The Nutritional Composition and Health Benefits of Tomatoes – Update 2016

PFR SPTS No. 14216

The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes – update 2016

Lister CE

January 2017

Report for: Horticulture NZ

DISCLAIMER

Unless agreed otherwise, The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited does not give any prediction, warranty or assurance in relation to the accuracy of or fitness for any particular use or application of, any information or scientific or other result contained in this report. Neither Plant & Food Research nor any of its employees shall be liable for any cost (including legal costs), claim, liability, loss, damage, injury or the like, which may be suffered or incurred as a direct or indirect result of the reliance by any person on any information contained in this report.

© COPYRIGHT (2016) The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, Private Bag 92169, Victoria Street West, Auckland 1142, New Zealand. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, reported, or copied in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical or otherwise without written permission of the copyright owner. Information contained in this publication is confidential and is not to be disclosed in any form to any party without the prior approval in writing of the Chief Executive Officer, The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, Private Bag 92169, Victoria Street West, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.

PUBLICATION DATA

Lister CE. January 2017. The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes – update 2016. A Plant & Food Research report prepared for: Horticulture NZ. Milestone No. 70747. Contract No. 33883. Job code: P/217004/01. SPTS No. 14216.

Report approved by:

Carolyn Lister Scientist, Phytochemicals and Health January 2017

Nigel Larsen Science Group Leader, Bioresources, Engineering and Chemistry January 2017

CONTENTS

Executive summary...... 1 1 Background ...... 5 1.1 Previous work ...... 5 1.2 FSANZ and product claims ...... 6 2 Nutritional composition ...... 8 2.1 New Zealand data ...... 8 2.2 Australian data ...... 8 2.3 US data ...... 9 2.4 Dutch data ...... 10 3 Phytochemical composition ...... 34 3.1 Lycopene and other carotenoids ...... 35 3.2 Phenolics ...... 40 3.3 Glycoalkaloids ...... 40 3.4 Other ...... 41 4 Health benefits ...... 42 4.1 Cancer ...... 42 4.2 Heart disease ...... 46 4.3 Proposed mechanisms of action of lycopene and other tomato phytochemicals ...... 50 5 Preparation & use ...... 53 6 Potential marketing claims ...... 54 6.1 Standard red tomatoes ...... 56 6.2 Cherry tomatoes ...... 57 6.3 Orange tomatoes ...... 59 6.4 Yellow tomatoes ...... 61 6.5 Green tomatoes ...... 62 6.6 Phytochemicals and claims ...... 64 7 Recommendations ...... 65 8 Acknowledgements ...... 65 9 References ...... 66

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes – update 2016

Lister CE Plant & Food Research Lincoln

January 2017

In 2005 a report was completed for VegFed on the nutritional attributes of tomatoes. However, since this time there has been considerable new research and there have been changes in regards thoughts on mechanisms of action of some of the key phytochemicals and a shift away from talking about antioxidants. In addition there have been changes in the regulations relating to nutrition and health claims and the implementation of Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) Standard 1.2.7 – Nutrition, health and related claims. We are also seeing more diversity in the tomatoes available on supermarket shelves and particularly a variety of colours and diversity of cherry type tomatoes. It is important to look at whether the composition and claims may differ for these. Thus, the aim of this report for vegetables.co.nz was to update the earlier review and summarise the key information on the nutritional composition and potential associated health claims for tomatoes (including different coloured varieties). In addition, relevant literature on the phytochemical composition and wider health benefits of tomatoes has been gathered, including medical research and scientific papers, and, where possible, information specific to New Zealand.

Tomatoes contain an array of nutrients and phytochemicals (Table 1). Good nutrient composition data exists for New Zealand grown standard red tomatoes. However, there is a lack of New Zealand data for cherry tomatoes and other coloured varieties than red. To examine what the potential benefits of these other varieties may be it has been necessary to examine overseas databases. Cherry tomato data was obtained from the Australian database (NUTTAB 2010) while data for orange, yellow and green tomatoes was sourced from the USDA database. The nutrition claims, along with the associated health claims, that are possible under FSANZ for standard red tomatoes are:

[1] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Necessary for normal blood vessel structure and function . Contributes to cell protection from free radical damage . Necessary for normal neurological function . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal structure of cartilage and bones . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of teeth and gums . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of skin . Contributes to normal energy metabolism . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the normal immune system function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue . Contain potassium . Necessary for normal water and electrolyte balance . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system . Contributes to normal muscle function Dutch and Australian data indicate that further claims may be possible for cherry tomatoes – depending on serving size claims may be possible for dietary fibre, folate, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin C and potassium. US data indicates a different set of claims for yellow, orange or green tomatoes. In addition to nutrients, tomatoes contain a significant number of phytochemicals in reasonable quantities (Table 1). Of these, lycopene is the one that has received particular interest because of its purported health benefits. It is also important to note there can be large cultivar variation in both types and concentrations of phytochemicals, much more so than for nutrients. Lycopene can be absent in some of the coloured varieties other than red.

Table 1. Composition and health benefits of tomatoes (adapted from Lister et al. 2013).

Nutrients Key phytochemicals Health benefits/activities

folate, niacin, Carotenoids: lycopene, beta- Traditional usage: bleeding, fever, food pantothenic acid, carotene, phytoene, phytofluene poisoning and other digestive problems, potassium, vitamin A GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) headache, high blood pressure, insect bites, (in the form of beta- kidney & liver conditions Glycoalkaloids: tomatine carotene), vitamin C, Scientific study: vitamin K Phenolics: chlorogenic acid, naringenin/naringenin chalcone, . human – allergic rhinitis, asthma, bone health, querectin glycosides brain health, cancer, cardiovascular disease, Saponins: escleoside A & B, dermatitis, diabetes complications, eye health, esculeogenin gingivitis, infertility, liver injury, lupus, menopause, osteoporosis, pneumonia, rheumatoid arthritis, skin health (UV light- induced erythema), stroke . animal – anticoagulant, cataracts, diabetes, immune function, obesity, pancreatitis, Parkinson's disease . in vitro – antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative

[2] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

There is a wealth of scientific information on the wider health benefits of tomatoes (mainly red). Hundreds, if not thousands, of papers and reports have been published on the potential health benefits of tomatoes and its constituents such as lycopene. Evidence comes from a range of types of studies from laboratory test tube experiments to human clinical trials. Much of the early evidence supporting the role of tomatoes in reducing the risk of chronic diseases came from epidemiological studies. More recently, clinical and intervention studies have been undertaken, many focussing on lycopene. In addition to human studies, animal studies and in vitro investigations have contributed a better understanding of the health effects and mechanisms by which lycopene and other components in tomatoes may exert their effects. Two health areas of greatest focus have been cancer (in particular prostate cancer) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) but some other areas are emerging where tomatoes may have beneficial effects. However, at present there are no health claims permitted for these. To do so, it would be necessary to compile a self-substantiation dossier as prescribed under FSANZ Standard 1.2.7. No product specific claims can be made but it is possible to highlight what is happening with current research in a more general sense via general websites, etc.

The key recommendation from this report is that compositional information should be gathered for New Zealand grown cherry tomatoes along with other coloured varieties than red. This will ensure that the correct nutrition content claims and associated health claims can be made for those.

For further information please contact:

Carolyn Lister Plant & Food Research Lincoln Private Bag 4704 Christchurch Mail Centre Christchurch 8140 NEW ZEALAND Tel: +64 3 977 7340 DDI: +64 3 325 9453 Fax: +64 3 325 2074 Email: [email protected]

[3] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

[4] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

1 BACKGROUND

Tomatoes are widely regarded at a particularly healthy vegetable fruit containing a range of nutrients and phytochemicals. Nutritionally they are regarded as a source of a number of vitamins and minerals, in particular vitamin C. They are also often talked about for their outstanding antioxidant content and in particular the presence of lycopene. They have traditionally been used to treat a number of different diseases; scientific study is supporting some of these but also highlighting other potential health benefits. It is important to be able to accurately document the nutritional value of any food product so that it can be made available to customers and consumers and associated health claims can also be made. Every year there is new information to add to the pool of knowledge about the composition and health benefits of tomatoes.

The aim of this report was to update the earlier review and summarise the key information on the nutritional composition and potential associated health claims for tomatoes. In addition relevant literature on the phytochemical composition and wider health benefits of tomatoes has been gathered, including medical research and scientific papers and, where possible, information specific to New Zealand.

1.1 Previous work

In 2005 a report was completed for VegFed on the nutritional attributes of tomatoes (Hedges & Lister 2005). The key findings reported were summarised as follows:

. Tomatoes contain a variety of phytochemicals, the most well known being lycopene. In addition, other carotenoids (e.g. β-carotene, phytoene, phytofluene), phenolics (e.g. coumaric and chlorogenic acids, quercetin, rutin and naringenin), moderate amounts of the antioxidant vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and a little vitamin E (tocopherol) are present. Carotenoids are present in many vegetables and fruit but lycopene is more restricted in its distribution, being concentrated in tomatoes, guava, rosehip, watermelon and pink grapefruit. Lycopene imparts the red colour to these fruits. . Globally, considerable research is being conducted into the health benefits of lycopene. It is a powerful antioxidant; antioxidants neutralise free radicals, which may cause damage to cell components (e.g. DNA, protein, lipids). It may also have a range of other modes of action. The strongest scientific evidence is for a role of lycopene in reducing the incidence of prostate cancer. Lycopene may also help reduce the incidence of other cancers and cardiovascular diseases, and play a role in eye health. . There has been less study of the role of other tomato phytochemicals. Β-Carotene is an important precursor of vitamin A and, like lycopene, may play a role in cancer prevention. The phenolic compounds, especially the flavonoids, are important antioxidants. Other potential health-promoting bioactivities of the flavonoids include anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-cancer properties. The yellow jelly around tomato seeds may stop platelet aggregation and help prevent heart attacks, strokes and blood vessel problems. . Lycopene is absorbed in the human body and is one of the most common circulating carotenoids. Other tomato carotenoids may also be bioavailable. Many factors affect the bioavailability of lycopene and other carotenoids, including the nature of the food matrix,

[5] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

thermal processing and presence of fat. Of the phenolics, naringenin from tomatoes has been shown to be bioavailable. Data on other phenolics are lacking. . New Zealanders would appear to consume fewer tomato and tomato-based products than do Mediterranean peoples and have a higher incidence of prostate cancer. Heart disease mortality figures are also higher. Whether these higher incidences of disease are related to lower tomato consumption remains to be proven, but this association may at least be part of the answer. . To date there is no clear consensus on the intake of lycopene required to reduce disease risk. Suggestions range from about 5 up to 35 mg lycopene per day. This could be achieved by consuming at least one or two servings of tomatoes or tomato products every day. . Concentrations of tomato phytochemicals may be affected by cultivar, growing conditions, degree of ripeness and cooking or processing. It may be possible to enhance the concentrations of lycopene and other phytochemicals in tomatoes and tomato products by managing these factors. . Since lycopene intake is comparatively low in New Zealand compared with in Mediterranean countries, promotion could build on the notion that tomato consumption may reduce disease incidence, particularly that of some cancers and cardiovascular disease. Prostate and skin cancer could be of special interest because of their high occurrence here. . The intense red colour and therefore high lycopene content of some New Zealand-grown tomatoes over the paler Australian imports could be a differentiating factor for promotional purposes. . Consumption of the whole tomato, including skins and seeds, consumed with a little good quality oil optimises the delivery of the potential benefits of tomatoes in general, as well as lycopene specifically. Cooking also enhances lycopene bioavailability, but can also reduce concentrations of other nutrients, such as vitamin C. Since that previous report there has been considerable new research and there have been changes regarding thoughts on mechanisms of action of some of the key phytochemicals and a shift away from talking about antioxidants. In addition there have been changes in the regulations relating to nutrition and health claims. Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) sets standards for what information must and can be used on food labels and in 2013 implemented FSANZ Standard 1.2.7 – Nutrition, health and related claims (more details below). We are also seeing more diversity in the tomatoes available on supermarket shelves and particularly a variety of colours and diversity of cherry type tomatoes. It is important to look at whether the composition and claims may differ for these.

1.2 FSANZ and product claims

It is important to put food composition data in the context of FSANZ Standard 1.2.7 to determine what nutrition content and health claims can be made. FSANZ Standard 1.2.7 sets out the rules for food businesses choosing to make nutrition content claims and health claims, while Standard 1.2.8 provides the information on Nutrient Information Panels (NIPs).

[6] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

As cited in Standard 1.2.7:

. “Nutrition content claims are claims about the content of certain nutrients or substances in a food, such as low in fat or good source of calcium. These claims will need to meet certain criteria set out in the Standard. For example, with a ‘good source of calcium’ claim, the food needs to contain at least the amount of calcium specified in the Standard.” . “Health claims refer to a relationship between a food and health rather than a statement of content. There are two types of health claims: . General level health claims refer to a nutrient or substance in a food, or the food itself, and its effect on health. For example: calcium for healthy bones and teeth. They must not refer to a serious disease or to a biomarker of a serious disease. . High level health claims refer to a nutrient or substance in a food and its relationship to a serious disease or to a biomarker of a serious disease. For example: Diets high in calcium may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in people 65 years and over. An example of a biomarker health claim is: Phytosterols may reduce blood cholesterol.” If food trigger the requirements for nutrient content claims then the associated health claims for those nutrients can be used. There are more than 200 pre-approved general level health claims in the Standard. Alternatively companies can self-substantiate a food-health relationship in accordance with detailed requirements set out in the Standard. High level health claims must be based on a food-health relationship pre-approved by FSANZ. There are currently 13 pre- approved food-health relationships for high level health claims. All health claims are required to be supported by scientific evidence to the same degree of certainty, whether they are pre- approved by FSANZ or self-substantiated by food businesses. Health claims are only permitted on foods that meet the nutrient profiling scoring criterion (NPSC). For example, health claims will not be allowed on foods high in saturated fat, sugar or salt. Of course fresh tomatoes easily meet the NPSC and hence can have health claims made for nutrients present at the concentrations required to trigger a claim.

[7] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

2 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION

Internationally there is considerable information on the nutritional composition of tomatoes, although the majority is for standard red varieties. Some of the data reported in the scientific literature has not been collected by standardised methods. If data is to be used to make nutrition content claims it is important that robust data is used and where possible New Zealand data. For the purposes of this report only nutrition data from national food composition databases has been considered. Due to the limited information in the New Zealand database, Australian, US and Dutch data sets were also examined.

Nutrition content claims can be made for these components and these nutrition content claims can also trigger associated health claims. This is discussed further in Section 6. Note that for calculation of daily intakes (DIs), recommended dietary intakes (RDIs) or estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes (ESADDIs) values are taken from FSANZ Standard 1.1.1, Schedule 1.

