ABSTRACT the Progression of Societal Reflection in Science

ABSTRACT

The Progression of Societal Reflection in Science Fiction through Wells, Lewis, and Bradbury

Cole Moore

Director: Dr. Michael Thomas, PhD.

Science fiction has proven to be a tremendous force with a unique power to change individuals, steering them to consider inventive alternatives. Three of the great authors of early science fiction are H.G. Wells, C.S. Lewis, and Ray Bradbury. All three share a passion for the creative, contributing multiple works to the genre leaving an impact during their time period. As the genre changed, these authors wove societal context into their works, exemplifying struggles and weaknesses of their times, and potential outcomes if society continued to move in those directions. To understand the more subtle changes and reflections of society, this thesis looks at each author’s human and non-human (alien) interactions, foreign environment through settings, and impacts of advanced technology. Observing these changes between authors, the intent is to show differing mindsets from each author’s era: Wells and the Turn of the Century, Lewis between the World Wars, and Ray Bradbury in the early Cold War. Each main element of style is analyzed on its own to display the lens the text is viewed in. Afterwards, all three authors are compared against each other to see explicit purposes in their works.

APPROVED BY DIRECTOR OF HONORS THESIS:

______

Dr. Michael Thomas, Great Texts

APPROVED BY THE HONORS PROGRAM:

______

Dr. Elizabeth Corey, Director

DATE: ______

THE PROGRESSION OF SOCIETAL REFLECTION IN SCIENCE FICTION

THROUGH WELLS, LEWIS, AND BRADBURY

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

Baylor University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Honors Program

Cole Moore

Waco, Texas

May 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One: Introduction ...... 1 Chapter Two: Interactions between Human and Aliens ...... 8 Chapter Three: Fusion of Science Reality with Science Fantasty via Setting ...... 33 Chapter Four: The Styles and Roles of Technology ...... 49 Chapter Five: Comparison and Conclusion ...... 71 Works Cited ...... 87

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

A black gloved, outstretched hand accompanied by the words “I am your father” should bring an immediate trigger to the pivotal scene in Star Wars that left first time viewers speechless. Teleporters and space ships, aliens and time travel, all serve as clear indicators of science fiction novels across bookshelves everywhere. As the commercial science fiction industry has exploded, since the advents of both Star Wars and Star Trek, it has called into question the validity of science fiction as literature worth studying. In order to support the claim that science fiction is a distinct genre of great literature, a concise definition is necessary; a description that encompasses a select set of novels capable of joining works that have stood the test of time and have value beyond mere entertainment. To form this definition though, the basic elements of science fiction need to be addressed as well. Some call it the genre of change (Thomas). Others phrase the purpose as stories whose focus is exploration, discovery, and learning by means of extrapolation, about mankind and the universe (Thomas). Still more require a sense of impossible technology, or vision of an extraterrestrial environment (Thomas). A synthesis of these thoughts and others appears like this:

Science fiction is the construction and analysis of a perceived foreign realm,

where authors utilize a variety of technologies, real or imaginative, as elements

with which characters interact to reveal interpreted workings of mankind and the

universe.

Beginning from this definition, understanding what separates literature from

commercial becomes a little easier. Not only does an author absorb the reader into their

world, they actively convey reflections of society and philosophical concepts in their

works, sparking commentary by challenging readers to consider more than the story.

Developing over the last century and a half, science fiction has garnered respect in the

literary community due in part to the three authors H.G. Wells, C.S. Lewis, and Ray

Bradbury. Certainly these men are not the sole pioneers in this field, though in relation to

their generations they are exemplar in technique, creativity, and social criticism. As

prominent names of their times, Wells, Lewis, and Bradbury all have several things in

common, including three elements their novels share: interactions between human and

non-human entities in a foreign environment, fusion of science reality with science

fantasy through setting, and futuristic technology all the while reflecting current societal dilemmas through stylistic approach. Before these themes are approached though, it is essential to understand factors that may have influenced each author during their lifetime.

This begins with the oldest, Wells, and will continue through Lewis, finishing with

Bradbury, as each particular section of history is filled with turmoil and drastic changes in global dynamics.

H.G. Wells, also known by many as the “father of modern science fiction,” created at least seven novels in the genre, as well as a variety of other works (Wells i). A turn of the century writer, Wells’s first novels appeared around 1896 as a fresh perspective designed to engage the fantastic with reality conveying social projections

(Wells ii). With industrialization rapidly increasing and the advent of 1900 on the horizon, Wells captures the attention of hopeful readers, dreaming of the future and the

perils that may lie with it. Establishing this element, we are open to interpret a variety of

meanings in character interactions, philosophical commentary, and driving plot forces,

which are prevalent in his novels The Time Machine (1896) and The War of the Worlds

(1898). The primary focus will be these two novels as they have the greatest similarity to the other authors, Lewis and Bradbury, in their prescription to a classic science fiction environment. In The Time Machine Wells brands a character bent on exploring the future,

whose adventures center around calamity that is a result of a polarized society. The Time

Traveler’s name is symbolic in the story as well, representing the community inspired by

such possibility, expanding his characteristics from just one named man to any number of

people. This simple element is contrasted later with Lewis’s Dr. Edwin Ransom, a

similarly adventurous educated man, possessing a different set of concerns and principles

relative to Lewis. Turning back to Wells, the emphasis on The War of the Worlds will

focus on the interactions with a superior life form. Possibly the most famous of his

novels, in part from various movie renditions, The War of the Worlds is a narrative of

alien wrought destruction and humanity’s inability to stop it. Even at the conclusion of

the novel, the happy ending is not within human control, but instead a product of the

natural world, a reflection of humanity’s imperfection when compared to the “superior”

status of the aliens. Wells uses this dynamic to challenge the ideas of progress and where

humanity is heading in topics that are still on the forefront of scientific research.

Elements of this are paralleled later in Ray Bradbury’s composite work The Martian

Chronicles where in early chapters the Martians seem to be nonchalant about interactions with Earth people, until they are spontaneously eliminated by a disease common to humans. Smaller references will be made to The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896), as it is

the most explicitly philosophical of the three Wells novels and most gruesome. Amongst all the vivisection and bizarre atrocities on the island, the main focus pulls the reader back to the ultimate questions of “What does it mean to be human?” and “How far is too far for science?” in a challenging tale. Following The Island of Doctor Moreau, and tying in elements from the previous Wells works, we are given glimpses into the underlying concepts prevalent throughout these novels, themes that will pervade in works by both Lewis and Bradbury.

Shortly after the turn of the century The Great War swept across the world, leaving carnage both in the streets and hearts of the nations (Smith). Arising from this period, though, was sustained growth and ingenuity inspired among the universities and growing populations. As this growth continued, repercussions from World War I left their impact on authors such as C.S. Lewis. Lewis’s transition from atheist to theist to

Christian and highly reasoned conclusions were greatly influenced by this, and the impending World War II as seen in his works. Elements of his logicality, British, and

Christian background are fundamental to many of his works, especially the universe he designs in his Space Trilogy. Most of the emphasis for this thesis is on his first book, Out of the Silent Planet (1938), but each of his works has philosophical doctrines, which he challenges throughout the course of both Perelandra (1943) and That Hideous Strength

(1945). As the most exploratory piece and easiest read, Out of the Silent Planet is about a fantastic vision of Mars that Lewis forms in contrast to ideas of social equivalence and belief in the supernatural to Earth. Evident in the creation of Lewis’s universe are such

Christian themes such as monogamy, emphasis on niche dynamics, fluidity of mutual respect among different creatures, and an omnipotent nonphysical hierarchal power, told

through the guise of a captured man exploring a new world, yet intrigued by everything it

has to hold. Dr. Edwin Ransom, as a philologist has an inquisitive outlook on Mars, and

brings a unique perspective to setting exploration, and character interactions. Part of this

comes from his being whisked away, rather than a military or an egocentric drive to

explore, which Lewis shapes less aggressively through a desire to learn—an element that

contrasts several characters in both Wells and Bradbury’s works. After the events on

Mars, Lewis takes Ransom on a trip to Venus in Perelandra. Throughout Perelandra

Ransom is introduced to the Eve figure of Venus and engages in a battle of philosophy

with Ransom’s former captor, Weston, who is presumably possessed by a satanic

rendition of evil, as Venus is at a pivotal moment similar to the Fall. Throughout this

novel, Lewis dives deeper into philosophical principles and challenges the reader to

interpret both sides of the arguments, dwelling on the hero, Ransom, while heavily

considering his counterparts arguments. If the philosophy of Perelandra was not enough

though, Lewis dives even further into it with a barrage of philosophy, moving elements,

and Arthurian legend throughout the significant work That Hideous Strength. The third

novel in Lewis’s Space trilogy does not really concern itself too much with actual space

and interplanetary travel contrasting its two predecessors. That Hideous Strength is a

much closer look at some of the politics and scheming that are going on during the

narrative constructed previously, and follows the story of a new couple on their events

during the course of a week or so. As there is lessened capacity of exploratory and

foreign realms, we will dwell less on That Hideous Strength and the complexities it holds.

Rounding out the final novel, Lewis leads the readers to a few conclusions about our world, making us reconsider the effects of certain styles of thinking that currently

pervade our society, highlighting the dangers of social inequality and shortcomings of lessened spirituality. Coincidentally, this last point leads the science fiction audience to

Ray Bradbury, a proponent of science fiction who constantly writes about the negative possibilities associated with technology.

The American born author, Ray Bradbury, is the third of science fiction pioneers but in no way is he the least of them. Bradbury created a variety of short stories and novels in science fiction that remain beloved and cautionary in society today, forty to fifty years later. As a Cold War and post-Cold War era author, Bradbury speaks heavily on the increase of technology, where it is leading us, the danger of censorship, and the incivility that accompanies such materialistic thought. The basic timeline of his works were released over a period of years in magazine articles, as seemingly unrelated short stories that arose by two methods: spontaneous production and detailed creativity. Later, the articles were collected and synthesized into The Martian Chronicles (1950), aptly positioned as the primary focus here. The way The Martian Chronicles is written opens up a fantastic avenue for societal criticism and thematic attraction, because each short story is relatively self-contained, they are focused on a few characters that are related by societal effects but not necessarily by acquaintance. With this style, Bradbury creates a timeline which he later draws derivatives from, including Fahrenheit 451 (1953) and a host of similar short stories. Establishing this grand timeline occurs in the first chapter of

The Martian Chronicles and concludes in the final chapter. His timeline begins with the first rocket to Mars and the first human interactions with Martians. From there he dives into the further attempts to leave Earth and the eventual settlement of Mars, hinting at unrest on Earth as the driving factors for departing. As the colonization of Mars

continues, there are multiple interactions with Martians as humanity begins to override their ancient towns, a point where Bradbury shows the ethical challenges of conquering without respecting the new territory and established beings. When coupled with strict censorship on Earth, Bradbury reveals the primary emphasis and his cautionary voice: do not distance science, the liberal arts, and culture from one another, in the name of equality or appeasement. This common theme is displayed in a variety of creative ways through most of his works, quite explicitly in several chapters of The Martian Chronicles and Fahrenheit 451. With such an expansive field of reflection, there are a plethora of connections between his works and those of Wells and Lewis, the final purpose for his selection in this group of science fiction greats.

Uniting these different backstories and drawing from previous commentary, I intend to show the transitions of specific reflections to similar dilemmas across the time periods. As each author represents his era, each will have different perspectives on certain issues which I intend to compare topically, discussing their differences historically along the way. This synthesis of ideas can be a useful tool in unlocking many of the messages these authors are sending, while showing adjustments according to each generation. In understanding motives such as social inequality and the drive to reach social equality, interpreting views in science fiction throughout the years can reaffirm a reader’s opinions on common issues or challenge them to reevaluate their stances. This can be taken a step further by comparing the works of three of the biggest names in science fiction—Wells, Lewis, Bradbury—whose works span over 60 years of global turmoil, to form a more complete understanding of factors continually shaping the world.

CHAPTER TWO

Interactions between Human and Aliens

The hallmark indicator of the genre, aliens pose the greatest challenge to the main character and are often the best foil a science fiction author constructs. Often times the alien is construed as varying physically or intellectually from humans, which help form the power separation human characters are set in conflict. Matching a human against an alien is a conduit for authors to integrate personality traits in a character, highlighting flaws and shortcomings as well as strengths. As this struggle develops, authors winnow their characters on the quest to conquer or appease the aliens in a variety of measures.

This is often a driving plot force as seen with The Time Traveler and the Morlocks in The

Time Machine (1896), Dr. Ransom and the Malacandrans in Out of the Silent Planet

(1938), and several characters with the Martians in The Martian Chronicles (1950).

During most of these situations the character is required to confront the alien, facing their

fears and revealing motivations that may or may not have been apparent to the reader.

This forms multipurpose aliens using them as actual plot elements and more, frequently

depicting weaknesses and strengths reflected from the author’s society. Both human and

alien cultures have the capacity to further exploit an author’s population’s mindset as a

whole, an example being Wells’s conflict between Eloi and Morlocks in The Time

Machine. Such conflicts are not new in literature, but understanding the implications

science fiction provides prove both unique and insightful for the author’s time period.

Interaction in Wells’s Works

Wells’s works convey several aspects of humanity that typically follow a driving

scientific edge in his main characters. Each of Wells’s characters typically has two or three elements which are shown across the novel; in the case of The Time Traveler an ambition to explore the future with time travel and the resourceful nature of humans in foreign environments. Establishing underlying principles such as these create a template for Wells to build both critiques and praises into a character’s theme. The role of The

Time Traveler slightly changes as the story progresses, as he is faced with the imminent

Morlock attack.

The Time Traveler

The Time Machine is a man’s adventure into the very distant future on Earth, told

to a host of dinner guests upon his return home. None of the characters have first and last

names but are instead introduced by their professions: The Time Traveler, The Medical

Man, The Psychologist, etc. (Wells 4). This assortment of characters first assembles in

The Time Traveler’s home for dinner and conversation, where they first glimpse the time

machine (Wells 7). The Time Traveler discusses his invention and some of the science that he hopes to explain behind it and challenges the men to believe in his theory that time travel is just another dimension. To prove this theory, he provides a model time machine and has The Psychologist (a third party) send the model whizzing into the future.

This scene startles the entire crowd and intrigues the narrator. After the model time machine disappears into time, the group sees the full size time machine and departs to their normal lives (Wells 9).

Wells designs this evening dinner party to immediately distinguish The Time

Traveler from his contemporaries in order to express The Time Traveler’s motivation: exploration of time as a dimension. This element, while significant on its own, represents the ideas of science pushing forward into previously uncharted territory exemplifies a scientist following his ambition. This is the reader’s first contact with The Time

Traveler’s basic trait.

The story resumes after a week with the dinner party reconvening at The Time

Traveler’s house as before, but this time their host is tardy, frazzled, and disheveled.

Following a momentary absence to clean up, The Time Traveler returns and devours his

meal before setting down to tell his tale of the future.

The Time Traveler starts with his brief test trip forward which precedes his

lengthy excursion. Before recounting the tale, he does request that his guests do not

interrupt him at any point until he has finished; in a very officious, science report style.

He then describes the falling feeling and nausea that occurs with blurring lights, then how

amplified it was on the long trip deeper in time. The flash of lights and changes all

around The Time Traveler as he races through time captivating him, until finally the

speed was too great, so he lands in the year 802,701 A.D. (Wells 15). As he slows to regular speed the thought of nearly impossible odds of arriving safely flash across his mind before he halts in his distant destination, being ejected as the craft ceases motion.

