘Four Modernizations’. 10. Amir Moghaddaas Eesfehani, ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’, Cycle History, 2003, 13: 94–5. 11. Hahn, The Soong Sisters, p. 15. 12. While hostility in the Middle East was expected, it seems that Fraser was sur- prised by the frequency and ferocity of attacks in China. They were armed, and on several occasions Fraser had to raise his revolver to protect them from stone- throwing mobs (John Foster Fraser, Round the World on a Wheel [1899]. London: Methuen, 1907). 13. For further background on China at this time, see Frances Wood’s account of life in the treaty ports in No Dogs and Not Many Chinese: Treaty Port Life in China 1843–1943. 14. Christian missionaries were other western users of the bicycle in the 1890s, accentuating the idea of the bicycle as a foreign intervention (Edward J. M. Rhoades, ‘Cycles of Cathay: A History of the Bicycle in China’, Transfers, 2012, 2(2): 97). 15. Or, put another way, it highlighted the neo-colonial situation in which coastal China was occupied by foreigners controlling the country’s trade. 16. Fraser, Round the World on a Wheel, pp. 412–13. 17. Tian-shi-zhai Pictorial, vol. 1, no. 8, cited in Tao Xu, ‘A History of the Bicycle and Chinese Cyclists, 1868–1949’ [Chinese], Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review, E-Journal No. 3, June 2012, http://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/ e-journal/issue-3 [accessed 27 November 2012]. English translation of excerpts by Sabrina Tao, Yunzhu, Language and Culture University, p. 5. English translation by Sabrina Tao, Yunzhu. 18. Eesfehani, ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’, pp. 97–8. 19. Xu, ‘A History of the Bicycle and Chinese Cyclists’, p. 21. English translation by Sabrina Tao, Yunzhu. 20. Hahn, The Soong Sisters, p. 26. 21. Dikotter, Exotic Commodities, p. 86. 22. Eesfehani, ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’, p. 98. 23. Xu, ‘A History of the Bicycle and Chinese Cyclists’, p. 22. English translation by Sabrina Tao, Yunzhu. NOTES, PP. 112–119 173

24. From Picture Daily, column ‘Shanghai Inside’, cited in Xu, ‘A History of the Bicycle and Chinese Cyclists’, p. 23. English translation by Sabrina Tao, Yunzhu. 25. See also John Lust, Chinese Popular Prints. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996, for reference to a poster of 1910 showing a young woman with bound feet and traditional dress riding a highly stylised bicycle (print no. 15). 26. Eesfehani, ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’, p. 96. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid., pp. 96–7. 29. A ‘cropper’, literally as well as figuratively, as this was the name given to a fall (also a ‘header’) over the front wheel of the Ordinary – a frequent occurrence among riders and a major driver in developing the safety bicycle (see Chapter 1). 30. Eesfehani, ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’, p. 97. 31. Kees van Dijk, ‘Pedal Power in Southeast Asia’, in Jan van der Putten and Mary Kilcline Cody (eds), Lost Times and Untold Tales from the Malay World. : National University of Singapore Press, 2009, p. 271. 32. Dijk, ‘Pedal Power in Southeast Asia’, p. 279. 33. Xu, ‘A History of the Bicycle and Chinese Cyclists’, p. 4. English translation by Sabrina Tao, Yunzhu. 34. Ibid. 35. Those unable to afford a might ride in a specially constructed wheel- barrow with up to seven other passengers. These were commonly used in the 19th century and continued until the 1950s (Eesfehani, ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’). Like the rickshaw, the later took advantage of the tech- nology of the ; it was a transitional invention through the 1920s and 1930s. A refinement of the horse-drawn , it had a central wheel so that if the weight were to be evenly distributed, it could be pushed or pulled rather than lifted. Relying on cheap labour, the wheelbarrow was regressive, and not a modern invention as such. 36. Joan Judge, Print and Politics: Shibao and the Culture of Reform in Late Qing China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, p. 35. 37. Dikotter, Exotic Commodities, p. 86. 38. Ibid. 39. Figures for wages in are not available, but in Beijing workers would have earned no more than two to three dollars a day. The median family income in Beijing in 1918 was $90 to $109 a year (Tien-P’ui Meng and Gamble, ‘Prices, Wages and the Standard of Living in Peking 1900–1924’, supplement to Chinese Social and Political Science Review, July, 1926. Peking: Peking Express Press, pp. 60–2, 100–101). 40. C. E. Darwent, Shanghai: A Handbook for Travellers and Residents, 1920, cited in Rhoades, ‘Cycles of Cathay’, p. 99. However, by 1929, the number of bicycles in Greater Shanghai was almost 38,000, double the number of motor and trucks (Rhoades, ‘Cycles of Cathay’, p. 100). 41. Jermyn Chi-Hung Lynn, The Social Life of the Chinese in Peking. Peking: China Booksellers, 1928, p. 86. It is unlikely that these bicycles belonged to ordinary Chinese; this is the only reference to bicycles, suggesting that bicycling was not yet a common feature of social life. 174 NOTES, PP. 119–126