2.1 New Zealand data

In the New Zealand Food Composition database (FOODfiles 2014; The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited 2015) there is only a single entry for raw tomatoes and these are just standard red tomatoes (Table 2). At present there is no nutrient data for different coloured tomatoes other than the standard red (e.g. yellow and orange), hence the need to search other databases. It is important to consider the nutrient composition not only on a per 100 g basis but also on a per serve basis, particularly when considering the dietary significance of the nutrients. For vegetables a standard serving size is usually regarded as 75 g and so this has been used and percentage daily intake (DI) and recommended dietary intake (RDI) information also provided. However, there are no prescribed serving sizes in the FSANZ standards and the only condition is that serving sizes must be ‘reasonable’. It is possible to adjust the serving size within reason. Another option is to use 1 medium whole (6.6 cm diameter) = 123 g (this is the common standard measure given in FOODfiles 2014). Other eating guidelines (e.g. Ministry of Health 2015) state a serving size of ½ cup of vegetables and according to the common standard measures in FOODfiles 2014 this equates to approximately 84 g. Thus these serving sizes have been included in the tables below for comparison as it does make a significant difference, although only for a small number of nutrients.

Details of the claims that can be made for tomatoes are covered in Section 6. However, the key nutrient present is vitamin C, which is present at a claimable concentration for all the serving sizes given below. On the other hand potassium and vitamin A (from beta-carotene) are only at claimable concentrations for the larger serving sizes and not when expressed per 75 g serve. No other vitamins or minerals are claimable even for a whole tomato and dietary fibre does not reach the 2 g per serve concentration required to make a claim.

2.2 Australian data

Australian data (NUTTAB 2010) has three different entries for raw tomatoes: standard red tomatoes (Table 3), hydroponically grown standard tomatoes (Table 4), and cherry tomatoes (Table 5). For standard red tomatoes the data are reasonably in line with the NZ data, although there are slight differences:

[8] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Vitamin C is claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g) . Potassium is slightly lower but still claimable at the two larger serving sizes . Vitamin A is significantly lower so not claimable even at the largest serving size (per tomato, 123 g) . Biotin and folate are slightly higher so they are just claimable at the largest serving size. For the hydroponic tomatoes the only claimable nutrient is vitamin C for all serving sizes plus potassium for the largest serving of one whole medium tomato.

Cherry tomatoes appear to be more nutrient dense. The key attributes are:

. Dietary fibre is claimable on a per 123 g serve basis . Folate is claimable on a per 123 g serve basis . Niacin is claimable per 100 g and on a per 123 g serve basis . Vitamin A is claimable per 100 g and on a per 123 g serve basis . Vitamin C is claimable at all serving sizes given . Potassium is claimable at all but the lowest serving size of 75 g. On the basis of this data some additional health claims would be possible compared with standard tomatoes (see Section 6). It would be worthwhile conducting analysis on New Zealand grown cherry tomatoes to ensure data robustness.

2.3 US data

There are four entries for raw tomatoes in the USDA database (US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory 2016): red tomatoes (Table 6), orange tomatoes (Table 7), yellow tomatoes (Table 8) and green tomatoes (Table 9). There are significant differences between these entries.

. Red: . Vitamin C claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g) . Vitamin K claimable for larger two serving sizes (100 & 123 g) . Potassium claimable for larger two serving sizes (100 & 123 g). . Orange: . Folate claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g) . Vitamin A claimable for larger two serving sizes (100 & 123 g) . Vitamin C claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g) . Potassium claimable for larger two serving sizes (100 & 123 g). . Yellow: . Folate claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g) . Niacin claimable for all but the smallest serving size (84–123 g)

[9] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Vitamin C claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g), although much lower than other varieties . Potassium claimable for all but the smallest serving size (84–123 g). . Green: . Pantothenic acid claimable for larger two serving sizes (100 & 123 g) . Vitamin C claimable for all serving sizes (75–123 g) . Vitamin K claimable for all but the smallest serving size (84–123 g)

. Potassium claimable for larger two serving sizes (100 & 123 g). Note there is a different way that the data for carbohydrate is obtained for the USDA database – carbohydrate is calculated as ‘carbohydrate by difference’1 rather than by analysis. This can also impact on calculation of energy content. For the purposes of this report and to enable direct comparison the energy content of the USDA entries has been calculated using the energy factors given in Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code:

Carbohydrate (excluding unavailable carbohydrate) 17 kJ/g

Unavailable carbohydrate (including dietary fibre) 8 kJ/g

Fat 37 kJ/g

Protein 17 kJ/g

Based on this information some different claims could be made for the different coloured tomatoes other than red (see Section 6).

2.4 Dutch data

There are three entries for raw tomatoes in The Dutch Food Composition Database (NEVO 2016): ‘normal’ red tomatoes (Table 10), cherry tomatoes (Table 11) and beef tomatoes (Table 12). It is hard to be certain that the database contains only Dutch data and/or particular growing conditions (e.g. hydroponic) however the data should be quality data and more robust that what may be cited in individual papers. The following statement is made: “NEVO food composition data are collected from several sources. All data are evaluated following a standard procedure to check if the data are fit-for-purpose. Preferably, food composition data should come from chemical analyses by accredited laboratories. This can be commissioned by research institutes or the food industry. Quality criteria apply for food identification, sampling, and methods of analysis. Supplementary information is collected from foreign food composition tables, scientific literature and food labels.”

Dutch data for normal and beef type tomatoes is in line with the New Zealand data for red tomatoes. The only claimable nutrients are vitamin A, vitamin C and potassium. The Dutch data supports the Australian data that cherry tomatoes appear to be more nutrient dense and the composition is quite similar between the two sets of data. The key attributes of the Dutch cherry tomatoes are:

. Dietary fibre is claimable on a per 123 g serve basis

1 ‘carbohydrate by difference’: calculated by subtracting from 100, the average quantity expressed as a percentage of water, protein, fat, dietary fibre, ash and alcohol.

[10] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Folate is claimable per 100 g and on a per 123 g serve basis . Niacin is claimable per 100 g and on a per 123 g serve basis . Vitamin A is claimable per 100 g and on a per 123 g serve basis . Vitamin C is claimable at all serving sizes given . Potassium is claimable at all serving sizes given. This adds weight to the value in completing analysis on New Zealand grown cherry tomatoes.

[11] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 2. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, whole, raw, combined varieties (red) from FOODfiles 2014.

Percent Percent Percent Concentration Percent Concentration DI/RDI/ESADDI Concentration DI/RDI/ESADDI Concentration DI/RDI/ESADDI per tomato DI/RDI/ESADDI per ½ cup per ½ cup Component Units per 100 g per 100 g per 75 g serve per 75 g (123 g) per tomato (84 g) serve (84 g) serve

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 82 1% 62 1% 101 1% 69 1%

Protein g 0.8 1% 0.6 1% 0.9 2% 0.6 1%%

Fat, total g 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

– Saturated g 0.03 0% 0.02 0% 0.03 0% 0.02 0%

Carbohydrate, available g 2.7 1% 2.0 1% 3.3 1% 2.2 1%

– Sugars g 2.7 3% 2.0 2% 3.3 4% 2.2 2%

Dietary fibre g 1.2 4% 0.9 3% 1.5 5% 1.0 3%

Sodium mg 1 0% 1 0% 1 0% 1 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%

Niacin mg 0.64 6% 0.48 5% 0.79 8% 0.54 5%

Pantothenic acid mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Riboflavin mg 0.01 1% 0.001 0% 0.01 1% 0.01 0%

Thiamin mg 0.02 2% 0.02 1% 0.02 2% 0.02 2%

Vitamin A µg RE 92 12% 69 9% 113 15% 77 10%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.07 4% 0.05 3% 0.09 5% 0.06 4%

Vitamin C mg 24 59% 18 44% 29 73% 20 50%

Vitamin E mg 0.77 8% 0.58 6% 0.95 9% 0.64 6%

Vitamin K µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

[12] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 7 1% 5 1% 8 1% 6 1%

Copper mg 0.01 0% 0.01 0% 0.01 0% 0.01 0%

Iron mg 0.2 2% 0.15 1% 0.25 2% 0.17 3%

Magnesium mg 7 2% 5 2% 9 3% 6 1%

Manganese mg 0.09 2% 0.07 1% 0.12 2% 0.08 2%

Phosphorus mg 22 2% 17 2% 27 3% 18 2%

Potassium mg 240 *a 180 *a 295 *a 201 *a

Selenium mg 0.2 0% 0.15 0% 0.2 0% 0.2 0%

Zinc mg 0.11 1% 0.08 1% 0.14 1% 0.09 1% a there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[13] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 3. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, standard red from NUTTAB 2010.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 71 1% 53 1% 87 1% 60 1%

Protein g 1 2% 0.8 2% 1.2 2% 0.8 2%

Fat, total g 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0%

– Saturated g nr - nr - nr - nr -

Carbohydrate, available g 2.4 1% 1.8 1% 3.0 1% 2.0 1%

– Sugars g 2.3 3% 1.7 2% 2.8 3% 1.9 2%

Dietary fibre g 1.2 4% 0.9 3% 1.5 5% 1.0 3%

Sodium mg 8 0% 6 0% 10 0% 7 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg 2.7 9% 2.0 7% 3.3 11% 2.3 8%

Folate µg 16 8% 12 6% 20 10% 0.21 2%

Niacin mg 0.17 2% 0.13 1% 0.21 2% 0.14 1%

Pantothenic acid mg 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%

Riboflavin mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Thiamin mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin A µg RE 26 3% 20 3% 32 4% 22 3%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.03 2% 0.02 1% 0.04 2% 0.03 2%

Vitamin C mg 18 45% 14 34% 22 55% 15 38%

Vitamin E mg 0.26 3% 0.20 2% 0.32 3% 0.22 2%

Vitamin K µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

[14] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 9 1% 7 1% 11 1% 8 1%

Copper mg 0.04 1% 0.03 1% 0.05 2% 0.04 1%

Iron mg 0.27 2% 0.20 2% 0.33 3% 0.23 2%

Magnesium mg 7 2% 5 2% 9 3% 6 2%

Manganese mg 0.09 2% 0.07 1% 0.11 2% 0.08 2%

Phosphorus mg 26 3% 20 2% 32 3% 22 2%

Potassium mg 214 *a 161 *a 263 *a 179 *a

Selenium mg 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

Zinc mg 0.31 3% 0.23 2% 0.38 3% 0.26 2% a there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[15] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 4. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, hydroponic from NUTTAB 2010.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 57 1% 42 0% 70 1% 47 1%

Protein g 0.7 1% 0.5 1% 0.9 2% 0.6 1%

Fat, total g 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0 0%

– Saturated g nr - nr - nr - nr -

Carbohydrate, available g 2.3 1% 1.7 1% 2.8 1% 1.9 1%

– Sugars g 2.3 3% 1.7 2% 2.8 3% 1.9 2%

Dietary fibre g 0.7 2% 0.5 2% 0.9 3% 0.6 2%

Sodium mg 3 0% 2 0% 4 0% 3 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 12 6% 9 5% 15 7% 10 5%

Niacin mg 0.50 5% 0.38 4% 0.62 6% 0.42 4%

Pantothenic acid mg 0.00 0% 0.00 0% 0.00 0% 0.00 0%

Riboflavin mg 0.01 1% 0.01 0% 0.01 1% 0.01 0%

Thiamin mg 0.03 3% 0.02 2% 0.04 3% 0.03 2%

Vitamin A µg RE 10 1% 7.5 1% 12 2% 8 1%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.04 3% 0.03 2% 0.05 3% 0.03 2%

Vitamin C mg 16 40% 12 30% 20 49% 13 34%

Vitamin E mg 0.68 7% 0.51 5% 0.84 8% 0.57 6%

Vitamin K µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

[16] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 10 1% 7.5 1% 12 2% 8 1%

Copper mg 0.04 1% 0.03 1% 0.05 2% 0.03 1%

Iron mg 0.00 0% 0 0% 0.00 0% 0.00 0%

Magnesium mg 6 2% 4.5 1% 7 2% 5 2%

Manganese mg 0.06 1% 0.05 1% 0.07 1% 0.05 1%

Phosphorus mg 19 2% 14 1% 23 2% 16 2%

Potassium mg 180 *a 135 *a 221 *a 151 *a

Selenium mg 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

Zinc mg 0,10 1% 0.08 1% 0.12 1% 0.08 1% a there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[17] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 5. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, cherry from NUTTAB 2010.

Concentration Percent Percent Percent Percent per handful of DI/RDI/ESADDI Concentration DI/RDI/ESADDI Concentration DI/RDI/ESADDI Concentration DI/RDI/ESADDI tomato per handful of per ½ cup per ½ cup Component Units per 100 g per 100 g per 75 g serve per 75 g (123 g) tomatoes (84 g) serve (84 g) serve

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 63 1% 47 1% 78 1% 53 1%

Protein g 0.5 1% 0.4 1% 0.6 1% 0.4 1%

Fat, total g 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0%

- Saturated g nr - nr - nr - nr -

Carbohydrate, available g 2.2 1% 1.7 1% 2.7 1% 1.8 1%

- Sugars g 2.2 2% 1.7 2% 2.7 3% 1.8 2%

Dietary fibre g 1.7 6% 1.3 4% 2.1 7% 1.7 5%

Sodium mg 10 0% 8 0% 12 1% 8 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 18 9% 14 7% 22 11% 15 8%

Niacin mg `1.00 10% 0.75 8% 1.23 12% 0.84 8%

Pantothenic acid mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Riboflavin mg 0.04 2% 0.03 2% 0.05 3% 0.03 2%

Thiamin mg 0.06 5% 0.05 4% 0.07 7% 0.05 5%

Vitamin A µg RE 82 11% 62 8% 101 13% 69 9%

Vitamin B6 mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin C mg 28 70% 21 53% 34 86% 23 59%

Vitamin E mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin K µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

[18] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 11 1% 8 1% 14 2% 9 1%

Copper mg 0.05 2% 0.04 1% 0.06 2% 0.04 1%

Iron mg 0.50 4% 0.38 3% 0.62 5% 0.42 3%

Magnesium mg 12 4% 9 3% 15 5% 10 3%

Manganese mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Phosphorus mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Potassium mg 240 *b 180 *b 295 *b 201 *b

Selenium mg 0.6 1% 0.5 1% 0.7 1% 0.5 1%

Zinc mg 0.14 1% 0.11 1% 0.17 1% 0.12 1% a have taken a handful as 123 g so can keep comparative to values for other varieties per tomato; b there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[19] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 6. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, red, ripe, year round average (red) from USDA Release 28.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 77a 1% 58 1% 94 1% 64 1%

Protein g 0.9 2% 0.7 1% 1.1 2% 0.7 1%

Fat, total g 0.2 0% 0.15 0% 0.2 0% 0.2 0%

– Saturated g 0.028 0% 0.021 0% 0.03 0% 0.02 0%

Carbohydrate, availableb g 2.6 1% 2.0 1% 3.2 1% 2.2 1%

– Sugars g 2.6 3% 2.0 2% 3.2 4% 2.2 2%

Dietary fibre g 1.2 4% 0.9 3% 1.5 5% 1.0 3%

Sodium mg 5 0% 4 0% 6 0% 4 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 15 8% 11 6% 18 9% 13 6%

