IMPROVEMENT of INADEQUATE HOUSING VIA URBAN AGRICULTURE in NAIROBI, KENYA Michael Honing

IMPROVEMENT OF INADEQUATE HOUSING VIA URBAN AGRICULTURE IN NAIROBI, KENYA Michael Honing

Abstract Inadequate housing is a crisis that affects all areas of the world. The severity and magnitude of this crisis has been augmented by the exponential growth in the global population. Expounding upon this problem, particularly in the South, is the migration of rural peoples into urban cores, fostering the creation of mega-cities of illegally developed, inadequate housing. These developments lack basic necessities including access to water, proper sanitation, and safe areas to prepare food. Urban agriculture has presented itself as a key design component in the mission to alleviate the aforementioned crisis. The incorporation of agriculture as a permanent and edible design feature bolsters the design methodology of sustainable urban fabrics by presenting opportunities of cohesion between built and cultural landscapes. Research on one of the largest slum developments, known as Kibera, in Kenya provides a design study in which the addition of edible landscapes contributes to the neighborhood "njia" infrastructure. The term njia refers to the street paths and alleyways that bind the developments. When applied to the model of njia, the potential benefits of the incorporation of urban agriculture into the contextual vocabulary become clear. Designing edible landscapes as a feature of permanence in urban design situations provides the potential to address critical issues concerning development of housing, city planning, and food security.

Keywords: Kibera, Informal Housing, Njia, Urban Agriculture, Sustainability.

