SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES Sustainable Energy Technologies Options and Prospects

Edited by

K. HANJALIC´ Delft University of Technology and Marie Curie Chair, Department of Mechanics and Aeronautics, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy

R. VAN DE KROL Department DelftChemTech / Energy, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands and

A. LEKIC´ Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-1-4020-6723-5 (HB) ISBN 978-1-4020-6724-2 (e-book)

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All Rights Reserved © 2008 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microﬁlming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied speciﬁcally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Table of Contents

Preface vii

List of Contributors ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms xiii

Introduction xvii

Part I New and Sustainable Energy Conversion and Storage Technologies

1. World Thirst for Energy: How to Face the Challenge 3 M. Combarnous and J.-F. Bonnet

2. Sustainability Concept For Energy, Water and Environmental Systems 25 N.H. Afgan

3. Efﬁcient Production and Use of Energy: Novel Energy Rationing Technologies in Russia 51 S.V. Alekseenko

4. Perspectives on Wind Energy 75 G. van Kuik, B. Ummels and R. Hendriks

5. Photovoltaic Cells for Sustainable Energy 99 A.J. McEvoy and M. Gratzel¨

6. Photo-Electrochemical Production of Hydrogen 121 R. van de Krol and J. Schoonman

v vi Table of Contents

7. Distributed Energy Generation, The Fuel Cell and Its Hybrid Systems 143 K. Suzuki†, H. Yoshida and H. Iwai

8. Current International Initiatives for Sustainable Nuclear Energy 159 D.G. Cacuci

9. Safety in Nuclear Power: A Proposal 177 M. Cumo

10. CO2 Emissions Mitigation from Power Generation Using Capture Technologies 195 P. Mathieu

11. Clean and Efﬁcient Coal Technology Integrated with CO2 Sequestration and Hydrogen Energy System 207 K. Okazaki

12. Advanced Steam Generator Concepts for Oxy-Fuel Processes 227 H. Spliethoff

Part II Initiatives in South-East Europe

13. CO2 Mitigation Options for Retroﬁtting Greek Low-Quality Coal-Fired Power Plants 239 E. Kakaras, A. Doukelis, D. Giannakopoulos and A. Koumanakos

14. Renewable Energy Sources in Slovenia: Facts and Plans 251 U. Lavrenciˇ cˇ Stangarˇ and E. Kranjceviˇ cˇ

15. Energy Wood Chains in Bulgaria 261 P. Stankov, D. Mladenov and K. Stanchev

16. Energy Efﬁciency in Serbia: Research and Development Activities 281 S.N. Oka

17. Energy Sector in Macedonia: Current Status and Plans 303 B. Donevski

18. Energy Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Current Status and Plans 321 A. Lekic´

Index 331 Preface

In pursuit of feasible near-future sustainable and environmentally acceptable energy solutions to specific needs and based on the available – often specific and lim- ited – resources as pertinent to many smaller transitional countries, the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in cooperation with Dubrovnik Inter-University Centre invited a panel of experts to present and discuss the state- of-the-art in the development of new energy technologies at a conference held in Dubrovnik, Croatia, on 23–25 September 2006. Up-to-date reviews of the status and prospects of different options in energy conversion and storage technologies were presented by some of the world leading authorities – members of the national and international academies of sciences, directors of institutes, directors of national and international (EU) energy programmes and academics from Belgium, France, Ger- many, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal and Switzerland. The articles covered new clean and zero-emission coal technologies, solar, wind, nuclear, fuel cells, hydrogen and hybrid technologies, accompanied by treatises on the challenge of increasing global energy needs and consumption, issues of sustainability, and on efficient production and use of energy based on modern rationing technologies. This overview was complemented by several regional surveys of needs, resources and priorities, as well as specific initiatives towards meeting future energy objectives, pursued in several countries in South-Eastern Europe. This volume has grown out of (but is not confined to) extended and revised invited articles presented at the Dubrovnik conference under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The book aims at providing information and guidance to engineers and planners in energy sector, employ- ees in energy utility companies, various levels of governmental organizations and offices. It is also intended to serve as a graduate-level textbook to meet growing demand for new courses in alternative, renewable and sustainable energy technologies at technical and general universities. The Editors would like to thank the contributors for their effort to provide up-to-date revised and extended manuscripts for this volume. Thanks are also due to the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for initiating,