Niacin mg 0.59 6% 0.44 4% 0.73 7% 0.50 5%

Pantothenic acid mg 0.09 2% 0.07 1% 0.11 2% 0.08 1%

Riboflavin mg 0.02 1% 0.01 1% 0.02 1% 0.02 1%

Thiamin mg 0.04 3% 0.03 3% 0.05 4% 0.03 3%

Vitamin A µg RE 42 6% 32 4% 52 7% 35 5%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.08 5% 0.06 4% 0.10 6% 0.07 4%

Vitamin C mg 13.7 34% 10.3 26% 17 42% 11 29%

Vitamin E mg 0.54 5% 0.41 4% 0.66 7% 0.45 5%

Vitamin K µg 7.9 10% 5.9 7% 9.7 12% 6.6 8%

[20] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 10 1% 8 1% 12 2% 8 1%

Copper mg 0.06 2% 0.04 1% 0.07 2% 0.05 2%

Iron mg 0.27 2% 0.20 2% 0.33 3% 0.23 2%

Magnesium mg 11 3% 8 3% 14 4% 9 3%

Manganese mg 0.11 2% 0.09 2% 0.14 3% 0.10 2%

Phosphorus mg 24 2% 18 2% 30 3% 20 2%

Potassium mg 237 *c 178 *c 292 *c 198 *c

Selenium mg 0 0% 0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0%

Zinc mg 0.17 1% 0.13 1% 0.21 2% 0.14 1% a note calculated by Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code method as discussed in text; value given in USDA database 74 kJ per 100 g b calculated by difference rather than measured c there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[21] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 7. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, orange, raw, from USDA Release 28.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 73a 1% 54 1% 89 1% 61 1%

Protein g 1.2 2% 0.9 2% 1.4 3% 1.0 2%

Fat, total g 0.2 0% 0.1 0% 0.2 0% 0.2 0%

– Saturated g 0.03 0% 0.02 0% 0.03 0% 0.02 0%

Carbohydrate, availableb g 2.3 1% 1.7 1% 2.8 1% 1.9 1%

– Sugars g nr - nr - nr - nr -

Dietary fibre g 0.9 3% 0.7 2% 1.1 4% 0.8 3%

Sodium mg 42 2% 32 1% 52 2% 35 2%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 29 15% 22 11% 36 18% 24 12%

Niacin mg 0.59 6% 0.45 4% 0.73 7% 0.50 5%

Pantothenic acid mg 0.19 4% 0.14 3% 0.23 5% 0.16 3%

Riboflavin mg 0.03 2% 0.03 2% 0.04 2% 0.03 2%

Thiamin mg 0.05 4% 0.04 3% 0.06 5% 0.04 4%

Vitamin A µg RE 75 10% 56 8% 92 12% 63 8%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.06 4% 0.05 3% 0.07 5% 0.05 3%

Vitamin C mg 16 40% 12 30% 20 49% 13 34%

Vitamin E mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin K µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

[22] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 5 1% 4 0% 6 1% 4 1%

Copper mg 0.06 2% 0.05 2% 0.08 3% 0.05 2%

Iron mg 0.47 4% 0.35 3% 0.58 5% 0.39 3%

Magnesium mg 8 3% 6 2% 10 3% 7 2%

Manganese mg 0.09 2% 0.07 1% 0.11 2% 0.07 1%

Phosphorus mg 29 3% 22 2% 36 4% 24 2%

Potassium mg 212 *c 159 *c 261 *c 178 *c

Selenium mg 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

Zinc mg 0.14 1% 0.11 1% 0.17 1% 0.12 1% a note calculated by Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code method as discussed in text; value given in USDA database 67 kJ per 100 g b calculated by difference rather than measured c there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[23] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 8. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, yellow, raw, from USDA Release 28.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 71a 1% 53 1% 87 1% 59 1%

Protein g 1.0 2% 0.7 1% 1.2 2% 0.8 2%

Fat, total g 0.26 0% 0.20 0% 0.3 0% 0.2 0%

– Saturated g 0.04 0% 0.03 0% 0.04 0% 0.03 0%

Carbohydrate, availableb g 2.3 1% 1.7 1% 2.8 1% 1.9 1%

– Sugars g nr - nr - nr - nr -

Dietary fibre g 0.7 2% 0.5 2% 0.9 3% 0.6 2%

Sodium mg 23 1% 17 1% 28 1% 19 1%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 30 15% 23 11% 37 18% 25 13%

Niacin mg 1.18 12% 0.88 9% 1.45 15% 0.99 10%

Pantothenic acid mg 0.11 2% 0.08 2% 0.14 3% 0.09 2%

Riboflavin mg 0.05 3% 0.04 2% 0.06 3% 0.04 2%

Thiamin mg 0.04 4% 0.03 3% 0.05 5% 0.03 3%

Vitamin A µg RE 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.06 4% 0.04 3% 0.07 4% 0.05 3%

Vitamin C mg 9 23% 7 17% 11 28% 8 19%

Vitamin E mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin K µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

[24] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 11 1% 8 1% 14 2% 9 1%

Copper mg 0.10 3% 0.08 3% 0.12 4% 0.08 3%

Iron mg 0.49 4% 0.37 3% 0.60 5% 0.41 3%

Magnesium mg 12 4% 9 3% 15 5% 10 3%

Manganese mg 0.12 2% 0.09 2% 0.15 3% 0.10 2%

Phosphorus mg 36 4% 27 3% 44 4% 30 3%

Potassium mg 258 *c 194 *c 317 *c 216 *c

Selenium mg 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

Zinc mg 0.28 2% 0.21 2% 0.34 3% 0.23 2% a note calculated by Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code method as discussed in text; value given in USDA database 63 kJ per 100 g b calculated by difference rather than measured c there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[25] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 9. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, green, raw, from USDA Release 28.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 105a 1% 78 1% 129 1% 88 1%

Protein g 1.2 2% 0.9 2% 1.5 3% 1.0 2%

Fat, total g 0.2 0% 0.2 0% 0.2 0% 0.2 0%

– Saturated g 0.03 0% 0.02 0% 0.03 0% 0.02 0%

Carbohydrate, availableb g 4.0 1% 3.0 1% 4.9 2% 3.4 1%

– Sugars g 4.0 4% 3.0 3% 4.9 5% 3.4 4%

Dietary fibre g 1.1 4% 0.8 3% 1.4 5% 0.9 3%

Sodium mg 13 1% 10 0% 16 1% 11 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 9 5% 7 3% 11 6% 8 4%

Niacin mg 0.5 5% 0.4 4% 0.62 6% 0.42 4%

Pantothenic acid mg 0.5 10% 0.4 8% 0.62 12% 0.42 8%

Riboflavin mg 0.04 2% 0.03 2% 0.05 3% 0.03 2%

Thiamin mg 0.06 5% 0.05 4% 0.07 7% 0.05 5%

Vitamin A µg RE 32 4% 24 3% 39 5% 27 4%

Vitamin B6 mg 0.081 5% 0.061 4% 0.10 6% 0.07 4%

Vitamin C mg 23.4 59% 18 44% 29 72% 20 49%

Vitamin E mg 0.38 4% 0.29 3% 0.47 5% 0.32 3%

Vitamin K µg 10.1 13% 7.6 9% 12.4 16% 8.5 11%

[26] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 13 2% 10 1% 16 2% 11 1%

Copper mg 0.09 3% 0.07 2% 0.11 4% 0.08 3%

Iron mg 0.51 4% 0.38 3% 0.63 5% 0.43 4%

Magnesium mg 10 3% 7.5 2% 12 4% 8 3%

Manganese mg 0.10 2% 0.08 2% 0.12 2% 0.08 2%

Phosphorus mg 28 3% 21 2% 34 3% 23 2%

Potassium mg 204 *c 153 *c 251 *c 171 *c

Selenium mg 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

Zinc mg 0.07 1% 0.05 0% 0.09 1% 0.06 0% a note calculated by Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code method as discussed in text; value given in USDA database 95 kJ per 100 g b calculated by difference rather than measured c there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[27] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 10. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, normal red from NEVO 2016.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 85 1% 64 1% 105 1% 71 1%

Protein g 0.7 1% 0.5 1% 0.9 2% 0.6 1%

Fat, total g 0.4 1% 0.3 0% 0.5 1% 0.3 0%

– Saturated g 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 1% 0.1 0%

Carbohydrate, available g 2.9 1% 2.2 1% 3.6 1% 2.4 1%

– Sugars g 2.9 3% 2.2 2% 3.6 4% 2.4 3%

Dietary fibre g 1.3 4% 1.0 3% 0.6 5% 1.1 4%

Sodium mg 2 0% 2 0% 2 0% 2 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 16 8% 12 6% 19 10% 13 7%

Niacin mg 0.50 5% 0.38 4% 0.62 6% 0.42 4%

Pantothenic acid mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Riboflavin mg 0.01 1% 0.01 0% 0.01 1% 0.01 0%

Thiamin mg 0.03 3% 0.02 2% 0.04 3% 0.03 2%

Vitamin A µg RE 77 10% 58 8% 95 13% 64 9%

Vitamin B6 mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin C mg 15 38% 11 28% 18 46% 13 31%

Vitamin E mg 0.70 7% 0.53 5% 0.86 9% 0.59 6%

Vitamin K µg 6.0 8% 4.5 6% 7.4 9% 5.0 6%

[28] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 11 % 8 1% 14 2% 9 1%

Copper mg 0.05 % 0.04 1% 0.06 2% 0.04 1%

Iron mg 0.30 % 0.23 2% 0.37 3% 0.25 2%

Magnesium mg 8 % 6 2% 10 3% 7 2%

Manganese mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Phosphorus mg 23 17 2% 28 3% 19 2%

Potassium mg 246 *a 185 *a 303 *a 206 *a

Selenium mg 0.0 % 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0%

Zinc mg 0.15 % 0.11 1% 0.18 2% 0.13 1% a there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[29] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 11. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, cherry from NEVO 2016.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 127 1% 95 1% 156 2% 106 1%

Protein g 0.9 2% 0.7 1% 1.1 2% 0.8 2%

Fat, total g 0.8 1% 0.6 1% 1.0 1% 0.7 1%

– Saturated g 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0%

Carbohydrate, available g 4.0 1% 3.0 1% 4.9 2% 3.4 1%

– Sugars g 4.0 4% 3.0 3% 4.9 5% 3.4 4%

Dietary fibre g 1.9 6% 1.4 5% 2.3 8% 1.6 5%

Sodium mg 3 0% 2 0% 4 0% 3 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 20 10% 15 8% 25 12% 17 8%

Niacin mg 1.00 10% 0.75 8% 1.23 12% 0.84 8%

Pantothenic acid mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Riboflavin mg 0.02 1% 0.02 1% 0.02 1% 0.02 1%

Thiamin mg 0.05 5% 0.04 3% 0.06 6% 0.04 4%

Vitamin A µg RE 129 17% 97 13% 159 21% 108 14%

Vitamin B6 mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin C mg 24 60% 18 45% 30 74% 20 50%

Vitamin E mg 0.6 6% 0.45 5% 0.74 7% 0.50 5%

Vitamin K µg 6.0 8% 4.5 6% 7.4 9% 5.0 6%

[30] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 7 1% 5 1% 9 1% 6 1%

Copper mg 0.03 1% 0.02 1% 0.04 1% 0.03 1%

Iron mg 0.40 3% 0.30 3% 0.49 4% 0.34 3%

Magnesium mg 11 3% 8 3% 14 4% 9 3%

Manganese mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Phosphorus mg 33 3 25%2 41 4% 28 3%

Potassium mg 343 *a 257 *a 422 *a 287 *a

Selenium mg 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0%

Zinc mg 0.12 1% 0.09 1% 0.15 1% 0.10 1% a there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[31] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 12. Nutritional composition of tomatoes, beef from NEVO 2016.

Proximates/NIP Requirements

Energy kJ 80 1% 60 1% 98 1% 67 1%

Protein g 0.6 1% 0.5 1% 0.7 1% 0.5 1%

Fat, total g 0.5 1% 0.4 1% 0.6 1% 0.4 1%

– Saturated g 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0% 0.1 0%

Carbohydrate, available g 2.4 1% 1.8 1% 3.0 1% 2.0 1%

– Sugars g 2.4 3% 1.8 2% 3.0 3% 2.0 2%

Dietary fibre g 1.3 4% 1.0 3% 1.6 5% 1.1 4%

Sodium mg 2 0% 2 0% 2 0% 2 0%

Vitamins

Biotin µg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Folate µg 10 5% 8 4% 13 6% 9 4%

Niacin mg 0.60 6% 0.45 5% 0.74 7% 0.50 5%

Pantothenic acid mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Riboflavin mg 0.01 1% 0.01 0% 0.01 1% 0.01 0%

Thiamin mg 0.03 3% 0.02 2% 0.04 3% 0.03 2%

Vitamin A µg RE 81 11% 61 8% 100 13% 68 9%

Vitamin B6 mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Vitamin C mg 15 38% 11 28% 18 46% 13 31%

Vitamin E mg 0.60 6% 0.45 5% 0.74 7% 0.50 5%

Vitamin K µg 6.0 8% 4.5 6% 7.4 9% 5.1 6%

[32] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Minerals

Calcium mg 9 1% 7 1% 11 1% 8 1%

Copper mg 0.03 1% 0.02 1% 0.01 4% 0.03 1%

Iron mg 0.70 6% 0.53 4% 0.86 7% 0.59 5%

Magnesium mg 7 2% 5 2% 9 3% 6 2%

Manganese mg nr - nr - nr - nr -

Phosphorus mg 23 2 17 2% 28 3% 19 2%

Potassium mg 212 *a 159 *a 261 *a 178 *a

Selenium mg 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0% 0.0 0%

Zinc mg 0.27 2% 0.20 2% 0.33 3% 0.23 2% a there is no labelling RDI for potassium but claims can be made at 200 mg Abbreviations: DI = daily intake; ESADDI = estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake; NIP = nutrition information panel; nr = not reported; RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents Key: source claim possible; good source claim possible

[33] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

3 PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The term phytochemicals is used to refer to the compounds present in plants that are not regarded as nutrients and includes thousands of different chemicals including pigments such as the carotenoids and flavonoids. Tomatoes contain a significant number of phytochemicals in reasonable quantities (typical data for standard red tomatoes is shown in Table 13). Of these, lycopene is the one that has received particular interest because of its purported health benefits (see Section 4). It is also important to note there can be large cultivar variation in both types and concentrations of phytochemicals, much more so than for nutrients.

It is important to note that unlike nutrients content claims cannot be make for phytochemicals beyond stating a level. That is it is not possible to make claims such as ‘high in lycopene’ or ‘good source of lycopene’. This is because at present none of the phytochemicals, including lycopene, have an RDI or ESADDI. Research has reached a point where we can arrive at a suggested beneficial intake for lycopene (see Section 3.1.1); however, this is not suffice at present. At some point in the future it may be possible but further research is required.

Table 13. Typical concentrations of the main phytochemicals reported in fresh, ripe red tomatoes.