Utilization of pond for productive growing

71 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol INTRODUCTION to the result of the original dwellers relocating to better areas of the city; while the housing may often The crisis of inadequate housing can be seen times become subdivided and rented to lower- worldwide, both in developed and developing income individuals. Slum developments are often countries. Rapid urbanization, natural catastrophes times not recognized by public authorities and lack Michael Honing and political turmoil has had a direct effect on the access to the city infrastructure. Furthermore, the global housing crisis. In response to this crisis, the lack of access to proper sanitation results in expansion of illegal squatter settlements is appar- unhealthy living conditions. This housing develop- ent, particularly in the South. These settlements ment phenomenon has and continues to occur lack basic infrastructure that would provide access throughout both developed and developing coun- to clean water, proper sanitation and adequate tries worldwide (UN-HABITAT, 2003). housing. The Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture According to UN-Habitat, every year the world's and Food Security (RUAF) estimates "by 2020 the urban population is increasing by about 70 million. developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin All of these people will require access to shelter and America will be home for 75% of all urban employment and the majority will realize this need dwellers, and to eight of the anticipated nine mega- through the informal sector. In developing coun- cities with populations in excess to 20 million." In tries more than half of the city's population current- response to this global housing crisis and the rapid ly lives and works within informal settlements (UN- urbanization of the world's cities, the development HABITAT, 2003). and integration of urban agriculture as a means to Integrating architecture and agriculture has the alleviate the new pressures placed on rapidly grow- potential to directly affect the role of housing in ille- ing cities presents itself as an opportunity not to be gal settlements. In addition to providing shelter, the squandered. In defining urban agriculture house would generate production of agriculture Mougeot states: providing economic opportunities and fostering "Urban agriculture is an industry located within environmental sustainability. One possible design (intra-urban) or on the fringe (peri-urban) of a strategy incorporating the aforementioned multidis- town, a city or a metropolis, which grows and ciplinary approach for addressing conditions in raises, processes and distributes a diversity of poverty stricken areas will be explored in the fol- food and non-food products, (re-)using largely lowing text. The current global housing crisis will be human and material resources, products and addressed and the principles of urban agriculture services found in and around that urban area, as they relate to architecture will be examined. The and in turn supplying human and material undertaking of an architectural research project in resources, products and services largely to that Kibera, Kenya will provide a case study to this mul- urban area." (Mougeot, 2005, p2) tidisciplinary approach. The sudden movement of persons from rural areas This form of agriculture is incorporated within the into the urban metropolis has had similar results urban economic and ecological system. The role globally. A large number of people have moved of urban agriculture and its specific contribution to closer to city cores seeking employment. the urban poor can be attributed to its ability to pro- Unfortunately, many times this leads to the devel- vide food security and nutrition, social and eco- opments of illegal settlements. The majority of nomic impacts, as well as contributions to urban these settlements either lack basic infrastructure or ecology (RUAF). have limited access to safe water and proper sani- According to RUAF, the inclusion of urban agri- tation in addition to inadequate housing condi- culture principles provides a 'complementary strate- tions, overcrowding, and insecure land tenure. gy to reduce urban poverty and food insecurity and These characteristics reflect only the physical simi- enhance urban environmental management.' The larities that unite illegal settlements globally, thus do production of food in poor urban areas is usually a not represent the dynamics of the social infrastruc- direct response to the lack of money to purchase ture. adequate food from the largely inadequate food Illegal settlements are often referred to as 'slums,' resources available within developing countries. which can be defined further as housing areas that Economic circumstances in most developing coun- have deteriorated over time for various reasons. tries do not provide sufficient income opportunities The decline of housing conditions can be attributed for the expanding population, thus resulting in the open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol 72 the fertilizerneeds ofnearbyfarmersare metwith It isestimatedthatinKano, Nigeria,25 percentof in closeproximitytothecomposted organicwastes. enables theagriculturalproduction sitetoexistwith- within urbancores,especially informalsettlements, manipulated easily. For instance,agriculturegrown more efficientlyinareaswherethewastecanbe productive fertilizerviacompostingcanbeutilized The transformationoftheseorganicwastesinto the conceptofcompostingurbanorganicwastes. 2007). several AsianandAfricancountries(Halweil, more then50%oftheurbanvegetablesupplyin waste asaviableresourceandcanaccountfor agriculture techniqueincludestheuseofhuman Management Institute,anotherinnovativeurban ter. AccordingtotheInternationalWater nearby waterwayswiththeuseofcollectedrainwa- globally whichsubstitutetheuseofwaterfrom tural practicesbeingdemonstratedbyfarmers increased valueoffreshwater. Thereareagricul- drop ofwaterismoreapparentduetothe (Girardet, 2005). have becomepollutantsinnearbywaterways the urbanizingworldbyutilizingnutrientsthatmay contributed totheenvironmentalsustainabilityof resources. Theeffectiveuseofsuchresourceshas and manuresthatarereadilyavailableasurban important adaptationssuchastheuseofcompost The farmingconstraintsofthecityhaveledto op, adapt,andinnovateinamagnitudeofways. a globalphenomenonthatiscontinuingtodevel- apparent thatthisformofagriculturehasbecome participating inurbanagricultureworldwide.Itis Programme estimatedthat800millionpeoplewere ties. In1996,theUnitedNationsDevelopment with foodsecurity, nutrition,andincomeopportuni- ditions withurbanagriculture,providingthemselves responded toinadequateeconomicandlivingcon- (Mougeot, 2005). children havingbetterhealthandnutritionalstatus would otherwisebeunaffordableinadditiontotheir and usetheirsavingstobuyotherfooditemsthat meals, maintainamorebalanceddietyear-round, the formertohavelowerfoodinsecurity, eatmore Zimbabwe, Kenya, UgandaandHaitihavefound with poornon-practicinghouseholdsconductedin households practicingUA havebeencompared inability topurchasefood.(RUAF) The practiceofurbanagriculturealsoincludes Today, thepracticeofutilizing everyattainable A seriesofstudiesbyMougeotinwhichpoor Millions ofpeoplearoundtheworldhave urban organicwastes(Halweil,2007). Lindi, Makina, Mashimoni,Siranga,and Soweto Gatuikira, Kianda,Kisumu Ndogo,Laini Saba, The settlementiscomprised of10villages: with atotalareaofapproximately 250hectares. ters westtoeast,and1.5kilometers northtosouth, pants livinginanareawhich measures3.5kilome- ed tobebetween750,000and1,000,000occu- 2006). egregious conditionsitmaintainstoday(Kramer, of affordablehousingeventuallygivingwaytothe inevitably becamealong-term solutionforthelack proved tobetooexpensivethusthesettlement Administrators developedrelocationschemesthat ment, increasingthevalueofland. Nairobi's citycorebegantogrowtowardthesettle- land titlesgiventoanyKiberaresidents.Overtime, use wasnotmonitoredbycityauthoritiesnorwere social unrest.Thegrowthandcontroloftheland the settlementbecameasourceofpoliticaland porary solutiontohouseretiringsoldiers;however period ofover12years.Kiberabeganasatem- (Sudanese) soldierswhohadservedtheKARfora cated asanareaoftemporaryresidencyforNubian African Rifles(KAR)militaryreserveandwasallo- land. Between1912and1928,itbecameaKenya Kibera wasoriginallytraditionalMasaaigrazing perature rarelyrisesabove80degreesFahrenheit. located onemileabovesealevelthereforethetem- one degreesouthoftheequator;howeveritis main downtowncityofNairobi.Thesettlementis in Kenya. Itislocated7kilometerssouthwestofthe "njia" infrastructure. ble landscapescontributestotheneighborhood provides adesignstudyinwhichtheadditionofedi- slum developments,knownasKibera,inKenya cultural landscapes.Research ononeofthelargest senting opportunitiesofcohesionbetweenbuiltand methodology ofsustainableurbanfabricsbypre- nent andedibledesignfeaturebolstersthe jects. Theincorporationofagricultureasaperma- designs havebeenseenthroughoutvariouspro- tion ofUA principles intocommunityplanning social, andeconomicgainsfromtheimplementa- borhood andhousingdesigns.Theenvironmental, multifunctional componentfordevelopingneigh- Urban agricultureisasustainable,strategic,and C A S E Kibera isnowhometoapopulationestimat- Kibera isoneofthelargestillegalsettlements S S T U D Y : K K I B E R A , K K E N Y A 73