42. Evidence (or lack of it) can be found in Guangyi Xu, Old Suzhou: An Album of Century-Old Photos. Jiangsu People’s Publishing House. 43. Shiro Yagami, ‘Japanese Bicycle Imports and Exports’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 111–17. Another contender for the first Chinese-made bicycle was the ‘Feiren (Flyer)’ which was assembled by the Tongchang Company in Shanghai from locally made frames and forks, but used imported wire-spoked wheels and ball bearings (Rhoades, ‘Cycles of Cathay’, p. 103). 44. For an analysis of the bicycle’s role in the PRC’s planned economy, see Xun-Hai Zhang, Enterprise Reforms in a Centrally Planned Economy. New York: St Martin’s Press, 1992. 45. Rhoades, ‘Cycles of Cathay’, p. 108. 46. Yukio Outsu, ‘History of the Ordinary in Japan’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 39. 47. Tsuneyoshi Takeuchi, The Formation of the Japanese Bicycle Industry (Japanese Experience of the UNU Human and Social Development Programme series 39) (United Nations University (UNU)), 1981, p. 1. 48. S. Petty, ‘The Rise of the Asia Bicycle Business’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 191. 49. Andrew Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry 1870–1939, pp. 139–40. 50. Takeuchi, The Formation of the Japanese Bicycle Industry, p. 47. 51. Ibid., p. 46. 52. Compare with the ideological rebranding of bicycles in China which had been proudly stamped ‘Made in Coventry’ until anti-imperialist sentiment in the 1930s led to them being advertised as ‘national products’; see Rhoades, ‘Cycles of Cathay’, p. 103. 53. Takeuchi, The Formation of the Japanese Bicycle Industry, pp. 5–6. 54. Ibid., p. 5. 55. Ibid., p. 12. 56. Cited in Ibid., p. 10. 57. Japan Punch was set up by Charles Wirgman, a British journalist for the Illustrated London News. He published the satirical magazine between 1862 and 1887; its several cartoons containing ancient bicycles and tricycles suggest the bicycle was firmly lodged in the cultural imaginary of the foreign residents of Yokohama. 58. Fraser, Round the World on a Wheel, p. 451. 59. Yiding Zeng, The Representation of Modern Women in ‘Yuefenpai’ in 1920s and 1930s Shanghai. Lund: University of Lund, (MA Dissertation), 2010, p. 41. 60. Ellen Johnson Laing, Selling Happiness: Calendar Posters and Visual Culture in Early Twentieth-Century Shanghai. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2004, pp. 219–22. 61. For examples of such adverts, see Frances Wood, No Dogs and Not Many Chinese: Treaty Port Life in China 1843–1943. London: John Murray, 1998. 62. Author unknown, The China Mail, Hong Kong, 5 January, 1893, 49(9336): 2. 63. Lady Cyclist, March 1896, p. 8. 64. Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 972. 65. Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry 1870–1939, p. 139. NOTES, PP. 126–134 175

66. Japanese bikes were less than half the price of British bikes, and were sold by unscrupulous dealers in India as re-badged British bikes in 1919 (Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry, p. 150). The quality of the Japanese bicycles was not as good, but on price they dominated the market in the Dutch East Indies (p. 166). 67. Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 974. 68. By 1950, postcolonial India had stifled the British trade through a combi- nation of higher import tariffs and local subsidies. Raleigh set up a factory in West Bengal to circumvent the restrictions and help India meet its massive pro- ductive target of half a million bicycles a year (Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 976). 69. The Times of India, 14 December, 1869, p. 2. Accessed in ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Times of India (1838–2003). In the edition of 18 December, 1869, a notice claims, in response to an advert for the ‘first bicycle race’ in India at Allahabad, that the first race was actually held a month earlier in Bombay. 70. Fraser, Round the World on a Wheel, p. 255. 71. Dijk, ‘Pedal Power in Southeast Asia’, p. 279. 72. Ibid., pp. 279–80. 73. Millward, Factors Contributing to the Sustained Success of the UK Cycle Industry, p. 230. 74. Ibid., p. 205. 75. Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 986. 76. Ibid., p. 981; Leonard Woolf, An Autobiography (1880–1911), Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980, p. 233. 77. Dijk, ‘Pedal Power in Southeast Asia’, pp. 269–73. 78. John Roselli, ‘The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Bengal,’ Past and Present, 1980, 86: 121–48 (cited in Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 983). 79. See references to Vietnamese literature on the subject of gender in Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 988. 80. In Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, the white man arrives on his ‘iron horse’ – the man was killed and his bicycle tied to a sacred tree, an event which would have deadly repercussions. 81. Rex Uzo Ugorji and Nnennaya Achinivu, ‘The Significance of Bicycles in a Nigerian Village’, The Journal of Social Psychology, 1977, 102(2): 241–46. 82. Francis Kkwaf Kwao, ‘Research Report on Bicycle Transportation in Northern Ghana’, in Robert Boivin and Jean-François Provonost (eds), The Bicycle: Global Perspectives, 1992, pp. 69–70. 83. See also Godwin O. J. Okeaduh, ‘Bicycle for Agriculture and Environment in Africa’, in Boivin and Provonost, The Bicycle: Global Perspectives, pp. 86–86. 84. Nancy Rose Hunt, A Colonial Lexicon of Birth Ritual, Medicalization and Mobility in the Congo. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999, p. 13. 85. Ibid., p. 17. 86. Ibid., pp. 138–40. 87. Ibid., pp. 175–76. 88. Ugorji and Achinivu, ‘The Significance of Bicycles in a Nigerian Village’, p. 243. 89. Ibid., p. 244. 176 NOTES, PP. 134–143