Concentrationa Component (mg/100 g FW) Carotenoids (total) 4–24 lycopene 2.5–25 phytoene 1–3 phytofluene 0.2–1.6 ß-carotene 0.1–1.2 γ-carotene 0.05–0.3 δ-carotene 0–0.2 lutein 0–0.3 neurosporene 0–0.03 Total phenolics 22–82 Phenolic acids 16–29 caffeic acid 0.1–10 chlorogenic acid 0.6–20 coumaric acid 0.1–1.6 ferulic acid 0.1–0.7 Flavonoids naringenin chalcone/chalconaringenin 0.9–23 naringenin 0–1.3 quercetin glycosides (primarily rutin) 0.3–4.5 kaempferol glycosides 0–0.8 Glycoalkaloids 0.5–15 GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) 22–190 a Data from: Gross 1991; Friedman 2002; Dumas et al. 2003; Saito et al. 2008; Marti et al. 2016; USDA 2016; Lister personal data

[34] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Besides the most common red tomatoes, there are numerous other varieties with colours ranging from white through to bright orange (including the so named tangerine tomatoes) and even black, purple or crimson. Because phytochemicals vary in colour, different coloured tomatoes may differ in their phytochemical composition (Table 14). For example, orange and yellow tomatoes are often lacking, or contain reduced concentrations, of the normal form of lycopene (all trans-lycopene) and instead contain cis-lycopene or other carotenoids in higher amounts. Black, purple or crimson tomatoes contain a different group of pigments called anthocyanins, which belong to the flavonoid class. The colour of green tomatoes is due to chlorophyll and although carotenoids are usually present these are masked by the chlorophyll and lycopene is absent or present at very low concentrations. Further details are provided in the following sections.

Table 14. Phytochemicals typically present in different coloured tomatoes at maturity.

Fruit colour Trans-lycopene Cis-lycopene Anthocyanins Chlorophyll

Red present absent absent absent present in some Orange absent absent absent varieties present in some Yellow absent absent absent varieties present in some sometimes Purple/crimson/blacka absent? present varieties present Green absent or low absent absent present a in some heirloom varieties the black and purple colours are due to mutations affecting chlorophyll breakdown and carotenoid biosynthesis and are not related to anthocyanin production

3.1 Lycopene and other carotenoids

Lycopene is only present in a few foods, the most common being tomatoes. Other foods containing lycopene include watermelon, pink grapefruit, Chilean guava, red papaya and rosehips. The lycopene content of fresh tomatoes can vary from none (in non-red varieties) up to over 20 mg/100 g FW in high pigment varieties (Ilahy et al. 2011). Most values for typical red tomatoes are between 5 and 8 mg/100 g FW (Dumas et al. 2003). The carotenoid composition of tomatoes has been reviewed by Gross (1991). Carotenes, usually mainly lycopene, generally make up 90–95% of the carotenoids in red tomatoes. In addition to lycopene, tomatoes contain beta-carotene, zeta-carotene, gamma-carotene and neurosporene along with the colourless carotenoid precursors phytoene and phytofluene (Table 13).

Some yellow and orange tomatoes lack lycopene, or compounds other than lycopene are present at higher concentrations. In some cultivars (beta strains) beta-carotene predominates and in others with a reddish orange colour delta-carotene predominates (delta strains). However, some varieties, such as tangerine tomatoes, contain a different form of lycopene called tetra-cis-lycopene (also termed prolycopene). This is a geometric isomer2 of all-trans- lycopene (the predominant form in red tomatoes) and gives this fruit a characteristic orange colour (Unlu et al. 2007). This difference in chemical structure can result in the isomers having different properties. It has been reported that the isomeric form of lycopene probably does not influence its antioxidant properties; however, it does influence the rate of uptake and maximal

2 Geometric isomers refer to two or more substances that have the same chemical composition but differ in the arrangement of the component elements.

[35] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

amount of lycopene absorbed by the human body (Burri et al. 2009). For further discussion on this see Section 3.1.2.

The concentrations of lycopene (both cis and trans forms) may vary according to such factors as cultivar, growing conditions, method of ripening, processing and storage conditions (Abushita et al. 2000; Dumas et al. 2003). The amount of lycopene present in processed foods is often much higher than that found in fresh foods given that processing often involves concentration via water loss. For example per 100 g: tomato juice ~10 mg, tomato puree/sauce/ketchup ~15 mg and tomato paste up to 40 mg.

The variety of tomato has a huge bearing on carotenoid concentration and the types of carotenoids present. Overseas studies have shown large variations in both total carotenoid content and individual carotenoid composition for different coloured tomatoes (e.g. Bobinaite et al.2009; Gentili et al. 2015; Li et al. 2013). There has been limited New Zealand studies though. Heritage Food Crops Research Trust have commissioned studies on the carotenoid content of a range of heirloom tomatoes grown in New Zealand (https://heritagefoodcrops.org.nz/heirloom- tomatoes). This has shown that there are many tomato varieties that lack trans-lycopene but contain cis-lycopene (Table 15; McGhie & Cordiner 2015). It is important to note that not all tomatoes with an orange or yellow colour contain tetra-cis-lycopene, as this colour can also be due to higher levels of beta-carotene (e.g. Amish Gold – orange, La Carotina, Tangerine Mystery) or other carotenoids. Hence, it is necessary to chemically analyse each tomato variety to verify whether or not it contains tetra-cis-lycopene. As with red tomatoes yellow and orange tomatoes also contain considerable levels of other carotenoids including phytoene, phytofluene, ζ-carotene, and neurosporene (Gross 1991).

Table 15. Carotenoid concentrations (mg/100g FW) in samples of tomato fruit measured by UHPLC (adapted from McGhie & Cordiner 2015 & https://heritagefoodcrops.org.nz/heirloom-tomatoes).

all-trans- tetra-cis Genotype lycopene lycopene beta-carotene

Alice Brewer n.d. 3.82 n.d. Alice Brewer n.d. 1.55 n.d. Alice Brewer (red) 6.49 n.d. 0.90 Amana Orange 0.01 5.04 n.d. Amber Coloured 0.07 n.d. 0.17 Amish Gold (orange) 0.19 n.d. 4.35 Amish Gold (red) 5.25 n.d. 1.18 Amish Orange Sherbert Heirloom n.d. 5.36 n.d. Amish Yellowish Orange Oxheart n.d. 8.21 n.d. Aunt Gerties Gold n.d. 5.73 n.d. Barnes Mountain Orange n.d. 6.54 n.d. Big Orange n.d. 6.14 n.d. Big Orange Stripe 0.12 n.d. 1.00 Big Yellow 0.03 4.06 n.d. Branscomb's Orange 1.40 n.d. 2.61 Brown's Yellow Giant n.d. 3.57 n.d. Burbank (Koanga) 8.56 n.d. 1.10

[36] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

all-trans- tetra-cis Genotype lycopene lycopene beta-carotene

Bursztyn n.d. 3.34 n.d. Chuck's Golden n.d. 5.47 n.d. Dark Orange Muscat (red) 5.48 n.d. 1.16 Dicoff's Yellow 1.94 n.d. 0.68 Djena Lees Golden Girl 0.04 5.23 n.d. Earl of Edgecomb n.d. 2.52 n.d. Elbe n.d. 4.31 n.d. Elfie (orange) 0.01 4.94 n.d. Elfie(red)-orange n.d. 3.46 n.d. Faribo Goldheart n.d. 4.90 n.d. Gary Ibsen's Gold n.d. 4.00 n.d. Gary's Golden Bear 0.01 1.64 n.d. Gold Ball n.d. n.d. 0.28 Golden Grape 0.06 2.50 0.42 Golden Green n.d. 7.12 n.d. Golden Ponderosa n.d. n.d. 0.33 Goldene Konigen 0.18 n.d. 0.51 Gramma Climenhagen n.d. n.d. 0.17 Hawaiian Pineapple n.d. 6.13 n.d. Hawke’s Bay Yellow (Koanga) n.d. n.d. 0.11 Homer Fike's Yellow Oxheart 0.01 1.74 n.d. Hurma Ukrainian n.d. 5.76 n.d. Ilse's Orange Latvian n.d. 6.73 n.d. King's Gold (Koanga) n.d. 3.02 n.d. La Carotina 0.94 n.d. 3.62 Large Yellow Amish n.d. 4.28 n.d. Lycopersicon macrocarpum lutea n.d. n.d. 0.05 Lyco Plus®a 5.98 n.d. 0.47 M1 Tomato (re-named ‘Golden Eye Tomato’) n.d. n.d. 5.37 Moonglow n.d. 5.38 n.d. Mountain Gold n.d. 3.60 n.d. Old Ivory Egg n.d. n.d. 0.16 Old Wyandotte n.d. 1.65 n.d. Olga's Round Golden Chicken Egg n.d. 7.27 n.d. Orange Beefsteak n.d. 4.56 n.d. Orange Bourgoin n.d. 2.62 n.d. Orange Crimea n.d. 8.04 n.d. Orange Fleshed Purple Smudge 0.04 6.99 n.d.

[37] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

all-trans- tetra-cis Genotype lycopene lycopene beta-carotene

Orange Latvian n.d. 0.93 n.d. Orange Pixie 0.03 n.d. 0.13 Orange Plum n.d. 1.84 n.d. Orange Roma 0.08 6.92 n.d. Orange Russian 0.90 n.d. 0.87 Orange Strawberry n.d. 4.14 n.d. Orange Valencia n.d. 4.60 n.d. Pegs Round Orange n.d. 1.08 n.d. Persimmon n.d. 5.24 n.d. Persimmon n.d. 3.82 n.d. Primary Colours n.d. n.d. 0.04 Roughwood Golden Plum n.d. 3.82 n.d. Russian Persimmon n.d. 3.10 n.d. Russian Persimmon 0.01 2.93 0.52 Russian Persimmon (red sport) 5.98 n.d. 1.12 Russian Persimmon (red sport) 3.51 n.d. 0.86 Sakharniy Zeltiy n.d. 3.42 n.d. Sibirische Orange 0.11 4.56 0.44 Small Lap n.d. 2.87 n.d. Small Sweet Orange 0.12 1.63 0.66 Summer Cider Apricot n.d. 6.15 n.d. Tangella n.d. 6.13 n.d. Tangerine Mystery 1.39 n.d. 4.00 Tess' Landrace Currant (red) 4.14 0.15 0.89 Tess' Landrace Currant (yellow) n.d. n.d. 0.30 Tobolsk 0.06 5.73 n.d. Turkey Champ 0.02 4.26 n.d. Ueberreich n.d. n.d. 0.03 Valencia n.d. 1.33 n.d. West Virginia n.d. 5.05 n.d. Wonder (Koanga) 0.01 n.d. 0.09 Yellow Brandywine Platfoot Strain n.d. 4.15 n.d. Yellow Oxheart n.d. 2.58 n.d. Yellow Russian n.d. 1.48 n.d. Yoders Yellow German 0.01 2.65 n.d. Yoder's Yellow German n.d. 3.40 n.d. a a high red tomato Abbreviations: nd = not detected

[38] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

3.1.1 Dietary intake of lycopene and suggested beneficial intake

Tomatoes are the predominant dietary source of lycopene at around 80%, and this is derived mainly from processed products such as ketchup, juice, spaghetti sauce and pizza sauce. Various estimates have been made of lycopene intake in different populations with huge variation both between countries and studies (mainly due to method of estimation). Estimates of typical daily intake range from 0.7 mg in Finland, 1.1 mg in United Kingdom, 4.2 mg in New Zealand, 5.5 mg in the USA (although one study notes ~50% of the population consume less than 2 mg), 7.6 mg in Italy and Spain, to 11 mg in Greece (Rao 2002; Porrini & Riso 2005; personal data). Although the beneficial effects of lycopene have been well documented it is not yet recognized as an essential nutrient. As a result there is no official recommended intake set by health professionals and government regulatory agencies. Researchers vary in what is considered an efficacious dose, with most suggestions ranging from 5 to 35 mg per day. Some studies suggest for a healthy individual daily intake of 5–7 mg may maintain circulating lycopene at a concentration sufficient to combat oxidative stress and prevent chronic diseases (Rao & Shen 2002; Rao 2006). These concentrations could be achieved by consuming at least one or two servings of tomatoes/tomato products every day. Under the condition of disease (e.g. cancer and cardiovascular disease) higher intakes, ranging from 35 to 75 mg per day, may be required (Heath et al. 2006; Kun et al. 2006).

3.1.2 Bioavailability of lycopene

An important consideration with regards to the health benefits of any compound is its bioavailability (i.e. the proportion of a substance which enters the circulation when consumed and so is able to have an active effect). Lycopene bioavailability has been well studied in humans and can be affected by a number of factors, including food processing and dietary composition (Story et al. 2010). Lycopene can occur in several forms in fresh plant foods, including carotenoid-protein complexes in chloroplasts or in crystalline form inside chromoplasts. Most studies focus of the most common form of lycopene – all trans-lycopene. Numerous studies have demonstrated that for thermally processed tomato products lycopene is more bioavailable than fresh tomatoes (reviewed in Story et al. 2010). Thermal processing disrupts cellular membranes, which allows lycopene to be released from the tissue matrix, and in addition protein-carotenoid complexes may be weakened. Composition of the diet also impacts on lycopene bioavailability. Most importantly because lycopene is a lipid-soluble compound, consuming it with fat increases its bioavailability. Competition by other carotenoids or cholesterol may also influence lycopene absorption along with other factors such as probiotics. Human organs store lycopene to varying degrees with highest concentrations in the liver, testes, adrenal glands, and adipose tissues with lower levels in the kidney, ovary, lung, and prostate (Kun et al. 2006).

For some time it was suggested that some cis-lycopene isomers are more bioavailable than the trans-lycopene isomer but the evidence has only really been gathered since 2009. Burri et al. (2009) fed lunches containing 300 g tangerine or red tomato sauce per day to 21 healthy adults in a double-blind crossover design. Both tomato sauces increased lycopene concentrations in blood, but the tangerine tomato sauce caused a greater increase of total and tetra-cis-lycopene. The cis isomer(s) may also have facilitated absorption of the trans-lycopene isomer. Cooperstone et al. (2015) also demonstrated that lycopene from tangerine tomato juice was, on average, 8.5 times more bioavailable than lycopene from red tomato juice. They attributed

[39] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

this increase in bioavailability to tangerine tomatoes being rich in cis-lycopene and this lycopene present in lipid-dissolved globular structures in chromoplasts. In contrast, lycopene in red tomatoes, present as all-trans-lycopene, exists in large crystalline aggregates contributing to poor solubilization and comparatively lower bioavailability.

3.2 Phenolics

In most cases the individual phenolics in tomato are not present in large amounts (Table 13). The key phenolics are naringenin and its isomer naringenin chalcone/chalconaringenin (although much of the literature treats these two compounds together as naringenin), chlorogenic acid and rutin (quercetin 3-rutinoside). Cultivar, effects of environment and agronomic practices plus fruit maturity are all important factors influencing the composition and content of phenolics in tomato fruit (Slimestad & Verheul 2009).