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Figure 1. Upgrading 'Njia' Condition Through Urban Agriculture (East and West). The villages vary in culture, eth- inclusion of sustainable methods to upgrade and nicity, religious affiliation, population, and size. The further develop Kibera, as well as other squatter set- most common construction type remains mud-brick tlements, would be beneficial to its inhabitants and with an iron roof, which is unique compared to the environment. Nairobi's newer illegal settlements, which have Kibera, as in many illegal settlements, con- begun to use thin concrete walls and foundations. tains a series of streets and pedestrian pathways The majority of the houses have earth floors and developed in a structurally organic manner usually un-plastered walls. The response to sewage and lacking a planned design scheme. Instead there drainage infrastructure appears in the form of open are a series of compounded pathways that provide trenches usually located a few yards away from the voids through the built environment. The term 'njia' house. This improvised system accumulates refers to these street paths and alleyways that bind garbage and stagnant water facilitating the breed- the communities and function as the heart of the ing of mosquitoes, which lead to disease (Kramer, communal spirit. When applied to the model of 2006). 'njia', the potential benefits of the incorporation of A quarter of Nairobi's population lives in the urban agriculture into the contextual vocabulary deplorable conditions of Kibera. These conditions become clear. Designing edible landscapes as a include the lack of basic urban services such as feature of permanence in urban design situations water supply, sanitation, solid waste management, provides the potential to address critical issues con- proper electrical power, and roads. Poverty not cerning development of housing, city planning, and only affects the people but also negatively impacts food security. the environment. These conditions lead to the pol- The housing conditions in Kibera were stud- lution of Nairobi Dam and Ngong River, two large ied as an architectural research project in which water bodies bordering the development. The sustainable means of relocation or housing open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol 74 cent totheexisting settlement.Thedevelopment of al principlesintheconstruction ofnewhomesadja- scheme fortheimplementation ofurbanagricultur- culture principles.Theproject proposedadesign built environmentwiththe inclusion ofurbanagri- the cohesionofsustainable developmentinthe proposal. integral roleintheultimaterealizationofsucha of residentsandthelocalcommunitywouldplayan of Kibera.Itshouldbenotedthatthecooperation ious social,culturalandenvironmentalconditions utilizes technicaldesignmethodsinresponsetovar- gration factors.Thishousingupgradingscheme original housinginordertominimizesocialreinte- designing relocationareaswithincloseproximityto key informationintothenecessarymeansof cultural development.Theresearchalsoyielded construction aswellpossiblegeneratorsforagri- materials tobereusedandutilizedinthehousing and materialstudieswhichhighlightedvariouslocal project. Theresearchincludednumerousmethod struction andmeansofrelocationintheproposed directly affectedmaterialchoice,methodsofcon- social practiceandculturalbehaviors.Theseissues observed thattheprojectmustaddressissuesof existing informalhousingofKibera.Itwas areas ofpotentialopportunitiesforupgradingthe ical documentationofcurrentlivingconditionsand data includedanextensiveamountofphotograph- fessionals specializinginurbanupgrading. This dences withnativeKenyans aswellplanningpro- through numerousinterviewsanddirectcorrespon- research phaseofthisproject,datawascollected improvement wereexplored.Throughoutthe Figure 2. 2. Figure The projectexaminedmethodstopromote Relationship Between Built And Natural Environment Natural And Built Between Relationship light infiltration intothedwelling. Thenextdesign, explored inFigure 2Basaviabledesignmethod for The useofreadilyavailable glassbottleswas structural elementforthe sleepinginfrastructure. production ontheexterior, whileprovidingthe blockstopromoteagricultural of rammed-earth crops. InFigure 2A, thesectionillustratesuse the wallprovidingasurfaceforgrowingof environment intheproductionofagriculture,with designs ofFigure 2 exploretheroleofbuilt materials thatarereadilyaccessible.Thefirsttwo built andnaturalenvironmentthroughtheuseof studies illustratethepotentialcohesionbetween as welleverydaywater-based needs.Aseriesof rainwater thatcanbeusedinthegrowingprocess to collect,filter, andstorenaturalresourcessuchas upgrading factorwithinthenjia. the explorationofagricultureasanintegral economic opportunity. Thisdesignalsoillustrates of agriculturalproductsandpromoteapotential conceptualized tofunctionasanareaforthesale tivity. InFigure 1,thewalladjacentto'njia'was growing andsellinginordertomaximizeproduc- design exploredwallsassurfacesforagricultural was designedtorespondaspecificfunction.The ing design.Inaseriesofhousingstudies,eachwall total potentialgrowth,wasintegratedintothehous- ty ofverticalproductionagriculture,maximizing erator forurbanagricultureaswell.Thecapabili- vide morethenprotection;itcanfunctionasagen- to overcrowding. Thedesignforhousingcanpro- return inareaswherespaceisextremelylimiteddue schools, orpublicareas,mayyieldabeneficial productive builtenvironments,suchashomes, The builtenvironmentcanalsobedesigned 75