The traits of an ambitious scientist continue to build as The Time Traveler approaches each of these new experiences through an observatory lens, willing to make the personal sacrifice if his device crashed in time with another object, possibly destroying both

(Wells 15).

Upon returning to regular time speed, The Time Traveler disengages a couple parts from the time machine and steps into a utopian garden under the gaze of a White

Sphinx, mysterious bronze doors, and “fragile thing out of futurity”(Wells 17). He interacts peaceably with the humanoid creature and realizes that he has ended up near a great number of them. They welcome him with great joy and he begins to interact with more, describing them as fragile, white, and simple. To some extent he then tries to learn the language but eventually loses the patience in dealing with the simple people and begins exploring more of the area, ultimately leading to the realization that his time machine was stolen.

This theft encourages his further exploration of the new environment around him.

He learns the fragile creatures, the Eloi, are not the only humanoid beings around but that instead there is also a subterranean species called the Morlocks, a feathery, wide-eyed, bizarre thing that hates the sun and as he learns, eats Eloi (Wells 57). These discoveries prompt hypotheses of how the situation arose which The Time Traveler suggests in his story telling (Wells 57). The Time Traveler’s interest in the Morlocks grows so much so that he ventures down one of their wells into their caverns (Wells 40). This proves a turning point in his view of society in the future. At this point The Time Traveler’s views of the Eloi and the Morlocks are pretty well established, reflecting many of the simplistic principles explorers use to categorize foreign creatures. Because The Time Traveler is following his exploratory ambition, Wells uses him to interact with both groups in several ways. The Time Traveler becomes an ally and plaything of the Eloi, a conduit through which Wells criticizes the upper classes and the goal of pleasure ridden people. Contrary

to this, The Time Traveler becomes the largest Morlock foe, as he acts as a protector for the Eloi, and rival to the Morlock’s frightening figure.

During this learning period, The Time Traveler watches as the moon wanes and he realizes the ensuing peril. This prompts his trek to the “Palace of Green Porcelain” in hopes to find fortified shelter, bringing along his small Eloi friend, Weena, whom he saved from the river a few days before (Wells 31). The perilous trip to the “Palace of

Green Porcelain” ended with a surprise, the place was actually a museum of sorts; run down and very ancient but preserved by advanced technology. The Time Traveler explores it with Weena and he gathers some weapons before their day ends.

In an attempt to reach safety on the other side of the forest they previously crossed, the duo begins the trek through the forest, before facing a horde of Morlocks.

This leads to a series of skirmishes that leave the forest ablaze from The Time Traveler’s protection fires. Weena and The Time Traveler are separated during the skirmish and her demise is unknown, but certainly implied. The Time Traveler eventually survives the massing blazes and smites many more of the Morlocks surrounding him, though he leaves the forest alone and desires reprieve. He promptly crashes in a meadow once the safety of morning comes.

Awakening to sunshine and a little energy, The Time Traveler gathers himself together and trudges on back to where he first landed in the future. When he arrives, the bronze doors are wide open and his time machine is in sight, a trap he expected but did not handle as planned. Eventually he is able to battle off enough Morlocks and zip away into the future to escape their clutches.

The exhausted scientist has had his fill of interaction but still pushes his device into the farthest range of the future, only turning back at the end of time (Wells 61).

Eloi and Morlocks

Wells’s two post human creatures in The Time Machine constitute the two distinct edges of society: the comfort-seeking-peaceful upper class and the grind-it-out laborer class (Wells 35). Both societies play a specific role in the story and present challenges to

The Time Traveler, as they are polar opposites and speak foreign languages. The peaceful Eloi present a challenge for The Time Traveler because they lack the sense of urgency and common sense he is confronted with, especially when facing the Morlocks.

As The Time Traveler spends more time among the Eloi he is constantly commenting on their frailty, while learning the utter basics of their language. Part of this stems from the view we see in other realms of literature the successful adventurer communicating with a species of perceived, though hardly ever, lesser intelligence. Wells makes a fair amount of comment on this idea in The Time Traveler’s retelling of the events, presenting the alien forms here as the result of a declining superior civilization. The Eloi’s counterpart, the Morlocks, provide a less well understood arena of interactions for The Time Traveler, leading to increased conflict. Because the Morlocks are a mysterious, unfriendly group,

The Time Traveler reacts accordingly. Instead of trying meagerly to understand their origin in the sense that he does the Eloi, The Time Traveler makes the appropriate decision to label the uncivilized Morlocks as the enemy.

Further Analysis

Building from these views of The Time Traveler’s interactions with Weena and

the human derivative species, Wells sheds a very straightforward and almost unprepared

picture of mankind. In this image, man is seen as explorative, risk taking, intelligent but

not always wise, and very self-oriented. Each of these is seen clearly through The Time

Traveler in his: adventuring into time, visiting the Morlock’s underground,

unpreparedness for the trip, and his capacities to transport Weena safely to and from the

palace, respectively. Some of these themes are paralleled in other Wells novels, such as

the main character in The War of the Worlds, but for now the focus remains with The

Time Traveler.

Mankind’s first projected trait is that of an explorative nature, particularly by investigating time travel as a possibly tangible medium. Wells uses The Time Traveler to exemplify the constantly growing and exploring culture thriving around the turn of the century, especially from the British perspective that owned a sizeable portion of the world market (Smith). This exploratory nature is expected and encouraged, even if it is not very well understood and seems a positive factor throughout the novel, where other elements tend to taint the positivity of it. The following three traits Wells addresses contain less clarity in positive light and become gradually cloudier in their application.

Risk taking and smarts coincide frequently throughout The Time Machine as The

Time Traveler is exploring his new world, trying to find the book’s namesake while learning about the future society. As the risks escalate, we see a decline in the smarts being applied to the situation. In at least three cases, The Time Traveler admits he is unprepared for the event just before a chase or skirmish occurs. The first major one is in

the Morlock tunnels with his few matches, the next is his shoes being for around the

house rather than adventure, and the third is leaving the Green Porcelain Palace with few

defensive objects (Wells 51). It is not for lack of intelligence that The Time Traveler gets into these situations, it is more for lack of foresight. Jumping headlong into these adventures, realizing he is ill equipped could be a hint to getting too far ahead of oneself at a time, something Wells may have seen in his society. Moving too quickly forward into uncharted territory was met with varying outcomes. Clearly The Time Traveler was faced with both good and bad interactions, though he barely escaped the latter. As these two items factor into the theme of exploration, they mystify the outcome of exploration, adding intrigue and suspense to the encounters, even though the narrator is recounting the story.

The last element I see in Wells’s characterization of mankind is a straightforward self-centered focus that acts to preserve the character even with some sacrifice. In The

War of the Worlds this trait is essential among the carnage, though the character is seen

working alongside other individuals even aiding some. Throughout The Time Machine,

we see a strong distinction between human and alien preferences, as The Time Traveler is

unable to adequately protect Weena even after taking her along for his trek. Getting

caught up among the Morlocks in the forest, and as a product of his unpreparedness, The

Time Traveler loses Weena to a grim fate that is left to the imagination off the page,

choosing to fight off the Morlocks and flee without turning back (Wells 52). This

sacrifice for his own emergence could be driven by two things, desire to survive or desire

to escape to tell posterity he made it to the future. The latter seems more noble and

acceptable to alien sacrifice; the former comes across as instinctual. Either way, Wells

uses this example to build another piece of man’s character, this time construing some

exploration as harmful to the natives while the adventurer comes out tattered but alive.

This theme could be reflective of many of the conflicts going on across the globe, when

considering impacts from the various colonial revolts and insurrections England and

Spain were facing (Smith). Placing this specific filter on the novel, one can see vague

elements of English, Spanish, or other European influences across the globe around

Wells’s time. The powerful explorers would come in, not thoroughly equipped, and ruffle the feathers of previously established cultures with some meeting divisive ends leading to revolt running off the explorers, whereas others would be met warm naturedly.

Evidently both of these responses are reflected with the Morlocks and Eloi, respectively, as the warm natured simple Eloi do not know or care the difference and the Morlocks are solely out for their interests. It could be a related subject, though it takes a specific lens to certainly fit.

Uniting all of these elements, we can see some of the correlations throughout the novel and ways that Wells shapes human and alien interaction in his first novel. By establishing such radically different species, Wells challenges his symbol of the educated mankind to deal with both and learn better ways to interact with them, to alter their current trends. In doing so, Wells shows several of the common traits prevalent during his portion of history, shaped by a growing and adventuring society facing the unknown, encouraging white collar and industrial workers to see similarities and prevent total separation. Continuing this trend of societal transformation, Lewis brings the focus to more philosophical soundings throughout his work, especially by balancing the classes of

English society in symbols on Malacandra.

C.S. Lewis

The first of his three space trilogy novels, Out of the Silent Planet demonstrates

Lewis’s ability to create an idealized realm capable of scrutinizing the “bent” nature of humanity (138). In forming Malacandra, or Mars, Lewis designs an environment of equality linked by an ethereal force encompassing three rational alien species with complementary and noncompetitive abilities; the hrossa, sorns, and pfifltriggi. By creating this ecosystem, there is space for the reader to reflect on the driving traits and characteristics comprising the three human figures, following their motivations throughout the adventures on Malacandra. Each of the three human characters in the novel represents a basic theme in Lewis’s England: Devine is the search for wealth,

Weston is the perseverance of the human race, and Ransom is the desire for understanding and knowledge. In comparing each character to each other, Lewis primarily compares Devine and Weston to Ransom, whom he directly compares to the

Malacandran species as the story follows Ransom.

Dr. Edwin Ransom

Choosing an unsuspecting philologist as the main character, Lewis takes a new angle on exploring a foreign realm by stripping the adventurer of a militaristic or goal oriented nature, and thrusts Ransom into a different world with the sole focus of survival at hand. On holiday from the university, Dr. Edwin Ransom enters the scene on his walking tour, simply trying to help return a young boy to his mother by dark when he comes across an old colleague of his, Devine and is quickly admitted to the house, and drugged (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 20).

Waking up on the spaceship with Earth a mere image through the glass window,

Ransom realizes his peril and later overhears of the sacrifice to monstrous sorns when they reach their destination, Mars. This first image of Mars instills Ransom with fear, quickly manifesting after their arrival. While they are establishing a base on the planet’s surface, a hnakra and sorns approach which bolt all three humans into action—allowing for Ransom to escape. Ransom continues his flight for some time until he meets the first friendly lifeform, Hyoi, a hrossa (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 56). Upon meeting

Hyoi, Ransom’s philological background comes to life as he begins learning the language and starts to understand the culture behind it. Lewis shows a genuine kindness in

Ransom, an element that distinguishes him from his fellow humans who disappear for much of the book. In doing this, a positive reflection of humanity is shown through the theme of seeking knowledge and desire for cultural understanding.

As Ransom begins to settle into the groove of hrossa life, the time for the hnakra hunt occurs and suddenly Hyoi and the rest of the males are in their boats. During the hunt, Ransom’s first direct glimpse of an eldila occurs, and it brings an ominous message of urgency: send Ransom to Oyarsa immediately (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 80). A moment later the hnakra attacks and is killed by Hyoi and Ransom, but even faster after that Hyoi falls by Weston’s rifle (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 82). Once a sad moment commences between Ransom and Hyoi, Hyoi dies and a quick suggestion of how best to capture the two humans is given before Ransom is sent to find the sorns and meet Oyarsa (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 84).

Following Hyoi’s last wish, Ransom flees on the road to Meldilorn and Oyarsa where he meets the sorn, Augray. Ransom now approaches the sorns with less caution,

having learned more about them and trusting the hrossa. This scene is an important step

for the image of humanity as Lewis reminds the reader that perspective is everything. As

Ransom travels with Augray, he continues to learn about Malacandra’s past and of the

events that shaped it, learning of their planet’s name for Earth, Thulcandra or the Silent

Planet (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 91). This intrigues Ransom and his learning becomes more complete on their arrival at Meldilorn.

Meldilorn is the gathering place for all the species where they trek to speak with

Oyarsa. Thus, Ransom meets the third rational species on Malacandra, the pfifltriggi and observes interactions among the three species. Given a simple dwelling and told to wait until Oyarsa summons him, Ransom explores the small island in the middle of the lake discovering several large inscriptions of the solar system’s history (Lewis, Out of the

Silent Planet 110). He sees the fall of Thulcandra and learns some of what has occurred.

He is whisked away from this by his meeting with Oyarsa though and they converse.

Part way in they are interrupted by Devine and Weston, whose presence create a slight stir among those gathered as Weston does not understand the essence of Oyarsa and its implications on his future. Lewis uses the interview with Oyarsa to further reveal the traits of both Devine and Weston, critiquing them while destroying their arguments.

Hrossa, Sorns, and Pfifltriggi

As mentioned, the three species of Malacandra are hrossa, sorns, and pfifltriggi.

The first introduced in depth are the black humanoid seal like hrossa that live in the handramit, which are deep valleys cut in the planet (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 55).

These valleys are warm and plentiful enough for the entire shrinking population of hrossa.

This first species most closely resemble humans in their style of growth, living, and

interactions appearing as a primitive species well versed in song and poetry that focus on

experiencing life in the moment. As fairly peaceful creatures that are acutely in tune with

the eldila, they are excellent teachers for Ransom. Hyoi especially represents the pure

image of man, accepting of his fate but enjoying his life’s experiences as they come and

go. The friendship that Ransom forms with him pervades much of the novel and is

reflective of possibility of peaceful interactions and learning across alien races.

The sorns are the “intelligentsia” and the tallest of the three species, but this intelligence does not elevate them above either the hrossa or the pfifltriggi. They reside in the harandra or upper plateau regions that separate the handramit, and are portrayed as a very independent species, requiring little organized interactions. Lewis uses the sorns in a sense to remove the visage of artistic cushion seen in the hrossa, as the sorns delve deeper into the sciences and more complex thought. Interestingly enough to the reader,

Augray fully admits their inability to produce such poetry as the hrossa, but Lewis uses this point to increase how complementary each of the species are to each other. When offering a token to Augray and the end of their walk, Ransom is directed to give the watch to the third group, the pfifltriggi, who would be even more interested in the actual workings of the device (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 106). The pfifltriggi from there are not discussed much though, but are later described as frog like, living in the deeper recesses of Malacandra and working with “sun’s blood” or gold: the focus of Devine’s attention.

Trial by Oyarsa

The climax of Out of the Silent Planet occurs over a couple of chapters during the interview with Oyarsa. Oyarsa is not a being with a physical body but instead is more like a ruling presence and is the guardian of Malacandra. Because of this, at first Ransom has a little trouble visualizing the formless being but since he is open minded and brief experience with eldila he quickly grasps the idea mentally and is able to communicate.

Devine and Weston on the other hand flounder in the presence of Oyarsa, unable to comprehend a formless, ethereal entity. In this scene greed blinds Devine and science blinds Weston. Oyarsa dispatches rebukes to Devine’s greed, and threatens to unmake him the way the previous dead hrossa went, which silences the broken man (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 134). Weston on the contrary, does not succumb to the same fear that numbs Devine but instead tries to provoke Oyarsa until he too is forced to sit straight and explain his motives. This brings on quite a monologue about the importance of maintaining the human race through a variety of circumstances, even beyond the point of recognizable form. Lewis constructs with Weston and deconstructs with Oyarsa this argument in an interesting use of logic to dispel the idea that death is a problem. Oyarsa silences Weston with the knowledge that death is part of the natural cycle, and is not something to be overcome (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 138). Eventually, the fairly omniscient Oyarsa closes the case and sends Weston and Devine home, giving Ransom the option to return to Earth or stay on Malacandra. Ransom chooses to leave with the other men and then he and Oyarsa chat over Earth matters “that [show Oyarsa] more wonders than are known in the whole of heaven” (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 141).