With the interest in anthocyanins for their health benefits there has been research into the development of purple, anthocyanin-rich tomatoes. Purple coloured fruits exist in some wild tomato species but generally they are limited to the skin and the fruit are generally not commercially acceptable. In some heirloom varieties the black and purple colours are due to mutations affecting chlorophyll breakdown and carotenoid biosynthesis and are not related to anthocyanin production (Mes et al. 2008). A number of research groups have used genetic modification to achieve purple tomatoes. Although many have had limited or no success, Butelli et al. (2008) achieved high concentrations of anthocyanins in both the peel and the flesh of tomato fruit (total anthocyanins averaged 283 mg/100 g fresh weight). Because there is consumer resistance to genetically modified food there is still a focus on the development of purple tomatoes by traditional breeding methods. However, concentrations of anthocyanins have generally been relatively low. A purple tomato achieved through traditional cross-breeding had an anthocyanin concentration of 72 mg per 100 g dry weight (Li et al. 2011). However Balacheva et al. (2012) reported contents of around 90 mg/100 g FW. There are also reported differences in the anthocyanin composition of transgenic and non-transgenic tomatoes. In the transgenic fruit the two main anthocyanins were delphinidin 3-(trans-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5- glucoside and petunidin 3-(trans-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside (Butelli et al. 2008). However, in another study non-transgenic fruit showed three major anthocyanins, which were mainly acylglycosides of petunidin and malvidin, with no delphinidin glycoside reported (Li et al. 2011). Further study by this research group suggests that purple tomatoes containing anthocyanins might possess unique and higher antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect (Li et al. 2014).

3.3 Glycoalkaloids

Many members of the Solanaceae, including tomatoes, contain glycoalkaloids and they have attracted scientific interest because they are natural toxins are reported to be involved in host- plant resistance and also may have a variety of health effects in animals and humans. Glycoalkaloids in tomatoes and aubergines are generally quite low and are not a safety concern. The glycoalkaloids of most relevance to food safety are those occurring in the potato, since they may be present even in commercially available tubers destined for human consumption and at times can cause toxicity. Tomato glycoalkaloids and their role in the diet have been reviewed by Friedman (2002). The glycoalkaloid known as tomatine was first isolated in 1948 and subsequently found to be a mixture of two glycoalkaloids, α-tomatine and dehydrotomatine. Both compounds are present in all parts of the tomato plant including the fruit. Immature green tomatoes contain up to 50 mg of α-tomatine/100 g but it is largely degraded as

[40] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

the tomato ripens so in mature red tomatoes the level is only 0.5 mg/100 g. Consumers of green tomatoes, high-tomatine red tomatoes, and tomato products such as pickled green and green fried tomatoes consume significant amounts of tomatine. However, compared with eating high glycoalkaloid potatoes, consumption of glycoalkaloid tomatoes does not appear to present health problems. It is thought that the absence of a 5,6-double bond in the B-ring of tomatidine results in a much less toxic molecule than the potato glycoalkaloids, α-chaconine and α-solanine, which contain the double bond.

3.4 Other

In addition to carotenoids and phenolics, several other compounds have been highlighted in studies of the health benefits of tomatoes.

. γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a ubiquitous four carbon non-protein amino acid present in a wide range of organisms including plants, bacteria and vertebrates. Screening of various plants showed that tomato contains one of the highest concentrations of GABA of all vegetable crops (Saito et al. 2008). Within tomato there is considerable variation in GABA concentrations, with cultivation under saline or drought stress promoting its accumulation and postharvest handling practices also having an impact (Saito et al. 2008; Mae et al. 2012). . Cystine-knot miniproteins (named TCMP-1 and TCMP-2) have been identified from tomato that show potential health benefits (Cavallini et al. 2011). . There is a group of 37 constituents in lycopene-free and water-soluble tomato concentrate (WSTC) that has been used in the development of tomato products and is the basis for a health claim in Europe (EFSA 2009). There is limited characterisation of the components published but they are reported to contain nucleosides and derivatives along with phenolic compounds and Maillard products (O’Kennedy et al. 2006). . Major novel steroidal alkaloid glycosides (saponins), named esculeoside A and esculeoside B, have been isolated from the pink and the red ripe tomato fruits along and with the aglycone esculeogenin A (Fujiwara et al. 2004; 2007).

[41] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

4 HEALTH BENEFITS

Hundreds, if not thousands, of papers and reports have been published on the potential health benefits of tomatoes and its constituents such as lycopene. The majority of studies have been on standard red tomatoes and there are very limited studies on other colours beyond in vitro studies. Evidence comes from a range of types of studies from laboratory test tube experiments to human clinical trials. Much of the early evidence supporting the role of tomatoes in reducing the risk of chronic diseases came from epidemiological studies. More recently, clinical and intervention studies especially with lycopene have been undertaken. In addition to human studies, animal studies and in vitro investigations have contributed a better understanding of the health effects and mechanisms by which lycopene and other components in tomatoes may exert their effects. Two health areas of greatest focus have been cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD) but some other areas are emerging where tomatoes may have beneficial effects.

Note that this information is from the scientific literature and health claims cannot be made in regard to these effects at present. The only hard health claims that can be made on tomatoes are covered in Section 6.

4.1 Cancer

There have been a number of key reviews examining the relationships between tomato and/or lycopene consumption and the risk of various cancers (Table 16). Probably the most significant review, from the perspective of possible claims on tomato products, has been the “The US food and drug administration's evidence-based review for qualified health claims: Tomatoes, lycopene, and cancer” (Kavanaugh et al. 2007). However, the limits for the review were very narrow, being restricted to a subset of clinical intervention trials and observational studies. Another key document is the World Cancer Research Fund report “Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer” (2007). This systematic literature review took a similar, although slightly different, approach to the FDA. It was decided to gather evidence from all relevant epidemiological and experimental studies, together with biological findings. The third key collection of research findings is a database that has been collated by the Tomato Products Wellness Council (2011 & 2014; note the majority of the collection is from literature reviews in 2011 while in 2014, a modified update was performed focused on the clinical trial data assessing the relationship between lycopene supplementation or tomato intake on cardiovascular disease risk factors). In addition there are numerous other literature reviews (e.g. Hwang & Bowen 2002; Seren et al. 2008a; van Breemen & Pajkovic 2008), although most are focused on prostate cancer (e.g. Etminan 2004; Haseen et al. 2009; Tan et al. 2010; Ilic et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2013, 2015; Xu et al. 2016).

[42] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 16. Summary of the findings from key reviews of human studies with tomatoes and reduction of cancer risk.

Cancer Site Summary of Findings Reference(s)

Data of too low quality, too inconsistent, or the number of studies too Kavanaugh et Bladder few to allow conclusions to be reached. al. 2007 No studies found statistically significant associations, although Giovannucci

tendencies for inverse associations noted. RE: N=4 1999 Not reported in key reviews but a recent paper indicates a potential Brain Puri et al. 2010 benefit in treatment of high-grade gliomas. Neutral relationship with intake of processed tomatoes. RE: (-)=2, Breast TPWC 2011 N=5 No credible evidence to support tomatoes/tomato-based foods. RE: Kavanaugh et

N=2 al. 2007 Giovannucci Suggestion of a benefit, although data are very limited. 1999 Possible protective relationship, however studies are of limited Cervical TPWC 2011 quality. RE: (-)=3 No credible evidence to support a relationship (all studies identified Kavanaugh et

eliminated due to scientific deficiencies). al. 2007 Giovannucci Suggestion of a benefit. 1999 Relationship with tomato/tomato-based foods inconclusive. Colorectal TPWC 2011 RE: (-)=1, N=1 Kavanaugh et No credible evidence supporting an association. RE: N=2 al. 2007 Giovannucci Suggestion of a benefit. 1999 No credible evidence available to support a relationship (no quality Kavanaugh et Endometrial studies identified). al. 2007 Gastric/oral Protective effect. RE: (-)=7 TPWC 2011 (upper GI) Kavanaugh et Unlikely that tomatoes reduce the risk. RE: (-)=3, N=4 al. 2007 No prospective studies identified but consistent inverse association Giovannucci observed in diverse populations strongly suggests a protective 1999 effect. Neutral relationship with serum lycopene concentrations. RE: (-)=1, Head & neck TPWC 2011 N=2 Review of in vitro, animal and clinical studies indicate lycopene may Seren et al. Liver possibly prevent the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. 2008b Lung Protective relationship. RE: (-)=6 TPWC 2011 Kavanaugh et No credible evidence for an association. RE: N=3 al. 2007 Protective effect (10 of 14 studies showed either a statistically Giovannucci

significant or a suggestive inverse association). 1999

[43] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Cancer Site Summary of Findings Reference(s)

Ovarian Neutral relationship. RE: (-)=1, N=1 TPWC 2011 Highly uncertain. One study suggests that consumption of tomato sauce two times per week may reduce the risk while this same study Kavanaugh et

shows that consumption of tomatoes or tomato juice had no effect al. 2007 on risk. Giovannucci No association. RE: N=1 1999 Pancreatic Potential protection, although data limited. RE: (-)=2 TPWC 2011 Kavanaugh et Highly unlikely that tomatoes reduce the risk. RE: (-)=1, N=1 al. 2007 Giovannucci Inverse association. RE: (-)=4 1999 Protective relationship (processed tomato intake may be the most Prostate TPWC 2011 beneficial). RE: (-)=24, N=9, (+)=2 Very limited and preliminary scientific research suggests that eating one-half to one cup of tomatoes and/ or tomato sauce a week may Kavanaugh et

reduce the risk. However, there is little scientific evidence supporting al. 2007 this claim. RE: (-)=6, N=7 Foods containing lycopene probably protective. Substantial amount of consistent evidence, in particular on tomato products, from both WCRFR 2007 cohort and case-control studies. There is evidence for plausible mechanisms. Of all the cancers examined the evidence for a benefit was Giovannucci

strongest. 1999 It's suggested that tomato may play a modest role in the prevention Chen et al.

of prostate cancer. 2013 Higher lycopene consumption/circulating concentration is associated Chen et al.

with a lower risk of prostate cancer. 2015 Dietary lycopene (along with alpha-carotene but not beta-carotene) Wang et al. was inversely associated with the risk of prostate cancer. However, 2015 it did not lower the risk of advanced prostate cancer. Overall, tomato intake may have a weak protective effect against Xu et al. 2016 prostate cancer. Renal Data limited. RE: (-)=1 TPWC 2011 Skin Insufficient data to allow conclusions to be reached. WCRFR 2007

TPWC = Tomato Products Wellness Council; WCRFR = World Cancer Research Fund Report; RE = Risk Estimate, (-) = negative association, N = neutral association, (+) = positive association.

There is variation in the conclusions drawn by the various key reviews. Most notably the recommendations arrived at by the FDA (limited evidence for tomatoes and prostate cancer and no evidence to support relationships between tomatoes and risk reduction of any other cancers) are not always in agreement with conclusions drawn by others. There are a number of reasons for this and Coates (2007) made some very pertinent comments. Very few studies met the inclusion criteria for the FDA review with many studies excluded for various reasons. The literature relating tomatoes and/or lycopene to the incidence of cancer is heterogeneous, and there are few clinical trials of any great size. Instead, clues about whether lycopene or

[44] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

tomatoes might be associated with a reduced risk of cancer have come from preclinical and observational studies and from small trials. If the totality of evidence is included it is suggested that tomatoes/lycopene are associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer and, perhaps, of other forms of cancer.

Although a range of cancers have been investigated the largest body of research on the health benefits of tomatoes/lycopene is for prostate cancer. In addition to those reports in Table 16 there have been a number of other reviews (Van Patten et al. 2008; Ellinger et al. 2009; Colli & Amling 2009). Overall, prospective and retrospective epidemiological studies indicating an inverse relationship between lycopene intake and prostate cancer risk have been supported by in vitro and in vivo experiments showing that oral lycopene is bioavailable and accumulates in prostate tissue. However, evidence is still somewhat debated and it cannot be concluded whether the benefits of tomato/tomato-based foods are due to lycopene alone or if other compounds play a role as well. Further large-scale trials are required to investigate the effects of potential foods or bioactive components of foods for longer durations and in more people to understand the potential of their action more fully.

Other cancers have been less researched with regards to tomato/lycopene consumption. The cancers where tomatoes/lycopene show the most promise include gastric, lung and pancreatic (Table 16). For some cancer types there are complications in interpretation of potential effects due to the nature of the cancer type, human genotype and other factors. For example, with regards to ovarian cancer menopausal status may be an important factor for determining if lycopene/lycopene-rich foods have an impact. One study suggested the benefit of dietary lycopene was specific to premenopausal women (Cramer et al. 2001).

As well as its potential benefits of tomatoes/lycopene with regards to cancer prevention there may be other applications. In addition to the prevention of prostate cancer there has been considerable interest in the development of treatments for prostate cancer (Van Patten et al. 2008; Ellinger et al. 2009; Haseen et al. 2009). Conclusions have been varied and in most cases there is insufficient evidence to draw a firm conclusion but some suggest lycopene ingestion might be effective in prostate cancer therapy. Well-designed trials are warranted to expand knowledge, replicate findings and further assess the impact of diet and dietary supplement interventions on recurrence and treatment-associated morbidities. Cisplatin (cis-diaminedichloroplatinum) is widely used for the treatment of several cancers but it frequently exerts a severe nephrotoxicity, which limits its use. Tomato lycopene complex has been shown to have protective effects against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity and lipid peroxidation in rats (Dogukan et al. 2011). However, human study is required to determine how beneficial this may be.

It is possible that compounds other than lycopene present in tomatoes may play a role in cancer prevention. Butelli et al. (2008) achieved high concentrations of anthocyanins in both the peel and the flesh of tomato fruit (total anthocyanins averaged 283 mg/100 g fresh weight). A mouse feeding trial with the genetically modified fruit found they prolonged the life of cancer- susceptible mice compared with a standard diet or with the inclusion of standard red tomatoes. Mazzucato et al. (2013) also demonstrated that extracts of the anthocyanin rich tomato ‘Sun Black’ significantly inhibited proliferation of two human cancer cells lines. In addition, there are numerous reports in vitro and in animal studies of the anticarcinogenic effects of the glycoalkaloids α-tomatine and the aglycone part of α-tomatine, tomatidine (Friedman 2002, 2013 & 2015).

[45] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

4.2 Heart disease

There is an accumulating body of evidence that regular intake of tomatoes and tomato products may have benefits for heart health. Fresh tomatoes and lycopene have been shown to help lower total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. In addition, tomato extracts have been shown to help prevent unwanted clumping together (aggregation) of platelet cells in the blood – a factor that is especially important in lowering risk of heart problems like atherosclerosis. Over 100 studies have been published investigating the association between tomato/tomato-based foods and or lycopene and CVD risk. The role of lycopene for heart health has been reviewed by Muller et al. 2016, Burton-Freeman & Sesso 2014, Bohm (2012), the Tomato Products Wellness Council (2011 & 2014) and Mordente et al. (2011). In addition, Ried & Fakler (2011) summarised current evidence on the effect of lycopene on serum lipid concentrations and blood pressure (key factors in heart health). A recent review examined clinical trials comparing the efficacy of lycopene supplements with tomato products on intermediate CVD risk factors including oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial function, blood pressure, and lipid metabolism (Burton-Freeman & Sesso 2014). The review highlighted the need for more targeted research; however, at present, the available clinical research supports consuming tomato-based foods as a first-line approach to cardiovascular health. With the exception of blood pressure management where lycopene supplementation was favoured, tomato intake provided more favourable results on cardiovascular risk endpoints than did lycopene supplementation.

