Window 35

The Indus Civilization Trade with the Peninsula

Dennys Frenez

Cosmopolitan interactions and exchanges played (Cortesi et al. 2008; Kenoyer 2008). Overseas links an important role in the Oman Peninsula during with and the Gulf region were soon the Early Age, including the so-called established and the Oman Peninsula, the «Land , ca. 3200-2700 BC, and Umm an- of Magan» of the texts, immediately Nar period, ca. 2700-2000 BC. A considerable became more than just a strategic transit point on amount of copper reached Mesopotamia from this maritime route. the Oman Peninsula already during the Middle to In the Oman Peninsula, archaeologists found Late Uruk period, ca. 3800-3200 BC. Trade with large storage jars and painted vessels imported Mesopotamia increased during the Jemdet Nasr from the Indus Valley, as well as carnelian beads, and Early Dynastic periods, ca. 3200-2500 BC. ivory objects and metal tools of Indus origin. Vessels of Mesopotamian origin are found in Oman Moreover, trade tools used to normalize exchanges, in Hafit stone cairns and settlements (Carter 2013), such as Indus type stamp seals and cubical weights, while the occurrence of Omani copper increased have also been found. Remarkably, a number of up to 30% of the analyzed objects (Begemann et Indus-type artifacts resulted made in Oman by al. 2010). Exchanges were established also with Indus or Indus-trained craftspeople using local Southeastern (Potts 2005; Méry et al. 2012). raw materials. Exports from the Oman Peninsula Relations with Mesopotamia and Iran, but probably to the Indus Valley included mainly copper ingots, also with Baluchistan, provided also most of the seashells, softstone vessels with their still unknown cultivars necessary for the establishment of oasis- contents, but probably also frankincense and other farming economy, including wheat, barley and items of the so-called ‘invisible trade’ (Tosi 1991, date palms (Boivin and Fuller 2009; Parker 2010). 1993) (Figure 35.1). Intercultural exchanges further increased in the whole Middle Asia during the second half of the Indus pottery types (imports and imitations) 3rd millennium BC (Possehl 2007). In this period, while imports from Mesopotamia and Iran declined, The typology of Indus-type pottery containers the Indus Civilization emerged as the primary found at Umm-an Nar settlements and graveyards trading partner of the Umm an-Nar communities. is limited to a selected number of forms related to storage, processing and presentation of food. Indus Civilization and the Oman Peninsula Black slipped jars Traders and craftsmen from the greater Indus Valley In the Oman Peninsula, the most solid indication began exploring possibilities for trading outside for overseas exchanges with the Indus Civilization their internal networks of exchanges already comes from the thousand fragments of Indus during the second half of the 4th millennium BC storage jars – the so-called black slipped jars –

Dennys Frenez • University of Bologna • [email protected]

385 D. Frenez • The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula

FIGURE 35.1.

Umm-an Nar type softstone bowl found at Mohenjo-Daro, (after Tosi 1991).

FIGURE 35.2.

Indus black slipped jars: (a) entire vessel from Harappa (courtesy Indus Civilization Exhibition, Tokyo/Nagoya); (b) fragment with Indus signs scratched from Building II, Room 18 (Period II) Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 (photograph by D. Frenez, courtesy Oman National Museum).

a b

tall, large containers with a distinctive curvilinear According to the result of Instrumental profile and thick layers of black or dark purplish Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) by S. Méry to brown slip coating their internal and external and J. Blackman (2005), the clay composition of surfaces, suggesting that they were probably used the black slipped jars they tested from several sites to ship foodstuffs or liquids. (Dales and Kenoyer in the Oman Peninsula is more similar to pottery 1986: 83-84) (Figure 35.2/a). Fragments of such from Mohenjo-Daro and the southern jars, occasionally with a short sequence of Indus plain, rather than from and/or Harappa script signs scratched on the rim or upper body, in the north. However, some of these distinctive have been found in almost all Umm an-Nar coastal jars may have been made in Oman, as shown by settlements, as well as most of the inland sites the recent identification of a black slipped jar made (Méry 2000: fig. 136 and tab. 59; updates in Borgi from what has been petrographical identified as et al. 2012; Charpentier et al. 2013; Frenez et al. local clay in the Indus-related ceramic assemblage 2016; Thornton and Ghazal 2016; Méry et al. 2017) of Salut ST1 (Méry et al. 2017) (Figure 35.3). (Figure 35.2/b).

