478517 1 En Bookbackmatter 301..322

Further Reading

I will discuss two categories of material you can read further. The ﬁrst category is the popular science books. The second concerns what is available on internet. I will not address the professional literature. Let’s look at both.

Pop Science

A lot of books have been written about particles and forces. In general, the attempt to keep things simple is very admirable, but does come at a cost. Not all things are explained. In general one may say that the more gets explained the more compli- cated the book. It is a kind of uncertainty principle around books about this subject: the better the explanation, the higher the complexity. Usually, books are either very complex (the professional literature) or leave out a lot to explain (popular science). My book is subject to the same uncertainty relation. However, I chose a particular middle point in the sense that I describe more abstract concepts, but I still leave out the very complex math. Let’s look at some popular science books and what you may expect from them. One of my favourites is QED by Richard Feynman [Ref. 32]. He focusses on explaining the path integral and interactions between charged particles. He does that very nicely and you will recognize the principle to add phases, which I used in Sect. 9.3 in this book. A good book that takes symmetry as a basis to explain the origin of forces is “the force of symmetry” by Icke [Ref. 35]. He uses the concept of the Chimera to explain how particles change face. He tries to get to the heart of the matter just as much as I do, but from a slightly different perspective. You will ﬁnd that some things in this book are inspired by Icke, and some things are complementary. A similar work that can be considered complementary is “fearful symmetry” by Zee [Ref. 33]. You will ﬁnd similarities, e.g. in the way Zee explains the concept of action.

Then there are the immensely popular books by Hawking (e.g. [Ref. 36]). Some are well illustrated and cover a wide variety of subjects, including the history of the universe, gravity and string theory. Some are explained to great depth while remaining on an understandable level. Some are only on overview level. That makes the overall relation between things sometimes a bit abstract. A different approach is taken by Brooks in “fields of colour” [Ref. 34]. He describes the world through the view of fields. In order to keep the different types of fields apart he gives them a colour. These colours are not related to quark colours. Again an inspirational book. For the Dutch reader, there is “De bouwstenen van de schepping” by ‘t Hooft [Ref. 37]. An overview that gives yet other insights into the subject. It especially tells the story from a historic perspective using many anecdotes, explaining experiments and the problems theorists ran into. Also from a historic perspective, “the particle odyssey” [Ref. 24] tells the story of the discovery of particles with fantastic illustrations of experimental results such as bubble chamber pictures including the explanation of the particle tracks. You will find that these authors (and many others that I left out here) each have their own way to describe things and each adds different concepts and viewpoints that will help you to understand. Hence, reading more than one book will increase your understanding of the subject. Comparing the different ways of explaining stuff will do that too. I can only wish you a lot of fun in getting a grip on the way our universe works!

The Internet

The internet contains a lot of material, but not everything can be trusted to be correct. For example, there are a lot of fora where you find people who ask questions about scientific subjects. The answers are sometimes very good and sometimes they are not. Also the articles on Wikipedia differ in quality. A good source are the universities. They often put lecture notes on the internet or whitepapers that can be very good. Scientific articles are often very detailed and hence not the easiest to follow. In this section I made a selection of material I liked. Though you might find many rather technical and off course the material offered by universities belongs to the area of professional literature. I found an interesting summary of group theory and the groups one finds in particle physics in “applications of group theory to fundamental particle physics” by Bergan [Ref. 40]. Others are: • “group theory and physics” by Calvert [Ref. 43]. He has many more interesting subjects on his site. • “Lie groups in physics” by Veltman, de Wit and ‘t Hooft [Ref. 44]. A well readable and understandable introduction to group theory and its application in particle physics, but mathematical. Further Reading 303

• “An introduction to Group Theory” by Lin [Ref. 45] gives a vivid calculation example, but again it contains math. For the understanding of waves I found the lecture notes of Prof. Morin [Refs. 10, 11] very insightful. He explains well how to understand e.g. group velocity and especially dispersion relations. He also wrote a clear explanation about the exchange between potential energy and kinetic energy (The Lagrangian) [Ref. 19]. Both are published as book as well. However, you need mathematics to follow these. About the same subject, a very nice mathematical text is “A very short introduction to quantum ﬁeld theory” By Prof. Stetz [Ref. 38]. You should especially read the part about the dispersion relation and the difference between the dispersion of massless and massive waves. If you like some additional material in understanding the path integral formal- ism, I found “path integrals in quantum ﬁeld theory” by Seahra a good read [Ref. 41]. I enjoyed some particularly clear handouts about particle physics from Prof. Thomson [Ref. 23]. He manages to put all the essentials, graphs, experiments and explanation in a number of concise powerpoints. He covers the whole standard model and uses lucid examples. Although he covers quite some math there is also something to be found for non-mathematical readers. It’s not only universities that have great material. Also laboratories and facilities such as CERN have a lot of good material. I especially enjoyed the lay-person articles by prof. Strassler [Refs. 12, 21, 22]. They provide a vivid story of virtual particles, the Higgs mechanism and quark jets. A great site to visit is that of the Contemporary Physics Education Project (CPEP) [Ref. 39]:

The Contemporary Physics Education Project is a non-profit organization of teachers, educators, and physicists located around the world. CPEP materials present the current understanding of the fundamental nature of matter and energy, incorporating the major research findings of recent years. There are many interesting chapters in the teacher’s guide, such as the one on symmetries and antimatter. I found that the video lectures of Richard Feynman can still be found on the internet [Ref. 13]. Although they are old, they are very worthwhile since Feynman had a very vivid way of explaining things. However, get ready for some math as well. From a historic viewpoint, an interesting read is the original article by Einstein on the special theory of relativity. It is called “on the electrodynamics of moving bodies” [Ref. 42]. Finally, Wikipedia always offers an additional article you can read to get another viewpoint. Many articles go deep and quickly get very technical. Especially funny is to look at the article “spinor”, since it contains a nice computer animated film of a 720° turn before you get back to your starting point. For a more textual and lower entry level to some subjects a good idea is to look at schools-wikipedia.org. References and Sources

Quantum field theory and the standard model are a substantial subject that cannot be taken lightly. Very many theoretical and experimental physicists have been con- tributing to this. All together, these physicists have written a whole library full of books and articles about the subject. Writing a conceptual book about it would require to reference their work properly. However, over the past century (and more) so many ideas have been developed and build on further and again and again that it seems impossible to do all of them justice. Before writing this book I have studied the subject for many years, using many of those books and articles. During this time I developed my own insights about how to explain certain aspects of the theory. Consequently, much of what I wrote is original. On the other hand, many of the greatest ideas found an origin in the books I read. First and foremost there are five books that build my mathematical understanding of the subject. These are the books on QFT and the standard model by Lancaster and Blundell [Ref. 8], Zee [Ref. 9], Schwartz [Ref. 30]. Stetz [Ref. 38] and Klauber [Ref. 29]. Lancaster and Blundell and Zee gave me the idea of springs attached to a rope, which I thankfully worked out to a useful metaphor. Also, all these books showed how to calculate waves, second quantization, energy densities in a field, energy-momentum tensor, symmetries, Noether principle and current, spinors, propagators, path integrals, QED and renormalisation, to name just a few concepts in this book. Most of what I wrote in Chaps. 5 till 11 I learned from those books. For ideas about the path integral I am especially indebted to the great Richard Feynman [Refs. 2, 13 and especially 32]. For an understanding of waves and coupled oscillators I leaned on the work of Prof. Morin [Refs. 10, 11] and Taylor [Ref. 5]. I used these ideas mostly in Chaps. 4, 5, 6 and 8. For understanding how potential energy and kinetic energy play their game one needs to study the Lagrangian, which I learned from many books and articles [Refs. 5, 8, 9, 29, 30, 19, 61].