The Tomato Products Wellness Council (2011) drew the following conclusions: “the association between tomato/tomato-based foods remains relatively strong for a protective relationship between consumption of these foods and lower risk of cardiovascular disease, although there is variation depending on the endpoints measured”. Both Bohm (2012) and Mordente et al. (2011) concluded that epidemiological studies support a role for lycopene in the prevention of CVD including studies showing a dose-response relationship between lycopene and CVD. They also note that in vitro data and results from animal experiments partly show promising preventive mechanisms of lycopene. However, results from human intervention studies mostly fail to show any CVD prevention, although there is evidence of mechanisms of action that indicate potential protection.

Although published in 2016, Muller et al. conducted a review based mainly on papers published between 2000 and 2011. They concluded that a beneficial role of lycopene as antioxidant in the prevention of CVD is suggested but the data are still controversial. They note most studies showed beneficial effects of lycopene for individuals who are antioxidant-deficient like elderly patients, or humans exposed to higher levels of oxidative stress like smokers, diabetics, hemodialysis patients and acute myocardial infarction patients. They also note that effects will not be due to lycopene alone but in combination with vitamins and other bioactive plant compounds.

Ried & Fakler (2011) conducted a meta-analysis which suggested that lycopene (taken in doses ≥25 mg daily) is effective in reducing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by about 10% in patients with slightly elevated cholesterol. Palozza et al (2012) also concluded that human intervention trials show that dietary supplementation with lycopene and/or tomato products reduced plasma LDL cholesterol dependently on the dose and the time of administration. More research is needed to confirm suggested beneficial effects on total serum cholesterol and systolic blood pressure.

[46] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Since these major reviews there have been some more recent human studies that have demonstrated largely positive results (although a couple have shown no effect):

. Consuming 200 g raw tomato per day had a favourable effect on blood pressure and apoA-I and might be beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk associated with type 2 diabetes (Shidfar et al. 2011). . A small human clinical trial indicated that consuming tomato products with a meal attenuates postprandial lipemia-induced oxidative stress and associated inflammatory response. This suggests a potentially important protective role of tomato in reducing cardiovascular disease risk (Burton-Freeman et al. 2012). . In a 12 week intervention study a relatively high daily consumption of tomato-based products (equivalent to 32–50 mg lycopene/d) or lycopene supplements (10 mg/d) was ineffective at reducing conventional CVD risk markers in moderately overweight, healthy, middle-aged individuals (Thies et al. 2012). . Daily consumption of 160 g of a high-lycopene tomato sauce improved oxidized-LDL cholesterol levels, evidencing the putative role of lycopene in combination with other bioactive compounds in the prevention of oxidative stress related diseases (Abete et al. 2013). . In a small study, supplementation with a tomato extract-lycopene by itself produced changes in two cardiovascular disease-relevant measures related to inflammation (DiSilvestro et al. 2013). . In moderately overweight, middle-aged subjects, increasing lycopene intake leads to changes in high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which the authors suggested enhanced their antiatherogenic properties and may protect the heart (McEneny et al. 2013). . In a study population consisting of 1031 Finnish men aged 46–65 years, low serum lycopene and beta-carotene concentrations were associated with an increased risk of acute myocardial infarction (Karrpi et al. 2013). . Lutein and lycopene supplementation significantly increased the serum concentrations of lutein and lycopene with a decrease in carotid artery intima-media thickness (CAIMT) being associated with both concentrations (Zou et al. 2014). In addition, the combination of lutein and lycopene supplementation was more effective than lutein alone for protection against the development of CAIMT in Chinese subjects with subclinical atherosclerosis. . Valderas-Martinez et al. (2016) conducted a human feeding trial to examine the postprandial effects of a single dose of raw tomatoes, tomato sauce and tomato sauce with refined olive oil on cardiovascular disease risk factors. Compared with control intervention, a single tomato intake in any form decreased plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides and several cellular and plasma inflammatory biomarkers, and increased plasma HDL cholesterol and interleukine (IL) 10 concentrations. Effects were significantly greater when the tomatoes were cooked and enriched with oil. There may be an explanation why many controlled clinical trials and dietary intervention studies have not provided clear evidence that lycopene prevents cardiovascular diseases yet epidemiological evidence points to a benefit of tomato/tomato-based foods. Clinical trials have focussed on lycopene yet, at least in part, other compounds in tomatoes besides lycopene may exert protective effects. There are a number of studies that indicate this, including those with GABA and a range of water-soluble tomato components (WSTC I and II) mentioned above.

[47] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

In recent years GABA has attracted attention for its potential antihypertensive benefits in humans (Shimada et al. 2009) and an animal study demonstrated an antihypertensive effect of a GABA-rich tomato cultivar (Yoshimura et al. 2010). A European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) panel evaluating health claims considered that WSTC I and II are sufficiently characterised to support a health claim around platelet aggregation (EFSA 2009).

In addition to reducing the risk of heart disease tomatoes and more specifically lycopene may benefit those who already have cardiovascular disease. Lycopene supplementation has been shown to improve endothelial function in CVD patients on optimal secondary prevention, but not in healthy volunteers (Gajendragadkar et al. 2014). In another pilot study of patients with heart failure plasma lycopene levels increased with lycopene intervention in the form of a supplement (Biddle et al. 2015). Conversely, C-reactive protein levels decreased significantly in women and but not in men. C-reactive protein is a marker of inflammation and significant because inflammation can be a contributor in the pathophysiology of heart failure.

4.2.1 Other diseases

Numerous other diseases have also been investigated in relation to tomatoes/lycopene (Table 17). For many diseases there is limited evidence but there are several areas showing considerable promise. Evidence from a number of studies points to a beneficial effect of tomato/tomato-based food intake on protection from UV light-induced erythema. However, much of the work (5 out of 7 studies) supporting this conclusion is from a single laboratory.

A positive influence of lycopene on bone health in vitro has been supported with limited clinical data although more studies are required to fully substantiate a benefit. A study was designed in which tomato and other dietary sources of lycopene were removed from the diets of postmenopausal women for 1 month to see what effect lycopene restriction would have on bone health (Mackinnon et al. 2011a). At the end of the month, women in the study started to show increased signs of oxidative stress in their bones and changes in their bone markers. It was concluded that removal of lycopene-containing foods (including tomatoes) from the diet was likely to put women at increased risk of osteoporosis. Daily consumption of lycopene may be important as it acts as an antioxidant to decrease bone resorption in postmenopausal women and may therefore be beneficial in reducing the risk of osteoporosis. In a further study lycopene supplementation for 4 months was shown to be beneficial in reducing oxidative stress parameters and bone resorption marker and hence may reduce the risk of osteoporosis (Mackinnon et al. 2011b).

Limited data supports a modest inverse relationship between plasma/serum lycopene concentrations and cognitive function. There is preliminary evidence from in vitro studies and animal models to support a role of tomatoes/lycopene in brain health but research on cognitive performance endpoints in humans is required. Reducing the oxidative and inflammatory burden in an oxidative-inflammatory susceptible system (aged brain) is purported to be a possible mechanism for tomato/lycopene benefit.

Population-based studies have indicated lycopene may have a benefit for eye health, as do other carotenoids (although unlike some of those carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, lycopene cannot be converted to vitamin A by the body). This potential benefit is supported by animal studies. Lycopene had an inhibitory effect on cataract development, offered protection against galactose induced cataract changes in lens tissue and selenite-induced stress in rat models (Pollack et al. 1996; Trivedi et al. 2001a, b; Gupta et al. 2003).

[48] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

A number of studies also suggest tomatoes may have a beneficial effect for risk factor management in people with diabetes (e.g. impact on glycation variables, lipids, oxidative stress and insulin). However, there is no evidence for the association between lycopene intake and the risk for having diabetes (Valero et al. 2011). Both feeding tomato/tomato products and lycopene supplementation decreased oxidative stress and improved lipid status in people with diabetes (Tomato Products Wellness Council 2011). Observational data on tomato intake are mixed with neutral, negative and positive relationships with diabetes/risk factors reported. The reason for mixed effects like other studies may reflect the types of tomato products consumed as it may be processed tomato products that have potential benefits. These findings require additional research for clarity.

Table 17. Summary of the potential benefits of tomatoes/lycopene for other health conditions in addition to cancer and CVD.

Disease/condition Type of study and outcome Reference(s)

Small-scale human clinical showed regular intake of tomato Yoshimura et al. Allergic rhinitis extract improved the nasal symptoms of perennial allergic 2007 rhinitis. Riccioni et al. Two small human clinical trials indicate potential benefit of Asthma 2007; Wood et al. tomatoes/lycopene including reducing the inflammation. 2008 Limited tomato-specific study but human studies (9) suggest a beneficial relationship between dietary sources of Bone health lycopene and elevated plasma/serum concentrations of TPWC 2011 lycopene and bone health as measured by bone mass and markers of bone metabolism. Review of human studies (8) supports an inverse relationship between plasma/serum lycopene Brain health concentrations and cognitive function but there is insufficient TPWC 2011 data on the effect of tomato-specific intake on cognitive performance endpoints in humans. Esculeoside A/esculeogenin A from tomato significantly Dermatitis blocks hyaluronidase activity in vitro and that esculeoside A Zhou et al. 2016 ameliorates mouse experimental dermatitis. Review of human studies (34) show variable results Diabetes depending on treatment and further study required to clarify TPWC 2011 potential benefits. Population-based, case-controlled study reported individuals with low serum lycopene concentrations were twice as likely Mares-Perlman et Eye Health to have age-related macular degeneration as those with al. 1995 higher serum concentrations. Small human randomised, placebo-controlled study with Chandra et al. Gingivitis lycopene showed significant reductions in gingivitis and 2007 bleeding index. Two small human clinical trials showed lycopene Mohanty et al. Infertility significantly improved quality of sperm and seminal fluid – 2001; Gupta & increased sperm density, motility and morphology. Kumar 2002 Review of in vitro, animal and clinical studies suggested that Liver conditions Seren et al. 2008b lycopene may attenuate liver injury. Higher serum lycopene has a protective effect on mortality Lupus Han & Han 2016a in systemic lupus erythematosus.

Menopause Tomato juice intake alleviated menopausal symptoms, Hirose et al. 2015 including anxiety, increased resting energy expenditures

[49] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Disease/condition Type of study and outcome Reference(s) and heart rate, and lowered high baseline serum triglyceride levels in middle-aged women. Human trial (infants and children with pneumonia) showed Mohamed et al. Pneumonia decreased respiratory rate and significantly reduced IgE. 2008 Rheumatoid Serum lycopene has a significant association with long-term Han & Han 2016b arthritis all-cause mortality in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis Review of human studies (7) suggests a beneficial effect of Skin Health tomato (lycopene) intake in reducing UV light-induced TPWC 2011 erythema. Prospective, nested case-control human study Stroke demonstrated baseline plasma concentration of lycopene Hak et al. 2004 tended to be inversely related to risk of ischemic stroke.

4.3 Proposed mechanisms of action of lycopene and other tomato phytochemicals

There have been numerous reviews of both the antioxidant mechanisms and other molecular mechanisms of lycopene (Erdman et al. 2009; Wertz 2009). Lycopene attracted attention in the late 1980s when it was found that of all the carotenoids, including the better known beta- carotene, it was the most potent quencher of highly reactive singlet oxygen. It is also a potent scavenger of peroxyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide. It was thought that by increasing lycopene concentrations in the body, oxidative stress was reduced and antioxidant potential increased and thus protection against various diseases conferred. However, there is now considerable debate if this is the primary mechanism for health effects and a recent review concluded that “there is limited experimental support for the ‘antioxidant hypothesis’ as a major mechanism of lycopene’s in vivo action” (Erdman et al. 2009). As an alternative hypothesis, the authors suggest that the lycopenoids, the metabolic products of lycopene, may be more relevant to health outcomes. The lycopenoids would not be expected to have direct antioxidant activity, due to an insufficient number of conjugated double bonds, but are more likely to act by altering gene expression. In addition lycopene, and its breakdown products, may regulate gene functions, improve intercell communication, moderate hormone function and immune response or regulate metabolism, induce apoptosis and antiproliferation in cancer cells, induce anti- metastatic activity, and up-regulate the antioxidant response element leading to the synthesis of cytoprotective enzymes. It is also possible that some of these mechanisms are interrelated and operate simultaneously. There may also be other modes of action that have not yet been uncovered.

Tomatoes and tomato products are often cited improve antioxidant defences and reduce the risk of inflammatory diseases due, at least partly, to the presence of lycopene. Inflammation and oxidative stress are key factors in many diseases and may explain the benefits. For example, persistent inflammation and oxidative stress are the main mechanisms that increase the risks of cardiovascular disease-related morbidity and mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and lycopene may alleviate oxidative stress and suppress inflammation (Han & Han 2016a). Likewise increased oxidative stress and/or chronic inflammation may play important roles in the high mortality of individuals with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and consumption of lycopene rich

[50] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

foods may confer the protective effect observed (Han & Han 2016b). Ghavipour et al. (2013, 2015) also conclude that increasing tomato intake may provide a useful approach for reducing the risk of inflammatory diseases such as CVD and diabetes, which are associated with obesity, by preventing the production of inflammatory cytokines.

Because prevention of prostate cancer has been a primary focus of studies there has been considerable focus on the mechanisms by which this may occur. Herzog & Wertz (2005) summarised that in several preclinical studies lycopene improved oxidative stress defence, activated phase II drug metabolism and improved intercellular communication by enhancing gap junctional communication. Lycopene also modulated intracellular signalling pathways, e.g. insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and androgen signalling, leading to reduced proliferation of normal and cancerous prostate epithelial cells. Animal trials have also shown down-regulation of inflammatory markers in prostate tissue and serum, which may also contribute to a cancer- preventive effect (Herzog et al. 2005; Pannellini et al. 2010).

With regards to cardiovascular protection it has often been though that the primary mechanism of action of lycopene is as an antioxidant and thus to protect LDL from oxidation (Rao 2002). More recent research has highlighted other mechanisms of action that may be beneficial. These include prevention of endothelial injury, modulation of lipid metabolism through a control of cholesterol synthesis and oxysterol toxic activities, reduction of inflammatory response through changes in cytokine production, and inhibition of smooth muscle cell proliferation through regulation of molecular pathways involved in cell proliferation and apoptosis (Palozza et al. 2010).

Substances other than lycopene may also be responsible for the heart protective effects of tomatoes. Inhibition of platelet aggregation is a target mechanism for cardiovascular health due to aggregation of platelets triggering the cascade of reactions leading to blood clot formation (thrombosis). A number of studies have shown that water- and methanol-soluble compounds in tomatoes, rather than lycopene, inhibit platelet aggregation (Palomo et al. 2012). In addition, an animal study demonstrated an antihypertensive effect of a GABA-rich tomato cultivar (Yoshimura et al. 2010).

