Animal Release: the Dharma Being Staged Between Marketplace and Park
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Cultural Diversity in China 2015; 1(2): 141–163 Research Article Open Access Der-Ruey Yang* Animal Release: The Dharma Being Staged between Marketplace and Park# DOI 10.1515/cdc-2015-0008 # This paper is an outcome of the research project “The Transmis- Received September 14, 2014 accepted January 1, 2015 sion and Acceptance of Religion: An Exploration of Cognitive Anth- ropology and Psychology (宗教的传习与接受—认知人类学与心理学 Abstract: Despite having been sharply criticized and 的探索)” (project no. 10YJA730016), funded by the Humanities and ridiculed on ecological and/or theological grounds by Social Science Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China. people both in and outside the Buddhist community for decades, fangsheng (animal release) is still one of the The booming of Buddhism in China since the end of most popular devotional acts among Chinese Buddhists, the Cultural Revolution has been evident for all to see. especially urban Buddhists. In fact, to the dismay of According to Ji (2012–13), probably the most up-to-date and those enlightened critics, this controversial practice may comprehensive synthesis of survey results about the growth well be one of the key factors that have made Buddhism of Buddhism in China in recent decades, the population of the fastest-growing religion in China in recent decades. self-identified Buddhist believers in China has increased This paper thus attempts to explain why Chinese urban from less than 70 million in 1997 to 100 million in 2005 and Buddhists persistently favor fangsheng. It begins with then to around 230 million (18.2 percent of the total Chinese a brief review of the process by which famous Buddhist population) in 2010. Meanwhile, the population of Han monks and pious emperors constructed the classical form Chinese Buddhist clergy grew from 70,000 in 1997 to 100,000 of animal release in China from the late fifth through in 2006. In addition, from 1994 to 2010 a total of 66,538 people the eleventh century. Then it describes several styles of were ordained in 149 ceremonies in Han Chinese Mahayana animal release that are currently practiced in Nanjing, Buddhist monasteries. As for Buddhist temples, the number especially those being reformed and enthusiastically rose from some 13,000 in 1997 to more than 15,000 in 2006. organized by numerous jushi (Buddhist laity) groups. Maybe except for Protestant Christianity, there is no other After that, it discusses why fangsheng has become one of religion in China that can compare with Buddhism in terms the most popular devotional practices in Nanjing. Based of speed of growth in every respect. on participant observation and in-depth interviews, So how to explain the marvelous success of the Buddhist the author argues that the most remarkable advantage mission in contemporary China? According to works by of fangsheng is the dramatic, sensational effects it can specialists in this field (Yang and Wei 2005; Ji 2011; Ji 2012– produce easily and reliably, which may explain why it is 13), the factors behind this success can be summarized as an invincible method of Buddhist spiritual cultivation. follows: (1) the official Buddhist establishment maintains More precisely, fangsheng in practice is the enactment of a a compliant and conservative stance in terms of political sensational ritual drama that represents the pilgrimage of ideology; (2) the central government began to support all mortals from hell (the marketplace) to heaven (a park). Buddhism because this is an effective means of obtaining Many practitioners and attendants appear to be deeply cultural influence over Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao, and moved by witnessing the creatures chosen for fangsheng, other overseas Chinese communities; (3) provincial and onto which those practitioners often project themselves, lower-level governments began to support Buddhism, saved from torture and tragic death. as they found Buddhist sites can boost tourism and local economies; (4) the general public’s “nostalgia” for and/or Keywords: method of religious cultivation, urban renewed interest in “traditional” Chinese culture privileges religion, Buddhism, fangsheng (animal release) Buddhism because Buddhist symbols are key constituents of this culture; and (5) the strategic efforts of Buddhist institutions to build a rapport with relevant academics and *Corresponding author: Der-Ruey Yang, Nanjing University, to directly sponsor academic research on Buddhism have E-mail:[email protected] effectively exalted the religion’s image. © 2015 Der-Ruey Yang licensee De Gruyter Open. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License. 