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Figure 3. Study of Rainwater Collection Systems

Figure 2C, illustrates the use of the natural element nomic possibilities. For instance, the skills devel- as a provider for shade and ventilation for the oped through the agricultural process can be a occupants in the dwelling. In addition to increased beneficial asset when seeking other employment ventilation and filtered light into the dwelling, the opportunities. Furthermore, community gardens design utilizes a 'transformable' wall to provide a promote social interactions, which lead to educa- viable workspace for the inhabitant. In Figure 2D, tion and further social development. This interac- the design addresses the condition of the collection tion can be seen between neighbors practicing and storage of water within the built environment urban agriculture within their dwelling site. The for the promotion of sustaining the production of proposed housing scheme for Kibera seeks to agriculture. explore this potential through the design of multiple Figure 3 illustrates several methods of agriculturally productive dwelling plots within close addressing the expense incurred in the process of proximity to each other (Howe et al, 2005). collecting rainwater, ranging from the use of a sim- The study of Kibera also revealed the need of ple large pot to the construction of a wall. In areas city planning for open public green space. This where water is limited, it is of the utmost importance land can provide a functional area for both cultur- to efficiently use and reuse any available water al interactions as well as agriculturally-based trans- resource. Furthermore, the concentrated produc- actions including water collection; composting; and tion of vegetables in cities may use less than a fifth tree planting to create shade, reduce heat and cut as much irrigation water and one sixth as much down on greenhouse gases. Figure 4A & 4B both land as mechanized rural cultivation (Halweil, illustrate the design of an open green space to be 2007). used for community interaction. In the first study, The incorporation of urban agriculture into the design of an open green space was conceptu- housing design has the potential to provide nutri- alized for the programmatic function for cultural tional value as well as create economic opportuni- interactions such as a designated area for recre- ties for the occupant. Nutritionists and other health ation that can be transformed into temporary street professionals have attributed deficiencies in the diet markets. In Figure 4B, the design utilizes green of the poor to the inability to access a sufficient space for communal activities such as the collection range of fresh produce. The design and incorpo- of water for the use associated with agricultural ration of a permanent agricultural production land- production as well as everyday needs. The use of scape will help to alleviate this deficiency by pro- vacant land as productive green spaces discourage viding access to fresh fruits and vegetables while garbage dumping and squatting (del Rosario et al, simultaneously providing previously unfeasible eco- 2000). open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol 76 Michael Honing