90. Ibid., pp. 244–45. 91. Ibid., p. 243. 92. Kwame Anthony Appiah, ‘Is the Post- in Postmodernism the Post- in Postcolonial?’, Critical Inquiry, Winter, 1991, 17(2): 335–57 and Nirvana Tanoukhi, ‘The Scale of World Literature’, New Literary History, 2008, 39(3–4): 599–617. 93. James Baldwin, Perspectives: Angles on African Art (exhibition catalogue). New York: Center for African Art, 1987, p. 125. 94. Appiah, ‘Is the Post- in Postmodernism the Post- in Postcolonial?, p. 346. 95. [author unknown], Perspectives: Angles on African Art, p. 23. 96. Its commercial value assured by no less a figure than David Rockefeller, a co- curator of the New York exhibition (Appiah, ‘Is the Post- in Postmodernism the Post- in Postcolonial?’, p. 336). 97. Tanoukhi, ‘The Scale of World Literature’, p. 562. 98. Appiah, ‘Is the Post- in Postmodernism the Post- in Postcolonial?’, p. 257. 99. Although a direct connection has been made between the Chinese wheelbar- row and the Draisine (Hans-Erhard Lessing, ‘What Led to the Invention of the Early Bicycle’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 28–36). On the question of diffusionism and Eurocentricism, see also Iain A. Boal, ‘Towards a World History of Cycling’, Cycle History, 2001, 11: 16–17. 100. Takeuchi, The Formation of the Japanese Bicycle Industry, p. 36. 101. See Daniel R. Headrick, The of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981. 102. During the Malabar Rebellion of 1921, policemen on bicycles were ‘fatally vul- nerable’ (Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?’, p. 989). 103. Stree Shakti Sanghatana, ‘We Were Making History’: Life Stories of Women in the Telegana’s People’s Struggle. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1989, p. 106, 181–97 (cited in Arnold and DeWald, ‘Cycles of Empowerment?, p. 994 (n. 107)). 104. See Patrick Chen, ‘The Bicycle in War: Vietnam 1945–1975’, in Cycle History, 2002, 12: 76–81. 105. The rickshaw was not accepted in the or and the Chinese consul in the Philippines put a veto on Chinese runners (Dijk, ‘Pedal Power in Southeast Asia’, p. 274).

4 TRENDS AND TRAJECTORIES: THE GLOBAL FUTURE OF THE BICYCLE

1. See chart for ‘World Bicycle Production, 1950–2007’ in Worldwatch Institute (2008), Vital Signs 2007–2008. New York: W. W. Norton. 2. Walter Hook, ‘From Best Practice to Paradigm Change’, in . New York: ITDP, Winter, 2010, 22, p. 5. 3. Glen Norcliffe, ‘Out for a Spin: The Flaneur on Wheels’, Cycle History, 1998, 8: 245. 4. William J. Mitchell, ‘Bicycle Socialism’ in World’s Greatest Architect: Making Meaning, and Network Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, p. 94. 5. Since 2010, Guangzhou has had a scheme of 5,000 bikes, which is integrated with Asia’s highest capacity BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) scheme serving 800,000 passengers every day (Hook, Sustainable Transport, p. 4). NOTES, PP. 143–147 177

6. Worldwatch Institute, ‘Bicycle Production Reaches 130 Million Units’, 2012, http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5462 (accessed 5 January 2013). 7. http://copenhagenize.eu/index/ (accessed 5 January 2013). 8. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/greenchina/2011-07/15/con- tent_12913872.htm (accessed 5 January 2013). 9. James McGurn, On Your Bicycle: An Illustrated History of Cycling. London: John Murray, 1987, p. 183. 10. Source – Worldwatch Institute, Vital Signs 2007–2008, New York: W. W. Norton, 2008. The figure includes e-bikes. 11. For example, in the city of Morogoro, in East Africa, 33% of all trips made by males are by bicycle, while for women the figure is 2% (walking accounts for 83% of trips by women) (Theo Rwebangira, ‘Cycling in African Cities: Status and Prospects’, World Transport Policy and Practice, 2001, 7(2): 7–10). Other African cities where trips made by bicycle are significant include , Eldoret, and Ougadougou, Burkina Faso, which has 10–23% modality (Worldwatch Institute, Vital Signs 2007–2008). 12. Bicycle Retailer and Industry News (1 July 2012) ‘Annual Statistics’, 21(11): 14. 13. Ibid., p. 22. 14. J. Matthew Roney, ‘Bicycles Pedalling Into the Spotlight’, Earth Policy Institute, 2008. 15. http://chinaautoweb.com/2012/07/chinese-auto-ownership-rose-to-114-million/ (accessed 19 December 2012). 16. Daniel Caruthers, ‘Fallbrook’s Al Nordin Foresees China Boom’, Bicycle Retailer and Industry News, 2010, 19(9): 23. 17. Daniel Caruthers, ‘China Slowly Becoming a Larger Market for High-End Bicycles’, Bicycle Retailer and Industry News, 2010, 19(9): 22. 18. The phenomenal success of the e-bike is not all good news for the environment. Apart from leading to a rise in road traffic accidents, which has caused it to be banned in many cities in China and the West, it consumes electricity (in China predominantly produced from coal) and the lead–acid batteries are often not recycled. 19. Kral, ‘A Crackdown on Electric Bicycles Coming from Two Directions’, Metrofocus, 2012, http://www.thirteen.org/metrofocus/2012/07/a-crackdown- on-electric-bicycles-coming-from-two-directions/ (accessed 5 January 2013). 20. Worldwatch Institute, Vital Signs 2007–2008. 21. For an account of the Flying Pigeon in China today, see Dan Koeppel, ‘The Flight of the Pigeon’, Bicycling magazine online, 2009, http://www.bicycling. com/news/featured-stories/flight-pigeon (accessed 6 January 2012). 22. Marcia D. Lowe, The Bicycle: Vehicle for a Small Planet. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, Worldwatch Paper 90, 1989, pp. 10–11. 23. Cited in Gary Gardner, ‘Power to the Pedals’, World Watch Magazine, Worldwatch Institute, 2010, 23(4), http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6456 (accessed January 18 2015). 24. Lowe, The Bicycle: Vehicle for a Small Planet, pp. 6–7. 25. Children in the US and elsewhere are walking and bicycling to school far less than they used to for safety and other reasons. Not only does this have an immediate impact on their health and well-being, it has an impact on their socialisation, and removes a traditional connection between childhood and 178 NOTES, PP. 147–155

