The Impressment of American Seamen and the Ramifications on the United States, 1793-1812 A
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“THE MISFORTUNE TO GET PRESSED:” THE IMPRESSMENT OF AMERICAN SEAMEN AND THE RAMIFICATIONS ON THE UNITED STATES, 1793-1812 A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Joshua J. Wolf July 2015 Examining Committee Members: Gregory J.W. Urwin, Co-Advisory Chair, History David Waldstreicher, Co-Advisory Chair, History Travis Glasson, History Alan Taylor, External Member, University of Virginia, History © Copyright 2015 by Joshua J. Wolf All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT The impressment of American seamen by the Royal Navy was one of the most serious dilemmas faced by the United States during the early republic. Thousands of American citizens were forced into British naval service between 1793 and 1812. This dissertation uses a wide-variety of sources including seamen’s letters, newspapers, almshouse records, US Navy officer’s correspondence, and diplomatic communiqués, to demonstrate the widespread impact impressment had on American society. A sizable database on impressed Americans was created for this dissertation. The database was instrumental in some of this work’s most important theses. Drawing on an array of sources, such as newspaper reports, seamen appeals, and State Department reports, the database contains detailed information on thousands of men. Far more Americans were pressed in the Royal Navy than previously believed. While historians have long accepted that New England suffered most from impressment, in fact it was the mid-Atlantic states that lost the most mariners to the Royal Navy. Southern states were also impacted by impressment far more than anybody has realized. Seaman abductions profoundly affected American domestic, foreign, and naval affairs. Impressment influenced American culture and played a role in the African slavery debate of the early republic. Impressment also exacted a heavy toll on waterfront communities as wives and children struggled to adjust to life during the prolonged absence of the primary wage earner. Although the federal government attempted repeatedly to either legislate or negotiate a resolution to the impressment issue, all efforts were in vain. When James Madison prepared to lead the United States to war against Great Britain in 1812, the belligerence of impressment figured largely in his decision, as iii well as in Congressional support for war. Impressment has often been viewed as an issue of minor importance, confined largely to New England. In actuality, impressment was a national concern that impinged on a myriad of issues during the early American republic. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Writing a dissertation is an arduous task. Nobody could accomplish it without the support of colleagues, friends, and family. I have certainly relied on the patience, kindness, and generosity of many people. First and foremost is my dissertation committee. Dr. Gregory Urwin and Dr. David Waldstreicher were ideal advisors. They challenged me to be a better historian and a better writer, which I feel is the best thing an advisor can do. I hope I have made them proud. Dr. Urwin earned a special mention for his endless patience with my relentless insistence on writing in the passive voice. Dr. Travis Glasson had the ability to examine my research in ways that I had not, and to question arguments that I had taken for granted. Dr. Alan Taylor was supportive and insightful. Other faculty members at Temple were encouraging over the years, most notably Dr. Jay Lockenour and Dr. Drew Isenberg. I was fortunate enough to receive a very generous Dissertation Completion Grant from Temple University. The award would not have been possible without Dr. Glasson, Dr. Urwin and Dr. Lockenour's firm belief in my work. I would also like to thank Dr. Donald Hickey and Dr. Michael Grey, who have heartened me at various times during my doctoral studies. I was fortunate enough to form a strong cadre of fellow graduate students during my studies. Martin Clemis, Earl Catagnus, Jean-Pierre Beugoms, Chris Golding, and Eric Klinek have been great friends. Together we have driven half way across the country, celebrated wedding and births, and dissertations. Being able to take a break from the academic world and relax with them a three or four times a year was invaluable. Jason Smith has not only been a great friend, but also doubled as my maritime guru when I changed my dissertation topic to impressment. Navigating the waters of maritime history v was made easier by his guidance. Michael Dolski has been as good a friend