Other tomato components such as the phenolics, glycoalkaloids and cystine-knot miniproteins may also have mechanisms of action that explain the health benefits. The glycoalkaloid tomatine is a biologically active molecule and its potential effects on enzymes, cells, tissues, and animals have been summarized by Friedman (2002, 2013 & 2015). Animal studies have shown that tomatine, and tomatine-rich green tomato diets, may induce lowering of plasma cholesterol and triglycerides as well as enhancing the immune system via contribution to the “oxidative burst”. Tomatine-containing green tomato extracts have been shown to inhibit growth of human breast, colon, liver, and stomach cancer cells in vitro (Friedman et al. 2009). There are also numerous other reports in vitro and in animal studies of the anticarcinogenic effects of α-tomatine and the aglycone part of α-tomatine, tomatidine. However, human studies are required before any conclusions on the health benefits of the tomato glycosalkaloids can be confirmed.

In regards to heart health, other compounds such as the saponins may have benefits. Oral administration of esculeoside A to apoE-deficient mice significantly reduced concentrations of serum cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, and the areas of atherosclerotic lesions without any detectable side effects (Fujiwara et al. 2007). Cystine-knot miniproteins (named TCMP-1 and TCMP-2) identified from tomato have shown antiangiogenic effects in vitro (Cavallini et al. 2011), although the significance in vivo is unknown at this point.

[51] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

The main health effect attributed to tomato phenolics is their contribution to antioxidant activity (Toor et al. 2005). Although this may be true in vitro the significance of this in vivo is under debate and the benefits of the phenolics may be due to other potential mechanisms of action (Stevenson & Hurst 2007; Crozier et al. 2009). Some mechanisms are in common with lycopene and it is likely that carotenoids and phenolics may act together to exert benefits in tomato. In one human study on tomato flavonoids naringenin absorption from cooked tomato paste was reported (Bugianesi et al. 2002). They stated that their results support the hypothesis that tomato benefits could be attributed to a positive synergistic action in vivo between lycopene and other tomato components, such as naringenin, rather than lycopene alone. Tomatoes containing anthocyanins have been reported to confer additional benefits over standard red varieties and have superior antioxidant activities and anti-inflammatory properties (Li et al. 2011, 2014).

[52] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

5 PREPARATION & USE

There are a numbers of factors that can affect both the composition and health benefits of tomatoes at the point of consumption, in addition to the factors that affect pre-harvest (e.g. cultivar and growing conditions). In the course of preparation and cooking, the concentration of some nutrients and phytochemicals may be enhanced, while others, such as the heat labile vitamin C, are lost. A number of factors affect the composition and health benefits of tomatoes, including storage conditions, method of processing, moisture, temperature and the presence of oxidants and lipids.

Some of the important factors to maximise the nutritional content and health benefits of tomatoes:

. Store tomatoes at room temperature and not in the fridge. Macrae et al. (1993) found that maximum ripening and colour development (i.e. lycopene) for tomatoes in storage occurred at between 20 and 24°C, with poor ripening at temperatures lower than 13°C. . Because lycopene is a lipid-soluble compound, consuming it with fat increases its bioavailability. For example, consuming salads with full-fat dressing results in higher blood carotenoid levels than eating salads with reduced fat dressing. When salads were consumed without fat in the same study, no measurable lycopene uptake occurred (Brown et al. 2004). A study by Unlu et al. (2005) showed a similar result, whereby the consumption of tomato salsa with avocado (as lipid source) led to a 4.4-fold increase in lycopene absorption compared with salsa without avocado. . It is sensible to make use of the whole tomato as the skin and seeds have benefits as well as the pulp. For example, the skin of tomatoes has been shown to have higher antioxidant activity (Chandra & Ramalingam 2011). Removal of seed and skin significantly affects the concentrations of antioxidants and many other metabolites present in commercial tomato paste (Capanoglu et al. 2008). . It has been shown that heating increases the bioavailability of lycopene by disrupting cellular membranes, which allows lycopene to be released from the tissue matrix (Nguyen et al. 2001). Numerous studies have shown that lycopene from thermally processed tomato products is more bioavailable than lycopene from fresh tomatoes (Gärnter et al. 1997; Stahl & Sies 1992). Other studies have shown that heating can also enhance antioxidant activity (Dewanto et al. 2002). However, cooking usually reduces heat labile vitamins, such as vitamin C. Thus it is wise to eat a mix of raw and cooked tomatoes. . Cooperstone et al. (2016) report that tetra-cis-lycopene from tangerine tomatoes is heat labile and degrades during thermal processing. This is different to other cis-lycopenes and all-trans-lycopene which tend to increase with increasing processing times. Phytoene and phytofluene within a tomato matrix are also stable to thermal processing. Thus, unlike red tomatoes where cooking is probably beneficial, cooking of tangerine tomatoes (and other yellow/orange varieties containing tetra-cis-lycopene) should probably be kept to a minimum.

[53] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

6 POTENTIAL MARKETING CLAIMS

It is important to translate the information provided above into information that can be used for the marketing and promotion of tomatoes. A key step is to take the nutritional composition and put it in a nutritional information panel (NIP) as specified in FSANZ Standard 1.2.8. For the purposes of these demonstration panels a serving size has been taken as one tomato (see discussion in Section 2.1). If other serving sizes were adopted then the information presented would need to change. In addition to the basic requirements of a NIP those vitamins and minerals that are claimable have also been included. It is essential that if any reference is made to a vitamin or mineral (e.g. good source of vitamin C) then those components are included in the panel. Nutrients meeting the threshold specified by FSANZ (usually 10% of the RDI) can then make pre-approved health claims associated with that nutrient. Those potentially relevant to tomatoes are listed in Table 18. Because there is variation in the compositional data there are differences in the claims that could be made for different coloured tomatoes. The following sections provide the specific claims for different tomato types. In addition there are a number of general claims such as low energy, low fat and low sodium that could be made for all tomatoes.

Table 18. Pre-approved health claims for selected vitamins and minerals as given in FSANZ Standard 1.2.7.

Relevant Nutrient Specific health effect population

Necessary for normal blood formation Necessary for normal cell division Contributes to normal growth and development Children Contributes to maternal tissue growth during pregnancy Folate Contributes to normal amino acid synthesis Contributes to normal homocysteine metabolism Contributes to normal psychological function Contributes to normal immune system function Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue Necessary for normal neurological function Necessary for normal energy release from food Necessary for normal structure and function of skin and mucous

Niacin membranes Contributes to normal growth and development Children Contributes to normal psychological function Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue Necessary for normal fat metabolism Contributes to normal growth and development Children Contributes to normal energy production Pantothenic acid Contributes to normal mental performance Contributes to normal synthesis and metabolism of steroid

hormones, vitamin D and some neurotransmitters Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue

[54] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Relevant Nutrient Specific health effect population

Necessary for normal water and electrolyte balance Contributes to normal growth and development Children Potassium Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system Contributes to normal muscle function Necessary for normal vision Necessary for normal skin and mucous membrane structure and

function

Vitamin A Necessary for normal cell differentiation Contributes to normal growth and development Children Contributes to normal iron metabolism Contributes to normal immune system function Contributes to iron absorption from food Necessary for normal connective tissue structure and function Necessary for normal blood vessel structure and function Contributes to cell protection from free radical damage Necessary for normal neurological function Contributes to normal growth and development Children Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal structure

of cartilage and bones Vitamin C Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of

teeth and gums Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of

skin Contributes to normal energy metabolism Contributes to normal psychological function Contributes to the normal immune system function Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue Necessary for normal blood coagulation Vitamin K Contributes to normal bone structure Contributes to normal growth and development Children

[55] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

6.1 Standard red tomatoes

The New Zealand FOODFiles contain good composition data for standard red tomatoes. A standard NIP, including claimable nutrients, would look something like that given in Table 19. Nutrition content, and the associated health claims, that could be made are for standard red tomatoes are:

. Source of vitamin A . Necessary for normal vision . Necessary for normal skin and mucous membrane structure and function . Necessary for normal cell differentiation . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal iron metabolism . Contributes to normal immune system function . Good source of vitamin C . Contributes to iron absorption from food . Necessary for normal connective tissue structure and function . Necessary for normal blood vessel structure and function . Contributes to cell protection from free radical damage . Necessary for normal neurological function . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal structure of cartilage and bones . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of teeth and gums . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of skin . Contributes to normal energy metabolism . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the normal immune system function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue . Contain potassium . Necessary for normal water and electrolyte balance . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system . Contributes to normal muscle function

[56] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 19. Example of a standard NIP for red tomatoes (data from FOODfiles 2014 – see Table 2 for compete data).

NUTRITION INFORMATION Servings per package: ? Serving size: 1 tomato (123 g) Quantity per Serving % Daily intake per Quantity per 100 g serve Energy 101 kJ 1% 82 kJ Protein 0.9 g 2% 0.8 g Fat, total 0.5 g 1% 0.4 g – saturated 0 g 0% 0 g Carbohydrate 3.3 g 1% 2.7 g – sugars 3.3 g 4% 2.7 g Dietary fibre 1.5 g 5% 1.2 g Sodium 1 mg 0% 1 mg Vitamin A 113 µg RE 15% RDI 92 µg RE Vitamin C 29 mg 73% RDI 24 mg Potassium 295 mg a 240 mg a note there is no labelling RDI for potassium but a claim can be made if a serve contains ≥200 mg per serve Abbreviations: RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents

6.2 Cherry tomatoes

There is no specific compositional data for cherry tomatoes in the New Zealand FOODFiles and hence data has to be sourced from NUTTAB 2010 (note these are ordinary red cherry tomatoes not the other colours, although they are likely to be similar). A standard NIP, including claimable nutrients, would look something like that given in Table 20. Nutrition content, and the associated health claims, that could be made are for standard cherry tomatoes are:

. Source of folate . Necessary for normal blood formation . Necessary for normal cell division . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to maternal tissue growth during pregnancy . Contributes to normal amino acid synthesis . Contributes to normal homocysteine metabolism . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to normal immune system function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue . Source of niacin . Necessary for normal neurological function . Necessary for normal energy release from food . Necessary for normal structure and function of skin and mucous membranes . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue

[57] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system

. Contributes to normal muscle function

[58] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 20. Example of a standard NIP for cherry tomatoes (data from NUTTAB 2010 – see Table 5 for complete data).

NUTRITION INFORMATION Servings per package: ? Serving size: 1 handful (123 g) Quantity per Serving % Daily intake per Quantity per 100 g serve Energy 78 kJ 1% 63 kJ Protein 0.6 g 1% 0.5 g Fat, total 0.1 g 0% 0.1 g – saturated 0 g 0% 0 g Carbohydrate 2.7 g 1% 2.2 g – sugars 2.7 g 3% 2.2 g Dietary fibre 2.1 g 7% 1.7 g Sodium 12 mg 1% 10 mg Folate 22 µg 11% RDI 18 µg Niacin 1.23 µg 12% RDI 1.00 µg Vitamin A 101 µg RE 13% RDI 82 µg RE Vitamin C 34 mg 86% RDI 28 mg Potassium 295 mg a 240 mg a note there is no labelling RDI for potassium but a claim can be made if a serve contains ≥200 mg per serve Abbreviations: RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents

6.3 Orange tomatoes

There is no specific compositional data for orange tomatoes in the New Zealand FOODFiles and hence data has to be sourced from the USDA database. A standard NIP, including claimable nutrients, would look something like that given in Table 21. Nutrition content and the associated health claims that could be made are for orange tomatoes are:

[59] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Good source of vitamin C . Contributes to iron absorption from food . Necessary for normal connective tissue structure and function . Necessary for normal blood vessel structure and function . Contributes to cell protection from free radical damage . Necessary for normal neurological function . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal structure of cartilage and bones . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of teeth and gums . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of skin . Contributes to normal energy metabolism . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the normal immune system function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue . Contain potassium . Necessary for normal water and electrolyte balance . Contributes to normal growth and development in children

. Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system

. Contributes to normal muscle function

Table 21. Example of a standard NIP for orange tomatoes (data from USDA – see Table 7 for complete data).

NUTRITION INFORMATION Servings per package: ? Serving size: 1 tomato (123 g) Quantity per Serving % Daily intake per Quantity per 100 g serve Energy 89 kJ 1% 73 kJ Protein 1.4 g 3% 1.2 g Fat, total 0.2 g 0% 0.2 g – saturated 0 g 0% 0 g Carbohydrate 2.8 g 1% 2.3 g – sugars 2.8 g 3% 2.3 g Dietary fibre 1.1 g 4% 0.9 g Sodium 52 mg 2% 42 mg Folate 36 µg 18% RDI 29 µg Vitamin A 92 µg 12% RDI 75 µg Vitamin C 20 mg 49% RDI 16 mg Potassium 261 mg a 212 mg a note there is no labelling RDI for potassium but a claim can be made if a serve contains ≥200 mg per serve

[60] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

6.4 Yellow tomatoes

There is no specific compositional data for yellow tomatoes in the New Zealand FOODFiles and hence data has to be sourced from the USDA database. A standard NIP, including claimable nutrients, would look something like that given in Table 22. Nutrition content, and the associated health claims, that could be made are for yellow tomatoes are:

. Source of niacin . Necessary for normal neurological function . Necessary for normal energy release from food . Necessary for normal structure and function of skin and mucous membranes . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue . Good source of vitamin C . Contributes to iron absorption from food . Necessary for normal connective tissue structure and function . Necessary for normal blood vessel structure and function . Contributes to cell protection from free radical damage . Necessary for normal neurological function . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal structure of cartilage and bones . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of teeth and gums . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of skin . Contributes to normal energy metabolism . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the normal immune system function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue

[61] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Contain potassium . Necessary for normal water and electrolyte balance . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system . Contributes to normal muscle function

Table 22. Example of a standard NIP for yellow tomatoes (data from USDA – see Table 8 for complete data).

NUTRITION INFORMATION Servings per package: ? Serving size: 1 tomato (123 g) Quantity per Serving % Daily intake per Quantity per 100 g serve Energy 87 kJ 1% 71 kJ Protein 1.2 g 2% 1.0 g Fat, total 0.3 g 0% 0.26 g – saturated 0 g 0% 0 g Carbohydrate 2.8 g 1% 2.3 g – sugars 2.8 g 3% 2.3 g Dietary fibre 0.9 g 3% 0.7 g Sodium 28 mg 1% 23 mg Folate 37 µg 18% RDI 30 µg Niacin (vitamin B3a) 1.45 mg 15% RDI 1.18 mg Vitamin C 11 mg 28% RDI 9 mg Potassium 317 mg a 258 mg a note there is no labelling RDI for potassium but a claim can be made if a serve contains ≥200 mg per serve Abbreviations: RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents

6.5 Green tomatoes

There is no specific compositional data for green tomatoes in the New Zealand FOODFiles and hence data has to be sourced from the USDA database. A standard NIP, including claimable nutrients, would look something like that given in Table 23. Nutrition content, and the associated health claims, that could be made are for green tomatoes are:

. Source of pantothenic acid . Necessary for normal fat metabolism . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal energy production . Contributes to normal mental performance . Contributes to normal synthesis and metabolism of steroid hormones, vitamin D and some neurotransmitters . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue

[62] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

. Source of vitamin C . Contributes to iron absorption from food . Necessary for normal connective tissue structure and function . Necessary for normal blood vessel structure and function . Contributes to cell protection from free radical damage . Necessary for normal neurological function . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal structure of cartilage and bones . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of teeth and gums . Contributes to normal collagen formation for the normal function of skin . Contributes to normal energy metabolism . Contributes to normal psychological function . Contributes to the normal immune system function . Contributes to the reduction of tiredness and fatigue . Source of vitamin K . Necessary for normal blood coagulation . Contributes to normal bone structure . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contain potassium . Necessary for normal water and electrolyte balance . Contributes to normal growth and development in children . Contributes to normal functioning of the nervous system . Contributes to normal muscle function

[63] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Table 23. Example of a standard NIP for green tomatoes (data from USDA – see Table 9 for complete data).