386 Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi • In the Shadow of the Ancestors

a

b

FIGURE 35.3. Salut ST1. Indus-style jar with black slip made using the so- called ST1 Red Sandy Ware typical of some ceramic productions of interior Oman (left); thin section of the ST1 Red Sandy Ware (a); thin section of the Micaceous Red Ware used in the Indus region for several ceramic productions including the black slipped jars (b) (Méry et al. 2017).

Indus fine painted wares 154) (Figure 35.4/a-c). Small unslipped carinated In addition to the large storage jars, different types jars, often described as ‘bottles’, with Indus-style of Indus jars with black-on-red painted decorations decorations painted in black on the shoulder have have been found in both domestic and funerary been found inside Umm an-Nar collective graves contexts (Méry 2000: 239-243, figs. 144, 148- (Méry and Blackman 2005: 234-235); a few of

a b c

FIGURE 35.4. Indus black-on-red pain- ted jars from (a) Ras al-Hadd HD1 (pho- tograph by I. Feliciano, courtesy Oman National Museum) and (b) Ras Al-Jinz RJ2 (Cleuziou and Tosi 2000: fig. 8), (c) , (Rao 1973: pl. 23); (d) short carinated jars with Indus painted decorations from Hili North (Méry 2000: d figs. 151, 152).

387 D. Frenez • The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula

a

b c

FIGURE 35.5. Indus pedestalled dishes from Mohenjo-Daro (Dales and Kenoyer 1986: 213, 215) and Oman: (a) Jebel Sfaiq MT1 on the (Charpentier et al. 2013: fig. 7/6); (b) Salut ST1, and (c) Bat T.1146 (Méry et al. 2017: fig. 9). them resulted being locally made (Méry and al. 2016: fig. 4/c) (Figure 35.5/a); at least some Blackman 2005: fig. 7; Thornton and Ghazal 2016: of them resulted being local copies (Méry 2000: 208) (Figure 35.4/d). fig. 145-146; Méry et al. 2017: fig. 9/f) (Figure 35.5/b-c). Pedestalled dishes Pedestalled dishes, called also dish-on-stands, Perforated jars are one of the finest and most distinctive Indus Another unique Indus pottery type that was pottery production (Dales and Kenoyer 1986: likely used for food processing are the so-called 212-221). They were probably used for food perforated jars, tall straight-sided vessels with the presentation in special occasions. Both dish and base perforated with a large hole and the entire body pedestal were covered with a fine red slip and pierced with tiny holes (Dales and Kenoyer 1986: decorated with black painted motifs, but the dish 107-112). Indus perforated jars were likely used was rarely decorated also with circular patterns of for preparing or drinking fermented beverages or fingernail-like impressions possibly used to grate dairy products (Kenoyer 1998: 154; Gouin 1990). hard cheese or crushing herbs (Gouin 1990, 1995). In the Oman peninsula, Indus perforated jars have In the Oman Peninsula, Indus-type pedestalled been found at several sites and always resulted dishes have been found at several sites, both in being actual imports (Méry 2000: 126, tab. 3; the interior and along the coast (Méry 2000: 236- Thornton and Ghazal 2016: fig. 9.8/d; Frenez et 238; Charpentier et al. 2013: fig. 7/4-6; Frenez et al. 2016: fig. 4/d).