as any I have ever known. I have been lucky enough to work for a company during my doctoral studies that was understanding of my academic goals and flexible with my class and research schedule. The Pennsylvania General Store has been a great place to work and Michael and Julie Holahan are amazing friends. Over the years I have worked with a number of incredible people at the General Store. Cassie Holahan, Helen Zhao, Marlie Kirkus, Meghan Purcell, Jeannie Tanfield, Manny Salvatore, and Mellissa Garvin have all in their own way aided me in the dissertation process. Finally, I am fortunate to come from a large and loving family. Shana Goldberg and Juan Rodriguez have been there time after time whenever I needed them. My siblings Karen Hernandez, Rachel Fuchs, Sara-Summer Oliphant, and Noah Wolf have all been positive and reassuring. My youngest brother Micah Wolf deserves special mention for the multiple times he traveled Philadelphia to watch my children so I could research, or write, or attend conferences. My father, James Wolf, is easily the most interested in the content of my dissertation and I thank him for that. My children, Jamie and Leia, have both tolerated "Daddy's book" for years and often kept me company at night, cuddled in sleeping bags in the floor behind my desk, while I wrote. It never seemed terribly excited to me, but they always acted like it was a great treat. Finally, my mother Linda Wolf, who encouraged and nurtured my passion for history from its earliest stages, and my wife Erin Wolf, who has endured my love of history and my educational ambitions during our twelve years together; none of this would be possible without them. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRAC ......................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 2. “NO PRECISE OR ACCURATE VIEW”……………………………………..... ......29 3. “HELL ON EARTH”………………………………………………………… ...........64 4. “TO TAKE FROM FAMILIES THEIR STAFF OF SUPPORT”…………. ............101 5. “A LOUD EXPRESSION OF PUBLIC INDIGNATION”………………… ...........157 6. “WE MUST PLACE OURSELVES IN AN ATTITUDE FOR WAR”……… ........211 7. “AGAINST THIS CRYING ENORMITY”………………………………… ..........250 8. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………… ......................298 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………… ................329 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Impressments By Administration…………………………………………………….50 2. Total Number Of Impressed Americans…………………………………………….. 52 3. Impressments By Year, 1793-1812…………………………………………………. 53 4. Impressed Seamen By State…………………………………………….……............ 58 5. Impressed Seamen By Port…………………………………………………..…...... ..58 6. Impressed Seamen As A Percentage Of The Male Population………….…….……. 60 7. Totals Petitions/Protests/Editorials Yearly, 1796-1807.…..……………………….. 175 8. Public Protest Yearly, 1796-1807 With Corresponding Government Action………………………………….………. 208 viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Joshua Davis was a native of Boston and a revolutionary. Davis served aboard the privateer Jason during America’s War for Independence against Britain. In October 1779, the Jason was stalking merchantmen off the coast of Newfoundland when it was capture by the frigate HMS Surprise. The British made most of the Jason’s crew prisoners of war, but Davis was forced to serve as a hand aboard the British man-of-war. He kept a daily journal while at sea. Davis recorded all the tribulations he faced as an impressed seaman aboard the Surprise. Once the American Revolution ended, Davis returned to Boston and his journal was packed away in a trunk, forgotten. Then, in 1811, with tensions mounting between the United States and Great Britain and American seamen constantly facing the menace of Royal Navy press gangs, Davis dusted off his journal and published it as an impressment narrative. He spared no detail in recounting the tortures of life in the Royal Navy. Davis wrote of cruel officers who disregarded his American citizenship; ships’ crews so ravaged by disease that men died nightly; and floggings that ripped away all the flesh from a seaman’s back. Davis made it clear that survival aboard a British man-of-war was hard, but he had overcome the devastation of impressment. He offered practical advice to American sailors who might find themselves pressed into the Royal Navy. Once the press crew brought a seaman on board the ship and the British entered him in the books, he should find and befriend fellow Americans. If there were none aboard, Davis recommended attaching oneself to a kindly Briton, but no more than one. He further advised kidnapped Americans to do their duty,