vii viii Preface sponsoring and organizing the conference in Dubrovnik in September 2006, and to the Inter-University Centre in Dubrovnik for its support. We thank Professor Joop Schoonman from the Delft University of Technology for providing invaluable advice in selecting and inviting experts in renewable energy technologies. Our appreciations go also to Amra Avdagi´c and Danica Radi´c for the skilful organisation of the Conference, and to Gina Landor for her assistance in the editing of this volume.

June 2007 The Editors List of Contributors

NAIM HAMDIA AFGAN Member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, UNESCO Chair Holder, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal, [email protected]

SERGEY V. A LEKSEENKO Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the In- stitute of Thermophysics, Siberian Branch of RAS, 1 Lavrentyev Av., Novosibirsk 630090, Russia [email protected]

JEAN-FRANC¸ OIS BONNET Laboratoire TREFLE, ENSAM, University of Bordeaux 1, Bordeaux, France [email protected]

MICHEL COMBARNOUS Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Sciences, Laboratoire TREFLE, ENSAM, University of Bordeaux 1, Bordeaux, France/University of Gabes, Tunisia [email protected]

DAN GABRIEL CACUCI Honorary Member of the European Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the Romanian Academy, University of Karlsruhe, Germany/Commissariatal’Energie ` Atomique (CEA), Direction de l’Energie Nucl´eaire (DEN) CEA Saclay, Bˆat. 121, 91191 Gif sur Yvette Cedex, France [email protected]

MAURIZIO CUMO Member of the National Italian Academy of Sciences (“the Forty”), Department of Nuclear Engineering and Energy Conversions, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Corso Vittorio Emanuele II 244, 00186 Rome, Italy [email protected]

ix x List of Contributors

BOZIN DONEVSKI Faculty of Technical Sciences, University St. Kliment Ohridski, P.O. Box 99, 7000 Bitola, Macedonia [email protected]

AGGELOS DOUKELIS Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Thermal Plants, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Athens, Greece [email protected]

DIONYSIOS GIANNAKOPOULOS Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Thermal Plants, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Athens, Greece [email protected]

MICHAEL GRATZEL¨ Honorary Member of the Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, Laboratory for Photonics & Interfaces, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland michael.graetzel@epfl.ch

KEMAL HANJALIC´ Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (UK), Member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Emeritus Professor of Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, and Marie Curie Chair, Department of Mechanics and Aeronautics, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Via Eudossiana 18, 00161 Rome, Italy [email protected]

RALPH HENDRIKS Delft University Wind Energy Research Institute DUWIND, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, The Netherlands [email protected]

HIROSHI IWAI Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan [email protected]

EMMANOUIL KAKARAS Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Thermal Plants, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Athens, Greece [email protected] List of Contributors xi

ANTONIOS KOUMANAKOS Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Thermal Plants, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Athens, Greece [email protected]

EVA L D KRANJCEVIˇ Cˇ Energy Efﬁciency Centre, Joˇzef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia [email protected]

URSKAˇ LAV R E N CIˇ Cˇ Sˇ TANGAR Laboratory for Environmental Research, University of Nova Gorica, Vipavska 13, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia [email protected]

ALIJA LEKIC´ Member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Vilsonovo 9, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected]; [email protected]

PHILIPPE MATHIEU Department of Aeronautics and Mechanical Engineering, Power Generation, University of Li`ege, Chemin des Chevreuils, 1, B52/3, 4000 Li`ege, Belgium [email protected]

AUGUSTIN J. MCEVOY Laboratory for Photonics & Interfaces, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Ecole Polytech- nique F´ed´erale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland [email protected]