388 Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi • In the Shadow of the Ancestors

a

b c

FIGURE 35.6. Indus cooking pots from Mohenjo-Daro (Indus Civilization Exhibition, Tokyo/Nagoya; Kenoyer and Dales 1986: 132 ff.); (b) from Salut ST1, and (c) Bat T.1146 (Frenez et al. 2016: fig. 4/b; Thornton and Ghazal 2016: fig. 9.8/A).

Cooking pots resulted being local imitation produced using local Indus cooking pots are round bottomed vessels clay (Thornton and Ghazal 2016: 206; Méry et al. with a concave short neck and the neck-body 2017). juncture marked by a single or multiple ledges (Dales and Kenoyer 1986: 132-144) (Figure 35.6). Copper and tin/bronze objects Several layers of a fine slip covered the shoulder and the neck, while the lower body and the base Ancient cuneiform texts and archaeological data were usually covered with a thick, coarse sandy concur to indicate the Oman Peninsula as one of the coating to prevent its cracking when the vessel major sources that supplied ingots of refined copper was placed on the fire. The ledge was probably to Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (Weisgerber designed to deflect the flames and keep the upper 1984; Kenoyer and Miller 1999; Begemann et al. part of the vessel at a lower temperature. 2010). Recent Pb isotope analysis of copper and tin In the Oman Peninsula, fragments of Indus- bronze objects from Harappa and seems type cooking pots have been found at Ras Al-Hadd to confirm that part of the copper used at these sites HD-1, along the coast, and at Salut ST1 and Bat was imported from Oman (Hoffman and Miller in the interior (Méry 2000: fig. 144.6; Frenez et 2009: 705; Bisht et al. 2015: 10-16). Conversely, al. 2016: fig 4/b; Thornton and Ghazal 2016: tab. not a single piece of copper from South Asian 1, fig. 9.8/a) (Figure 35.7/b-c). A number of the deposits has been detected at sites in the Oman Indus cooking pots identified at Bat and Salut ST1 Peninsula to date (Begemann et al. 2010: 162).

389 D. Frenez • The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula

a b c d e f

FIGURE 35.7. Indus-style copper axes from (a) , (b) Umm an-Nar, (c) Ras Al-Jinz RJ2, (d) Jebel Buhais BSH67, and (e) the Al-Moyassar 4 (Potts 1990: fig. 36; Frifelt 1995: fig. 276; Cleuziou and Tosi 2000: fig. 12.7; Jasim 2003: fig. 6; Weisgerber 1980: fig. 5.11), and (f) Indus tanged spearhead from Khor Bani Bu Ali SWY-3 (Méry and Marquis 1998: fig. 7).

However, a few copper objects of likely Indus signs found at Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 is discussed origin have been found in the Oman Peninsula, afterwards (Figure 35.13/a). including a number of long copper axes and one tanged spearhead (Potts 1990: 38-41, fig. 34-36; Indus-style carnelian beads Frifelt 1995: 188, fig. 276; Cleuziou and Tosi 2000: 57, fig. 12.7; Jasim 2003: 88, fig. 6; Weisgerber Countless discoveries in both settlements and 1980: fig. 78-5.11; Méry and Marquis 1998: 217, necropolises across the vast region stretching from fig. 7) (Figure 35.7). A square stamp seal in copper the Indus Valley to the eastern Mediterranean with an Indus unicorn and a series of and from Central Asia to Southeastern Arabia,

390 Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi • In the Shadow of the Ancestors

FIGURE 35.8.

Indus drills in ernestite from Dholavira, Gujarat (photograph by R.W. Law, courtesy Archaeological Survey of ).

FIGURE 35.9.

Indus long and very long biconical beads in carnelian from (a) Salut ST1 (photograph by D. Frenez, cour- tesy Italian Mission to Oman), and (b) Bat Tomb 155 (photograph by P. Koch, courtesy Ministry of Heri- tage and Culture of Oman).

a

b

FIGURE 35.10.