Further Analysis

The reader can distinguish several themes Lewis’s characters embody, themes

that are further exemplified through contrasting elements. Lewis uses the image of

Ransom in comparison to both Weston and Devine during his critique of humanity’s vices and at the same time, compares Ransom to the Malacandran species showing similarities to an ideal world. The former concept is expressed at the beginning and the end of the book, where most of the Ransom, Devine, and Weston interactions occur. The latter two characters appear to have a joint motive for travelling to Malacandra, but this notion disintegrates upon further character development. Devine appears Weston’s puppet and clearly has the sole focus of monetary advancement, which is quickly nixed by Oyarsa as a simple flaw and makes Devine “no more evil than an animal” (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 138). The comments surrounding Oyarsa’s judgment of Devine sum up his plot interaction, showing him as the lesser of evils.

Weston on the other hand proves a more difficult subject, because he embodies a more complicated set of ideals: the continuance of the human race at all costs. From the

beginning Weston is depicted as the leader and fills this role up to the trial with Oyarsa.

In the trial he is asked why he came to Malacandra, which Lewis uses to construct an

argument about the continuance of the human race, and the persistence to improve and

survive, a tricky moral factor that faces scientists on the leading edge of research. Lewis

exhibits statements about what it means to be man, the destructive desire to flea death,

from the view of science blinded Weston, who is rebuked by Oyarsa and provided

alternatives involving the eventuality of death and distinction of conscious beings from

man, setting Weston’s view of man aside as bent and not superior. Where Weston

succumbs to the desire to advance the human seed, as Oyarsa calls it, Ransom lacks the same desire and appears less enraptured by it (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 139). This is best stated by the author Folks in a Lewis and Flannery O’Connor article:

“What Weston lacks from beginning to end is a sense of humility that would open his feelings toward the suffering of his fellow creatures, or even toward his own mortality. Lacking Ransom's curiosity and concern, Weston is incapable of looking and listening except in so far as he is gathering data for his experiments, and thus he misses both the beauty of the Malacandran and Perelandran landscapes and the virtues of their inhabitants, as well as the potential beauty and virtue of Earth and its people. Lewis's presentation of Weston is an implicit critique of the moral failing of science, and more broadly of all humanistic learning, when it is set up as self-sufficient, for by itself scientific experimentation can never arrive at first principles” (Folks 112).

As Folks states, Weston is obscured with scientific thought, which leads to

Weston’s moral failing and draws Oyarsa’s rebuke; Lewis’s methodical presentation of proper moral obligations and actions. The first attack on Weston’s standpoint is regarding his love for humanity. Weston’s love extends solely for the idea of humanity, not for the actual people in it which Oyarsa rebukes as folly, when compared with the thought of hnau, and their relationships. This challenges the idea that man is a superior creature in a different sense because mankind is still established as intentionally created, but does have equals. In this format, humanity is still superior to beasts, but possesses the determining hnau factor that makes hrossa, sorns, and pfifltriggi distinct, rational beings capable of living in society with one another.

Oyarsa’s second rebuke to Weston is his inability to accept death as part of the world. Weston does not accept the thought of death and inexistence as an acceptable end.

He desires an eternity of human existence, even to the point of wreaking havoc on planets previously out of range or that already face a decline, such as Malacandra. Rather than accepting the beauty of the planet, and taking interest in the inhabitants of a new planet

like Ransom, Weston continues on a strict goal oriented path towards an end he will

never see. Contrary to these characteristics, Ransom exhibits ideas of exploration and

curiosity for curiosity sake, which makes him a good foil to Weston and a great

comparison piece to the Malacandran species.

Ransom and the Ideal

As Ransom interacts with the various species of Malacandra, another symbol begins to form as Lewis continues to depict variances in society, the expression of a society with complementary skills that humans lack as a result of a governing system that is flawed in his space trilogy’s universe. The reader learns the natural hierarchy of

Lewis’s system where hnau submit to eldila, eldila submit to the Oyarsa, and all submit to Maledil. They also learn of the disturbance that has occurred on Thulcandra, or Earth, and “the way every human has a little Oyarsa in their heads,” causing an inability to follow direction (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 137). This directly counters the

Malacandran orthodox in an analogy Lewis makes to the Christian leadership, an ideal society that is no less complete even with its varying structure. Lewis uses Ransom two fold, as an observer and as a comparison.

Using Ransom as an observer, Lewis has a way to separate different elements of society, which he does in the three species on Malacandra. Ransom observes the literature savvy and family oriented population with the hrossa, the science and philosophy based giants as the sorns, and the industry centered gritty folk through the pfifltriggi. Living with the hrossa for a long period, Ransom becomes acquainted with their simplistic culture and learns their stylistic language. They also have a particular

habitat within the warm handramit, and in family groups that act as a unit. Differing

from the hrossa, sorns live in colder isolation and focus more on the science aspect of life

and seek understanding the processes that go on. As Ransom walks with Augray, he does

meet a group of sorns and hears some of the ways they interact, noticing the difference in

their language from the hrossa. Although the pfifltriggi are not met in their environment,

the reader is provided enough background to form an industrious image of the third

species.

Observing these various social groups through the lens of Ransom, Lewis then

opens up room for comparison among the three species, showing how each is

complementary to the next. In the character of Ransom, the least tainted image of

humanity, the reader sees an element of each category: he loves language (hrossa),

desires to learn about Malacandra (sorns), and understands the value of work (pfifltriggi).

(The latter is seen during his time with the hrossa and culminates with the hnakra hunt.)

Each species represents a significant portion of society that cannot be overlooked without

trouble arising. If the sorns lost the hrossa, they would have significantly less vocabulary

and would be too involved with scientific conversation to remember stories. If the hrossa

lost the sorns then they would lose a wealth of knowledge and continue to lose interest in

scientific studies. If either sorns or hrossa lost the pfifltriggi there is belief engineering feats would drastically decline and their ecosystems would be further jeopardized. By having each of these portions of society, Lewis is able to place emphasis on their harmony, reinforcing the governing hierarchy on Malacandra. In this ideal world, balance is maintained because all the beings share a single guiding voice, the voice of

Oyarsa, compared to that of Ransom and Thulcandra which follow mini Oyarsas and

focus on selfish desires. Several times throughout the novel Ransom has difficulty understanding this concept of mutually beneficial species, but unlike Weston, he accepts it. Part of this enlightenment could stem from seeing the history inscribed on the tablets in Meldilorn, part of it from experiencing the world and having an open mind. In this way, Lewis reflects that any disconnect from the balance would be detrimental, and can be translated to Earth. If sciences are the sole focus of a population, and language arts or family dynamics are lost, the distortion could be severe. Similarly, if the industrious population is restricted luxuries of the other two groups, arising strife could undermine the population. Lewis makes it very clear the sorns, or intelligentsia, are not the ruling class—a point often misconstrued in real life. Creating Ransom as an apparent jack-of- all-trades, it is evident Lewis envisions people acquiring a mutual understanding of their environment, history, and future, as essential to a healthy functioning society. Such mutual understanding between arts and sciences and formation of people as whole, capable beings is a major underlying factor throughout Bradbury’s work as well, as he constantly uses characters to also discuss the friction associated with too much separation of the arts from the sciences.

Ray Bradbury

The third author chronologically, Ray Bradbury is probably the most diverse writer in this category, using a variety of characters across his compilation of works The

Martian Chronicles. Because of such a diverse set of characters, the focus on the thematic elements several of the characters symbolize takes precedence. Characters such as Spender, Tomas, the literature professor Stendahl, last families on Mars, and Captain

Wilder, present a slew of opportunities to see tension among more contemporary ideas

such as censorship, technology, separation between science and art, and the use of robots.

As these themes continue to arise in his works, readers are presented with several

cautions and considerations moving forward.

The Martian Chronicles

The premise of this novel is Earth is dwindling under pressures from global conflict and certain people are trying to escape into the final frontier of space, and Mars is the closest most habitable destination. Bradbury narrates the story by following the first few expeditions and their interactions with Martians leading to the death of the explorers. During the fourth expedition though, the Martian species are significantly reduced because of a virus, chicken pox, transmitted by one of the earlier expeditions

(Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 69). On the Fourth Expedition there is quite a skirmish because of varying ideals among the crew, namely brought upon by the actions of Spender and Captain Wilder, though the names Parkhill and Hawthorne reappear significantly later in the novel. The first conflicts of interest arise because of the previous interactions with the Martians and how humanity essentially obliterated them unintentionally. This theme becomes very significant from the chronicler’s perspective in many of the chapters.

Spender’s death is a major turning point in the novel because the expedition succeeds, thus the gateway to Mars is finally opened. With the planet “dead” it becomes a free playing field for people with any wealth or desire to reach and possess it. The narrator specifically points out that it is Americans who dominate the scene, “while

Europe and Asia and South America and Australia and the islands…watched [America] leave them behind” (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 119). As people slowly begin to

trickle to Mars there is a pattern that develops among the chronicles where two or three

short stories are followed by ten to fifteen page tales. The short stories always cover a

moderate period of time and the long sections expose a more detailed look into that time

period. The tales of note are Night Meeting, Fire Balloons, The Wilderness, Usher II,

The Off Season, The Silent Towns, The Long Years, There Will Come Soft Rains, and

The Million Year Picnic (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 108, 120, 147, 161, 202,

219, 233, 248, 256). These stories each hold a different cast of characters and challenge different societal elements while being focused around situations the people on Mars deal with. Once the gateway to Mars is opened, there is a significant booming period where travel to Mars is drastically increasing as a seemingly good vacation, or escape from the overwhelming powers on Earth. The narrator is very clear in stating that tensions on

Earth are heightening at an alarming rate and that atomic war is very close. These tensions are underlying factors in the people’s desire to leave and seek a new life on Mars, though it also becomes the second turning point about two thirds of the way through the novel.

In the period of booming growth, the progression of hardy men and families, or people intending to escape the legalistic control of Earth begins. They erect new towns and develop unoriginal names for cities in their conquest of Mars. Once the foundation is set by the hardy folk, the rest of the families from Earth start to travel, as do all of the red tape of government and legalistic measures. Most notably is the chronicle “Usher II” in which a millionaire literary enthusiast constructs the House of Usher (from Poe) and uses it to destroy nearly every leader of the “Society for Prevention of Fantasy” a censorship group which decimated the literary collection and restricts the imaginations of the

population (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 173). This theme, if not same group, is very prevalent in many of Bradbury’s works in a very similar role, though justice is never hashed out like in “Usher II”.

The book essentially climaxes during the story “The Off Season” when the Earth finally catches fire. In “The Off Season” chronicle, there is a significant amount of Earth men and Martian interaction that occurs and is overshadowed by Earth burning. The narrator describes it as “the Great War” where the people of Mars watched the Earth burn for three hours one evening, changing from a green marble to a marble on fire—some 50-

60 million miles away (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 218). The result flashed a sign of “COME HOME” to which nearly everyone on Mars responds by completely bailing, to get on a rocket and leave (Bradbury The Martian Chronicles 219). So they did.

And very few people were left on Mars in the aftermath to deal with what happened, which is where the story begins to dwindle. There are a few more personal stories with the people remaining and how they cope with the loneliness and some pose very interesting questions but none have the same appeal as earlier, as if the vibrancy of life left with the Earth on fire.

The conclusion held some interesting points as Captain Wilder returns from exploration deeper in the solar system, seeing both Mars and Earth some 20 plus years later in what was remaining of both. It eventually concludes with the last few families to escape Earth and settle on Mars, a chilling and paradoxical end.

Further Analysis

The focus between human and alien interactions holds an interesting light in

Bradbury’s work, with elements of negativity and human inferiority that are reflected

across much of science fiction.1 One of major differences in his work, compared to the

other authors, is the idea of a dead planet with only a few remaining natives. In the scenes with Martians, the reader sees glimpses of their culture rather than full species interactions such as with Wells and Lewis, since nearly the entire species is wiped out early on. The chapters with Mrs. K, Mr. Aaa, and Mr. Xxx, display fairly human interactions such as Mr. and Mrs. K in their home, the singers across Mars, and the insane asylum the Second Expedition visits (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 20, 35). In

these first chapters, Bradbury shows a sense of normality among the Martians, even

hinting at a bit of unbelief in creatures on Earth which was paralleled for the most part in

his time. One on one interaction from there only occurs a couple other times throughout

the work, with the two notable moments of Tomas with the Martian and the Blue fire

spirits with the monks. Both of these scenes present the extinct race as trapped in time,

holding on by presence but lacking normal physical form. Bradbury uses these

comparisons in a way to describe the Martian effect beyond the physical presence,

building them into a race that has the keys to step out of time and is morally superior to

humanity. These subtle expressions of their advanced age contribute to their differences

from us, and the hurdles society is yet to overcome. The hurdles expressed in the book

focus on acceptance of living in the present, relative global peace while maintaining a

sense of imagination, and understanding or peace with God. By discussing these topics,

Bradbury challenges the reader to consider striving to these solutions and how they may

impact both the reader as a person, and the society they partake in. Noticeably, the

1 Both popular media and literature hold instances of humans struggling under pressure. Such examples as Scott’s Alien or Orwell’s 1984 are iconic for this. 30

interactions among species occur in groups of humans and/or aliens, with the exception of Tomas’s interaction which appears as a mutual understanding among two travelers.

The distinction of a dead Martian race leads into the second major difference in

Bradbury’s work, the attempted preservation or lack thereof, of Martian society. His light is different from other authors, because it has roots in those trying to protect alien tradition against adventuring forces. The character Spender is the prime example of a person with good intentions coming across the wrong way, which eventually get him killed. Spender’s position of honoring the Martians by waiting to understand them better before commercial domination can be seen as a very noble cause. The issue is how

Spender approaches the conflict, failing to appropriately communicate why his fellow astronauts’ reckless actions were so disrespectful. Captain Wilder is the only one who understands what Spender is dealing with, and he is the only one who could take action and control Spender’s fate: which is why he kills Spender. The scenario can be seen as a reflection of our commercial driven, self-centered society, where change and expendability are often valued well above tradition and preservation. Spender portrays the deepest end of commitment to tradition and understanding a way of life, while

Captain Wilder stands as a wise intermediate between the more contemporary minded instigators like Biggs. The idea of tradition is often sacrificed in the name of progress by powers either on the fringe of contemporary movements or from less staunch traditionalists. In this case, the intermediate force took action to cease further prevention of future exploration and colonization of Mars, though it was not without an understanding of Spender’s position.

Bradbury continues the theme of disregarding Martian tradition throughout the book in the scenes with careless destruction of dead Martian cities and playing among remains. There are instances with children playing among the bones of aliens and kicking up ashes, and other visitors shooting out windows for sport (Bradbury, The

Martian Chronicles 99, 146). In passages such as these, Bradbury is highlighting the fear of sterilization and desensitization that comes in a futuristic society with emotional disconnects. Death on such a broad scale should not be something kids trifle in, let alone play in during the summer before Bradbury’s Firemen arrive. Similarly, shooting out ancient windows for sport is an unwarranted destruction Bradbury despises. Both of these instances reflect the lack of honor or established value present in their society, which Bradbury is quick to provide justice for. Both the kids and Parkhill are punished severely after their dishonoring the dead planet, kids earning “fatherly beatings” and

Parkhill getting his teeth knocked out (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 99, 147).