Figure 4a,b. Study of Public Green Space The collection and use of water for irrigation idea of turning these landscapes, which are used to purposes is difficult for many people living in slums transport sewage and waste water, into productive unless they live near a river or another water networks of agriculture can be realized through source. Many times, this condition leads to the use thoughtful design. Similar to the process of hydro- of sewage water for irrigation of crops (Foeken and ponics, where plant roots are exposed to collect Mwangi, 2000). According to the Green Towns water and nutrients, covering these trenches with a Project, a local community-based project of permeable membrane and planting them with agri- Nairobi, the ability to transport sewage water and cultural crops can transform these dangerous waste store it in a series of smaller ponds in which the removal systems into productive continuous agri- water becomes cleaner can provide a viable source cultural pathways (Refer to Figure 5). The growth of for irrigation (Foeken and Mwangi, 2000). agriculture into this spatial condition can also pro- Decontaminating once polluted waters and soils vide a visually aesthetic response, in addition to the combined with the safe use of organic and liquid removal of certain toxins that are present in heavily wastes can be realized through some productive populated areas, decrease the mosquito popula- growing methods. Human and animal waste can tion, as well as become a viable agricultural also be transformed to a viable UA production source. agent. Human waste can be turned into compost The design of housing and public spaces to (Esrey and Andersson, 2001), and aquiculture can incorporate agricultural practices can be recog- stabilize animal manure (Mougeot, 2005). nized as a design methodology for the improve- The abundance of open trenches in Kibera ment of slum conditions. As mentioned above, and other slum settlements is quite common. The areas of poverty tend to lead to the deterioration of

Figure 5. Transforming open sewage trench into productive growing networks open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol 77 Michael Honing

Figure 6. Urban agriculture at individual dwelling scale the natural environment. The inclusion of an agri- bricks has left the land with multiple voids. Figure cultural infrastructure in slum upgrading master 7 illustrates how the process of digging, which has plans and housing designs can play an important been viewed as a negative process, can be trans- role in the future reduction of environmental formed into a positive resulting condition using impact. common materials from the area to utilize these The study of 'njias' in Kibera illustrates the voids as pockets for agriculture. The design utilizes possible upgrading of slum housing and other spa- locally found plastic crates to house plants which tial conditions into a productive built environment can thrive off the existing nutrients. that generates the production and selling of agri- The inclusion of urban agriculture in the culture. Figure 6 illustrates the relationship between design of built environments can provide multiple an individual dwelling, the growing production plot, benefits to poverty stricken areas. There is a net- and the community 'njia' condition. The agriculture work of key components that must work together for growing plot is embedded with the dwelling to pro- the true potential of poverty alleviation to be real- vide security in response to the 'major problem' of ized. It is noted that there are many issues con- theft (Foeken and Mwangi, 2000). The idea of cerning the inadequate housing crisis, however the designing new construction or upgrading existing addition of urban agriculture principles to commu- built environments to accommodate a high level of nity design can play a significant role in diminishing agricultural production promotes a sustainable inadequate housing. One of the main reasons future. The potential benefits of this concept can be noted for the housing crisis is the insecurity to land seen in many examples in various locations of the tenure; with this being granted individuals could world; both in developed and developing countries. invest in their land and community. The practice of incorporating agricultural principles could provide economic opportunities to invest in housing. The GLOBAL REPLICATION OF addition of urban agricultural practices to certain DESIGNING EDIBLE LANDSCAPES spatial and physical conditions common in illegal settlements can also provide the individual a sense Although this study focuses on one of the largest of pride for the area in which they live. slums in Kenya, these conditions can be observed Furthermore, upgrading the socially driven 'njia' globally. The conditions of overcrowding, inade- condition with agriculture can foster a community quate housing and lack of access to safe water can spirit through providing educational and economic be seen as a result of rapid urbanization. The prin- opportunities while simultaneously alleviating the ciples proposed through the concept of designing health issues that spring from the deplorable trench edible landscapes in Kibera can be replicated in conditions. other areas of the world. Urban agriculture has and can continue to provide a valuable resource for the urban poor. For CONCLUSION example, agriculture has been the source of treat- ment for Beung Cheung Ek Lake in Cambodia. The Millennium Development Goals call for the sig- This sewage-contaminated lake has been cultivat- nificant improvement of at least 100 million slum ed by the locals to produce water spinach that dwellers. The global housing crisis is a result of thrives in nutrient rich water (Halweil, 2007). Also, poverty which is comprised of a series of complex in Kampala, Uganda the process of making mud factors. Addressing these conditions is necessary in open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol 78 Michael Honing