Indus bleached carnelian beads from a b (a) Bat Burial Pit 0025 (after Thornton et al. 2016: fig. 1.3, courtesy German Archaeological Mission to Bat), (b) Bat Tomb 401 (courtesy German Archaeo- c logical Mission to Bat), (c) Bat Tower 1156 (photograph by A. Mortimer, cour- tesy Bat Archaeological Project), and (d) Bid Bid (photograph by D. Frenez and J.M Kenoyer). d

391 D. Frenez • The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula

demonstrated the importance of agate and carnelian 2016: 114-115, fig. 8; Böhme and Al-Sabri 2011: ornaments as symbols of the highest social status 149, fig. 22/158; Schmidt and Döpper 2014: 205, for the elites. According to M. Vidale fig. 11.f; Kenoyer and Frenez 2014) (Figure 35.9). (2000: 40), ‘carnelian bead making was the first craft to reveal to the archaeological world the Bleached (alkaline-etched) carnelian beads impressive standards of Indus technology’. This Another distinctive technology developed by the was probably true also for the Bronze Age elites of Indus bead makers was the artificial coloring of Middle Asia. carnelian using chemicals and pyrotechnology to The production of such beads required in fact decorate beads by bleaching their surface (Vidale a complex manufacturing process that involved 2000: 56-57; Kenoyer 2017: 140-141). the procurements of specific raw materials and A. De Waele and E. Haerinck (2006: 33- the skillful application of advanced techniques 35, fig. 1 and tab. 2) compiled a detailed listof for shaping, polishing and, in some cases, also the bleached carnelian beads found at Umm an- decorating the beads, while special drills made Nar sites in the Oman Peninsula, while several from a very hard stone called ernestite were used to Indus-style bleached beads have been recently perforate them (Kenoyer and Vidale 1992; Vidale discovered in the Sultanate of Oman at Bat and Bid 2000: 40-58; Kenoyer 2017) (Figure 35.8). Bid (Boehme and Al-Sabri 2011: 149, fig. 22/160; Mortimer 2016: 142, fig. 6.37; Schmidt and Döpper Long biconical carnelian beads 2014: 205, fig. 11g) (Figure 35.10). In the Oman Peninsula, Indus-style long carnelian beads are very rare and have been reported mainly Ivory objects from Umm-an Nar graves (Cleuziou and Tosi 2007: fig. 128; Potts 2000: 131). Some specimens, Objects for embellishment and gambling made sometimes reworked locally after breaking, have from the ivory of Asian elephants have been found been recently identified at Salut ST1 and in graves at several Bronze Age sites from the Indus Valley and burial pits at Bat and Adam (Frenez et al. to Northern Syria, including the Oman Peninsula.

FIGURE 35.11. Indus-style combs made from elephant ivory from (a) Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 (photograph by D. Frenez, courtesy Oman National Museum), and (b) Bat Grave pit 0025 (Thornton et al. 2016: fig. 1.3).

a

b

392 Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi • In the Shadow of the Ancestors