Each of these elements build into the full picture Bradbury envisions among his futuristic society, building in elements of respect, human ambition, exploratory nature, and destructive tendencies, suggesting alternate courses of action to better shape society.

CHAPTER THREE

Fusion of Science Reality with Science Fantasy via Setting

A fundamental part of science fiction is alien environment and how the

technology encountered during a novel effects interaction within it. The aspect of

combining the imaginative with reality takes a twist on setting in literature by opening up

a limitless window of creation. Science fiction authors tend to create a sense of magic

with their environments, an element of fantasy that blends in pushing the reader to the

fringe of reality and into the imaginative realm. Doing so captivates the reader,

potentially freeing them from a scrutinizing viewpoint and directing them to a more open

mindset. As the reader adjusts to the author’s realm, the imaginative continues to blend

with the scientific, which the author incorporates in many aspects of the novel; notably in

the setting and its accompanying technology. In The Time Machine (1896), Wells draws

the reader into a post-apocalyptic London, where buildings lie fragmented and unkempt

amidst sprawling vegetation. In the case of Out of the Silent Planet (1938), Lewis forms

Malacandra, or Mars, as a declining planet still teeming with life, immersing the reader in a realm of stretched proportions due to lessened gravity, elevation changes hindering Dr.

Ransom, and a serene lake scene where he meets Oyarsa. Contrary to both of these

luscious scenes though, Bradbury establishes Mars as seen from Earth, red and dead,

inhospitable to humans while the Martians live, but this image changes as humanity

begins to take over. Such different environments are symbolic of the views authors hold

when looking into the future and provide a wealth of resources to understanding societal

outlooks at the time.

Wells

Wells embraced the advent of 1900 from a scientific and creative aspect. His blend of science fiction and science reality are perceived in different lights across The

Time Machine and The War of the Worlds. Such variety within setting in particular occurs in each of these where a luscious environment and metallic time machine are under the same pen as the desolate dystopia. Wells desired to touch the reader’s imagination through imaginative books, his being under the genre of science fiction, which opened up such a variety of settings (Wells ii).

Future Britain

Depositing The Time Traveler in the distant future, Wells establishes a post- apocalyptic environment complete with crumbling towers, a meandering river, and a former city overrun with vegetation (Wells 17). Very distinctly The Time Traveler is thrust into a “lawn like a little garden” with “rhododendron bushes” and other “mauve colors” under a light shower of hail, the garden sitting under the watchful gaze of a bronze sphinx (Wells 16). After The Time Traveler escapes the sphinx’s trance, he begins to explore the post-apocalyptic world, over the course of the book describing the landscape in a variety of ways, primarily as soft and green carpeting the crumbling sidewalks and hillsides. As The Time Traveler grows closer with the Eloi, images of utopia arise with the vivid flowers and fruits the little creatures have abundantly. This serene light is contrasted with the Morlock’s domain underground, where The Time

Traveler only ventures once. During his excursion in the dark, The Time Traveler begins to piece together much of the cultural divide between the Eloi and the Morlocks, considering observations from the interactions below ground and the general Eloi fear of the dark.

Creating the futuristic depiction of Britain on the wane, Wells factors in a simple comparison to his present society by the few interactions that occur in the novel’s present tense; the dinner parties. Bookending The Time Traveler’s trip, Wells provides minimal examples of the house but does inform the reader of the closed quarters, the lamplight, and the laboratory, which provide insight into the small society. Presenting a variety of sophisticated people in closed quarters builds into the secrecy of the project. He also incorporates the personal laboratory that holds the full size time machine (Wells 8-9).

Interestingly, both of these examples have comparisons in the realm The Time Traveler steps into. The Eloi live in a large naturally lit common room and hold very few personal possessions, contrasting The Time Traveler, potentially making a statement on the communal post-apocalyptic world. The Morlocks though do have secluded rooms, namely the one that houses the stolen time machine behind the Sphinx, and a maze of underground tunnels interconnecting in the darkness. Through these comparisons, the reader sees increasing differences between the two realms as paralleled to the societies each forms in The Time Traveler’s age. By growing separate because of different niche based focuses, the two levels of society later inhabit their common levels in life—upper, prosperous, elegant above ground with the laborer, grittier, working class underground.

Placement of the sphinx itself is fits well with these comparisons, as the sphinx poses as a timeless link between both worlds (Parrinder 16,20). Confronting The Time

Traveler with the sphinx, Wells introduces another element of mystery to the setting, a

riddle that is still to be figured out by The Time Traveler, as he is unable to adequately solve the issues that separate society, merely seeing the results so many years later

(Parrinder 20). Keeping the time machine behind the doors could be a way to answer not

the riddle of the sphinx, but instead the uncertainty of where man is heading in the future

and how to direct its path, using time to see changes.1 The challenge then would become,

how would one alter it? Could the course of events leading to Wells’s Time Machine

future be changed? The topic of societal change and direction society is headed appears

throughout science fiction by nature, always as a mystery that can only be partially

answered by those who dare to face it, if they are willing to face death by challenging

their Sphinx. Seeing Wells’s approach through a declining world like the Eloi’s, readers

must think differently in the more explicit terms Lewis provides. As Ransom faces

Oyarsa in Meldilorn, taking a more active approach to the same riddle of shaping society,

Lewis suggests more definite moral directions as the way to change. Though Lewis’s use

of setting focuses on other aspects, these similar notions exist.

Lewis

In a period of global turmoil and pre-World War II tensions, Lewis transports the

reader via spaceship to the closest planet, Mars, creating an escape where he depicts

several prevalent forces, ideologies, and powers from an outside perspective. The

declining environment Lewis creates on Malacandra provides an area not unlike Earth

where he develops a variety of motifs while manipulating scientifically probable

elements (e.g. decreased gravity). In establishing a moderately tolerant setting and

1 Focusing on the Sphinx as depicted in Oedipus the King 36

relatively little technological footprint, Lewis is able to focus on a more familiar picture

of society. This builds into greater impact on the societal concerns and character

developments that occur throughout the novel.

Malacandra

While there are a host of possible reasons for the motifs at play in Out of the

Silent Planet, much of Lewis’s construction of Malacandra can be seen in the Barsoom

Theory (Cryer 25). According to the romanticized paradigm, Mars was believed to have

“a thin but breathable atmosphere, a chilly though bearable climate, gravity lighter than

that of Earth, a system of artificial canals, and an ancient crumbling civilization” (Cryer

25). All of these elements are present and initially established upon contact, but quickly

fade in their abnormality as Ransom acclimatizes. Applying this view of Mars, Lewis

designs an engaging, hospitable environment that has hopeful and exciting features which

could counter much of the pre-war sentiments, at least momentarily. In order to get to the older paradise though, Lewis begins by detaching the reader and Ransom from common society through space travel, using elements of the trip to concern both upon the expectations and challenges on the path through space.

In chapter three when Ransom awakens in the dark warm room, his senses are thrown out of alignment, followed shortly by the revelation from Weston that he is longer on Earth (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 26). After accepting the initial shock, Ransom tries fairly futilely to receive answers for all the questions buzzing around about the voyage and what is ahead, though his presence is marginalized by his captors. The silent hum of the engines, the spherical shape of the spaceship, the view of space, and the constant light ping of meteorites deposit the reader with Ransom in the confined space

with a fairly realistic image of what space could look like. Lewis adds a couple twists that one may or may not consider, when Ransom comments “I thought space was dark and cold” to which Weston quips “Forgotten about the sun?” a simple line that displays incredible detail to making the temporary setting believable (Lewis, Out of the Silent

Planet 31). Paired with these details is the overwhelming sense of isolation, a feeling that distances Ransom from nature, society, and Earth, making his arrival on Malacandra so much more inviting to exploration. Upon hearing fractions of his potential demise,

Ransom wrestled with decisions about his future, resolving to brave the unknown elements in his flight. The desire to escape his captors and their alien allies sends

Ransom wildly into Malacandra’s landscape, where Lewis immerses the reader headlong into the unknown.

Returning to the Barsoom Theory’s environmental influences on the large scale, readers are confronted with the concept that Malacandra is significantly older and only moderately different from the atmosphere we live in, making Ransom’s flight possible.

The most notable divergence from the paradigm is the abundance of oxygen, which is later explained during Ransom’s trip across the harandra. As Ransom flees the reader is

exposed to the “fantastic sublime” facing mountains described as “surging

skyward…solid jets,” voluminous violet forests, and surprisingly warm waters (Lewis,

Out of the Silent Planet 54). Following these first glimpses Lewis reveals a world that is

very much alive and very much shaped by specific events, qualities that lead into a

central theme in his work: non-human creators and authorities. Using Ransom as the

curious wanderer, Lewis details the story beyond Malacandra, blending in elements of

science fact with science fiction, though most of the history is explained only later with

Augray the sorn and Oyarsa. The planet is dying because of ethereal battles that waged many millennia before mankind, which left Malacandra scarred and on the decline

(Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 100). The Oyarsa of Thulcandra striking the planet of

Malacandra gave rise to the desolate wastes of the harandra, freezing the upper levels of the planet and making them impassable for the most prevalent species the hrossa and pfifltriggi (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 100). By raising parts of the planet, decreasing the oxygen, and wiping out millions, the Oyarsa of Thulcandra destroys much of the planet. Counteracting these effects, the Oyarsa of Malacandra protects and supports the handramit channels where the majority of the planet’s population lives, creating fairly self-sustaining pockets for each of the tribes to grow in and follow a normal cycle. Lewis takes the elements of sustainability fusing it with acceptance of a cycle that will eventually end, attributing the whole of creation to higher powers’ authority. These figures and their impact on Malacandra are more than just shapers of the planet; they are symbolic of the two major forces: the desire to steal and destroy, and the desire to preserve life until death. Lewis’s universe comprises these two elements here as well as in the struggle between Weston and Ransom, further backing his position on creation and authority. Here he chooses to start from the science and expand backward, explaining how the planet had reached its current state. This insight builds into the depth of the setting in the grand scheme, setting in place the order Lewis uses for this book and the two that follow in the Space Trilogy.

Bringing the focus back to the individual level, there are two other scenes Lewis develops that add depth beyond a simple setting. The first of these is Hyoi’s village, where Ransom spends much of the novel getting acquainted with the many aspects of

Malacandra. The village is especially important because of the hrossa culture Ransom sees growing and thriving among the marshes and islands (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet

68). The little thatch huts and primitive tools provide a stark contrast to the advanced society of trains, universities, and furnaces Ransom is stolen from. This further builds into an idealized society, letting the reader instead focus on the conversations Ransom partakes in rather than comprehending some foreign technology. Simplifying the village,

Lewis parallels the nature of the hrossa. It is the same effect he uses with the sorns, presenting them in isolated caverns across the harandra. The straightforward nature of the hrossa is reinforced with their talk, which Lewis focuses on when conveying their selfless treasure-the-moment philosophies. Because the hnakra pose the greatest threat, they also pose the greatest treasured memory, inspiring the hunt. As quick as the hunt is, there is relatively little in the way of concrete setting, though the reader is given a glimpse of the order hrossa are capable of in their fleets and the hunts, navigating the waterways to surround and kill the hnakra. This slightly increased level of complexity increases during the later individual scene at Meldilorn where Oyarsa and a select group of Malacandran beings reside.

The island, Meldilorn, is the greatly anticipated meeting place of Oyarsa and

Ransom. Lewis describes the island as a serene environment, teeming with life in the handramit amidst a very still lake (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 106). This touching point is described as sacred because of the great power that is Oyarsa. As it is a greatly mystical place for Ransom, and quite revered on Malacandra, Meldilorn holds many symbols. Following the serenity is the buzz of creatures moving around the island, sharing stories, doing chores, and living in community. In many senses it could be

construed as the place where many pilgrimages end, such as for the hrossa like Hyoi. As a keeper of the spiritual and divine this importance increases when paired with gigantic stone pillars—reminiscent of Stonehenge—Meldilorn becomes an even larger symbol.

Because of this potential correlation, even the setting creates a mystical atmosphere where events beyond rational explanation take place: the trial by the formless Oyarsa.

Concluding Lewis’s world with the setting on Meldilorn, it acts to further depict the novel’s climax, where the sublime plays host to the intruders Weston and Devine, showing an active role in the novel. Purposeful environments which support human life continues in Bradbury’s works, though unlike Lewis’s realm, Bradbury opts for a tougher terrain that remains consistently barren.

Bradbury

The close of World War II brought a period of significant growth that quickly turned exponential among the Allied powers, sparking the Space Race and Cold War.

Bradbury’s first work brought in a collection of short stories providing a diversity of settings, focusing on Mars with a few scenes on Earth. Bradbury’s Mars takes a fundamentally different approach in its creation, making it a futuristic frontier capable of revival. From the beginning expeditions to Captain Wilder’s final return, Bradbury shapes an escapist culture on Mars, envisioning a futuristic colonial society running from censorship and turmoil on Earth, straight into the ancient, open, and hostile Martian terrain. The astronauts face struggles both with the land and with its inhabitants, though the land causes the most lasting issues, tending to reveal a nature of its own. This active

Martian setting remains fairly constant throughout the novel, even with the human shaping that occurs, as they adapt it for their brief inhabitance.

Describing the land

“They had a house of crystal pillars on the planet Mars by the edge of an empty sea, and every morning you could see Mrs. K eating the golden fruits that grew from the crystal walls, or cleaning the house with handfuls of magnetic dust which, taking all the dirt with it, blew away on the hot wind…[they] had lived by the dead sea for twenty years, and their ancestors had lived in the same house, which turned and followed the sun, flower-like, for ten centuries.” (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 2)

The reader’s first exposure to the Martian environment, quoted above, sets the tone for Bradbury’s description of Mars. It is an arid, oxygen deprived, and crystal building covered expanse riddled with channels, capable of supporting a very different form of life. As the reader glimpses in the first few chronicles, the environment is not particularly inviting even with its variety of muted colors, silvery canals, and blue hills

(Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 16). Bradbury often describes the seas as dead, and depicts the cities as tens of thousands of years—skeletons of a different period. He then initiates the next stage in viewing Mars, leaving the previous ideas of a dying but thriving utopia behind and embracing a hostile view of the planet. Observing this the reader can see two distinct messages: Bradbury’s world is void and open, and requires a sturdy rocket in the dust to be challenged. As an alien environment, Bradbury’s Mars holds a vast array of resources for the characters to struggle against, such as oxygen deprivation.

In order to counteract this, others are needed to step in and work against the natural elements in preparation for later crews. These characters are primarily human, but there are elements of aliens at play. As the shaping process begins, Mars is transformed from a wasteland to a decent expanse of opportunity, quite the foil to a red-tape wrapped and unstable Earth.

Mars’ perceived first inhabitants provide a significant amount to the construction

of Bradbury’s planet, dotting it with crystal cities, canals, tunnels, and houses. With this

infrastructure Bradbury’s Mars takes on a similar effect to both Wells and Lewis, but

carries more stylistic intrigue. The crumbling buildings, cracked cement, and ancient

stone huts of post apocalypse Earth and Malacandra are set against wondrous frames and

timeless design capable of withstanding desert storms and the harsh climate. As the humans begin to interact with these cities, the light is changed from those of architectural beauty to silent tombs in need of being cleansed. This perception changes further with the onset of a more habitable atmosphere, due in part to Benjamin Driscoll in the chronicle The Green Morning (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 100).