To understand QFT, one needs to have a handle on special relativity. For Chap. 6 and parts of Chap. 10 I based myself on the work by Woodhouse [Ref. 6], French [Ref. 31] and of course Einstein [Ref. 42]. Before that I learned about electrodynamics from Jackson [Ref. 3] and Griffiths [Ref. 4] which is used everywhere where I speak about the electromagnetic field throughout the book. Another basis in quantum mechanics I found in Shankar [Ref. 1] and Feynman [Ref. 2] which I used throughout the book as well e.g. in describing the uncertainty relations, first quantization, (orbital) spin, the behaviour of bosons and fermions and the quantum mechanical path integral. In this context, Chirality and Helicity play an important role. For that I would like to mention Lancaster and Blundell [Ref. 8] since this book seems to be most clear about the difference between the two concepts. For the subject of symmetries and group theory I based myself on Jeevanjee [Ref. 7], Calvert [Ref. 43], Veltman, ‘t Hooft and de Wit [Ref. 44], van Suijlekom [Ref. 18], Bergan [Ref. 40] and Lin [Ref. 45]. This is a tough subject and I am greatly indebted to the conceptual ideas about symmetries and how they can pro- duce a force by Icke [Ref. 35], Feynman [Ref. 32] and Zee [Ref. 33]. All this I applied and developed conceptually throughout the book and especially in Sects. 9.1, 9.2, 15.2 and 17.2. In describing how a gauge wave is produced I used the way they are calculated in the various books about QFT [Refs. 8, 9, 29, 30]. The same books I used to understand Feynman diagrams in Chap. 10 and Sects. 16.3 and 17.5. Virtual particles required the same sources, but there I would also like to mention the excellent site of Prof. Strassler [Ref. 12] which helped greatly to develop my understanding of virtual particles in layman’s terms. These subjects come together in the theory of QED for which one more mention of Feynman [Ref. 32] is in order. With respect to the particle zoo I am indebted to Close, Martin and Sutton [Ref. 24] for their great insight in the history of particle discoveries and collection of pictures and tables. For understanding the weak force, the Higgs mechanism, symmetry breaking and CPT symmetry, I leaned on the more mathematical descriptions of Lancaster and Blundell [Ref. 8], Zee [Ref. 9], Schwartz [Ref. 30], van Suijlekom [Ref. 18], Jeevanjee [Ref. 7], and Thomson [Ref. 23]. For the practical and conceptual view I looked at Icke [Ref. 35], Strassler [Ref. 21] and the CERN Higgs site [Ref. 15]. For Quantum Chromo Dynamics (QCD) I based myself on the more technical work by Schwartz [Ref. 30], van Suijlekom [Ref. 18], Jeevanjee [Ref. 7] and Thomson [Ref. 23, handout 8]. To complete that with conceptual insights I used Strassler [Ref. 22] and Icke [Ref. 35]. Gravity as a field is a short chapter that I based for the field part on the work by Schwartz [Ref. 30] and for the Lorentz transformation on Jeevanjee [Ref. 7]. For that I also used Hobson [Ref. 75], which I used in combination with Wheeler [Ref. 76] for the GRT part. The questions about background independence as well as other theories than string theory I took from various articles [Refs. 46–51]. References and Sources 307

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A Big bang, 202 Abelian, 96, 209 Bjorkland, R., 194 Absorption, 83 Black body radiation, 221 Acceleration, 51 Boost, 161 Accelerator, 194 Boson, 155, 171, 196, 230, 256 Action, 136 Bottom quark, 195 Alvaraz, L., 195 Breaking of symmetry, 285 Anderson, C., 194 Broglie, De, 19 Annihilation, 119, 231, 233, 236, 280 Butler, C., 194 Anti-colour, 258 Anti-matter, 141, 249, 298 C Anti-particle, 118 Cabibbo angle, 242 Anti-screening, 273 Cabibbo, Nicola, 242 Anti-symmetric, 169, 257 Cabibbo rotation, 241 Anti-symmetric wave function, 187 Canonical quantization, 83 Armenteros, R., 194 Carbon, 239 Arrow of time, 140 Carbon-date, 239 A-symmetric mix, 225 Casimir effect, 139 Asymptotic freedom, 273 Casimir, Hendrik, 139 Attractive, 268 Cathode ray tube, 194 Attractive force, 109, 134 Causal dynamical triangulations, 15, 151, 299 Causality, 15, 140 B CERN, 196, 228, 253, 273, 274, 281 Background, 296 Chadwick, J., 194 Background independence, 296 Charge, 98, 226, 230 Background radiation, 202 Charge conjugation, 247 Baldo-Ceolin, M., 194 Charge conservation, 190 Balinese belly dancer, 176 Charged current, 235 Bankcard, 125 Charge distribution, 149 Bare charge, 149 Charmed quark, 195 Bare mass, 147, 286 Chirality, 155, 164, 178, 184, 243, 251 Barnes, V., 195 Classical mechanics, 8 Baryon, 196, 276 Cobe satellite, 202 B-bosons, 195, 204 Coherent, 154 Beta-decay, 245 Coherent ﬁeld, 172