DIMITAR MLADENOV President, Energy Utilisation Association, 33 Bakston Blv., Soﬁa, Bulgaria d [email protected]

SIMEON N. OKA Director of the National Energy Efﬁciency Program of the Ministry of Science of Republic of Serbia, Former Scientiﬁc Advisor of the Institute for Nuclear Sciences Vinˇca, Belgrade, Serbia, Gandijeva 49b/11, 11070 Novi Beograd, Serbia [email protected]

KEN OKAZAKI Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech) O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan [email protected] xii List of Contributors

JOOP SCHOONMAN Department DelftChemTech / Energy, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5045, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands [email protected]

HARTMUT SPLIETHOFF Chair for Energy Systems, Technische Universit¨at M¨unchen, Germany [email protected]

KRASIMIR STANCHEV Executive Manager, ERATO Holding PLC, 10 Poruchik Nedelcho Bonchev Blv., Soﬁa, Bulgaria k [email protected]

PETER STANKOV Center for Research and Design in Human Comfort, Energy and Environment, CERDECEN, Technical University of Sofia, 8 Kliment Ohridski Blv., 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria pstankov@tu-sofia.bg

KENJIRO SUZUKI1 Department of Machinery and Control Systems, Shibaura Institute of Technology, 307 Fukasaku, Saitama 337-8570, Japan

BART UMMELS Delft University Wind Energy Research Institute DUWIND, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, The Netherlands [email protected]

ROEL VAN DE KROL Department DelftChemTech / Energy, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5045, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands [email protected]

GIJS VAN KUIK Delft University Wind Energy Research Institute DUWIND, Kluyverweg 1, 2629 HS Delft, The Netherlands [email protected]

HIDEO YOSHIDA Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan [email protected]

1 Deceased 25 April 2007. Abbreviations and Acronyms

Common Abbreviations and Acronyms

ASU Air Separation Unit AZEP Advanced Zero Emissions Power Plant BWR Boiling Water (nuclear) Reactor BRICs Large populous countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China CCP Combined Cycle Plant CCS (CO2) Capture and Storage Technologies CCT Clean Coal Technology CFB Circulating Fluidised Bed COE Cost of Electricity Production CPP Condensation Power Plant CCUJ Center for Coal Utilisation, Japan DOE Department of Energy (USA) EAA European Atomic Agency ENBIPRO Energie-Billanz-Programme EOR Enhanced Oil Recovery EPR European Pressurised (nuclear) Reactor ESBWR European/Economic Simpliﬁed Boiling Water Reactor ESOA “Earth Surface, Oceans and Atmosphere” system EUR European Utility Requirements FBC Fluidised Bed Combustion FBR Fast Breeder (nuclear) Reactor FC Fuel Cell FGD Flue Gas Desulphurisation FLOX FLameless OXidation GCV Gross Caloriﬁc Value GDP Gross Domestic Product GeoPP Geothermal Power Plant GTU Gas-Turbine Unit

xiii xiv Abbreviations and Acronyms

GHG Green House Gases HPP Heat Power Plant IEA International Energy Agency IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGFC Integrated Coal Gasification Fuel Cell Combined Power Cycle IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LHV (fuel) Low Heat Value LWR Light Water (nuclear) Reactor MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell MEA Monoethanolamine MGT Micro Gas Turbine NCV Net Caloric Value (idem LHV, low heat value) NEDO New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organisation NEEP National Energy Efficiency Programme (Serbia) NGCC Natural Gas Combined Cycle NPP Nuclear Power Plant OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OPEC Organisation of Oil Exporting Countries O&M Operation and Maintenance PC Pulverised Coal PEFC Polymer Electrolite Fuel Cell PR Progress Ratio PV-TRAC Photovoltaic Technology Advisory Council (EU) PWR Pressurised Water (nuclear) Reactor RAO UES Russian Power Grid Joint Stock Company RAS Russian Academy of Sciences R&D Research and Development R&D&D Research, Development and Demonstration ReNEP Resolution on the National Energy Programme (Slovenia) RES Renewable Energy Sources RTD Research and Technological Development SMW Solid Municipal Wastes SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cell STU Steam-Turbine Unit TIT Turbine Inlet Temperature TSO Transmission System Operator UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change USAID US Agency for International Development WEC World Energy Council ZEP Zero Emission Power Plant Abbreviations and Acronyms xv Abbreviations for Measures