Such discoveries were traditionally interpreted as Seals and inscribed objects evidence for the import of finished objects from the Indus Valley. However, new detailed studies of the Indicative of the commercial and cultural relations ivory artifacts found at Bronze Age sites in Central between the Oman Peninsula and the Indus Asia have portrayed a more complex picture, Civilization is the recent discovery at Salut ST1 of possibly involving ivory carvers from the Indus two fragments of a local jar, both stamped with the Valley itinerating across the region (Frenez 2017). same elongated tablet bearing two wild Indian bison This model is also supported by the discovery at Tell in combat and several Indus script signs (Frenez Abraq of several ivory combs decorated in Central et al. 2016: 117-118, fig. 10; Méry et al. 2017) Asian styles (Potts 1993, 1994, 2000: 126-127). In (Figure 35.12). the Oman, Indus-style ivory combs decorated with An Indus-style square stamp seal with a wild series of dot-in-circles motifs have been found also Indian bison with the head lowered on a manger, at Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 and in Grave Pit 0025 at Bat carved below an inscription composed of five (Cleuziou and Tosi 2000: 30 and pl. 32; Döpper and Indus script signs, has been also found at Salut Schmidt 2013: 32, fig. 10) (Figure 35.11). ST1 (Frenez et al. 2016: 116-117, fig. 9) (Figure 35.13). Wild Indian bison appears on most of the Indus seals found outside the greater Indus Valley Terracotta toys and M. Vidale (2005) proposed that this distinctive An Indus-style hollow terracotta bird figurine, icon identified a community of Indus traders active decorated on the exterior with a black paint and in external trade. According to the excavator, the with tiny holes through the neck and beak has been seal was carved from the same greenish-grey found at Salut ST1 (Frenez et al. 2016: 113-114, chlorite used locally to manufacture softstone fig. 7). This type of hollow, sometimes wheeled, vessels (Degli Esposti, personal communication) painted animal figurines is frequent at Indus and technological studies carried out by J.M. Civilization sites (Kenoyer 1998: 133). Kenoyer using SEM show that tools and carving style are comparable to those used by Indus seal carvers (Frenez et al. 2016: fig. 9). Indus stone weights Another Indus-style stamp seal, but made The Indus Civilization developed standardized in copper, has been found at Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 measurement systems to normalize manufacturing (Cleuziou and Tosi 2000: 59-60, fig. 17) (Figure and building techniques and to control trade 35.14/a). This small copper seal has an Indus exchanges and their taxation (Kenoyer 2010; Miller unicorn engraved below a short inscription of a 2013). The most typical Indus weights are cubical few Indus signs. Two other Indus-style copper seals made from banded chert, but there are also truncated have been found respectively at Lothal, in Gujarat, spheres, barrels, cylinders and cones made from and at Konar Sandal South in the Jiroft province of a variety of stones. On the basis of the available southeastern Iran (Rao 1985: 306 and Plate CLIV-C; data, two alternative weight units and progression Pittman 2013: 67, fig. 4.1) (Figure 35.14/b). systems have been calculated: a first system was A small seal found inside an Umm an-Nar based on a unit of 0.86 g, while the second had a type grave at Bisyah, in interior Oman, features unit of 13.7 g. a humped bull with large lunate horns depicted Indus-type weights have been found at several in front of a smaller round object and framed sites outside the greater Indus Valley (Ratnagar between two enigmatic motifs, possibly proto- 2004: 246-255, tab. 3.1). In the Oman Peninsula, scriptorial signs or more likely stylized animals or three Indus weights have been found at Tell Abraq objects (Figure 35.14/c). The main subject of this and two inside collective graves at Shimal (Potts seal and its iconographic arrangement are clearly 2000: 128-129; Vogt 1996: 118 and notes 9-10). inspired to the Indus glyptic, while the engraving

393 D. Frenez • The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula

FIGURE 35.12.

Molded terracotta tablet from Harappa (Parpola et al. 2010: fig. 64) and two fragments of a local jar from Salut ST1 stamped with an elongated tablet with a similar scene featuring two wild Indian bison in combat and Indus script signs (courtesy Italian Mission to Oman).

FIGURE 35.13. Indus-style stamp seal from Salut ST1 made in local softstone featuring a wild Indian bison carved below a sequence of five Indus script signs (drawing by M. Degli Esposti, photographs by D. Frenez and J.M. Kenoyer, courtesy Italian Mission to Oman); Wild Indian bison (Bos gaurus Smith, 1827) with the head lowered in the characteristic attack position (courtesy, Zoological Survey of India); Indus stamp seals from Mohenjo-Daro (Shah and Parpola 1991).

394 Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi • In the Shadow of the Ancestors

a

b c

FIGURE 35.14. Copper stamp seal with an Indus unicorn and script signs from Ras Al-Jinz RJ2 (a), copper stamp seal with Indus-style male markhor goat and a gharial from Konar Sandal South in Iran (from Pittman 2013) (b), softstone stamp seal with a humped zebu and enigmatic objects/signs from Bisyah (c) (photographs by H. David-Cuny, courtesy Oman National Museum).