Sowing seeds

The medium length chronicle, The Green Morning is a turning point for

exploration of Mars, which previously consisted of moderate colonizing in small areas

heavily dependent on closeness for lack of oxygen. Bradbury uses the strong willed

character Benjamin Driscoll to purposefully mold the Martian setting. By sending

Driscoll across the Martian wastes on his seed planting voyage, Bradbury symbolically

demonstrates humanity’s impact on the planet (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 102).

The Martian remnants seemingly accept the decline of Mars and stagnation of dead seas.

Contrary to the Martians, Driscoll represents the fresh life humanity brings to the planet,

physically changing it by the increased oxygen from his forests. This breath of fresh air

was rewarded by new life on Mars, which suddenly becomes less hostile and seemingly

easier to access, resulting in the human population’s growth. Some have seen this

chronicle follow other lights, such as Driscoll’s collapse at the end as his death and the

rest a hallucination, but I believe this approach is inconsistent with the style of the novel.

Bradbury previously depicts Mars as a hostile planet, with unforgiving landscape, a

sparsely oxygenated atmosphere, and variety of malevolent Martians. None of the

previous expeditions show Mars as being the culprit in the demise of explorers; death is

always at the hands of Martians themselves. The First Expedition by Mr. K, the Second

Expedition by Mr. Xxx, the Third Expedition by the town, the Fourth Expedition by

Spender claiming to be the “Last Martian”, and no mention of spaceships crashing or

oxygen deprivation being lethal (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 17, 40, 65, 98).

Taking the view I suggest, Bradbury brings the aforementioned Martian rain and applies it to the previously vegetation devoid ground (The Martian Chronicles 41). This also supports the idea that Mars just needs an awakening of people who can break the planet’s stagnation, surely enough brought about through human colonizing efforts.

Colonization

Much to Spender’s dismay, colonizing efforts began with tremendous volume following the success of the Fourth Expedition. The Settlers is a bridging chronicle that describes the type of people making the leap from Earth to Mars and the hopes they take with them. As the people begin to breathe new life into the planet, they bring an artificiality with them which limits their growth initially until Benjamin Driscoll finds success. At this point, the open land becomes room for exponential growth as the masses begin to spread from their camps out and into the Martian towns. As this occurs there are several main interactions that are brought with, the naming of places, the cleansing of cities, and rejuvenation of planetary highways. When these three things occur the readers

continues to see the rejuvenation of Mars as a setting, with particular emphasis of the still and quiet Mars seen in the night. Examples of this include the scenes with Tomas, the

Fire Balloons, and later in the novel.

Lost in Time

One of the most interesting elements of Bradbury’s Mars is its impact on time, and some of the ageless nature of the planet. Two elements of time taking courses different from typical thought are the scene with Tomas and the alien Muhe Ca, and the numerous times where Martians are depicted as significantly older. Through the first example, Tomas and Muhe Ca meet at a crossroads, both on their ways to parties but cross paths in time (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 112). At this point, both see through and cannot physically interact with one another but they manage to hold a conversation. This little stitch in time is an interesting crossover of the two cultures, where they are depicted as similar. Bradbury uses this element of setting to further compare the two cultures, showing the Martians not as all that different from present humanity, just as having reached a different end result and philosophy of living. This comparison is seen also with other Martians, particularly with the Fire Balloons aliens, as the major factor in distinguishing Martians from humans. As the linearity of time challenges the Episcopal Fathers, they are also confronted with the notion that the

Martians believe in the same God and are as close to one with Him as possible (Bradbury,

The Martian Chronicles 141). Touching on the spiritual in this fashion, through an isolated setting, really extends the range of Bradbury’s work and continues the influence of time. Bringing both of these thoughts and pairing them with other glimpses through the book, Bradbury’s use of time in the setting inspires a bit of a paradox for the thought

of who came first and are the Martians and humans trapped in a cycle of perpetual death

and destruction before peace on Mars? Such an underlying element is interesting to

consider, since the novel finishes with a few families becoming the new Martians,

separating themselves from Earth and the devastation left behind. It inspires the question—is this what happened before? This ties in heavily with his response to censorship and understanding a course of action then holding on to it, rather than just getting swept aside, which leads me to believe Bradbury makes this fairly open for just that purpose; in order to challenge readers to consider their actions and influence the way the world is going, and prevent cataclysmic events.

Departure

Amongst all the growth and impact humans have had on Mars, the planet remains

fairly similar in its ambivalence to keeping them. None of the natural draws to Mars

seem to outweigh the pull back to Earth, even the established cities and waterways. As

soon as the atomic war strikes Earth, the messages for “COME HOME” drown out any

and all interest to the planet for people who valued family left on Earth (Bradbury, The

Martian Chronicles 219). Of the remaining folks, interestingly enough none seem to find

shelter in the Martian cities but instead become fairly detached from the empty streets.

Walter Gripp’s tale presents a very deserted feel that reflects much of the typical Martian

outlooks, through a tinge of human sculpted land (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles

220). Hawthorne’s situation also strikes the reader as interesting because of the role

setting plays in reflecting his personality. Being isolated and desiring company are both

immediately reflected in his surroundings: a small home in the hills and an artificially

energized town both (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 233). The small home reflects

his isolation on the planet, with little correspondence with humans, whereas the town

wired for activity reflects the influence of Hawthorne’s robots, providing company for

him. Both of these reflections could be Bradbury hinting to the social needs people have,

particularly how even pop-up towns need life in them with actual people buzzing around.

It also parallels people being dead with people not participating in city life, such as we

see in Fahrenheit 451 and “The Pedestrian” which is the greatest contributing factor to

the situation on Earth.

Earth and its depictions

The setting on Earth takes on a particularly sterile vibe, for the most part capturing life inside the houses with few excursions out—a trend that Bradbury constantly pushes the reader to work against. While there are seldom glimpses to Earth in The Martian Chronicles, the few provided contain varying instances of life outside house walls, with much of the activity outside being an exception to the norm, especially later in the grand timeline. In the few scenes with activity, the emphasis is always on the drastic change being brought about by the rockets and people leaving, as evidenced with

Rocket Summer and the blast of heat wiping away the snow or with the girls getting ready to travel in The Wilderness (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 1, 147). Later on in the novel and in Fahrenheit 451 the sterile vibe sinks in due to the television screens, and the automation replicated through the late chronicle There Will Come Soft Rains. Each of these situations reflect one of the concerns that everything was becoming identical and automated, things that could remove the human element quite efficiently. (On the technology front, this will be discussed in further depth later.) What this empty setting lacks though really draws the reader to implement it, unplugging and making situations

unique. The shell of a house in There Will Come Soft Rains stands as testament to the

potential future condition Bradbury hopes to avoid—an impersonal, self-regulating

system. Bringing this cog into the cities like Guy Montag faces, and creating a background of disparity between powers on Earth dually moves the plot along and warns of the importance of understanding the larger world. With the condition of atomic war so heavily strained—a direct result of the Cold War sentiments—and Americans seeking to

escape the conflict, it really sets up the image that they simply tried to keep escaping, just

through different resources. These forces, when combined with some of the censorship

driven thoughts, really create Mars as an escape from the chaos for those not fully

enraptured by the technology. Mars appears even more so as a place where restrictions

on Earth disappear, and people can start new. By forming these contrasts, Bradbury

develops both settings to contain deeper meanings.

Final thoughts

Through a variety of styles and several distinct purposes, each of these three authors utilize setting in multiple ways that all reinforce common themes presented through their characters and plots. As Wells forms warnings of future societal polarization, Lewis provides examples of idealistic unity, and Bradbury continues to show an updated lens of both of their interactions.

CHAPTER FOUR

The Styles and Roles of Technology

Science fiction’s last iconic feature is the technology presented, typically items or concepts designed and wielded by a more advanced civilization. The range of science fiction technology extends from advanced weaponry such as laser blasters and light sabers, to inter planetary space travel in ships of fantastic design, to functional robots and beyond. It also extends into the realms of time travel, physical and metaphysical interaction, as well as the underlying ethics of vivisection, robot treatment, and humanity’s future. Each of these elements find some root in science fiction, developing from a sense of utility and industrial thought, pushing the creative edge to think of the, at time of writing, impossible. Since technology is such a prevalent force in science fiction, its presence or lack thereof significantly impacts the events throughout the novel, providing insight into the author’s view of the role technology plays.

Through Wells’s works we see a reflection of the Industrial Age where new technologies and products constantly showcase the latest in research. Notably, Wells draws upon his populations’ advancement, crushing their war machines and understanding of the world with the alien vehicles in The War of the Worlds (1898), drawing the reader back to the idea that technology is not the ultimate victor. Similarly, he demonstrates an interest in the impact of technology on society with the novel The

Time Machine (1896), showing their effects many years down the road among humanity’s descendants, the Morlocks and Eloi.

Lewis uses futuristic technology in quite a different manner, remaining relatively

sparse with actual technologies until his third novel in the trilogy That Hideous Strength

(1945), where he diverts to a complicated tangle of N.I.C.E. web and demonstrates the

inhuman actions required to rid the world of corruption through the hands of mankind.

The lack of technology appears by design in Lewis’s previous two science fiction works,

preventing the reader from distracting entertainment so they can focus on the

philosophical implications in the text of both Out of the Silent Planet (1938) and

Perelandra (1943).

The most prolific of the three authors in use of futuristic technology, Bradbury

develops the widest range of technology during one book, blending elements of the

imaginative and the realistic while creating the habitat on Mars. In The Martian

Chronicles (1950), Bradbury consistently describes the Martian world with its variety of seemingly incomparable technology, imparting it with a sense of natural beauty that captivates many of the characters. The influx of human technology is seen briefly across the chronicles with glimpses at their capacities. Bradbury’s robots appear as the invention with the most significance in his novels, playing particularly interesting roles in his ethics and censorship discussions. Prominently, Bradbury’s robots arise parallel to censorship as enforcers, as witnessed in Fahrenheit 451 (1953) and in the chronicle “The

House of Usher II.” As Bradbury challenges many of the prevalent issues of his time, he uses the guise of technology to exemplify potential outcomes of its excess, sending a constant message of “use with caution.”

Wells

As previously discussed, Wells is an author near the end of Industrialization and the turn of the century, both factors that are evident in the technologies seen across his science fiction works. Two works that best reflect the influence of constant invention, and issues associated with it, are his novels The Time Machine and The War of the

Worlds. These books expose the reader to a host of new technology and scientific

exploration, challenging them to answer questions that had never been asked before: If

we could see the future, what would we see? What constitutes human life? What are

aliens? Clearly these are topics that have instilled great controversy throughout the years

and have yet to be answered soundly and agreed upon in full. As the culture developed

around Wells, elements of it began to run in his works, particularly challenging readers to

consider the improbable and accept some of the responsibilities headed their way,

showing the impact down the road.

Time Machine

Wells constructs his first work through immense focus on personal alien and

human interaction amongst a rich post-apocalyptic setting with very little direct

technology. This sets a fairly common trend across the three authors, each of which

supplement their works with technology to aid their construction of the setting as well as

tie the focus to their character’s ethics and motifs. Wells forms a path of minimal

interaction with common objects, focusing instead on one large piece, the time machine,

and discussing some of the disconnect occurring in the Eloi and Morlock society of 801,

792 (Wells 18). The first scene with the model time machine has a twofold purpose:

mystify the dinner party, and provide a teaser for the later trip through time. Stupefying

the party leads into the incredulity of the idea, by stumping the Psychologist, Lawyer, and

Medical men, some of the more learned individuals of the time (Wells 8). This sets the precedent for the reader that such an idea is possible, neigh unbelievable, but possible and works to draw them into the setting. The second purpose for the model is quickly overshadowed by the actual trip through time, as The Time Traveler is then able to explain what the experience was like.

Upon exposing the reader to the fantastic trip through time, full of blurring lights and nauseating movement, Wells deposits them into a world of very sparse technology, quite polarizing the two moments. Shortly after, he even removes the time machine entirely which helps pull The Time Traveler and the reader deeper into the post-London society, which is seemingly devoid of everyday technology. The lanterns of the dining room, even the matches to light them, are a thing of the past long forgotten by the night fearing Eloi. In painting a sharp contrast through the Eloi everyday life, Wells takes a moment to relieve the reader of everyday conveniences (or distractions) they may have, making them focus on a simple world instead of gadgets whirring about. The future society’s lack of technology mirrors the concepts depicted through the setting and characters, a simpler population on the declining side of humanity.

By 802,792, humanity has clearly peaked and is starting to descend. Some of this is probably linked to the advanced stages of technology and where it is driving the culture.

Wells discusses the polarization of society in a few of The Time Traveler’s lines around

The Time Traveler’s trip into the pipes, linking the Morlocks with underground and working class (Wells 35-36)1. Building on their function in the previous society, Wells

1 More specifically conflict between Capitalist and Laborer cultures, though The Time Traveler mistakenly assesses the balance between the Eloi and Morlocks. Wells continues commentary through pages 43 and 48. 52

uses technology as a turning point that when used in excess could be detrimental as such

a polarizing agent. This split between the two is important to see in comparison to

Wells’s real life situation—the decline of Industrialization. Britain faced similar doubts

and crashes as America was facing during the 1890’s with increased immigration and

urbanization as people moved from the countryside into the cities (Smith). Upon moving

to the cities, many of these immigrants entered into unskilled positions, lacking a

fulfilling environment and working for the machines, under the gaze of managers who

remained a separate class. As cogs in the machine, they began to lose individual faces,

merely exchangeable pieces as long as everything runs smoothly. Wells extrapolates this

style 800,000+ years forwards where the division has eventually left it, casting a

foreboding light on the practice. This technology separation leads to an irreparable

division, so much so that the Morlocks devolve into the carnivorous scrawny monsters

The Time Traveler encounters.

Before such a massive drop-off though, there is clear evidence of humanity’s peak

era of technology, which Wells places in the Green Porcelain Palace, a lengthy hike from

The Time Traveler’s landing spot (Wells 43). While not given much information on it, the reader is given a glimpse at the museum containing future relics among everyday items that would prove worthy of protection due to their revolutionary impacts. It is here that The Time Traveler begins to understand more of what had transpired between his time and the future world, though much of it is left vague as he is limited by time and

Morlocks (Wells 47). In forming this palace, Wells acknowledges the presence advances of technology will make, but he ties it back to the user, not the thing being used. Each of these relics are just that, they are incapable of being wielded by either their predecessors

or later followers and thus are trapped in time2. This is yet another example of how Wells uses technology as a supplement to apply focus back on to the characters.

Seeing these indirect purposes, the two direct uses of technology in The Time

Machine seem to carry a little more weight. The first direct use is obvious, the time machine. Being the namesake, the time machine fulfills the classic role of technology in science fiction: a man made and wielded device, aiding the character in performing inhuman, often supernatural, tasks. The Time Traveler’s whizzing time jumping device meets every criterion and is the perfect conduit to transport him into the future. It is flashy, creative, and unfamiliar, quickly whisking away The Time Traveler to the end of the Earth and beyond. As the major intrigue in the novel it performs well and garners an appropriate amount of light.

The second direct use of technology is less imaginative though appears equally as fictitious to the future creatures, matches. Matches play a critical role in the story, when considered, in their ability to discourage Morlocks from close proximity. As everyday items, matches typically carry little significance since they are an older form of generating light and heat. During Wells’s time they were even more common and more popular since electric lighting was becoming more available but still decades away from becoming standard. The concept behind the match is what transforms it from an everyday object to that of noteworthy technology. As an object of technology, The Time

Traveler’s matches are foreign to both Eloi and Morlock’s, a man made and wielded object from the characters’ own time and home. The concept of instant fire –really even just fire – to the future creatures, had a profound impact until the initial shock factor wore

2 As suggested by The Time Traveler’s use of a broken metal rod and matches over mechanisms and faux dynamite in the museum during his visit on pages 47-51 (Wells). 54

off. During first contact though, the Morlock’s backed away while the match was lit and

the Eloi were mesmerized by it (Wells 40). This effect ties back into the concept of

certain inventions are limited by their time of invention, similar to the articles in the

Green Porcelain Palace being useless for The Time Traveler. Such a simple object for

Wells and The Time Traveler was quite a novelty for the future creatures, and having

such an effect on them transforms it quite a bit.