G prefix for “giga”, 109 goe (g.e.f) gramme of oil equivalent (gramme of equivalent fuel) kWh kilowatt-hour M prefix for “mega”, 106 MW megawatt MWe power unit: megawatt in the form of electricity MWth power unit: megawatt in the form of heat ppm parts per million (mass) ppmv parts per million volume T prefix for “tera”, 1012 t tonne toe (t.e.f.) tonne of oil equivalent (tonne of equivalent fuel) Introduction

Kemal Hanjali´c

Recent record increases in crude oil prices have once again brought the energy issue into the prime focus of world politics and public awareness. Developing sustainable and renewable energy sources is again seen as the top priority in many countries, especially those that are highly developed. Thus, it is not the alarming observation of melting polar ice caps or other incontestable evidences of climate change, nor Kyoto, post-Kyoto or similar protocols and declarations that compel us to search for new energy alternatives. It is rather the issues of national security, independence from imports, the immediate and near-future prospects for our economies and possible undesired social and societal implications, that provide the prime motivation for extensive research on new renewable as well as conventional energy sources, conversion and storage technologies. It should be no surprise that the issue of security of energy supplies and “absolute necessity” for new energy efficient technologies appeared as primary items on the agenda of the recent Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. However, the problems and challenges in different parts of the globe are very different. And so are the motivations, public attitudes, priorities and official policies. The highly developed countries, the USA, EU, Japan, see the issues from a different perspective than the highly populated countries such as Brazil, China, India, Indone- sia, and very different still from smaller developing “transitional” countries, such as those in South Eastern Europe. “Hydrogen has the future”, “Hydrogen is the an- swer to energy question”, claims the European Commissioner for Research. Wind, solar, tidal, etc., have the potential to satisfy all our needs, claim others. Yet, accord- ing to some (unconfirmed) evidence, there are currently over 850 large fossil-fuel plants under construction or in the design stage worldwide, most in China, India, Indonesia, Russia, South America, and also in the USA. While every tonne of fossil fuel replaced by a renewable source should be wel- come, and the research into and development of novel renewable and sustainable technologies should be stimulated even at a larger scale than hitherto (see e.g. the recent EU Energy Technology Plan), we should ask ourselves:

xvii xviii Kemal Hanjali´c

• Which of the proposed options in alternative and renewable energy technologies provides the fastest route towards meeting the challenges and fulfilling promises by providing efficient, safe, environmentally acceptable and reliable solutions? • What are the feasible near-future options, in particular for specific countries and regions? • The total installed capacity of renewable energy sources, apart from hydro- electric power and biomass, is small, despite extensive research and large investments. Will it remain small, and will these sources need to be subsidised for a long time to come? • Is the role of renewable energy overestimated, especially in the increased liber- alisation of the energy market? For example, which (combination of) renewable sources can currently replace the above mentioned 850 fossil-fuel plants? To put this into perspective, consider that a single plant with an average capacity of 500 MW is equivalent to 200–500 giant wind mills, or 1/10th of the worldwide total installed PV capacity. • How real are the perspectives for the revival of nuclear energy? Is it time to recon- sider existing bans and previously made decisions in many countries to phase out nuclear plants? How can we assure ourselves and the public that nuclear power can be safe? • Or, is the solution for many countries to be found in so-called “clean fossil fuel” technology, which combines efficiency improvements with CO2 sequestration? The widespread consensus among experts is that the solution is not in one single energy source or technology, but that all options need to be pursued and explored. The 2007 Report on Energy and Climate Change by the World Energy Council (WEC) emphasizes that no single energy source can meet the energy needs of the world and its emission goals at the same time, nor can any single policy or measure provide the full solution. This statement can be projected to a single country or even a region: each country should develop its own strategy to climate change and to energy needs. The three “A” criteria of the WEC (Accessibility to affordable energy, environmental Acceptability of the energy sources, and reliable and secure Availability) can serve as guidance for assessing possible technological options and policy decision. This volume presents an overview of recent developments in sustainable energy technologies (excluding vehicle propulsion) and provides a platform for answering some of the above-posed and other questions when projected to specific situations. It also aims at stimulating activities in selecting, researching and pursuing specific technologies that are feasible, economical and realisable with special emphasis on the needs and potential of countries in South Eastern Europe and their counterparts in other regions of the world. A panel of internationally renowned experts present recent research advances and prospects for different options. These are complemented with a series of short “regional” overviews of initiatives, trends and activities in some of the countries of South Eastern Europe.