Collapse of the wave function, 83, 152 Dispersion relation, 33, 51, 53, 116 Collisions, 196, 281 Distance, 58 Colour, 92, 257, 278 Disturbance, 113, 121, 126, 138, 278 Colour confinement, 268 Double slit experiment, 4, 29, 153 Colour hypercharge, 262 Down quark, 195, 203, 233, 237, 248, 256 Colour isospin, 262 Dressed charge, 150 Colourless, 262 Dressed mass, 147, 286 Colour streams, 278 Composite particle, 187 E Compton, A., 194 Eigen functions, 80 Compton length, 32 Einstein, A., 3, 22, 45, 291 Condensate, 219 Elasticity, 38, 46, 294 Condensation, 285 Elastic scattering, 230 Conservation law, 74, 191, 250 Electric charge, 95 Constant field, 110 Electric field, 95, 135 Constituent quark mass, 286 Electromagnetic field, 97, 212 Coordinate transformation, 292 Electromagnetic force, 246 Coordinate translation, 291 Electromagnetic interaction, 136, 231 Cork, B., 194 Electromagnetic potential, 95 Cosmic radiation, 194 Electromagnetism, 95 Cosmological constant, 298 Electron, 113, 118, 128, 130, 145, 194, 203, Counter terms, 146, 295 232, 244 Coupled oscillators, 80 Electron field, 93 Coupling constant, 95, 151, 204, 207, 225, 298 Electroweak symmetry, 203 Coupling potential, 94 Ellipse orbits, 157 Coupling strength, 151, 245, 292 Energy, 8 Cowan, C., 194 Energy density, 73 CP symmetry, 247 Energy flux, 75 CPT symmetry, 245 Energy peak, 253 CPT theorem, 250 Entangled, 153 Creation, 231, 233, 236, 280 Ether, 22 Cronin, James, 248 Excitation, 71, 121, 223 Crystal, 80, 81, 147, 151 Expanding universe, 202 C-symmetry, 247 External lines, 117 Current quark mass, 286 Curving space-time, 292 F Cyclotron, 194 Face, 90, 207, 231, 232, 235, 260 Face changing, 90 D Families of particles, 197 D+, 195 Fermat’s principle, 41 Dark energy, 298 Fermilab, 196, 281 Dark matter, 298 Fermion, 155, 171, 230, 243, 256 Decay, 234, 252, 283 Feynman diagram, 117, 136, 231 Decay rate, 122 Feynman propagator, 125 Decouplet, 276 Feynman, Richard, 117 Degenerate, 157 Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation, 119 Degree of freedom, 166, 209 Field, 17 De-localized, 187 Field amplitude, 68, 82 Delta, 255 Field quantum, 70, 114 DESY, 195, 273 Field strength, 26, 88, 90, 95, 101, 131, 135, Diproton, 285 160, 168, 172, 284, 298 Dirac’s belt trick, 176 Fine structure constant, 151 Dispersion, 33 First principles, 297 Index 313

First quantization, 65 Helix, 164 Fitch, Val, 248 Hierarchy problem, 298 Flat world, 90 Higgs boson, 225 Flip chirality, 180 Higgs field, 47, 67 Fluctuating fields, 138 Higgs, H., 63, 110, 196, 203, 212, 221, 224, Flux, 75 243 Flux tube, 269 Hooke’s law, 67 Force, 100, 104, 130, 172, 231, 235, 268, 284 Huygens, Christiaan, 3 Force working on a distance, 111 Hypercharge, 226 Fowler, W., 194 Hypercharge current, 212 Free propagator, 121 Frequency, 8 I Full propagator, 121 Igor Tamm, 71 Fundamental particle overview, 198, 216, 253, Imaginary mass, 117 287 Inelastic scattering, 230 Fusion, 240 Inertia, 49, 51, 108 Infinity, 149, 274 G Infinity problem, 145 Gauge boson, 93, 195 Inhomogeneous medium, 111 Gauge field, 93, 204 In/out flux, 77 Gauge invariance, 98 Interaction, 124, 205, 211, 215, 225, 231, 278 Gauge theory, 95 Interaction potential, 94 Gauge wave, 116, 130, 204, 207, 231, 260, 292 Interaction vertices, 117 Gell-Mann, M., 195 Interference, 3–5, 11, 29, 100, 153 General theory of relativity, 291 Internal degree of freedom, 89, 155 Global phase change, 92 Internal lines, 117 Global symmetry, 207, 260, 291 Isospin, 226 Glueballs, 269 Isospin current, 212, 230 Gluon, 92, 195, 260, 264, 277, 286 Isotope, 285 Gluon cloud, 286 Gluon radiation, 280 J Gluon splitting, 280 Jet events, 272 Goldhaber, G., 195 J/Psi, 195 Goldstone boson, 223 Goldstone mode, 223 K Gradient, 110 Kaon decay, 248 Gravitational constant, 294 Kaon, K., 194 Gravitons, 294 Kepler, Johannes, 161 Gravity, 151, 291 Kepler orbits, 161 Ground state, 69 Kinetic energy, 37, 137 Group, 87, 163, 207, 262 Group theory, 87 L Group velocity, 33 Lagrangian, 42 Lambda, 194 H Lamb shifts, 149 Hadrons, 197, 256 Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, 161 Hagedorn, Rolf, 274 Large Electron Positron collider (LEP), 273 Hagedorn temperature, 274, 285 Large Hadron Collider, 196, 204, 228 Half-life, 239 Laser, 172 Harmonic oscillator, 37, 67, 80, 223 Lederman, L., 195 Hawking, S., 15 Left handed, 164, 180, 183, 185, 198, 203, He4, 187 227, 236, 243, 247 Heat capacity, 81 Length contraction, 61 Helicity, 155, 177, 184 Lepton, 196 314 Index