Using these few examples from The Time Machine we see some of Wells’s creativity in technology, as he blends in different levels of use for each element. This first work displays a more limited role of technology, something that is very different in the arguably more famous novel The War of the Worlds where Wells concentrates the

reader’s attention on the powerful alien technology that ravages the lands surrounding

London. The supplemental role of technology is replaced by a fascination with

inexplicable weaponry and inherent superiority.

The War of the Worlds

Probably Wells’s most famous work, mostly because of the theatrical renditions,

The War of the Worlds is a catalogue of science fiction weaponry focusing on advanced alien technology that shreds much of Britain during the march on London. This novel draws significantly more focus to the power of alien weaponry and explores fantastic explanations of it, rather than utilizing technology as an accessory to the plot or minimizing it like in The Time Machine. In creating such vivid technology Wells blends the impossible with the unknown, ushering in thoughts of death rays, war machines, and an alien superiority, carrying with it several points on the strength and unperceived weaknesses of mankind.

From the beginning of the story, Wells crashes a space craft in the English

countryside, with several counterparts cratering the surrounding area sparking activity in

the community. Amongst the sizzling crater an object remains and the reader sees the

first alien moving around in its war machine and the destruction of the area (Wells 275).

Inside the vehicle the first devastating piece of technology is described: the heat ray gun.

The alien heat ray gun is wielded with tremendous accuracy as people and structures in

its path are obliterated (Wells 279). Even with our detailed knowledge of wavelengths and rays, current society does not have the ability for the massive laser capacity Wells creates, showing a significant gap between humans and the aliens. Much of what follows parallels this distance between species as the alien vehicles begin roaming about the

English countryside devastating the pockets of military forces attempting to impede their march on London. Several instances of tanks being disintegrated, carts upturned and, and villages leveled pound the reader with the inferiority of human technology when compared to such impenetrable structures. Eventually they do manage to take down a couple of the crafts, but at great cost and limited success. Bleakness settles over the story as a character’s lines proclaim “We men are beat. We don’t know enough. We need to learn more before we’ve got a chance” and the main storyteller “a professed and learned philosopher” is faced with an opinion he had never dealt with (Wells 370). The will to fight diminishes even more when paired with the way the aliens take in energy—human

blood (Wells 355). This is both demoralizing and disturbing at the same time, an effect

intended to paint the picture as both, while coupling with the bleak odds against the

superior weapons.

Wells does not merely create a dismal end-of-the-world scene and leave the reader to muse upon the causes of such ghastly aliens, he fills in backstory from them, making assumptions on their condition in regards to evolution. Describing the aliens as superiorly evolved in such comparison that humans appeared “at least as lowly as the monkeys and lemurs to us,” Wells proceeds to discuss the motivations to their physical manifestations (Wells 266). In these explanations the reader learns why they are entirely eyes, mouth, brain, and tentacles, products of extreme energy efficiency concentrated solely on seeing, eating, and thinking (Wells 350).

Wells aliens are products of their technology and we are given a mere glimpse at even that. As products of technology, they are so closely linked to it that their technology is so closely linked in return—the same theme we see in The Time Machine. In the case of The War of the Worlds though, having such advanced technology empowering their strengths, has stripped them of any protection against their weakness; disease—a theme reflected in many later novels. Wells uses the aliens' demise two fold, the first of which to isolate the theme that technology as a power is only useful by those who make it, as stated. The second purpose is show that humanity cannot assume to be its own master.

Regardless of the technology and how superior a population may feel, Wells leaves the authority to conquer or defend just out of the hands of men, and out the hands of the aliens. These elements could be intimations at the ideas of Social Darwinism that were arising during Wells’s time period, elements of obeying or breaking a natural order and consequences of such actions (Smith). As a growing governing ideology, Social

Darwinism would explain some of what is going on. Stating that "a natural process will continue to select the fittest in the environment to carry on, and attempts to alter the

process will be detrimental to the environment" Social Darwinism sets very clear

precedents on structure (Smith). The aliens, entering into the environment and attempting to radically change it faced opposition because they did not fit in the order and could not handle the smallest elements of the environment. Their inability to cope with natural elements and their excessive emphasis on efficiency made them fittest on their planet, and initially on ours, but made them fall short in the long run. Such extreme evolution and connection to technology result in disconnection from reality, a though shared later by Bradbury.

Through this and the previous purposes to technology, Wells creates several different outlets for it to be actively implemented in his work. Contrary to fantastic technology, Lewis brings a different style to the genre, using relatively little technology which leads to increased emphasis on the conversations rather than the science behind the fiction.

Lewis

Compared to Wells and Bradbury, Lewis uses scarcely any futuristic technology within his works, a major difference from the other two, particularly Bradbury.

Throughout each of Lewis’s works there are bits of futuristic technology scattered about, but the only thing as fantastic as the other works are the space ships in Out of the Silent

Planet and Perelandra. I contend that Lewis’s use of technology is intended even more

so than Wells to bring the reader’s focus to the situations discussed, as philosophical and

moral arguments are established in each of the three novels, growing denser with each

book. By whisking away the reader to Malacandra in the space ship, Lewis isolates them

from the situation on Earth. Similarly, Lewis adapts the travel to Perelandra into a more

mystical separation. The third novel in the trilogy, That Hideous Strength, requires a different transition to events which finishes the train of thought Lewis has established in the previous books. Among these travels are various elements Lewis manipulates to further build backstory or enhance arguments in the work.

Something characteristic of Wells’s works, and in science fiction, is the separation of reader or narrator from their environment, but how that is accomplished varies by author. Lewis initiates his trilogy with a man-made spaceship, plucking

Ransom up and into a quick succession of events that leave Ransom and the reader floating through space, looking back to the shrinking Earth. As mentioned previously,

Lewis creates a sense of isolation from Earth that makes Malacandra almost inviting to the kidnapped professor, though this is not the only purpose of the space ship. Lewis’s first interplanetary excursion sets up a theme that runs in each of his works.

The first trip is in a man-made spaceship, constructed and designed by men pushing the limits of the age. Being so, it bridges a realistic gap in space, uniting both sides by a human front and opens the novel into a philosophical argument that will impact readers in the near future, such as colonization efforts on Mars, how should alien life be treated, and what does it mean for mankind to pursue its continuance at any cost.

As these are problems being shaped by men regarding men, it is fitting that Lewis introduces them in a possible environment where he can discuss more immediately tangible situations. Lewis creates a similar introduction in Perelandra where he initiates a more spiritual and philosophical debate, by using an ethereal coffin to ship Ransom off to

Perelandra (Perelandra 26). Compared to the man-made craft in Out of the Silent Planet the second ship is composed of other-worldly material and transports Ransom into other-

worldly environments where he faces more philosophical challenges. By staying consistent with the realms within his books, Lewis reveals his main focus in each. This is why the third novel appears very different than the other two, and is even more challenging to get into because there is little to no separation from the norm. This lack of separation is where we see Lewis suggesting some of the issues are prevalent here on

Earth, reducing the distance from conversations on other planets and challenging the readers to be even more so involved with the themes.

Approaching Lewis’s technology like this, there are seldom few references to bizarre or exciting elements in Out of the Silent Planet and none in Perelandra, though the few carry some interesting weight. The first major element of technology in the first novel is the oxygen mask the sorns keep for the hrossa, and Ransom (C. S Lewis, Space

Trilogy). While not the most exciting device, it is significantly more compact than gas masks of Lewis’s age and would be semi familiar to the post World War I audience.

Creating this likeness in the Malacandran society, Lewis subtly sets up the advancements of their societies which he goes on to explain through both Augray’s conversation and the stone pillars in Meldilorn (Out of the Silent Planet 111). This simple glimpse shows two things: inter-dependence among each other and higher level intelligence than expressed.

As discussed in the first chapter, inter-dependence among the three types of hnau is what makes the Malacandran society so fluid and interwoven. Because each of the three has specific talents, they are dependent on the others for completion: hrossa preserve the history and arts, sorns preserve the philosophy and intelligence, and the pfifltriggi continue with craftsmanship and technological advancement, balancing out the society.

All of these specialties tend to point the individuals towards Meldilorn and the Oyarsa,

the ultimate destination. Every species requires assistance from the others: pfifltriggi transportation across the water in search of the hrossan folklore, hrossa wearing pfifltriggi made masks crossing the upper barren wastes following the sorns, and sorns seeking a sense of community and maintaining the intelligent community by observing and aiding the other two species. If the alignment were even a little bit off, the order would be thrown off and each of the species would have a harder time finding their version of enlightenment. Seeing these effects, the subtlety of this little bit of technology actually stretches deeper than it appears.

The second subtle point ties directly in with the stone pillars and the structure of

Lewis’s science fiction universe. Having once had the capacity for interplanetary travel and still maintaining a variety of advanced devices, the Malacandran beings express a form of restraint and obedience that Lewis uses to sharply contrast Earth’s culture. In this little form of obedience there is a distinct edge that appears as one of the elements critiquing Lewis’s society, notorious for following large driving forces and self-interests

that may or may not actually be for the betterment of the people. Lewis uses this as part

of his “little oyarsa” discussion with the Oyarsa of Malacandra, where Weston is being

rebuked (Out of the Silent Planet 137). He also parallels this point in Perelandra

throughout much of the discussions with the Queen as he engages in debate to guide her

planet’s next steps in a very Milton Paradise Lost fashion (Brower). All derivatives of

these few points, Lewis’s style can hold a fair amount because of his consistency and

variety.

Throughout the first novel there are no other real instances of advanced

technology, since Devine’s rifle is hardly an unfamiliar sight. Lewis’s lack of technology

continues into Perelandra though for quite obvious reasons, as he is focused on a

Garden-of-Eden setting, simplistic and natural, that keeps the reader involved with the

heavy debates. That Hideous Strength proves to be very unlike the proceeding novels

though, namely through the extensive use of theoretical debate and radical

implementation of Earthly sources. While none of the technology is terribly far-fetched until the resurrected head, from that point forward there are many bizarre contraptions bent on converting the select group of N.I.C.E. heads into bodiless entities (Lewis, That

Hideous Strength). Interestingly enough, the N.I.C.E. end goal was fairly in tune with the depiction of Wells’s aliens from The War of the Worlds. Stated quite clearly Wells influenced Lewis, who took a similar yet less cynical approach to the threat of inhuman figures as the end product of evolution. Combining these two worlds, both seem to draw similar thoughts on the idea that the mind is ultimately the most powerful force an alien or post human would possess, often accompanied by superior technology capable of transforming the world through its destructive nature. Both authors use this and other relatively limited views on technology, choosing instead to create further depth within such powerful devices.

Bradbury

The realms of Wells and Lewis appear tremendously sparse compared to

Bradbury’s creation, a futuristic realm teeming with gadgets, smart houses, talking televisions, robots, and various alien paraphernalia. Bradbury’s universe utilizes science fiction technology in a different way, chalking his chapters full with various devices that ultimately lead to one thing: people attempting to infuse life into their devices, with mixed outcomes. Throughout his novels, Bradbury infuses technology as an accessory to

the work, often times giving it a definitive nature that leads the reader to a conclusion that

challenges further contemplation. Several times in The Martian Chronicles there are depictions of various technologies in roles such as offensive weaponry and exploratory equipment, daily living, and governing restrictions, each playing specifically into their own set of themes. Seeing The Martian Chronicles as a foundation for much of

Bradbury’s writing, it is evident many of these themes evolve into novels and short

stories of their own, as seen with the iconic Fahrenheit 451 through its censorship and

moral degradations. Setting the baseline for much of his work with these three major

categories, it becomes important to understand some of the symbols Bradbury establishes

through these inventive and evolving elements of technology, which only seek to dive

further still into ethical confusion before providing answers.

Offensive Weaponry and Exploratory Equipment

Arguably the most noticeable elements of any science fiction work are the

weapons or powers involved on either side of a conflict. Popular science fiction tends to

draw attention to flashy plasma pistols, slick melee equipment, and ray devices,

assembling a variety of theoretical sciences behind them in hopes of making them appear

futuristic yet realistic. Bradbury is one of the few that addresses the prevalence of

weapons in a familiar fashion that molds them as distinctly useful and controllable,

posing on a few occasions that when wielded with malice or misunderstanding does the

weapon cause significant outcomes. There are at least three definitive examples of this in

The Martian Chronicles, with several others scattered across his works.

Exposure to the first example is within the very first chronicle when Mr. K goes

off and shoots the First Expedition crewmen (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 16).

Bradbury describes the humming of the weapon, the expressionless mask, and the recoil

across the hills with crisp detail—all of it as a result to a jealous discomfort related to

misunderstanding (The Martian Chronicles 14). Mr. K’s inability to comprehend the

situation led to a fear of the unknown that unsettled him enough to attack the problem

before it could grow worse (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 14). This sentiment is

repeated several times in the first few chronicles as the Martians are unable or undesiring

to accept the adventuring humans, and deal with them as simply as they see fit.

For a few chronicles this theme falls into the background, only to arise in an

interesting light through the chronicle “Usher II” and the purposes for the House are

clearly explained at the end of the chapter (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 180).

(While Spender and the Fourth Expedition clearly see gunfights, the motives are different than the other examples. Spender is not only protecting tradition but he is intoxicated by the Martian presence. Proving an extremist by defending values he loosely understands yet holds as absolute truth, his situation is unique.) Many of the sentiments infused in the

House resound clearly in Fahrenheit 451, which follows the theme that the uncomfortable or affronting needs to be removed, even if it well established, because it is either no longer understood or leads to a path labeled dangerous by the censoring powers.

Both chronicle and novel face this significant theme and deal with it in relatively similar fashion, though it is assumed the creator of the House, Stendahl, has more resources.

Bradbury’s driving point is the importance of understanding something before blatantly rejecting it, especially when it comes to literature and the imaginative, or the consequences that are faced if one ignores it. Only by understanding something can one

appropriately judge it and deem it not worthy of passing on, but in the process they learn from the interaction. In the parting line:

“Do you know why I have done this to you? Because you burned Mr. Poe’s books without really reading them. You took other people’s advice that they needed burning. Otherwise you’d have realized what I was going to do to you when we came down here a moment ago. Ignorance is fatal, Mr. Garrett”

Bradbury explicitly shows the reader the importance of learning from literature and learning from the past (The Martian Chronicles 180). This is what makes the House of

Usher II the most vivid offensive weapon in The Martian Chronicles. It precisely and efficiently eliminates an entire chain of command, using their ignorance against them, and exemplifies harsh consequences to censorship due to missing or lacking understanding of what is being censored. Unlike Mr. K’s reaction, such consequences as in Usher II are the product of strategy and suppression.

Nearing the end of the chronicles, Bradbury brings up an instance of fear and misunderstanding behind weaponry once more, just before the world catches fire. In the brief scene with Sam Parkhill and his wife at the hotdog stand, the reader is exposed once again to fear of the unknown leading to rash actions and loss of life. On the eve of Earth burning, the remaining Martians seek out Parkhill to entice him and his wife to stay, though Parkhill is unable to understand their first meaning and shoots the messenger as well as a few of their desert crafts (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 209-210). Once the situation is resolved, they are more at ease until the little blue-green marble catches fire (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 216). Bradbury’s emphasis here remains with the gut reactions to uncertainty and the acquired nature to shoot first and ask questions later, expressing this as poor judgment and solely detrimental.