bicycling, reducing the likelihood of them using the bicycle as an adult (J. Harry Wray, Pedal Power: The Quiet Rise of the Bicycle in American Public Life. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, pp. 208–209. 26. Jason Norman, ‘Giant’s King Liu Tours China by Bike to Fuel Passion for Cycling’, Bicycle Retailer and Industry News, 2009, 18(9): 31. 27. Robert Lamb (in collaboration with Friends of the Earth), Promising the Earth. Abingdon: Routledge, 1996, p. 95. 28. The politicisation of social space in this context has its origins in Guy Debord’s Situationist movement, a leftist reaction to a capitalist-dominated and media- saturated culture, as described in Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, trans. Donald Nicholdson Smith, New York: Zone Books, 1995 [1967]. 29. Wray, Pedal Power, p. 140. 30. Lowe, The Bicycle: Vehicle for a Small Planet, p. 7. 31. http://www.trekbikes.com/us/en/community/rides/breast_cancer_awareness_ride (accessed 8 January 2012). 32. Fred Strebeigh, ‘The Wheels of Freedom: Bicycles in China’, Bicycling, April 1991, http://www.strebeigh.com/china-bikes.html (accessed 6 January 2012). 33. http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2010/08/06/what-to-wear-when-cycling (accessed 4 January 2012). 34. http://copenhagencyclechic.com/ (accessed 4 January 2012). 35. http://www.pashley.co.uk (accessed 4 January 2012). 36. For an excellent illustrated account of the history and culture of the fixed-gear bicycle, see Anthony Edwards and Max Leonard, Fixed: Global Fixed-Gear Bike Culture. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2009. 37. Julie Glassberg has captured the exploits of the ‘Black Label Bike Club’ in some startling images of this self-confessed ‘outlaw bicycle club.’ The club was cre- ated in 1992 by Jacob Houle and Per Hanson in Minneapolis, Minnesota and has chapters nationwide. They have introduced a DIY tall bike culture and organise jousting competitions, among other destructive alternative events. 38. See Robin LeBlanc, Bicycle Citizens: The Political World of the Japanese Housewife. Berkley: University of California Press, 1999. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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ICHC CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

Cycle History 7: Proceedings of the 7th International Cycle History Conference, Rob van der Plas (ed.). San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 1997. Cycle History 8: Proceedings of the 8th International Cycle History Conference Nicholas Oddy and Rob van der Plas (eds). San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 1998. Cycle History 9: Proceedings of the 9th International Cycle History Conference. Glen Norcliffe and Rob van der Plas (eds). San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 1999. Cycle History 10: Proceedings of the 10th International Cycling History Conference, Hans- Erhard Lessing and Andrew Ritchie (eds). San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2000. Cycle History 11: Proceedings of the 11th International Cycle History Conference, Iain Boal and Andrew Ritchie (eds). San Fransisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2001. Cycle History 12: Proceedings of the 12th International Cycling History Conference, Andrew Ritchie and Rob van der Plas (eds). San Fransisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2002. 186 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cycle History 17: Proceedings of the 17th International Cycle History Conference, Glen Norcliffe (ed.). San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2007. Cycle History 20: Proceedings of the 20th International Cycle History Conference Gary W. Sanderson (ed.). England: John Pinkerton Memorial Publishing Fund, 2010. Cycle History 21: Proceedings of the 21st International Cycle History Conference, Andrew Ritchie (ed.). Cheltenham, England: Cycling History (Publishing) Ltd., 2011. INDEX

accessories, 5, 7, 59–60, 63, 152–3 beauty advertising, 6–7, 10–11, 33, 35, 58–9, of machine, 40, 58, 65, 165 n131; 77, 161 n64, 174 n52 see also fetish object bicycle posters, 11, 26, 54, 58, 63, 66, of bicyclist, 80, 96; see also health and 95–9, 159 n33 exercise; Seymour, Ann in China, 123–5 Beckett, Samuel, 71, 102–3, in colonial Africa, 172 n5 The Calmative, 102–3 ‘Cycles Gladiator’ poster, 97–8 ‘Sanies I’, 103 see also marketing Beerbohm, Max , 19, 164 n110 ‘Fashion and her Bicycle’, 68–70 Anthony, Susan B., 166 n1 see also fashion anti-modern sentiment, 75, 79, 86, 108 Benjamin, Walter, 168 n37 resistance to modernity, 171 n3 Beijing, 2, 4, 109, 112, 119, 143, 173 n39 Appiah, Kwame, 135–6; see also ‘Man Tiananmen Square, see politics, with a Bicycle’ bicycle protests attire, see clothing bicycle advocacy, 142, 150, 152 Ariel bicycle, 18, 24, 39–40, 47–8 London Cycling Campaign, 149 cost, 160 n56 see also politics; critical bicycling see also Ordinary bicycle bicycle booms, 1, 3, 62, 154 automobility, 69 ‘bicycle craze’ (safety boom 1890s), rival to bicycle mobility, 77–8, 82, 11, 34–5, 44, 68–70 145, 148, 155; see also motor car global (20/21st century), 8, 141 in colonies, 125–6 Baldwin, James, 135, 137, 176 n93 of 1970s/80s, 64, 143–4 see also ‘Man with a Bicycle’ bicycle cads, 65, 82, 89, 159 n32; Baudelaire, Charles, 77, 86, 168 n37 see also speed, scorchers ‘The Painter of Modern Life’, 169 n70 bicycle chic, 6, 7, 152–3 see also flaneur bicycle clubs 14, 41, 73–4, 129 Baudrillard, Jean Black Label Bike Club, 178 n37 The System of Objects, 44–5, 52–3, Bombay, 126 58–9, 61, 77–8 Calcutta, 127