FIGURE 35.15. Three-sided prismatic stamp seal with a canid, goats and a wild Indian bison from Al-Moyassar 1 (left) (photographs by H. David-Cuny, courtesy Oman National Museum), and comparable seal with Indus script signs, goats and a wild Indian bison from Hajjar in (right).

395 D. Frenez • The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula

technique recalls the seal of the ‘alliance’ found Umm an-Nar communities and Indus seafaring at Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 (Cleuziou and Tosi 2000: 60, merchants were limited to a restricted number fig. 16.3, pl. 36.3). The latter has a parallel at the of coastal sites and that foreign traders did not Indus Civilization site of Lothal (Rao 1985: 313, venture into the interior regions to interact directly pl. CLXI D; Joshi and Parpola 1987: 261, L-100; with the socioeconomic entities that organized the Frenez and Tosi 2005: 85-88, pl. 8). extraction and first transformation of copper ores A three-sided prismatic seal, found at the late and prized metamorphic rocks (Cleuziou and Tosi Umm an-Nar settlement of Al-Moyassar 1, has 2007: 184-185, 235). The numerous fragments coarsely carved on the three surfaces a series of of black slipped jars from sites in the interior animals including a wild Indian bison with lowered were interpreted as local reuses, while the local head (Weisgerber 1984: 198-199, fig. 24.6) (Figure production of Indus-style pedestalled dishes was 35.15, left). This seal can be positively compared to due to the development by the local communities a similar specimen found inside a grave at Hajjar, in of new dairy productions inspired by contacts with Bahrain, which also bears a wild Indian bison and Indus merchants along the coast (Méry 2000: 236- a sequence of four Indus script signs (Weisgerber 237, cf. Gouin 1990). 1984: 198-199, fig. 24.7) (Figure 35.15, right). Now, the recent discoveries made at Salut ST1, supported by similar evidence from graves and towers at Bat possibly testify to a more complex An Indus Civilization trading strategy for the model of interaction (Frenez et al. 2016; Méry et Oman Peninsula? al. 2017). It seems increasingly clear that the Indus The significance of mutual exchanges and objects found at interior sites are not simply the interaction between the Indus Civilization and the result of segmented trade of goods managed by the Umm an-Nar communities of the Oman Peninsula local communities, but they probably also testify to has often been discussed in the general context of the direct interactions with Indus traders and craftsmen local economic and sociotechnical developments and possibly even to the stable presence of small (Possehl 1996; Vogt 1996; Cleuziou and Tosi 2000, Indus groups settled in the Oman Peninsula. 2007; Cleuziou and Méry 2002; Thornton 2013). Overall, this evidence, combined with other Before the recent discoveries at sites in information about the organization of the Indus interior Oman, most of the data documenting these Civilization external trade in Middle Asia (Kenoyer reciprocal interactions came from coastal sites, 2008; Frenez and Vidale 2015; Vidale and Frenez such as Tell Abraq, Ras Al-Hadd HD-1 and mainly 2015; Frenez 2017), allows proposing the possible Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 (Potts 1990, 2000; Reade 1990; implementation by the Indus merchants of an Reade and Méry 1988; Cleuziou and Tosi 2000). early prototype of coordinated «global marketing The presence of Indus items at inland sites, such strategy», defined as an entrepreneurial strategy as Al-Moyassar, Bat, Hili and Asimah, was mainly that takes commercial advantage from regional interpreted as the result of seasonal connections particularities by creating foreign subsidiaries to between the local communities settled in the manufacture and distribute a product according to interior and along the coast (Cleuziou and Tosi the local trends and/or to maximize the exploitation 2007: 172-173). There was, accordingly, a general of strategic raw materials with high international agreement that interactions between the local demand (Kotabe and Helsen 2011) ■