Lifespan, 200 Neutron, 19, 194, 237, 256, 283 Lifetime, 115, 121, 252 Newton, 3 Light cone, 59 Nitrogen, 239 Local symmetry, 93, 207, 291 Noether current, 78, 189, 205 Longitudinal wave, 6 Noether, Emmy, 77 Loop quantum gravity, 299 Noether theorem, 77, 189 Lorentz group, 163 Non-abelian, 209, 267 Lorentz, H.A., 45 Nonet, 275 Lorentz invariance, 212, 250 Non-zero ﬁeld, 225 Lorentz invariant, 120, 226, 280 Nuclear force, 283 Lorentz symmetric, 120, 165, 212 Nuclear reactor, 194 Lorentz transformation, 120, 161, 291 Nucleus, 19, 283

M O Magnetic field, 95, 135, 155 Observer, 117 Magnetic moment, 165, 285 Octet, 262, 276 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), 125 Off mass shell, 116, 127 Mass, 46, 107, 147, 181, 213, 228, 243, 251, Off-shell, 52 297 Omega, 195 Massive particles, 51 On mass shell, 116, 121, 127 Massive waves, 46 On shell, 52 Massless particles, 51 Orbital momentum, 156 Mass potential, 85 Orthogonal, 83 Mass shell, 52, 116 Matter, 141, 171, 249, 298 P Max Planck, 3 Pair production, 118, 231 Maxwell, 3 Parity, 180 Measurement, 12 Parity operation, 180 Medium, 10, 17, 40, 48, 56, 110, 225 Parity violation, 245 Meson, 187, 195, 264, 275, 283 Particle families, 251 Metaphors, 1 Particle number conservation, 189 Metric, 58 Particles, 3 Mexican hat potential, 214, 223 Particle zoo, 193, 255 Michelson and Morley, 22 Path, 101 Minkowski, Hermann, 58, 162 Path integral, 100, 133, 136, 296 Minkowski metric, 59 Pentaquarks, 199 Minkowski space, 59 Period, 31 Mixing, 241 Periodic boundary condition, 81 Mixing amplitude, 242 Perl, M., 195 Mixing angle, 298 PETRA, 273 Mixing fields, 220 Phase, 100, 137 Mixing ratio, 226 Phase difference, 102 Mobius strip, 164, 173 Phase shift, 89, 92, 113, 136 Modes, 80 Phase velocity, 33 Momentum, 6, 107 Phonon, 71, 81 Momentum flux, 75 Phonon density of states, 81 Multiplets, 277 Photo electric effect, 3 Muon, 128, 194, 234 Photon, 5, 95, 98, 128, 194, 231 Pion, 194, 234, 256, 283, 286 N Planck length, 294 Near field communication, 125 Planck scale, 145 Neddermeyer, S., 194 Planck’s constant, 294 Neutral current, 230, 236 Plano, R., 194 Neutrino, 195, 203, 232, 244 Plasma, 56, 219 Index 315