187 188 INDEX

bicycle clubs—continued bicycle posters, see advertising Clarion Cycling Club, 74, 148 bicycle production, 3, 8–10, 13, 29, Japan, 121 32–5, 38, 41, 46, 72, 119–20, League of American Wheelmen (LAW) 126–7, 165 n148 masculinism in, 88–9, factory system, 33–4, 73, 97, 162 n78 Singapore, 127 mass production, 13, 17–18, 21–2, 35, Solidarity (The Workers’ Cycling 47, 60, 72 Federation), 74, 148 over-production, 60–1 for women, 84, 90, 96 global trends, 141–6, 176 n1, 177 n6 see also cycle touring clubs see also bicycle industry bicycle components bicycle repairs, 60, 81, 120, 130–1, bearings, 16, 18, 21, 24, 42, 47, 50, 163 n94 123, 162 n83 Bicycle Thieves, The (dir. Vittorio De chains, 19–21, 23, 42, 44, 48, 50, 51, Sica), 44, 162 n86 163 n101 Bicyclette, the, 19, 45, 48, 164 n110 gears, 18, 19–23, 40, 46, 48–51, see also Lawson, H. J. 158 n20 Bicycling magazine, 177 n21 see also fixed-gear bicycles Bijker, Wiebe, 41–4; see also SCOT frames, 17–18, 29, 60–1, 64, 134, bike-share/rental schemes, 1, 4, 8, 121, 157–8 n9 141, 143, 176 n5 steel tubing, 4, 18, 21, 47 BMX, 3, 61–2, 153 tyres Boal, Iain, 82, 176 n99 fat, 62, 64–5 Boccioni, Umberto pneumatic, 21, 50–1, 157–8 n9 Dynamism of a Cyclist, 100 solid rubber, 17, 40 Boneshaker, see velocipede, French wheels, 13–29, 51–2, 62–4, 122, 138 pedal-driven rubber clad, 47 Boys, Vernon, Sir Charles, 46, size of, 40–2, 47–8, 64 159–60 n39 suspension, 40, 47, 158 n14, 162 n81 , 62 ‘Tangent’ system, 18, 47, 50 wire spokes 17–18, 21, 23, 38, 40, capitalism, industrial, 73–4, 82, 86, 123 47, 50 as factor in bicycle development, 12, wooden, 16, 17, 28, 47, 162 n81, 34–5, 38–9, 43, 162 n78 163 n94, 163 n100 chain drives, see bicycle components, bicycle industry, 9–11, 29, 60, 72, 141 chains China, 4, 65, 118–9 , 141, 145 China, 4, 8, 35, 65, 81, 105–25, 130–1, decline of, 44, 60 138, 141–7, 150–2, 172 n12, 172 England, 34–5, 39, 41, 126–7, 152 n14, 174 n52 France, 17, 28–31, 38, 46, 157 n9, Boxer Rebellion, 108–10, 172 n8 160 n42 Chinese Illustrated News, 115 Germany, 60 Opium Wars, 108–9, 117 Japan, 108, 120–121 People’s Republic of (PRC), 4, 107, US, 10, 72 119, 174 n44 bicycle lanes/paths, 78–80, 146, 168 n40 Picture Daily, 112–3, 173 n24 bicycle (bike) messenger, 65, 148, 153 Qing Dynasty, 108, 110, 112 bicycle modality (% of trips), 142–5, resistance to bicycles, 105, 107, 177 n11 110, 117 INDEX 189

