Quantum-Spectroscopy Studies on Semiconductor Nanostructures

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Quantum-Spectroscopy Studies on Semiconductor Nanostructures Quantum-Spectroscopy Studies on Semiconductor Nanostructures Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften (Dr. rer. nat.) dem Fachbereich Physik der Philipps-Universit¨at Marburg vorgelegt von Martin Mootz aus Schwalmstadt-Ziegenhain Marburg (Lahn), 2014 Vom Fachbereich Physik der Philipps-Universit¨at Marburg (Hochschulkennziffer: 1180) als Dissertation angenommen am 10.06.2014 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Mackillo Kira Zweitgutachter: Priv. Doz. Sangam Chatterjee, PhD Tag der m¨undlichen Pr¨ufung: 27.06.2014 Zusammenfassung Nach den Gesetzen der Quantenmechanik k¨onnen die physikalischen Eigenschaften ei- nes Systems nur durch die Messung ihrer Wellenfunktion vollst¨andig charakterisiert wer- den. Solch eine Quantenzustands-Tomographie (’quantum-state tomography’) [1,2] ist bei- spielsweise von besonderer Bedeutung fur¨ Quantencomputer und die Quanteninformations- Theorie, um die tats¨achlichen Zust¨ande von Quanten Bits verl¨asslich zu ermitteln [3–5]. Insbesondere die systematische Entwicklung von Nanotechnologien, basierend auf Ato- men, Molekulen¨ und Halbleitern, h¨angt entscheidend von der genauen Bestimmung des Quantenzustandes ab. Die vollst¨andige Messung des Quantenzustandes wurde bisher be- reits fur¨ einfache Systeme, wie ein einmodiges Lichtfeld [6–11], ein eingefangenes Atom [12, 13] oder einem Ensemble sich bewegender Atome [14], realisiert. Dabei wurden entweder direkt die Wellenfunktionen oder ¨aquivalent die Phasenraumverteilungen gemessen. Im Vergleich dazu scheint die genaue Bestimmung der vollst¨andigen Vielteilchenwellenfunk- tion in Festk¨orpern aufgrund der großen Dimensionalit¨at der Dichtematrix im Moment noch unerreichbar zu sein. Jedoch wurde in Ref. [15] ein neuer Theorierahmen entwickelt, bei dem die nichtklas- sischen Quantenfluktuationen [16–18] des Laserlichtes verwendet werden, um die Materie, zus¨atzlich zu den klassischen Aspekten des Laserlichtes, d. h. Amplitude, Phase, Dauer und Spektrum [19,20], zu charakterisieren und zu kontrollieren. Diese zus¨atzlichen spek- troskopischen M¨oglichkeiten erweitern die klassische Spektroskopie zur Quantenspektro- skopie. Zur Illustration der Quantenfluktuationen einer Lichtquelle zeigt Abbildung 0.1 eine schematische Darstellung der zeitlichen Entwicklung eines wohldefinierten Laserpul- ses. Jede einzelne Messung des elektrischen Feldes ergibt eines von vielen m¨oglichen Er- gebnissen (Kreise). Die Messungen sind um den klassischen Wert (durchgezogene Linie) angeordnet, der dem Erwartungswert des elektrischen Feldes entspricht. Quantenmecha- nisch werden die intrinsischen Schwankungen (schattierte Fl¨ache) um den klassischen Wert durch eine quantenmechanische Verteilung beschrieben, die als Quantenstatistik des Lichtfeldes bezeichnet wird. Als ein Ergebnis der quantisierten Eigenschaften der Licht–Materie-Wechselwirkung zeigt die Quantenspektroskopie neue Ph¨anomene auf, die der traditionellen Laserspektro- skopie verborgen bleiben. Insbesondere in theoretischen Studien an Halbleiter-Quanten- dr¨ahten (’semiconductor quantum wires’) und Halbleiter-Quantenfilmen (’semiconductor III ElektrischesFeld Zeit Abbildung 0.1: Schematische Darstellung der Quantenfluktuationen einer Lichtquelle. Die zeitliche Entwicklung des elektrischen Feldes eines wohldefinierten Laser- pulses wird dargestellt. Kreise kennzeichnen das Ergebnis eines Ensem- bles von Messungen. Der Mittelwert des elektrischen Feldes (durchgezo- gene Linie) wird zusammen mit der mittleren Gr¨oße der Fluktuationen (schattierte Fl¨ache), definiert durch die Quantenstatistik, gezeigt. (Nach Referenz [18]). quantum wells’) wurde gezeigt, dass bestimmte Vielteilchenzust¨ande gezielt durch Anpas- sung der Quantenfluktuationen der Lichtquelle angeregt werden k¨onnen [15,21]. Dies ist der erste Schritt in Richtung einer Quantenzustands-Tomographie fur¨ wechselwirkende Vielteilchensysteme. Zur Realisierung von Quantenspektroskopie-Experimenten an Halbleitern werden Quan- tenlichtquellen ben¨otigt, die stark in ihrer Intensit¨at sind, um ausgepr¨agte Nichtlineari- t¨aten zu generieren. Daruber¨ hinaus sollten sie ultrakurze Pulse erzeugen k¨onnen, um die Quantenkinetik von Vielteilchenzust¨anden darzulegen. Zus¨atzlich sollten die Quan- tenlichtquellen uber¨ eine flexibel einstellbare Quantenstatistik verfugen,¨ um direkt ge- zielte Vielteilchenzust¨ande anregen zu k¨onnen. Bisher wurden bereits mehrere Quanten- lichtfelder, wie gequetschte Zust¨ande (’squeezed states’) [22–26], Fock-Zust¨ande (’Fock states’) [27,28] und Schr¨odinger-Katzen-Zust¨ande (’Schr¨odinger-cat states’) [29,30], ex- perimentell realisiert. In heutigen Experimenten existieren jedoch noch keine Quanten- lichtquellen, die uber¨ frei einstellbare Quantenfluktuationen verfugen.¨ Daher ist ein alter- nativer Ansatz in Ref. [31] entwickelt worden, um die Quantenspektroskopie zu realisieren. In diesem Artikel wurde gezeigt, dass klassische Messungen mathematisch auf die quanten- optische Antwort, resultierend von einer beliebigen Quantenlichtquelle, projiziert werden k¨onnen. Gegenstand dieser Dissertation ist es, Quantenspektroskopie-Studien an Halbleiterna- nostrukturen durchzufuhren.¨ Neben einer grundlegenden Studie uber¨ die allgemeine An- wendbarkeit der Quantenspektroskopie in dissipativen Systemen, werden die optischen Eigenschaften von Halbleiter-Quantenfilmen und -Quantenpunkten (’semiconductor quan- tum dots’) mit Quantenspektroskopie analysiert. Dazu wird eine große Zahl hochpr¨aziser klassischer Messungen auf die Antwort eines mathematisch pr¨azise definierten Quanten- lasers projiziert. Die inh¨arenten Quantenfluktuationen der Lichtquelle werden insbeson- dere dazu verwendet, um stark korrelierte Vielteilchenzust¨ande in Halbleiter-Quanten- IV filmen direkt zu adressieren und quantenoptische Effekte in Quantenpunktsystemen zu kontrollieren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Quantenspektroskopie bestimmte Vielteil- chenzust¨ande und quantenoptische Effekte mit einer hohen Genauigkeit charakterisieren und kontrollieren kann. Die Untersuchungen verdeutlichen zudem, dass die Quantenspek- troskopie neue Kategorien von Vielteilchenzust¨anden offenbart, die der traditionellen La- serspektroskopie verborgen bleiben. Im Hauptteil dieser Dissertation wird die Quantenspektroskopie angewendet, um gezielt stark korrelierte Vielteilchenzust¨ande in