396 Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi IN THE SHADOW OF THE ANCESTORS THE PREHISTORIC FOUNDATIONS OF THE EARLY ARABIAN CIVILIZATION IN OMAN

second expanded edition

Edited by Dennys Frenez & Roman Garba

Published by the

Ministry of Heritage and Culture

Sultanate of Oman

2018

www.mhc.gov.om Ministry of Heritage and Culture Sultanate of Oman P.O. Box 668 P.C. 113 Khuwair, Phone: +968 24 64 13 00 Fax: +968 24 64 13 31 Email: [email protected] Web Site: www.mhc.gov.om

© Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi 2018

In the Shadow of the Ancestors. The Prehistoric Foundations of the Early Arabian Civilization in Oman (second expanded edition).

1. Arabia. 2. Oman 3. . 4. Prehistory 5. Antiquities.

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture, Sultanate of Oman.

First published 2018

Printed in the Sultanate of Oman

ISBN: 978-99969-3-201-4 (hardback)

Front cover: Alignment of Hafit type tombs at Al-Ayn © Roman Garba Back cover: Hafit type tombs at Shihr Jaylah © Roman Garba

Note: The maps in this book are historical and cannot be modified as they are specifically drawn for that period only and they do not reflect political, geographical and administrative boundaries. The Geographical Place Names (GPN) in these maps are not written by the Arabic Standardized Romanization System applied in the National Survey Authority of Oman (NSA). Chapter 1

Table of Contents

Foreword ix Cornerstones of Archaeological Research in Oman, by H.H. Haitham bin Tariq Al-Said Editorial Note xi A Posthumous Expanded Edition, by D. Frenez & R. Garba Acknowledgements xv In Memoriam of Serge Cleuziou, 1945-2009 xix An Arabian Explorer in a Cartesian Mind, by M. Tosi † In Memoriam of Maurizio Tosi, 1944-2017 xxv A Scientist of Curiosity, by D. Frenez Chapter 1 • A Land of Many Landscapes for Greater Opportunities 1 Chapter 2 • The Search for the Earliest Humans in Oman 17 Window 1 32 On the Trail of the First Humans in Oman, by J. Rose Chapter 3 • From Early Hunters to the Last Foragers 37 Window 2 64 Early Herders at A-Buhais 18, by M. Uerpmann & H.-P. Uerpmann Window 3 66 Earliest Cultures along the Coastlands of Oman, by V. Charpentier Window 4 69 Sea Mammals and Humans in the Oman Peninsula, by V. Charpentier & S. Méry Chapter 4 • The Great Transformation 71 Window 5 109 The Middle Holocene Fishermen Settlement of KHB-1, by F. Cavulli & S. Scaruffi Window 6 117 The Prehistoric Graveyard at Ras Al-Hamra RH-5, by S. Salvatori Window 7 122 Funerary Practices at Ras Al-Hamra RH-5. New Data from 2005/2009, by O. Munoz Window 8 126 Shell-Midden Economy in the Fourth millennium BC, by M. Uerpmann & H.-P. Uerpmann Window 9 128 Marine Turtles from Ras Al-Hamra RH-5, by M. Delfino & J. Frazier Window 10 130 Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Occupations at HD-5, by F. Borgi & E. Maini