Each of these examples depict some of Bradbury's expressions through science fiction weaponry, focusing significantly on misunderstanding and rash reactions, compared to physical or declared combat. This could be reflective of some of the Cold

War thoughts echoing during his period, where a confluence of fears constantly surround the globe, particularly the States, and one simple offensive reaction to an unclear or foreign sign could lead to catastrophe. Regardless, the prevalence of science fiction weapons and various forms shows their impact in Bradbury's work.

Daily Life

Bradbury carries into each of his works a sense of realism through common household items that arrive with futuristic variations, typically leading to further individualized products focused at relieving any sort of active input beyond the simplest, most basic actions. Across these two prominent works, Bradbury creates several scenes within houses of the future filling them with both superficial creations and symbols that hold deeper thoughts. A few of these examples are Bradbury's use of the house, technology like television screens filling it, and the satisfaction of escaping such technological contraptions for the natural and unfiltered.

Bookending The Martian Chronicles, Bradbury creates two distinct forms of

"smart houses," one alien and one human, sharing a few common factors that serve as pivot points to contrast each other. Entering the alien house at the beginning of the book, the reader is exposed to fantastic cooking devices, shape changing walls, and a perpetual cycle of existence (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 2). The human house is shown preparing toast, sweeping up crumbs, reacting to disaster and crumbling in the dust

(Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 249). Both provide a host of superficial futuristic technology that is fun to watch in action, but subtly blend together driving back to

Bradbury's theme that technology has been designed to replicate life, even though it needs a living touch to make functioning worth anything. This is the first point where the two houses differ, the alien house has living inhabitants who go through the routines and are not necessarily happy, but exist. And they have done so for many, many years, in a house that has existed for centuries. He contrasts this with a house that has the capacity to continue functioning for an indeterminate amount of time, but without the living touch it is just a lifeless shell going through the motions. This is the one of the instances that we see artificially made creations failing to have their own consciousness, instead remaining replications of ideal thoughts. (The other moment is through Bradbury's robots, which will be addressed shortly.) The aliens too had this sort of conclusion, though what guides their “superior society” remains trapped in the forgotten Martian songs and books. Another point of difference between the two is their relative interactions with the environment, and implications from it. Sitting above a dead sea next to open canals, the alien house interacts little with its surroundings compared to the human house which is being crushed by the environment. Some of this could be

Bradbury commenting on the level of scientific advancement the Martians reached but some of this could also be a reflection of the societal stability. The Martians had clearly achieved stability across the planet, whereas war tensions raged across the Earth in the background.

Bradbury continues by filling his characters’ houses with fairly normal devices, most animated or relatively familiar to readers. He does include one exceptional object—

interactive television screens. While primarily found in Fahrenheit 451, Bradbury’s screens function with less authority and suspicion than those in George Orwell’s iconic

1984. As glimpsed in Fahrenheit 451, television screens for Bradbury are wall-sized distractions that suck the viewer into a virtual reality, taking them from the already individualized world and brainwashing them further (Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451 44). The anesthetized viewers compose the majority of cities around the States, reflecting a common culture of entertainment and self-centeredness, indulging the viewer in their interests and filtering out their distastes. Interestingly enough, even the tastes are censored as religions are faded and restrictions are tightened to govern activity (Bradbury,

Fahrenheit 451 81). In such a heavily government controlled society, Bradbury paints a bleak picture of a fractured sublime—the outside appearance is clear and decent but the cracks run deep. Moving beyond this bit of technology, the reader continues to see how poorly off the world could become when stagnation sets in among the general population.

Bradbury clearly warns the importance of not getting lost in distractions and by actively participating with the world. Because by the point one tries to escape, it is often too late.

Look at either the people moving to Mars or Leonard Mead from Bradbury’s short story

“The Pedestrian.” They are the counter culture; breaking away from the red tape of Earth in actions that are often short lived. For the Martian settlers the gap is as wide as the rocket ship flight, thus they gain relative autonomy, but for Leonard Mead just strolling along on a crisp evening warrants his arrest and removal from society. At this point escape from the system is not entirely possible for the average character as they are often stopped by Mechanical Hounds or unwritten societal laws.

Robots

Following the course of offensive capacities and daily conveniences, Bradbury

casts light on the field of robotics and simulants, shedding vision on to the ethical issues

that may arise with advanced robots, such as do they feel emotion, how should they be

treated by humans, and do they have non-material worth. Setting the novel so far in the future, Bradbury anticipates several of these issues throughout The Martian Chronicles and shows a couple scenes where robots interact in unique ways to satisfy their makers.

These two instances are in the “Usher II” and in “The Long Years” where robots are designed for very different purposes. In the former, robots are used entirely as tools to bring Stendahl’s imagination to life and eliminate the red-tape leaders (Bradbury, The

Martian Chronicles 166). This perspective demonstrates the mindless robots as completely lacking autonomy because they are programmed for very specific tasks and are expendable. Such a view is often expected in regards to robots because they either lack humanoid features or lack communicatory ability. The only exception is Garrett’s robot, though it is not challenged ethically since Stendahl and Pikes were concentrated on eliminating the original person, thus removing any distinction from robotic or human value. Because of this, the robots evidenced in “Usher II” hold little water on the ethical debates involved and the reader is instead shifted to the questions surrounding

Hathaway’s surrogate family.

Being so radically different from other robots, and because they are so thoroughly trained, Hathaway’s surrogate family provides serious turmoil among the crew members, and readers. Previous renditions of robots lacked emotional simulations, ability to respond to memories, partial cognition of identity, and failed to resemble so

immaculately detailed humans. All four of these categories describe Hathaway’s

surrogate family, which challenge the crew to consider what to do with them once

Hathaway dies (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 244). Should they turn off the robots

or should they let them “live”? Is it murder to do so? Is it the wrong thing? Bradbury

provides a respectful close to them, after showing the conflict is expressed and resolved

by Wilder’s second in command. Wilder and the crew decide to leave the surrogate

family functioning on their own off in the hills, harming no one and carrying on

reflections of life for an eternity (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 247). By choosing

this conclusion Bradbury instructs us to make judgment calls on a situation regarding

robots. Though we cannot give life to machines we do not always have the right to take

it. This is a theme reflected across all three authors and an increasingly interesting point,

because of his conclusion. With such detailed construction, and because they posed no

eminent threat to anyone, harming the innocent robots would be equally as devastating as

destroying an animal or child. But this exception is only to be applied to such thoroughly

detailed devices.

Finishing with Bradbury’s most engaging works of technology, robots, most of

technology involved fits the story well as pieces are useful and accessory though they do

not enhance humanity to a heightened power like the aliens of Wells and N.I.C.E. folks

of Lewis. In doing so, the field of technology is expanded a fair amount throughout science fiction to incorporate a wider range of motifs, themes, and challenges associated with ethic use of such revolutionary devices.

CHAPTER FIVE

Comparison and Conclusion

From the realm of H.G. Wells, we see insight primarily into The Time Machine

(1896) though a little with The War of the Worlds (1898), as he creates a fairly vivid futuristic realm filled with moral conversations and future societal implications which he expresses through interesting characters wielding wild technology. Following Wells we reach C.S. Lewis and the fantastic creatures and worlds he makes, utilizing the genre of science fiction to tackle philosophical and spiritual debates through a unique universe.

Arriving to Ray Bradbury last, we are immersed in his near-future universe where robots, astronauts, aliens, and spaceships collide on the dying planet of Mars, carrying with them sentiments of post-human intelligence, complications of censorship, and the value of pursuing knowledge through understanding. Comparing these realms to each other is the most straightforward way to see direct reflections of each author’s time period as themes and styles change during each era. Logically Wells and Lewis come first as they are the two older writers, then Lewis and Bradbury are compared before the first and last authors discussed, Wells and Bradbury.

The Brits

To say that Lewis was influenced by Wells’s novels would be a gross understatement, evidenced by allusions to Wellsian aliens early in Out of the Silent

Planet (Lewis, 76). As much as he was influenced though, Lewis differentiates himself from Wells in several ways that change the way people see some of their shared elements.

Much of this stems from their different academic backgrounds but a fair amount of it also arises from external factors. Because of this, it is interesting to see the similarities in both of their first science fiction works and how each accomplishes their purpose. The two largest parts of Out of the Silent Planet and The Time Machine are clearly the human and alien interactions and the environments the two create, as both elements are shaped similarly on several fronts.

Being the centerpiece of most novels, character interactions play the major role in moving a story forward, and many authors build meaning into their characters’ actions.

Wells and Lewis are no exceptions, as both engrain a multitude of ethical issues into their characters thoughts and interactions, particularly in community with aliens. As discussed, both authors place their human characters in situations where they face two of more sentient races, have to learn said sentient races’ languages, make a dangerous trip, project potential societal strata, and face an abstract enemy. As they face these challenges, The

Time Traveler and Dr. Ransom respond differently in several ways that alter the reader’s view of the given scenarios, I believe related to shifts in societal expectations. With

Wells as a turn of the century man, he probably drew more from a straightforward scientifically driven front, thus The Time Traveler appears fairly short with the Eloi though he tries vaguely to understand them. Having this adventurous mindset and perceived high expectations of future humans, Wells’s character also appears let down by the environment he is ejecting into. The devolution of mankind into two subspecies would have been both a shock and disappointment to The Time Traveler, and others of

Wells’s era who believed the greatest generations and inventions were still to come in the very near future. These explain The Time Traveler’s unpreparedness for wandering

across the post-London forests and his being ill equipped to face the Morlocks. It also

explains why he would venture to the edge of Earth’s time to see the burned out sun and

fading landscape—a scientific drive to see theories in action. Most of these thoughts would not have been terribly unique to his period, though the didactic he uses in The

Time Traveler’s thoughts could be attributed more individually to him.

Contrast these images with Lewis’s Dr. Ransom though and we see a very different set of circumstances arise from the same basic skeleton. Where The Time

Traveler boldly steps into the future, Dr. Ransom is thrust into the unknown quite against his will; when learning alien languages he is intrigued by the differences and understanding them fully; how Dr. Ransom handles his strenuous trip and what that means is radically distinct. Lewis takes the base situation and flips it pretty well on its side, introducing the philologist who is interested in understanding the cultures around him and capable of having patience with them, and buys in to their spiritual quests.

Societal influences among Lewis’s work can be seen through each of these variances as pace has stalled some following World War I and the world is beginning to feel smaller and more interconnected. This increased interconnectedness, relevant because of increased travel and communications abilities, combines with a general desire to explore the civilized world, probably also with some connection to the war stories brought home by troops once stationed all throughout Europe and the globe. This confluence of ideas would be plausible given the circumstances. An even better fit for Lewis is the growing tide of Nazi Germany, a power bent on controlling the world and establishing a “supreme” race by wiping out “inferior” peoples. Being published in 1938, Out of the Silent Planet was probably influenced by these societal concerns, which are reflected through the

villain Weston—Ransom’s scholastic equal turned captor. Even in conclusion, Lewis follows a similar trend to Wells, by leaving the story open ended, challenging the reader to pursue the story further off the page, though on a much more hush-hush basis. I’m

encouraged to believe that Lewis’s conclusion is reflective on the main emphasis of his

universe compared to Wells. While Wells was aiming for plausible and more

scientifically sound, Lewis encourages significantly more religious backing to the order

in his universe. This could stem from several causes, though I primary attribute this to

personal goals. In demonstrating the logicality of human hierarchy and explicating an

atrocious pitfall in society’s views of guidance, Lewis challenges the reader to see a new

perspective on the world, one that is Christian in design though never explicitly stated as

such. He carries this sort of theme into his second and third books, which I still feel are

more attributable to him as a person rather than societal reflection, though by no means

less important. As a whole product though, such minor alterations in the details reveal

significantly more upon later readings as greater scrutiny of both authors can dive into

motivational forces behind their works.

Amongst these stark character similarities, we also see general similarities in the

settings Lewis and Wells create in these novels. Much like their characters share traits,

both authors share similarities in the environments their characters face through the

authors’ initial science fiction novels. Wells introduces The Time Traveler to a luscious,

plant covered London that has seen countless years of decay marking the fall of modern

civilization and decline of humanity. He then pushes the boundaries so far as to see the

desolate wastelands of the very distant future, millions of years later, after the sun has

changed color and the flora and fauna have been reduced to sludge and football shaped

blobs (Wells 60). Lewis follows right in his footsteps by depositing Dr. Ransom on Mars which is described as: covered with edible plants; filled with huts and less industrialized communities; regions of inhabitable wasteland that foreshadow the planet’s demise

(Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 47-50, 100). All three of these elements are strikingly

similar; though how they are utilized varies dramatically between the two. In The Time

Machine, Earth’s bountiful dystopia accompanies the decline of mankind and paints the

future as a bleak distortion of reality, where cannibalism has returned and fear suppresses

an innocent species. As the trip through time continues it follows a bleak course where

even the bountiful land has disappeared and is replaced with a bland and gruesome waste

(Wells 60). Such a straightforward and lackluster approach to the future presents it as

merely a stage to come, with no preference on the individual or even the species in a

cruel and unforgiving world. It shows a reflection of the world lacking a Creator or

creations to run about it, just an empty sense of being. Lewis contrasts this in several

ways, by using similar elements as he did with the character differences.

Upon being expelled onto Malacandra, Ransom flees for his life because of

assumed horrors, only to find sorns were not gruesome beings who desired his flesh

(quite unlike the Morlocks) (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 54). As he flees though, the

vegetation described and vibrancy of life he encounters indicate a very different kind of

environment. Exploring Lewis’s realm, the reader sees the stated setting related bones,

but they carry a life to them not seen in Wells. Malacandra possesses a very definite

order that is understood by all the creatures because they are in tune with the eldila and

Oyarsa. Having this connection changes everything about the two worlds, because

Malacandra gains a sense of inspired life, caring for and being cared for by its inhabitants.

This is done by the eldila and Oyarsa, in congruence with the three main species, as well as the general understanding and acceptance of the planet’s timeline. This touch of mysticism or spirituality is what distinguishes the two worlds at their core. This personal touch on Lewis’s part can be viewed as having two sources: Lewis’s Christian background and society’s yearning for purpose. Coming from his personal background, the structure Lewis creates for his universe plays a fundamental role in how the setting is treated by its inhabitants, leading into purposeful placement and timing according to a creator, Maledil (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet 120). The societal impact extends to the eight years before the book was published while the U.S. and Europe were suffering through the Great Depression (Smith). During the lowest economic crash recorded, one of the harshest factors was the understanding that this was the end especially when compounded with the loss in World War I, people sought morale but had trouble finding it. In creating a world with purpose, Lewis could have been urging people to focus on

God and let the struggles of the world appear as only a short time. There is also a sense of unity developed in this realm, as the Malacandran species are all in accord with one another, something non-existent on Earth or in Wells work. Wells presented an image of the individual traversing by himself, whereas Ransom is quickly accepted and begins fulfilling his role in the community. Such a unifying force could be a reflection of the countries pulling themselves together on their way out of the Great Depression. By creating a strong character such as Ransom and pairing him with the environment he is,

Lewis develops quite a different story than Wells, even though they share so many basic elements.