Poincaré group, 163 Richter, B., 195 2-point propagator, 122 Right handed, 164, 180, 183, 185, 198, 203, 4-point propagator, 122 227, 236, 243, 246 Pole, 121 Right hand rule, 177 Positron, 118, 142, 194 Rochester, G., 194 Potential, 37, 42, 47, 66, 68, 73, 83, 94, 104, Rotation, 163 119, 130, 136, 204, 207, 210, 213, 222, Rutherford, E., 194 223, 225, 244, 260, 268, 294 Potential density, 73 S Potential energy, 37, 54, 137 Samios, N., 195 Powell, C., 194 Scalar, 17 Precession, 181 Scalar field, 17, 212 Pressure wave, 6 Scalar particle, 228 Probability, 26 Scattering, 195 Probability amplitude, 5, 14 Schwartz, M., 195 Probability distribution, 14 Screening, 149 Product, 210, 257 Second quantization, 67, 138 Propagator, 121, 127 Segre, E., 194 Proton, 19, 194, 238, 256, 282, 283, 286 Self-energy, 122 Prowse, D., 194 Self-interaction, 122, 237 Serge Haroche, 153 Q Sheer stress, 76 QED equation, 145 Sigma, 194 Quantization, 65, 79, 138, 156, 297 Singlet, 264 Quantization hypothesis, 65 Source, 127 Quantum, 65 Space, 59 Quantum Chromo Dynamics (QCD), 255 Space-like, 59 Quantum de-coherence, 153 Space-time, 21, 163 Quantum Electro Dynamics (QED), 95, 96 Space-time translations, 163 Quantum Field Theory (QFT), 16 Special relativity, 45, 161 Quantum loop gravity, 151 Speed of light, 294 Quantum of space-time, 297 Spin, 89, 155, 161 Quantum states of a particle that are Spin down, 164, 184 indistinguishable, 12 Spinor, 164, 175 Quark, 19, 92, 196, 255, 275, 278, 286 Spinor fields, 175 Quark jet, 271 Spin up, 164, 184 Quark—gluon interactions, 282 Spring, 46, 67, 225 Quark-gluon plasma, 274 Standard model, 196 Quark matter, 274 State, 89, 152, 159, 168 Statistical chance, 153 R Statistical sum, 132 Radioactive decay, 239 Steinberger, J., 195 Range, 229 Strangeness, 275 Real particle, 32, 114, 126, 127 Strange quark, 195, 248 Real quantum, 121 String, 269 Refractive index, 40, 110 String theory, 151, 299 Relativity, 117 Strong force, 193, 245, 255, 285 Renormalisation group, 150 Structure of the vacuum, 294 Renormalizable, 295 SU(2), 90, 198, 207, 251, 257, 275 Renormalization, 146 SU(3), 91, 198, 257, 267, 275 Repulsive, 268 Super cooled, 220 Repulsive force, 106, 133 Super fluidity, 187 Residual strong force, 283 Superposition, 10 Resonance, 114, 121, 126, 199, 255 Symmetric, 169, 257 316 Index

Symmetric mix, 225 VanderWaals force, 140 Symmetric wave function, 187 Vector, 17 Symmetry, 78, 87, 89, 201, 204, 207, 219, 245, Vector ﬁeld, 17, 212 257, 285, 291 Velocity, 8, 46 Symmetry breaking, 203, 219, 230 Velocity of particles, 33 Symmetry group, 87, 163 Vertex, 231 Symmetry operation, 87, 262 Virtual cloud, 165 Virtual electron, 113 T Virtual gluon, 278 Tau, 129, 195 Virtual particle, 32, 121, 127, 130 Tensor, 18 Virtual particle cloud, 129, 149, 152 Tetraquarks, 199 Virtual photon, 113, 121, 131, 145 Tevatron, 281 Theory of relativity, 22 W Thermodynamics, 141, 152 W-, 195 Thomas, Llewellyn, 162 W+/-, 228, 237 Thomas rotation, 162 Wave, 3, 6, 127 Thomson, J.J., 194 Wave function, 26 Time, 59 Wavelength, 6 Time dilation, 61 Wavelengths in water, 10 Time direction, 119 Wave packet, 26 Time-like, 59 W-boson, 207, 233 Time symmetry, 249 Weak force, 193, 227, 229 Ting, S, 195 Weak hypercharge, 204 Top quark, 196, 244 Weak interaction, 245 Transformer, 125 Weak isospin, 207 Transmutation, 240 Weak mixing angle, 242 Transversal wave, 7 Winding number, 98 Tunnelling, 66 Work, 51 Wu, Chien-Shiung, 245 U U(1), 87, 92, 198, 204 X Uncertainty principle, 138 Xi, 194 Uncertainty relations, 27 X-rays, 194 Unitary rotation, 87 Up quark, 195, 203, 233, 237, 256 Y Upsilon, 195 Yukawa potential, 285

V Z Vacuum, 17, 18, 39, 165, 221, 292 Z°-boson, 195, 225, 252 Vacuum diagram, 138 Z°, 228, 237 Vacuum polarization, 129, 148, 165, 232 Zweig, 195 Titles in This Series

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