Figure 7. Utilization of pond for productive growing providing housing for many of the world's inhabi- living conditions and inadequate economic oppor- tants living in poverty. Viewing the role of the house tunities into viable productive landscapes and eco- as a generator for potential socio-economic oppor- nomic advancement, respectively, can be attained tunities can lead to the improvement of current slum through the implementation of urban agricultural conditions. The process of housing the urban poor, principles. This multidisciplinary approach for whether through upgrading or new construction, addressing the global housing crisis utilizing per- would benefit with the inclusion of productive grow- manent agricultural landscapes as a key factor can ing as a permanent feature in the overall design. promote the house as a generator for sustainable The inclusion of agriculture can promote development and economic improvement for the economic, social and nutritional opportunities that urban poor. can provide improvements to the current slum living conditions as well as reduce environmental health hazards. The planting of agriculture can also benefit the city/slum development through beautifica- REFERENCES tion, cooling of the climate, decrease risk of erosion and absorb air pollution and odors (Mougeot, del ROSARIO, P.J., CORNELIO, Y., JIMENEZ POLANCO, 2005). In addition to the environmental benefits, L., RUSSEL, A., LOPEZ, H. AND ESCARRAMAN, P. (2000) the social dynamic of the urban community can Manejo de Residuos Solidos y Agricultura Urbana en la have the opportunity to grow. Cuidad de Santiago De Los Caballeros, Centro de The housing crisis and development of infor- Estudios Urbanos y Regionales, Pontificia Universidad mal settlements is a global condition growing at an Catolica Madre y Maestra. Santiago de los Caballeros, exponential rate. The 'njia' condition in Kibera, Dominican Republic Kenya was chosen as the research site with the intention to illustrate the potential improvement of ESREY, S.A. AND ANDERSSON, I. 2001 ‘Ecological sanita- current slum conditions through the permanent tion. Closing the Loop’, Urban Agriculture Magazine vol 1, design of edible landscapes within the context of an no 3, March pp35-37 informal settlement. The term 'njia' is unique to Kenya, however similar physical conditions can be FOEKEN, D. AND MWANGI, A. 2000 ‘Increasing food seen in developing as well as developed countries security through urban farming in Nairobi’, in Bakker et al across the world. The transformation of deplorable (2000), pp303-328

79 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol GIRARDET, H. 2005. Urban Agriculture and Sustainable Urban Development. CPULs Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities, Architectural Press, Burlington, MA. 32-39.

Michael Honing HALWEIL, BRAIN and NIERENBERG, DANIELLE 2007. Farming the Cities. State of the Urban World: Our Urban Future 2007. W.W. Norton & Company. INC. New York, New York. 48-63.

HOWE, J.; VILJOEN, A.; AND BOHN, K. 2005. New Cities with More Life: Benefits and Obstacles. CPULs Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities, Architectural Press, Burlington, MA. 56-64.

KRAMER, M. 2006. Dispossessed: Life in Our World’s Urban Slums, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York.

MOUGEOT L.J.A. . (ed) 2005 Agropolis: the social, political, and environmental dimensions of urban agriculture, Earthscan and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC).

RESOURCE CENTRES ON URBAN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY (RUAF FOUNDATION). http://www.ruaf.org. Nov. 2007.

UNITED NATIONS SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME (UN- HABITAT) 2003, The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London and Sterling, VA.

Author’s Address: Michael Sean Honing M. Arch (University of Florida, 2006) Designer USA [email protected] open house international Vol 34, No.2, June 2009 Improvement of inadequate housing via urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya open house international Vol 80