Across some of the other novels by both authors, similar themes are expressed concerning the futility of man and the authority of extra-terrestrial powers, as well as a host of varying ethical questions. Following both of the authors’ two novels are a wider variety of questions, which is where Lewis continues to drive to philosophical questions and Wells steers towards more ethical science based discussions. Both, for example, address the question of what qualifies as human, and approach it with interesting lights.

For Wells, the twisted novel The Island of Doctor Moreau seeks to answer “what does it mean to be human?” from a very physiological stand point, though ultimately the vivisection falls short and humanity remains something that cannot be duplicated. In such dialogue it becomes evident that no amount of training or physiological tampering can change something from its innate sense of being. Lewis stages the question quite differently, setting it up during the trial by Oyarsa. His suggestion is that humanity is an intangible term, and by definition changes throughout the passage of time. It arises as an intense sense of self, pride of self, and element of respect. The first two coincide fluidly as beings are able to think rationally and socialize like the three rational species do on

Malacandra. The third is what absolutely separates humanity and animals, a respect for the living and for equals. Oyarsa calls this type of being hnau, as they are clearly wired differently and can think rationally (Lewis, Out of the Silent Planet121). This composition of definitions and not any sort of physical distinction is what makes humans human, which Oyarsa explains while rebuking Weston. Approaching questions like this from their perspectives, Wells and Lewis challenge readers to further consider answers to such pressing questions, potentially making them more informed and involved because of it.

The 20th Century Writers

Continuing along the timeline, when comparing Lewis and Bradbury’s works several more distinctions appear in the styles of writing, as the two deviate a fair amount from each other. As seen in the technology sparse, luscious planet Malacandra, Lewis creates an aging planet that still yields an abundance of life in a habitable environment.

Lewis also creates a significant expansion on the structure of his universe. Bradbury approaches science fiction in very different lights, forming a nearly dead planet accessible only by advances in technology and the rugged will to survive in such a barren atmosphere. Further differing, Bradbury’s wide range of characters extend to a variety of more immediate issues, hinting at the spiritual but not establishing a new order to the universe or expansive gallery by keeping the actions explicitly to Mars and Earth. Such stark difference among the two authors is quite interesting to see, considering the time between the two is significantly shorter than the gap between Wells and Lewis, though some of this could be directly related to their different nationalities. Seeing such shifts between their works is worth noting because of the radical impact both World War II and the Cold War play in society and the reflective nature of the genre, affecting the basic elements.

Looking back to the bountiful realms in Wells’s and Lewis’s works, one sees vibrant worlds and a hopeful exploration of the unknown, setting expectations to find new places for humans to go. Setting foot on Bradbury’s Mars immediately ushers these thoughts away, as the hot air, dead seas, and barren hillsides begin wearing away at the senses (Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 66, 85, 88). As the reader continues deeper into The Martian Chronicles the setting continues to be formed as a desolate place, only

capable of being shaped by the strong wills of hardy men who work through the remains

of the broken planet. Gradually the scene becomes more hospitable, after a greater

human population arrives and Benjamin Driscoll eases up the atmosphere’s breathability,

which is not a quick process. I see this stark difference as a change from the views

before, of bounty waiting for discovery into having to rebuild and carve out a new future

among the ashes; working hard to live, battling the elements, and learning new ways to

preserve the past and learn from it while moving forward. Looking at Lewis’s

perspective in Out of the Silent Planet, readers can infer a renewed vibrancy that could be protected by eliminating elements of greed and ideological supremacy, and focusing on the present and living equally. In the period before World War II, on this side of World

War I, this could have been a sentiment many were seeing as prevention to war—since none wanted or expected to see any more conflict (Smith). After World War II, a period of even more devastation and increased loss of life and resources, the rebuilding process would have remained fresher longer with so much of Europe and the globe in tatters from the fallout. Combined with increasingly scientific suggestions to the composition of

Mars, it makes sense that Bradbury’s Mars would look the way it does.

There are also very clear cut elements of Cold War thoughts behind most of his works, and mixed reactions to implementations of new societal norms, especially in restriction of expression or interest. Transitioning from Bradbury’s Martian setting to his character development, Cold War elements are seen frequently with the depictions of censorship and the ever present threat of nuclear war back on Earth. As the characters are faced with increased governmental influences and restrictions, Bradbury’s characters are changed to accommodate such pressure, something totally different in his

predecessor’s works. Throughout all three of Lewis’s novels, only private groups are

involved in the action and characters remain fairly consistent. Lewis imposes more

universal pressures that lean on philosophical-ethics standing where Bradbury brings the

focus to more daily living-ethics. Such a shift is also indicative of their primary individual motivations. Comparatively Bradbury brings the focus to less abstract thought and more immediate courses of action. While there are a host of factors that composite their writings, a clear factor is the style of chapters and writing they choose. Clearly

Lewis has complete novels, where it is easier to plot a deep course of action and expand upon topics such as the value of human life, self-guidance of bent people, and an understanding of greater beings than humans. The many chapters, individual chronicles style Bradbury chooses though allows him to branch out to more topics, with the ability to return to them later. This is exemplified through Ransom, Weston and Devine, and

Oyarsa’s trial. Lewis permits both sides to full argument where the simplest explanations are previewed and a rebuke is declared, exposing the reader to a once and final discussion.

This changes some with Perelandra as Ransom is locked in a longer debate with The

Enemy or The Darkness, though for direct comparison it is fairly: issue, discussion, conclusion (Lewis, Perelandra, 118). Contrasting Lewis’s examples with Bradbury we see greater exposure to topics throughout The Martian Chronicles. The topic of robots and their usefulness is glimpsed “Usher II” and confronted in “The Long Years,” while the conflict with non-humans possessing souls is challenged in “Fire Balloons” and “The

Long Years”. This style is also seen with the interactions between Spender and Wilder, as well as Tomas and the alien, and once again later with the last family on Mars,

challenging the reader to consider variations in time and which species came first, as

Bradbury leaves us with a potentially paradoxical ending.

Similarities Nearly 60 Years Later

Arriving at Bradbury, science fiction developed quite a bit in the 50-60 years

since Wells released The Time Machine. Bringing stylistic changes to each of the main elements of science fiction, Bradbury develops a unique style that reaches an even broader audience than Wells. For all the radical advancements in technology and all the differences among characters and thoughts on human-alien interaction, Bradbury holds a few interesting similarities Wells that continue to show some consistency among the genre. Throughout The Martian Chronicles and Fahrenheit 451 Bradbury designs at least three similarities to Wells’s previous works. Bradbury’s technology is often relatable; his characters are widespread and vague; and in some cases following a particular character leads to a designated ethical question. Seeing these similarities reveals much about the desires that formed science fiction, and continue to form it across the years—desire to stretch the imagination and face social issues from new perspectives.

Closing in on both authors’ characters’ interactions with aliens, we see underlying likenesses in structure and results, both as beings and plot devices. Bradbury’s wide variety of human interaction provides specific interpretations of scenarios, generally emphasizing some ethical argument during their course of action. Behind these interactions is the notion that humanity is brash and shortsighted when dealing with aliens, regardless of their intelligence. Some of this is driven by fear—Sam Parkhill— some by impatience for incompetent creatures—The Time Traveler—and some by the

lack of viewing aliens as equals—Biggs, Fourth Expedition. This presents a relatively negative reflection of humanity’s exploratory nature, taking digs at the idea of man as the distinct, sentient master—and the difficulty to admit there may be something better than humanity.

A piece that gives minimal resistance to arguments against aggressive behavior as an essential exploratory force is the Martians’ actions. In both The Time Machine and

The Martian Chronicles the main characters are justified in their treatment of aliens, in specific instances as with The Time Traveler versus the Morlocks and the first three expeditions versus the Martians. In addition to these two scenes, we see hostility towards other creatures as acceptable, because they directly involve competing interests and life or death. Where we see the biggest resistance is when the competing interests have nothing to do with life or death, but in the end result in harm to one or both sides. The sharpest images of this are with Weena’s presumed death and the transfiguring alien’s torment (Wells 55; Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles 198). Wells and Bradbury both implement these scenes where loss of life is not necessary, especially if self-serving desire had not interrupted. In the older scene, The Time Traveler had a choice to leave

Weena in the relative safety of her Eloi group while he ventured off to the Green

Porcelain Palace, on a path potentially ridden with Morlocks. But he wanted a companion. As unprepared as he was, and ill equipped to handle their advances, The

Time Traveler loses Weena to a grim fate that could have been prevented. Bradbury’s version appears very similar, as the older couple strongly desires to have their boy back, and through the alien’s impression regain him for a short spell (Bradbury, The Martian

Chronicles 183). After he is lost though, the struggle at the end tears him apart—even

though he asks to be left to his new family. The man begins to understand what the alien is doing, but he is unable to let the alien go, which aids in the poor creature’s demise.

Following these two examples, it is evident there are some justifications for acting quickly and with force, though continuing to apply pressure or jeopardize aliens futures because they are seen as lesser should be avoided at all costs. Both authors extend this for increased reader application by using vague or everyday character names, such as The

Time Traveler or Sam.

Tangentially, Lewis hits some of these points during Out of the Silent Planet with his construction of Malacandran society—though the only justification he provides for killing is through the hnakra hunt, and that is entirely situation based. Lewis’s world is centralized around equality among the different species of sentient creatures, which contrasts sharply from Bradbury and Wells. Making his society function like this provides a template for the ideal, even though it is clear people like Weston or Devine disrupt the balance, and even Ransom has issues fully comprehending it. As Lewis proposes the ideal, it makes sense that Wells and Bradbury reflect the more common expressions.

The next major similarity between Wells and Bradbury is the use of technology throughout the novels, as both use it in different ways. For Wells, most of the alien technology is futuristic when looking at The War of the Worlds, whereas technology in

The Time Machine is not as prevalent. The latter’s gadgets, apart from the time machine, are really pretty basic and serve similar purposes. Stepping into Bradbury’s world readers also see an extensive amount of advanced Martian technology, though most of it appears as fairly everyday gear, since the main glimpses are on the houses and desert

ships. As far as actually using the technology, not much occurs once the Martians are

wiped out, which is very similar to both Wells novels. Seeing some of these elements

could be reflective of their particular periods, where household gadgets were flooding the

markets as consumer cultures were either developing or breathing new life (Smith). For

Wells, a correlation could be with the transformations at the end of urbanization while

Bradbury’s could be related to the post World War II growth. In both The Martian

Chronicles and The Time Machine, interestingly enough there is a fair amount of attention paid to aging or ageless architecture, which may hint back to similar periods in the respective realm’s history. Bringing these ideas together, we can see how Wells may have continued to shape the genre and where Bradbury’s society influenced his works.

Lastly, something only Wells and Bradbury share are characters set on specific learning quests, focusing on one main topic even if they encounter others along the way.

Lewis tends to set multiple courses for a character to handle throughout a novel, but his scope is much wider for a single character. In the three novels mentioned, Wells tends to send the characters into the wild where they face a particular challenge or ethical question and are forced to determine a proper answer. For The Time Traveler, the challenge is getting back into the Sphinx by learning how to crack the future society. In The Island of

Doctor Moreau, the main character is faced with figuring out what makes a human, man, while forming his thoughts on the island. The War of the Worlds sets a man on his quest for survival and eventual reunion with his wife, but not before scrambling around shattered towns and land, all the while wondering “how can we beat the aliens?”

Bradbury continues some of this sentiment through both his short story “The Pedestrian” where traditions for their own sake are challenged and through Fahrenheit 451 where

burning of books and censored ideas run the world. In all of these situations the main character is faced with a tough ideal to adhere or challenge, and where they stand makes all of the difference. None of these characters ever fit the mold of the typical person in their circumstances, they are always looking at it and acting in rebellious manners, breaking or trying to change the oppressive norm no matter the form. For Wells this looks deeper at ethical and moral rights, addressing arguments of what makes someone or something human, how are they similar or different and why does it matter? Through the

Eloi and Morlocks he predicts where society could head if it continues to polarize out, as the gap between the rich and the poor widens and evolution gradually takes its course.

Consider similarly how he looks at the case with vivisection and the ethical murk surrounding it, as Wells tries to show that animals are animals no matter how much they are tortured and trained. Beyond these figures though, he could be referring to the immigration situations as various people groups were making up the new immigration, stepping from Eastern Europe into foreign cities and promptly getting trapped in difficult situations that tried to convert them into the new culture, teaching new standards and infusing a radically different sense of identity. Bradbury’s approach comes primarily along a different set of themes, namely the separation of the arts and the sciences and the domination of the latter. While there are hints to this issue in The Martian Chronicles,

Fahrenheit 451 is the major focus, with Guy Montag struggling to burn books and succumb to the censorship that blinds the nation. Bradbury puts Montag through the paces, as he is combatting the urge to defy the Fireman and governmental codes to broaden his mind and preserve elements of history. As effectively as he paints it, clearly

there are Wellsian elements, though George Orwell and Aldous Huxley may have played in some too.

Conclusion

Sixty years is a substantial amount of time and this period proved some of the most pivotal across the globe. From the turn of the century to the early Cold War era, science fiction grew and changed with the times as it was impacted by both World Wars, and changing geographic and theoretical influences. At the hands of Wells, Lewis, and

Bradbury, science fiction continued to grow as imaginations prospered, societal reflections were fostered, and ethical questions needed challenging. Following some of the framework laid down, each of the authors altered science fiction pieces at a time.

Whether through changing purposes of technology, adapting aliens to more symbolic needs, or creating a more realistic setting, each one developed an element in literature that has proven to be controversial and transformational in the decades since, and for many to come. These three authors inspire readers and writers to question the society they live in, and think through many of the philosophical questions readers often flow with as the rush of humanity surrounds them. Stepping farther into the digital age, it will be interesting to see how science fiction as literature develops, as well as the reflections future generations will see. Because science fiction has had these three authors in the mix, contributing in a variety of styles, it will continue to shape the world as we know it.

The End

WORKS CITED

Bradbury, Ray. Fahrenheit 451. New York: Turtleback, 1972. Print.

Bradbury, Ray. The Martian Chronicles. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012. Print.

Brower, Emily R. “Inventive Translation: Depicting Virtue in C.S. Lewis’s Science Fiction Trilogy.” Thesis. N.p., 2012. baylor-ir.tdl.org. Web. 5 Apr. 2016.

Cryer, Billy J. “Future Memory: Ray Bradbury and the Aesthetics of Nostalgia.” M.A. The University of Texas - Pan American, 2015. ProQuest. Web. 5 Apr. 2016.

Folks, Jeffrey J. “Telos and Existence: Ethics in C. S. Lewis’s Space Trilogy and Flannery O’Connor’s ‘Everything That Rises Must Converge.’” The Southern Literary Journal 35.2 (2003): 107–118. Print.

Lewis, C. S. Perelandra. Simon and Schuster, 1996. Print.

Lewis, C. S. Space Trilogy: Book 1 ; Out of the Silent Planet. New York: Scribner Classics, 1996. Print.

Lewis, C. S. Space Trilogy: Book 3 ; That Hideous Strength: A Modern Fairy-Tale for Grown-Ups. New York: Scribner, 1990. Print.

Parrinder, Patrick. Shadows of the Future: H.G. Wells, Science Fiction, and Prophecy. Syracuse University Press, 1995. Print.

Smith, David A. “American History 1877 to Present.” Baylor University. 2016.

Thomas, P.L. Science Fiction and Speculative Fiction : Challenging Genres. Rotterdam, NLD: SensePublishers, 2013. ebrary. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

Wells, H. G. The Complete Science Fiction Treasury of H. G. Wells. New York: Avenel Books : distributed by Crown Publishers, 1978. Print.