v Window 11 135 Bead Production in the Late Neolithic Communities of Coastal Oman, by M. Buta, D. Frenez, E. Bortolini, V. Charpentier & J.M. Kenoyer Window 12 142 Jabal Al-Aluya. An Inland Neolithic Settlement, by M. Lemée & G. Gernez Window 13 146 The Hafit Settlement HD-6 at Ras Al-Hadd, by V.M. Azzarà & M. Cattani Window 14 151 The Early Metallurgy of the Oman Peninsula, by C. Giardino Window 15 160 Analysis of Stone and Metal Artifacts from HD-6, HD-10 and HD-1, by R.W. Law Window 16 189 The Earliest Camel Remains of Oman from Ras Al-Hadd HD-6, by A. Curci & M. Carletti Chapter 5 • A Great Society Emerges under the Eyes of the Ancestors 195 Window 17 225 Tomb 1 at Ras Al-Jinz RJ-1 and Associated Bone Pits, by H. Guy & O. Munoz Window 18 229 Zukayt and the Burial Fields of Wadi Halfayin, by E. Bortolini Chapter 6 • Taming the Desert with Oases and Herds 233 Window 19 254 Animal Economy in an Early Oasis Settlement, by M. Uerpmann & H.-P. Uerpmann Window 20 256 Earliest Potteries in the Oman Peninsula, by S. Méry Window 21 259 An Early Third Millennium BC Madbassa?, by S. Cleuziou † Window 22 261 The Early Oasis Settlements of the Hajar Region, by J. Orchard & J. Orchardz † Chapter 7 • Trade and the Beginnings of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean 267 Window 23 301 Copper from Magan for the Mesopotamian , by G. Weisgerber † Window 24 303 From Green to Red. Smelting Red Copper from the Green Ore, by G. Weisgerber † Window 25 306 Indus Pottery in the Oman Peninsula, by S. Méry Window 26 309 Reconstructing an Early Bronze Age Boat, by T. Vosmer Window 27 314 Early Bronze Age Navigation and Trade Routes, by T. Vosmer Window 28 317 Bitumen from Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2, by E. Badel Window 29 323 The Manufacture of Conus sp. Shell Rings at the Site of HD-60, by L.G. Marcucci Chapter 8 • The Early Arabian Civilization at its Zenith 329

vi Window 30 366 Al-Ayn. A Small Settlement and Palm Tree Garden in Eastern Oman, by O. Blin Window 31 369 Copper Production as Seen from Al-Moyassar 1, by G. Weisgerber † Window 32 373 Bat. A Leading Centre of Early Civilization in Oman, by C.M. Cable & C.P. Thornton Window 33 377 The Umm an-Nar Burial Pits of the Necropolis of Bat, by S. Döpper & C. Schmidt Window 34 381 The Umm an-Nar Settlement of Al-Zebah, by S. Döpper & C. Schmidt Window 35 385 The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula, by D. Frenez Window 36 397 Carnelian and Agate Beads in the Oman Peninsula during the Third to Second millennia BC, by J.M. Kenoyer & D. Frenez Chapter 9 • The Wadi Suq Period. Collapse and Transformation 411 Window 37 434 Copper in the Wadi Suq Period (Second millennium BC), by G. Weisgerber † Window 38 436 Adam North Graveyard in Central Oman, by G. Gernez & J. Giraud Chapter 10 • The Iron Age. New Developments on the Eve of History 441 Window 39 463 Long Collective Graves LCG-1 and LCG-2 at Daba, Musandam (Oman), by F. Genchi Window 40 470 Mudhmar East. An Iron Age Ritual Site at the Desert Margin, by G. Gernez & M. Jean Window 41 473 Iron Age Buildings with a Pillared Room in the Oman Peninsula, by A. Benoist Window 42 475 Iron Age Mining and Smelting in the Lizq Period, by G. Weisgerber † Window 43 477 The Early Iron Age in the Sultanate of Oman, by P.A. Yule Window 44 480 ʿUqdat Al-Bakrah. An Early Iron Age Metal-Working Atelier just inside the Empty Quarter in Oman, by F. Genchi, C. Giardino & P.A. Yule Window 45 488 The Fish-Eaters – Ichthyophagoi, by O. Nalesini Window 46 490 Ichthyophagoi their Culture and Economy during the Iron Age in Coastal Oman, by R. Loreto Window 47 492 Rock Art of Al-Hajar Mountains. A Review and Update, by A.E. Fossati Window 48 500 Triliths. Hinterland Monuments of Ancient Nomads, by R. Garba Chapter 11 • Dhofar. The Land of Frankincense 511 Bibliography • Journals / Books / Papers 529

vii