***** Introduction xix

The material is organised in two parts. Part I begins with discourses of some global energy issues, such as the challenge of increasing global energy needs and consumption, the concept of sustainability, and potential improvement of efficiency in production and use of energy. Different novel conversion and storage technologies, their development status and perspectives of implementation are then presented. Part II contains overviews of current activities in some of the countries in South Eastern Europe. In addition to giving an insight into current initiatives, policies and actions, these chapters provide examples of possible measures towards short- and mid-term mitigation of energy shortage in small and medium-sized countries as a precursor for major undertakings. The first three chapters deal with different topics, but their common denominator is in their global concern and significance. In Chapter 1, M. Combarnous and J.-F. Bonnet review the world energy situation, current status and future trends. A dis- tinction is made between “explicit” energy sources and main energy “vectors”, and their correlation with world population evolution, emission of green-house gases and climate change. Using the average individual energy consumption as a key parameter, different future energy scenarios are considered and possible solutions are discussed. Recognising the enormous complexity of the energy systems, their size and inertia to implementing technological novelties, and rigorous safety issues, the authors conclude that all feasible measures should be pursued. They especially emphasize energy saving, the development of all forms of energy production, developing technologies for carbon capture, and the need for a more balanced geograph- ical distribution of resources. Overall sustainable growth cannot be ensured if sustainability is not accounted for in all major planning exercises and undertakings that involve future use of energy, water and other natural resources. N.H. Afgan introduces in Chapter 2 the sustainability concept and measures of sustainability, defined in terms of a sustainability index. Examples of multi-criteria assessment of an energy system for several different scenarios illustrate the feasibility of the approach. In Chapter 3, S.V. Alekseenko gives a Russian perspective on efficiency of production and use of energy, based on modern rationing technologies. Presented are novel developments in both conventional and renewable conversion and storage technologies, new types of energy sources, as well as some interesting innovative methods for efficient use of energy, such as powerful light sources based on a plas- matron. Modernisation of existing and introduction of new environmentally acceptable technologies based primarily on gas, coal and nuclear fuel, together with energy rationing, are seen as priorities, though admittedly all require immense investments. Some of the technologies discussed are specifically targeted towards the Russian “landscape”, which is characterised by a harsh climate, huge space and distances, and widely dispersed consumers. Nevertheless, many of the issues, solutions and novelties discussed are ubiquitous and relevant to broader communities worldwide. The next nine chapters deal with specific prospective technologies of energy conversion and storage, some already matured and ready for large-scale implementation, and some foreseen as feasible solutions in the mid-term period of the next two or three decades. Considered are wind, solar, nuclear and hydrogen energy, fuel cells xx Kemal Hanjalić and their hybrid systems, clean and zero-emission coal conversion and combustion technologies. In Chapter 4, G. van Kuik, B. Ummels and R. Hendriks present the state-of-the-art and perspectives of wind energy, emphasising its successful development and spreading over the last three decades. Issues considered include market and costs perspectives, technological development of wind turbines and wind power plants with a specific account of offshore applications, grid integration, local and global impacts and research agenda. The chapter closes with optimistic forecast on wind energy as a soon-to-become mainstream electricity source in a number of countries. Chapter 5 presents a review of the development, technology and applications of photovoltaic cells and their role in a renewable energy scenario. Reiterating that solar radiation is the most abundant and the most fundamental sustainable energy source, and its direct conversion into electricity the most attractive and cleanest way of electricity production, A.J. McEvoy and M. Grätzel discuss various options of photovoltaic semiconductor materials, cell designs and their performances. Projec- ted decreases in the production costs and current market trends (>30% growth per year) are expected to work in favour of PV. It is estimated that in 2030, PV could generate 4% of electricity worldwide. R. van de Krol and J. Schoonman go a step further in Chapter 6 and consider the direct conversion of solar energy into hydrogen. The potential of using metal oxide semiconductors that can split water into oxygen and hydrogen is considered as a challenging alternative to photovoltaic cells, since hydrogen