Halbleiter-Quantenfilmen mit direkter Bandlu-¨ cke anzuregen. Die systematische Beschreibung solcher Vielteilchensysteme basiert im Allgemeinen auf das Finden von stabilen Konfigurationen, die als Quasiteilchen bezeich- net werden. Diese vereinfachen das Verst¨andnis des Systems signifikant. Beispielsweise wechselwirken die Leitungsbandelektronen im Halbleiter mit dem Gitter und anderen Elektronen. Diese Wechselwirkungen k¨onnen durch den Austausch der Leitungsbandelek- tronen mit Quasiteilchen-Elektronen beschrieben werden, die in der Regel eine effekti- ve Masse haben, die sich stark von der eigentlichen Elektronenmasse unterscheidet [18]. Analog k¨onnen Wechselwirkungen zu gr¨oßeren Komplexen fuhren,¨ die selbst Quasiteil- chen darstellen. Zum Beispiel k¨onnen jeweils ein Elektron und ein Loch (fehlendes Elek- tron im gefullten¨ Valenzband) ein gebundenes Paar bilden, welches als Exziton bezeichnet wird [32,33] und eine wasserstoffartige Wellenfunktion besitzt [31,34]. Zwei Exzitonen mit entgegengesetztem Spin wiederum k¨onnen einen molekulartigen¨ Zustand formen, bekannt als Biexziton [35,36], oder es k¨onnen sogar Polyexzitonen, bestehend aus mehr als zwei Exzitonen, entstehen [37–39]. Bei Halbleitern mit indirekter Bandlucke¨ ist die Lebenszeit der Elektron–Loch-Anregungen so lang, dass ein thermodynamischer Ubergang¨ zu ma- kroskopischen Elektron–Loch-Tropfen (’electron–hole droplets’) m¨oglich wird [40–42]. In dieser Dissertation demonstrieren wir nicht nur, dass die Quantenspektroskopie die Ei- genschaften von bestimmten Quasiteilchen-Zust¨anden wie Biexzitonen wesentlich genau- er charakterisieren kann als die traditionelle Laserspektroskopie, sondern wir zeigen auch Belege fur¨ eine neue stabile Konfiguration geladener Teilchen in GaAs-Quantenfilmen, dem Dropleton, das ein Quantentr¨opfchen (’quantum droplet’), bestehend aus mehreren Elektronen und L¨ochern, ist. Die Dropletonen bestehen aus vier bis sieben Elektron– Loch-Paaren, die in einer kleinen Blase eingeschlossen sind. Sie haben Eigenschaften einer Flussigkeit¨ und weisen Quantisierungseffekte aufgrund ihrer mikroskopischen Gr¨oße auf. Um die detektierbare Energetik von solchen stark korrelierten Vielteilchenzust¨anden zu bestimmen, kann man im Prinzip Dichtefunktionaltheorie [43–45] anwenden, bei der die Eigenschaften des Systems auf der Basis der funktionalen Abh¨angigkeit der Gesamtener- gie von der Elektronendichte berechnet werden. Wir haben einen neuen Theorierahmen entwickelt, um die Anregungsenergetik von stark korrelierten Quasiteilchen in optisch angeregten Halbleiter-Quantenfilmen zu bestimmen. Bei dieser Methode wird die Anre- gungsenergetik der Quasiteilchen direkt mit Hilfe ihrer Paarkorrelationsfunktion berech- net. Die Elektron–Loch-Paarkorrelationsfunktion g(r) definiert die bedingte Wahrschein- lichkeit dafur,¨ ein Elektron an Position r zu finden, wenn ein Loch im Ursprung positio- niert ist. Abbildung 0.2 zeigt ein Beispiel fur¨ g(r) von Exzitonen (links) und Dropletonen (rechts). Im Allgemeinen hat g(r) einen konstanten Elektron–Loch-Plasmabeitrag (grau schattierte Fl¨ache), der das gleichm¨aßig verteilte Plasma in einem homogenen System beschreibt. Quasiteilchen werden durch den korrelierten Beitrag ∆g(r)
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