women in, 112–4, 123–5; see also consumerism, see fashion women cost (price) of bicycles, 22, 30–1, 35, see also separate entries for Shanghai; 126, 145–6, 161 n64, 175 n66 Beijing as limiting factor, 14, 24, 27, 30, 115, Clarion Cycling Club, see bicycle clubs 118, 121, 133, 157 n3 class issues, 1–3, 5–7, 22–6, 49, 54, 61, hire purchase, 118, 126, 158–9 n22; 67, 69–71, 81–4, 106, 109, 118, see also wages, average 121,127, 130, 139–41, 145–6, Coventry (UK), 14, 18, 21, 39, 46–7, 53, 163 n105 157–8 n9, 163 n104, 170 n93, middle-class, 30, 35, 42, 62–4, 92–5 174 n52; upper-class, 26, 51, 67–9, 125 see also bicycle industry, England working/lower-class, 44, 67, 91, 118, Coventry bicycles, see Ordinary bicycle 121, 126, 128, 138 Coventry tricycles, see tricycles Clayton, Nick, 44, 158 n14, 158 n19, critical bicycling, 148–51 162 n90 , 148–50 clothing (attire), 59, 61, 84, 92, 99, 130, see also politics 158; see also fashion Cubism, 72, 100; see also modernism Columbia bicycles, 120, 162–3 n 94 cycle paths/routes colonialism, 105, 126, 131–5 Coney Island Cycle Path, 80 colonies and ex-colonies, 27, 49, 105–7, Pasadena Cycleway, 80, 82 126, 138–9 Ripley Road (UK), 34, 73, 161 n63 Africa see also bicycle lanes Belgian Congo, 132–3, 171 n2 cycle , 61, 114, 117, 119, Nigeria, 133–7 127–8, 138, 140, 173 n35, 176 n105 Northern Ghana, 131 see also utility bicycles Asia cycle touring clubs, 49, 71, 80, 96, (British Malaya), 127, 170 n93 129, 145 Cyclists’ Touring Club (CTC), 80, 161 Chinese treaty ports, 106, 110, 119; n63, 163 n106, see also Shanghai; Wood, Frances (formerly The Bicycle Touring Club), Hong Kong, 125, 152; see also sepa- 49, 163 n105 rate entry Cycling magazine, 163 n109 India, 106, 126, 127, 129–30, 142 Cyclist magazine, 126 Bengal, 129–30 Indonesia (Dutch East Indies), ‘Daisy Bell’ (song), 68, 89 127, 129 Dalzell, Gavin, 46, 56–7, 157 n5 Java, 127 dandies, see Draisine Macassar, 128 Dandy Horse, see Draisine (Burma), 4, 81, 127, 130 decline in cycling, 30, 39, 51, 60–1, 95, Singapore, 116, 126, 127 121, 126, 145; see also , 129 scrapping old bicycles Vietnam, 130, 139 design, 3, 4, 7–8, 10, 14–18, 21–4, 40–7, Bermuda, 125 51–3, 57–8, 60–3, 152 import of bicycles into, 126 Dijk, Kees van commuting, 1–3, 25, 34, 62–3, 65, 83, ‘Pedal Power in Southeast Asia’, 116, 116, 131, 142–3, 147–8, 152, 154, 127, 176 n 105 166 n8 Dikotter, Frank, 118 190 INDEX

discarding bicycles, see scrapping old consumerism, 3, 35, 42–3, 100, 124, bicycles 144, 152 domestication of bicycling, 7, 42, 52, among ‘new women’, 31, 68 67, 70–1, 73, 75, 84, 88–95; refashioning, 59–66 see also women retro, 1–4, 63, 152, 154 Drais, Karl von, 10, 13, 16, 23–4, 28, 53, feminism/feminisation, 37, 75, 88, 55, 159 n23 91, 97; see also women Draisine (Draisienne, hobby-horse), 10, fetish object, 57–9, 64 13, 15–16, 22–4, 27, 30, 54, 69, First World War, 53, 71, 86, 88 80, 108 fixed-gear bicycles (fixies), 1, 4, 61–2, dandies associated with, 26 65, 153–4 178 n36 demise of, 23–8, 39 flaneur, 77, 167 n28, 168 n37 ‘nothing of its day’ jibe, 25, 159 n29, Flying Pigeon, 65, 120, 146, 177 n21 159 n32 Ford, Ford Madox improvements to, see also Johnson, The Soul of London, 76–7, 86 Denis Forster, E. M., 76, 167 n35, 170 n96 substitute for horse, 23, 159 n23 Foucault, Michel Duchamp, Marcel heterotopia, 75 Bicycle Wheel, 101–2 Fraser, John Foster Dunlop, John Boyd, 157–8 n9 in China, 81, 109–10, 172 n12 Dunlop Rubber Factory (Japan), 120 in India, 127 Dutch East Indies, see Indonesia in Japan, 121–3 dynamic systems theory, 48 frames, see under bicycle components Franco-Prussian War, 31, 33, 158 n19 e-bikes (electric bicycles), 3, 8, 141, futurists/futurism, 24–5, 44, 62, 67, 79, 143, 145–6 85, 88, 98, 100, 103, 127; Edinburgh Magazine, 25 see also modernism Escott, T. H. Social Transformations, 73, 90 Glasgow Museum of Transport, 157 n5 Eesfehani, Amir Goncharova, Natalia ‘The Bicycle’s Long Way to China’, The Cyclist (painting), 100 110, 115–6, 173 n35 emerging markets, 141–2, 145 Hahn, Emily English Mechanic magazine, 157 n6, The Soong Sisters, 108, 112 161 n71 Harmond, Richard environmental issues, 4, 7, 56, 64, 82–3, Progress and Flight, 84, 86 142, 146–8, 150, 153–4, 164 n123, Harvey, David 169 n59, 177 n18 The Condition of Postmodernity, Worldwatch Institute, 150, 177 n6, 71–2, 97 177 n11 Headrick, Daniel exercise, see health and exercise The Tools of Empire, 138 health and exercise, 35, 37–8, 42, 64, Facile bicycle, 19, 48, 50, 164 n110 67, 69, 74, 80, 88, 92–3, 112, 114, factory system, see bicycle production 133, 146–7, 150, 177 n25; see also fashion, 1–8, 13–14, 24–5, 28, 30–4, beauty; recreational cycling 68–9, 95, 109 , 112, 124–7, 133, Heath, William 141, 143, 153–4, 159 n29 satirising ‘Dandy-horse’, 26 INDEX 191