can be stored and used as a clean fuel for a variety of purposes, including vehicle propulsion. Inter- ested readers can learn about the principles of operation, design concepts and their efficiencies, material requirements, main impediments and research challenges, as well as recent innovations based on nanotechnology that offer new promises in the development of this exciting new technology. Another new concept, researched in Japan, is presented by K. Suzuki, H. Yoshida and H. Iwai in Chapter 7. Anticipating that massive production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources will not reach a wide commercial appeal anytime soon, distributed energy generation is considered using the solid-oxide fuel cell, which can be combined with a micro gas turbine. This hybrid concept, based on mature modern technologies, is claimed to match the efficiency of most advanced oil-fired large-scale combined-cycle electricity generation plants. Distributed energy systems of this kind are seen as very promising, providing a low-emission, interim solution especially in areas with high concentration of population, business and industry, although, admittedly, high cost and durability of fuel cells still pose a serious challenge. The next two chapters deal with nuclear energy, the revival of which is viewed by many as the most effective interim solution for stopping the ominous climate change before it is too late. In Chapter 8, D.G. Cacuci reviews the evolution of “generations” I to IV of nuclear fission reactor designs. Based on thousands of years of cumulated operation, convincing arguments are provided that matured industrial technologies are available today for all stages of fuel cycles, including spent-fuel treatment and the conditioning and storage of waste. Yet, in order to receive a wider public ac- Introduction xxi ceptance and to establish itself as a viable long-term energy option, a number of technological and societal prerequisites are still to be fulfilled. Current international initiatives and activities towards meeting the acceptance criteria are reviewed, leading to the conclusion that novel generation IV nuclear fission reactors will fulfil the criteria for sustainable nuclear energy. In Chapter 9, M. Cumo provides further support to optimistic prospects of nuclear energy by presenting a new fission reactor concept called MARS (Multi-purpose Advanced Reactor, inherently Safe), developed at the University of Rome “La Sapienza”. Based on a “passive” safety concept, the MARS reactor meets very high safety standards and thus should be suitable for electricity production, district heating, water desalination and other applications even in highly populated areas. The last three chapters in Part I consider technologies for clean conversion of fossil fuels and related CO2 mitigation and carbon-capturing methods. Recognising that fossil fuels will for long remain the dominant primary energy source in many countries, P. Mathieu discusses in Chapter 10 three possible options for capturing CO2 during power generation: post-combustion removal of CO2 from flue gases, pre-combustion carbon removal from fuel and oxy-fuel combustion systems. The impact of each technology on plant performances, costs and pollutant emissions is considered. It is argued that all three technologies are proven and mature though associated with high costs. Each has its own pros and cons, but their scale up to large power systems and market penetration depends on political will and substantial financial incentives. In Chapter 11, K. Okazaki presents a new CO2 coal utilisation technology researched in Japan, which is based on system integration of clean coal combustion, CO2 recovery and sequestration, and hydrogen production from coal and its utilisation. It is argued that such combined systems could play an important role in suppressing CO2 emissions in the interim period up to 2030–2050 when fossil fuels could be to a large degree eliminated by widespread use of renewable energy. Part I closes with Chapter 12 in which H. Spliethoff also gives a brief overview of possible CO2 separation methods, but focusing on coal-fired power plants. Oxy-fuel processes are then considered in more detail, followed by a feasibility analysis of steam generator designs suited for coal combustion with pure oxygen. Different methods for limiting the maximum temperature are discussed. Among several schemes, an innovative controlled fuel/oxygen staged combustion with rich/lean burners, researched at the Technical University of Munich, is seen as a promising technology for coal utilisation in power production. Part II, entitled “Initiatives in South-East Europe”, begins with Chapter 13 in which E. Kakaras, A. Doukelis, D. Giannakopoulos and A. Koumanakos present an analysis of possible retrofitting of domestic low-quality coal-fired power plants by oxy-fuel combustion and flue gas decarbonisation by amine scrubbing. The study, based on thermodynamic simulations, indicates the potential to reduce CO2 emission by 70–85%, though at considerable energy penalties and associated reduction in plant efficiency. Nevertheless, the study shows that retrofitting could provide electricity at costs comparable to natural gas units. xxii Kemal Hanjalić