142 Der-Ruey Yang These five structural factors may all have been crucial has inspired a huge array of Buddhist learning camps all to the continuous thriving of Buddhism during the past two over China, such as Chan Qi (seven-day Zen camps) and decades. Indeed, the attitude of the government is definitely Fo Qi (seven-day Pure Land Buddhism camps), but serious the most powerful factor in the fortune of virtually any study of this mode of religious cultivation and transmission sort of enterprise in China. However, one cannot help but is still lacking. wonder how Buddhism has consolidated its “power base” As a response to the situation described above, this or “human resources”—its loyal followers—in the first place paper discusses one of the most popular devotional practices so it could start carrying out all sorts of maneuvers. If we among contemporary Chinese Buddhists, especially those overlook the microlevel tactics through which Buddhism who live in urban areas—fangsheng (animal release).4 attracts, teaches, and secures the allegiance of its followers, The ethnographic study on which this paper is based was then how can we explain why Daoism does not thrive like conducted in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, intermittently Buddhism despite the fact that it enjoys similar structural from 2012 to 2014. Nanjing is among the ten biggest cities in support? More important, there are many religions in mainland China, with 4,7oo square kilometers of land and China that the government has never supported or has more than eight million residents. Certainly, it is impossible even prosecuted—such as the innumerable underground for a case study conducted in such a big city to claim to Christian churches and the new Eastern Lightning1—but represent the rest of the country. Nevertheless, there is no are still thriving. It seems that government support or some good reason to regard the Buddhism practiced by local fashion in popular culture, no matter how influential it Buddhists here as atypical of those in other Chinese cities. may be, is neither a sufficient nor a necessary condition for the success of a religion in China. The microlevel tactics in attracting and training followers and then securing their Fangsheng’s Formation Process allegiance are probably more essential. Before discussing its present-day form in Nanjing, let us Yet academic discussion of the microlevel tactics of briefly review the historical process by which fangsheng contemporary Chinese Buddhism is in short supply. Among arose and became a typical Buddhist devotional practice. the rare works concerning this issue, Gareth Fisher’s research Similar practices, such as banning hunting and fishing on how the production and circulation of morality books in certain periods and areas or deliberately enlarging function to revive lay Buddhism in contemporary China the mesh of nets, have a long history in China.5 They are (2011) is an excellent example.2 With rich ethnographic details, Fisher beautifully illustrates how the Buddhist establishment uses the printing and circulation of popular bly, it has neither sufficient detail about how the camp is conducted Buddhist literature to reach potential followers, convert nor an analysis of why it is so successful. 4 Fan 2005 reports the popularity of fangsheng in Shenzhen in re- them, and help them create lay Buddhist communities. It is cent decades. only in works like Fisher’s that we can really get some clue 5 For instance, in the chapter “Liu Tao·Hutao Pian 六韜·虎韜篇” (Six about how Buddhism has become the most popular religion strategies, strategy of tiger) of Qunshu Zhiyao (An anthology of books), in China today. However, printing and circulating morality the author approvingly quotes the prohibition in the time of Shen books is just one means of promoting Buddhism—and it is Nong 神農, a legendarily sage king of ancient times, against harming very likely that its importance is diminishing quickly. There creatures born in the spring or summer (Wei et al. 1985, 525). Similarly, the chapter “Dajü Jie 大聚解” (The interpretation of big settlement) of are many new ways of promoting Buddhism that have not the Yi Zhou Shu (Lost books of Zhou), recalls the Ban of Yu 禹, ano- received the attention they deserve from scholars. Take just ther legendarily sage king of ancient China, as stating that “gathering one example: the Life Chan Summer Camp organized by firewood in mountains is banned during the springtime and fishing the Bailin Chan Temple in Hebei for university students. is banned during the summer” (Zhu 1937, 191; all translations, unless This camp became a famous brand in Chinese Buddhist otherwise identified, are mine). Besides, in Li Ji (The book of rite), we find many similar records, in chapters such as “Qu Li曲禮,” “Wang Zhi circles after its inauguration in 1993, as it has recruited 王制,” “Yue Ling月令,” and “Yu Zao玉藻” (Chen 2004, 10, 91–93, 118, tens of thousands of young and highly educated Buddhist 212). Moreover, in the chapter “Lu Yu 鲁语” (The history of Lu State) of converts over the past twenty years.3 Its impressive success the book Guo Yu (The history of states), there is a story about how the minister Li Ge destroyed the king’s fishing nets when the King of Lu had fished too much in the summertime (Zuo 2010, 116–17).