Hercules bicycles, 128 kinaesthetics, 53, 58, 70, 97; see also speed Herlihy, David, 158 n12 The Bicycle, 156 n2, 157 n3, 157 n8, ladies’ bicycles, see under women 160 n49, 163 n96 Lady Cyclist magazine, 6, 68, 91, 95, 125 high-wheel bicycle, see Ordinary Lallement, Pierre, 10, 13, 17, 28–9, 46, Hillier, George Lacy, 9, 159 n32 56, 157 n3, 160 n40 Hillman, William, 18, 20, 24, 39, 45, 48, Laufmaschine, see Draisine 52; see also Kangaroo bicycle Lawson, H. J., 19, 45, 48, 164 n110 hoaxes, 10–11, 157 n5, 164 n117 learning to ride, difficulties of, 31, 67, Leonardo’s Codex Atlanticus, 54 92; see also riding schools Macmillan, Kirkpatrick, 56; see also Leblanc, Robin separate entry ‘bicycle citizens’ (), 155 Sivrac, Comte Dédé de and the Leblanc, Maurice ‘célérifère’, 54 Voici des Ailes, 85 hobby-horse, see Draisine legislation, 80 Hong Kong, 90, 125, 152 against bicycling, 27, 79, 81 Hook, Walter Lessing, Hans-Erhard, 27, 54, 157 n5, Sustainable Transport, 142, 176 n5 164, 117 Howland, Edward Liu, King, 147 ‘A Bicycle Era’, 6, 43, London, 1, 25–7, 49, 73, 149–50 Hughes, Joseph Henry, 47 parks, 68 human body, 57, 71, 102; see also Lowe, Marcia prosthetic extension The Bicycle: Vehicle for a Small Planet, as factor in bicycle design, 51–2, 58 146–7 Hunt, Nancy, 132–3 Lumière brothers, 92, 171 n99 on nurses in Africa, 133 Macassar see under colonies, Asia industrial capitalism, see capitalism Macmillan, Kirkpatrick, 11, 46, 56–7, 80; see also hoaxes Japan, 105–11, 119–124, 154–5 ‘magic cyclists’ (Africa), 134 Meiji Restoration in, 107, 120–2 ‘Man with a Bicycle’ (sculpture), 135–7 Tokyo, 120, 155 marketing, 7–8, 10, 29, 33, 35, 66, 72, Yokohama, 120, 174 n57 117, 126 Japan Punch magazine, 174 n57 Marks, Patricia Jerome, Jerome K. Bicycles, Bangs and Bloomers, 91, 94 Three Men on the Bummel, 11, 98 mass production, see under bicycle Johnson, Denis, 16, 24–6, 28, 159 n28, production 159 n34 masculinism, 88–9, 91, 129 Johnston, James McCall, Thomas, 46, 56, 57, 157 n5 ‘The First Bicycle’, 56–7, 165 n126; McGurn, James see also hoaxes On Your Bicycle, 143–4 Mechanics’ Magazine, 39, 157 n6, Kangaroo bicycle, 20, 40, 45, 48–50, 164 161 n71 n 110 Michaux factory, Paris (Compagnie Kern, Stephen Parisienne), 17, 28–30, 46, The Culture of Time and Space, 72, 88, 157 n9, 160 n42; see also bicycle 166 n18 industry, France 192 INDEX

Michaux, Pierre, 27, 38, 53, 158 n21 patents (bicycles and components), military use, 88, 108, 138 10–11, 13, 29, 38, 46–7, 59, 157 militarism, 88–9 n3, 158 n14 Millward, Andrew, 160 n 42, 175 n66 Patterson, Frank on UK cycle industry, 157 n4, 158 n22 ‘The Seasons’, 86–7 missionaries, 129, 132, 172 n14 Pennell, Joseph, 59, 162–3 n94 Meyer, Eugène, 17–19, 38, 47, 158 n14 Penny-farthing, see Ordinary modernism, 5, 36–7, 70, 72, 78, 85, 96, pneumatic tyres, see under bicycle 100–3; see also separate entries components, tyres for Cubism; futurists/futursim; politics, 75, 79, 81, 124, 147–8, 150 postmodernism bicycle protests, 148–151, 154; see also modernity, cultural, 34–38, 77, 153; critical bicycling see also separate entry for Pope, Albert, 38, 157 n3, 163 n94, 163 anti-modern sentiment n100, 168 n48 Morton, H. V. postmodernism, 3, 4, 53, 65, 75, 135–6, Travel in Wartime, 54–5 153–4 motor car, 54, 63, 69, 71–2, 77–8, prosthetic extension 82, 103, 119, 125–6, 169 n59; bicycle as, 5, 51–2, 58, 71, 103 see also separate entry for Punch magazine, 65, 82, 89–91, 94; automobility see also ‘Japan Punch’ , 62–3 mountain bike, 61–2, 64–5, 145 racial issues, 127, 129–30 Murdoch, Iris racing bikes, 3–4, 62, 65, 154, The Red and the Green, 76, 170 n96 165 n147 see also sport National Cycle Show (Crystal Palace), railways (railroads), 24, 33–4, 57, 77, 80, 163 n109 108, 123, 138 New Women, see under women Raleigh bicycles, 128, 175 n68 Norcliffe, Glen recreational cycling, 2–3, 12, 27–8, 32–7, The Ride to Modernity, 69 42, 51, 84, 91, 96, 109, 116, 121, nostalgia, 57–9, 79, 86, 132, 153 125–8, 141, 143–5, 148 touring, 14, 34, 62–3, 71, 73, 81, 86, O’Brien, Flann, 71 170 n93 The Third Policeman, 103 see also health and exercise Oddy, Nicholas, 63, 167 n28 recumbent, the, 62, 165 n141 Olivier, René and Aimé, 28–9 riding schools, 24–5, Ordinary bicycle (Penny-farthing, high- Ritchie, Andrew wheeler), 13–15, 18–24, 37–51, King of the Road, 157 n6, 157 n7, 160 68–9, 88–9, 94, 109, n47, 163 n104 114–6, 120, 122, 173 n29 road bikes, 1, 3, 58–9, 61–2, 64–5, 145 Coventry Model (Spider), 18, 46 roads (hard-surface), 27, 34, 38–9, see also separate entry for Ariel bicycle 62, 79–82, 133, 161 n61, Outdoors Movement, the, 88; see also 168 n48 health and exercise roadster type, 2, 60–3, 66, 127, 144–6, 152, 154, 165 n148, Parsons, Tony, 147–8 Rover bicycle, 4, 14, 21, 39, 45, 47–51, Pashley bicycles, 3, 152, 154 158 n20 INDEX 193