Chapter14byU.Lavrenˇciˇc-Stangarˇ and E. Kranjˇceviˇc gives a survey of renewable energy in Slovenia. Despite a relatively significant share of 11% in the country’s total energy budget, it is recognised that the major contribution comes from the conventional hydro-plants and that major efforts are needed to utilise the relatively large potential of other renewable sources. This exemplary analysis of the current and potential participation of renewable energy closes with a short description of several new initiatives for promoting the exploitation of renewable energy sources. The contribution from Bulgaria, presented by P. Stankov, D. Mladenov and K. Stanchev in Chapter 15, deals with energy wood production and use in the framework of the country’s existing laws and regulations, the energy market and entre- preneurship. Considered is the present status of the wood processing industry, the structure of wood biomass and its potential for energy production This is followed by an outlook of the perspectives for further development of wood biomass industry and its increased role in providing a portion of Bulgaria’s energy needs. Most countries in the area have a similar climate and orography with large percentages of the land covered by forest and agriculture. Thus, sufficient bio-resources for sustainable development of biomass energy should be available. The last three chapters in Part II present overviews of the current status and plans for future developments in the energy sectors in Serbia, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Comprehensive information on the energy status and prospects in smaller and transitional countries is scarce in the open literature, in contrast to the detailed surveys available for the large, developed and populous states. Although the reviews presented here may not be exemplary, some features are common to a number of countries of a similar size, level of development and structure of the energy sector. In Chapter 16, S. Oka gives a review of the available energy resources, present and projected future consumption, and the state of the current energy industry in Serbia, and identifies energy efficiency as the most critical issue. The problems are rooted in outdated technology, energy-intensive industry, inadequate management, inappropriate energy strategy and pricing policy, and the lack or neglect of standards and regulations. It is argued that apart from technology modernisation, which requires large investments, most other causes of inefficiency could be removed or diminished in a relatively short time. The National Energy Efficiency Programme offers plausible solutions that could significantly improve the country’s energy situation, but is still awaiting political decision and, admittedly, a more favourable economic environment. Because of modest primary energy resources in Macedonia, B. Donevski in Chapter 17 advocates the country’s future economic developments to be based on low-energy-consuming industries that should bring significant reduction in energy consumption and demand. Another prospect is seen in expanding the grid connec- tions with neighbouring countries and taking the advantage of the favourable geo- strategic location of Macedonia to become a major energy hub in the region. In contrast, A. Lekić in Chapter 18 considers that substantial primary energy resources in Bosnia and Herzegovina offer prospects for a profitable energy industry. Subject to political consolidation of the country, substantial foreign investments are Introduction xxiii expected both for modernisation of the existing and erection of new coal-fired and hydropower plants, which could make Bosnia and Herzegovina a significant energy exporter in the region.