Royal Society of Arts, 9, 45 social stability bicycle as ‘leveller’, 83–4, 145 safety, as a factor in bicycle design, 42, sociological gaze, 75–6 52, 63 speed, 26–7, 30–1, 37, 58–64, 153 safety bicycle, 4, 7, 11–12, 14–15, 21–22, in bicycle design, 13–14, 40–3, 52 35, 38, 41–5, 48–51, 60, 63, 66–7, bicycle/bicyclist as symbol of, 14, 28, 69, 88, 93, 108–9, 116, 120, 125, 36, 58 , 71, 77–8, 85, 103 158; see also separate entry for cult of, 5–6, 100 Rover bicycle pleasures of, 70, 78–9, 85; see also safety boom, see under bicycle booms separate entry for kinaesthetics Saturday Review, 25 records, 38, 42, 51, 62, 162 n83, 164 Schwinn bicycles, 3, 64 n112, 165 n141 scorchers, see under speed scorchers, 82, 89, 148; see also separate SCOT (social construction of technology), entry for bicycle cads 41–4 sport, 14, 28, 31–3, 35, 37, 74, Scotland, 11, 56–7, 74 88–91, 141 Scottish inventors, 46, 57, 80, road racing, 30–1, 37, 51, 61, 89, 127 161 n61 track racing, 5, 7, 14, 17, 20, 42, 47, 61, Scott, Paul 110–1, 130, 153, 156 n3, 158 n11 The Jewel in the Crown, 129 for women, 91, 112 scrapping old bicycles, 4, 63, 68–9 see also separate entry for health and in China, 142, 144 exercise; Tour de France, the Seaton, Matt, 98 status symbol (bicycle as), 62, 70, 121, second-hand bicycles, 22, 35, 65, 118, 128, 141, 145; see also class 158–9 n22 suspension wheel, see under bicycle Second Industrial Revolution, 3, 33 components Second World War, 63, 83, 106, 120 Sutton, William, 14, 21, 39, 49; see also sedan chairs, 114, 119 Rover bicycle Seymour, Ann Starley, James, 18, 24, 39–40, 53, 162 Beauty on a Bicycle, 96 n76; see also Ariel bicycle Shanghai, 109–119, 125–6, 142, 145, Starley, J. K. (John Kemp), 4, 14, 21, 39; 152, 173 n40 see also Rover bicycle cycle race in 1897, 110–1 ‘The Evolution of the Cycle’, 9, 45–53, poster art (1930s), 123–4; see also 158 n14 advertising, bicycle posters Stevens, Thomas, 14, 120 see also China; colonies (treaty ports) Sharp, Archibald , 147 Bicycles and Tricycles, 40, 46, Thomas, Edward 162–3 n94 In Pursuit of Spring, 76, 79, 99 Singapore, see colonies Times of India, The, 127, 175 n69 Sisley, Charles Tokyo, see under Japan as editor of Lady Cyclist, 91, 95 Tour de France, the, 31, Smith, Charlotte touring, see under recreational cycling campaign against women cyclists, transport systems 91–2 integrated mass transit, 4, 142, socialism, 68, 73–5; see also bicycle clubs 150, 176 n5 Marxism, 86, 149 see also railways 194 INDEX

tricycles, 11, 14, 22, 42, 49–51, 162 n76, wheelbarrow, Chinese, 117–8, 138, 163 n103 173 n35 Humber Cripper, 50–1 Willard, Frances Coventry Machinist’s Salvo, 48–9 A Wheel within a Wheel, 92–3 Starley’s Coventry Lever, 49 Wolff, Janet ‘The Invisible Flaneuse’, 95 urbanisation/suburbanisation, 25, 34, Wood, Frances, 172 n13, 174 n61 38, 161 n62 Wood, Henry, 9, 12 utility bicycles, 8, 28, 61, 127–8, 130–1, Woolf, Leonard, 129 141, 145; see also cycle rickshaws women in Africa, 131–4 Vélib rental system (France), 143; in Asia, 129–131, 138–9 see also bike-share/rental schemes in China, 111–4 velocipede health issues, 80, 90, 92–3, 112, 150 four-wheeled, 11 representations of, 36–7, 94–6, 98–9, French, pedal-driven, 11, 13–15, 17, 113, 123–5 22–23, 25, 27–32, 36–41, 45–6, ladies’ bicycles 63, 162 n76 55–57, 108, 114, 157 n3 New Woman, the, 31, 68, 84, 89, velocipedomania, 28–9, 32, 38 91, 95 Vélocipède Illustré, Le, 35–6 restrictions on, 130 Wood, Henry, 9, 12 wages/salaries Worldwatch Institute, see under determining bicycle usage, 118–9, 158 environmental issues n22, 159 n34, 173 n39 Warwick, Countess of (Francis Evelyn Xtraordinary bicycle, 19, 48, 50 Greville), 68; see also ‘Daisy Bell’ Xu, Tao Weber, Max, 73 ‘A History of the Bicycle and Chinese Wells, H. G. Cyclists’, 117 The Wheels of Chance, 69, 81–2, 84–5 wheels, see bicycle components ‘yellow peril’, 123 Wheels: A Bicycle Romance (anon), 94–5 Yoruba, 135–7