NUTRITION INFORMATION Servings per package: ? Serving size: 1 tomato (123 g) Quantity per Serving % Daily intake per Quantity per 100 g serve Energy 129 kJ 1% 105 kJ Protein 1.5 g 3% 1.2 g Fat, total 0.2 g 0% 0.2 g – saturated 0 g 0% 0 g Carbohydrate 4.9 g 2% 4.0 g – sugars 4.9 g 5% 4.0 g Dietary fibre 1.4 g 5% 1.1 g Sodium 16 mg 1% 13 mg Pantothenic acid 0.62 mg 12% ESADDI 0.5 mg Vitamin C 29 mg 20% RDI 23 mg Vitamin K 12.4 µg 16% ESADDI 12.4 µg Potassium 251 mg a 204 mg a note there is no labelling RDI for potassium but a claim can be made if a serve contains ≥200 mg per serve Abbreviations: RDI = recommended dietary intake; RE = retinol equivalents

6.6 Phytochemicals and claims

At present it is not possible to make health claims for phytochemicals on food products (although there are many breaches of standards at present). The only ‘claim’ for lycopene is to state a content at the bottom of a NIP. It is not possible to refer to a tomato being high in or a good source of lycopene. One issue is the lack of an official RDI and hence what the meaning of a content statement actually is. Although the potential beneficial effects of lycopene in terms of preventing human diseases have been well documented, this compound is not yet recognised as an essential nutrient. If health claims were wanted to be made it would be necessary to put together a self-substantiation dossier as required under FSANZ standard 1.2.7 with the support for a new health claim.

The best approach at present is to develop resources that provide information on the studies that have been conducted with tomatoes. As discussed above there is a huge pool of research to draw on. This bank of information (with some reworking to a more general audience) could be developed into a website resource to educate users on the potential benefits of lycopene. As consumer awareness is raised, content claims become even more meaningful to the consumer. Naturally any such resources and promotion material/advertising should be checked by the appropriate regulatory authorities.

[64] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

7 RECOMMENDATIONS

This report has highlighted the claims that can be made for standard red tomatoes under FSANZ standard 1.2.7. There are a number of options for claims and these can easily be included on pack and in promotional material. However, beyond red tomatoes there is a lack of New Zealand specific information for other types of tomatoes. The key recommendation from this report is that compositional information is gathered for New Zealand grown cherry tomatoes along with other coloured varieties than red. This will ensure that the correct nutrition content claims and associated health claims can be made for those.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to Limei Feng who helped with extraction of nutritional data from food composition databases and some of the literature searches.

[65] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

9 REFERENCES

Abete I, Perez-Cornago A, Navas-Carretero S, Bondia-Pons I, Zulet MA, Martinez JA 2013. A regular lycopene enriched tomato sauce consumption influences antioxidant status of healthy young-subjects: A crossover study. Journal of Functional Foods 5(1): 28–35.

Abushita AA, Daood HG. Biacs P 2000. Change in carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins in tomato as a function of varietal and technological factors. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48(6): 2075–2081.

Biddle MJ, Lennie TA, Bricker GV, Kopec RE, Schwartz SJ, Moser DK 2015. Lycopene dietary intervention: a pilot study in patients with heart failure. The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing 30(3): 205–212.

Bobinaite R, Dambrauskiene E, Radzevicius A, Jankauskiene J, Rubinskiene M 2009. Carotenoids, Ascorbic Acid and Physical Properties of Tomatoes. In: Krasteva L, Panayotov N eds. Iv Balkan Symposium on Vegetables and Potatoes. Leuven 1, Int Soc Horticultural Science. Pp. 249–254.

Bohm V 2012. Lycopene and heart health. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 56(2): 296–303.

Brown MJ, Ferruzzi MG, Nguyen ML, Cooper DA, Eldridge AL, Schwartz SJ, White WS 2004. Carotenoid bioavailability is higher from salads ingested with full-fat than with fat-reduced salad dressings as measured with electrochemical detection. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80(2): 396–403.

Bugianesi R, Catasta G, Spigno P, D'Uva A. Maiani G 2002. Naringenin from cooked tomato paste is bioavailable in men. Journal of Nutrition 132(11): 3349–3352.

Burri BJ, Chapman MH, Neidlinger TR, Seo JS, Ishida BK 2009. Tangerine tomatoes increase total and tetra-cis-lycopene isomer concentrations more than red tomatoes in healthy adult humans. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 60: 1–16.

Burton-Freeman BM, Sesso HD 2014. Whole food versus supplement: comparing the clinical evidence of tomato intake and lycopene supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors. Advances in Nutrition 5(5): 457–485.

Burton-Freeman B, Talbot J, Park E, Krishnankutty S, Edirisinghe I 2012. Protective activity of processed tomato products on postprandial oxidation and inflammation: A clinical trial in healthy weight men and women. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 56(4): 622–631.

Butelli E, Titta L, Giorgio M, Mock H-P, Matros A, Peterek S, Schijlen EGWM, Hall RD, Bovy AG, Luo J, Martin C 2008. Enrichment of tomato fruit with health-promoting anthocyanins by expression of select transcription factors. Nature Biotechnology 26(11): 1301–1308.

Capanoglu E, Beekwilder J, Boyacioglu D, Hall R, De Vos R 2008. Changes in antioxidant and metabolite profiles during production of tomato paste. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56(3): 964–973.

Cavallini C, Trettene M, Degan M, Delva P, Molesini B, Minuz P, Pandolfini T 2011. Anti- angiogenic effects of two cystine-knot miniproteins from tomato fruit. British Journal of Pharmacology 162(6): 1261–1273.

[66] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Chandra RV, Prabhuji MLV, Roopa DA, Ravirajan S, Kishore HC 2007. Efficacy of lycopene in the treatment of gingivitis: a randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Oral Health & Preventive Dentistry 5(4): 327–336.

Chandra HM, Ramalingam S 2011. Antioxidant potentials of skin, pulp, and seed fractions of commercially important tomato cultivars. Food Science and Biotechnology 20(1): 15–21.

Chen JY, Song Y, Zhang LS 2013. Lycopene/tomato consumption and the risk of prostate cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 59(3): 213–223.

Chen P, Zhang W, Wang X, Zhao K, Negi DS, Zhuo L, Qi M, Wang X, Zhang X 2015. Lycopene and risk of prostate cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine 94(33): e1260.

Coates PM 2007. Evidence-based reviews in support of health policy decisions. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 99: 1059-1059.

Colli JL, Amling CL 2009. Chemoprevention of prostate cancer: what can be recommended to patients? Current Urology Reports 10(3): 165–171.

Cooperstone JL, Francis DM, Schwartz SJ 2016. Thermal processing differentially affects lycopene and other carotenoids in cis-lycopene containing, tangerine tomatoes. Food Chemistry 210: 466–472.

Cooperstone JL, Ralston RA, Riedl KM, Haufe TC, Schweiggert RM, King SA, Timmers CD, Francis DM, Lesinski GB, Clinton SK, Schwartz SJ 2015. Enhanced bioavailability of lycopene when consumed as cis-isomers from tangerine compared to red tomato juice, a randomized, cross-over clinical trial. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 59(4): 658–669.

Cramer DW, Kuper H, Harlow BL, Titus-Ernstoff L 2001. Carotenoids, antioxidants and ovarian cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women. International Journal of Cancer 94: 128-134.

Crozier A Jaganath IB, Clifford MN 2009. Dietary phenolics: chemistry, bioavailability and effects on health. Natural Product Reports 26(8): 1001–1043.

Dewanto V, Wu XZ, Adom KK, Liu RH 2002. Thermal processing enhances the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50(10): 3010–3014.

DiSilvestro RA, Joseph E, DiSilvestro D 2013. Lycopene concentrate supplementation decreases plasma values for C-reactive protein and oxidized LDL. FASEB Journal 27: 1.

Dogukan A, Tuzcu M, Agca CA, Gencoglu H, Sahin N, Onderci M, Ozercan IH, Ilhan N, Kucuk O, Sahin K 2011. A tomato lycopene complex protects the kidney from cisplatin-induced injury via affecting oxidative stress as well as Bax, Bcl-2, and HSPs expression. Nutrition and Cancer- an International Journal 63(3): 427–434.

Dumas Y, Dadomo M, Di Lucca G, Grolier P 2003. Effects of environmental factors and agricultural techniques on antioxidant content of tomatoes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 83(5): 369–382.

Ellinger S, Ellinger J, Muller SC, Stehle P 2009. Tomatoes and lycopene in prevention and therapy – is there an evidence for prostate diseases? Aktuelle Urologie 40(1): 37–43.

[67] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Erdman JW Jr, Ford NA, Lindshield BL 2009. Are the health attributes of lycopene related to its antioxidant function? Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 483(2): 229–235.

Etminan M, Takkouche B, Caamano-Isorna F 2004. The role of tomato products and lycopene in the prevention of prostate cancer: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 13(3): 340–345.

European Food Safety Authority 2009. Water-soluble tomato concentrate (WSTC I and II) and platelet aggregation. EFSA Journal 7(5), article 1101. Available: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/doc/1101.pdf [11 June 2012]

Food Standards Australia New Zealand 2016. Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code – Standard 1.2.7 – Nutrition, health and related claims. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Series/F2015L00394 [Accessed 31 October 2016].

Food Standards Australia New Zealand 2016. Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code – Standard 1.2.8 – Nutrition information requirements. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Series/F2015L00395 [Accessed 31 October 2016].

Food Standards Australia New Zealand 2016. Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code – Standard 1.1.1 - Structure of the Code and general provisions. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2016C00157 [Accessed 31 October 2016].

Food Standards Australia New Zealand 2016. Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code – Schedule 1 – RDIs and ESADDIs https://www.legislation.gov.au/Series/F2015L00491 [Accessed 31 October 2016].

Friedman M 2002. Tomato glycoalkaloids: role in the plant and in the diet. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50(21): 5751–5780.

Friedman M 2013. Anticarcinogenic, cardioprotective, and other health benefits of tomato compounds lycopene, alpha-tomatine, and tomatidine in pure form and in fresh and processed tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61(40): 9534–9550.

Friedman M 2015. Chemistry and anticarcinogenic mechanisms of glycoalkaloids produced by eggplants, potatoes, and tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63(13): 3323–3337.

Friedman M, Levin CE, Lee SU, Kim HJ, Lee IS, Byun JO, Kozukue N 2009. Tomatine- containing green tomato extracts inhibit growth of human breast, colon, liver, and stomach cancer cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57(13): 5727–5733.

Fujiwara Y, Kiyota N, Hori M, Matsushita S, Iijima Y, Aoki K, Shibata D, Takeya M, Ikeda T, Nohara T, Nagai R 2007. Esculeogenin A, a new tomato sapogenol, ameliorates hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice by inhibiting ACAT. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 27(11): 2400–2406.

Fujiwara Y, Takaki A, Uehara Y, Ikeda T, Okawa M, Yamauchi K, Ono M, Yoshimitsu H, Nohara T 2004. Tomato steroidal alkaloid glycosides, esculeosides A and B, from ripe fruits. Tetrahedron 60(22): 4915–4920.

Gajendragadkar PR, Hubsch A, Maki-Petaja KM, Serg M, Wilkinson IB, Cheriyan J 2014. Effects of oral lycopene supplementation on vascular function in patients with cardiovascular disease and healthy volunteers: a randomised controlled trial. Plos One 9(6): 13.

[68] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Gartner C, Stahl W, Sies H 1997. Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66(1): 116–122.

Gentili A, Caretti F, Ventura S, Perez-Fernandez V, Venditti A, Curini R 2015. Screening of Carotenoids in Tomato Fruits by Using Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array-Linear Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry Detection. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63(33): 7428–7439.

Ghavipour M, Saedisomeolia A, Djalali M, Sotoudeh G, Eshraghyan MR, Moghadam AM, Wood LG 2013. Tomato juice consumption reduces systemic inflammation in overweight and obese females. British Journal of Nutrition 109(11): 2031–2035.

Ghavipour M, Sotoudeh G, Ghorbani M 2015. Tomato juice consumption improves blood antioxidative biomarkers in overweight and obese females. Clinical Nutrition 34(5): 805–809.

Giovannucci E 1999. Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene, and cancer: review of the epidemiologic literature. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91: 317–331.

Gross J 1991. Pigments in Vegetables: Chlorophylls and Carotenoids. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Gupta NP, Kumar R 2002. Lycopene therapy in idiopathic male infertility--a preliminary report. International Urology and Nephrology 34(3): 369–372.

Gupta SK, Trivedi D, Srivastava S, Joshi S, Halder N, Verma SD 2003. Lycopene attenuates oxidative stress induced experimental cataract development: an in vitro and in vivo study. Nutrition 19(9): 794–799.

Hak AE, Ma J, Powell CB, Campos H, Gaziano JM, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ 2004. Prospective study of plasma carotenoids and tocopherols in relation to risk of ischemic stroke. Stroke 35(7): 1584–1588.

Han GM, Han XF 2016a. Lycopene reduces mortality in people with systemic lupus erythematosus: A pilot study based on the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Journal of Dermatological Treatment 27(5): 430–435.

Han GM, Han XF 2016b. Serum lycopene is inversely associated with long-term all-cause mortality in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis: Result from the NHANES III. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 8(3): 213–218.

Haseen F, Cantwell MM, O'Sullivan JM, Murray LJ 2009. Is there a benefit from lycopene supplementation in men with prostate cancer? A systematic review. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases 12(4): 325–332.

Heath E, Sahin K, Seren S, Kucuk O 2006. Lycopene: prospects for chemoprevention and treatmentof prostate cancer. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 1(064): 9 pp.

Hedges LJ, Lister CE 2005. Nutritional attributes of tomatoes. Crop & Food Research Confidential Report No. 1391, 93 pp.

Herzog A, Siler U, Spitzer V, Seifert N, Denelavas A, Hunziker PB, Hunziker W, Goralczyk R, Wertz 2005. Lycopene reduced gene expression of steroid targets and inflammatory markers in normal rat prostate. FASEB Journal 19(2): 272–274.

[69] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Herzog A, Wertz K 2005. Lycopene effects for improved prostate health. Agro Food Industry Hi- Tech 16(1): 13–15.

Hirose A, Terauchi M, Tamura M, Akiyoshi M, Owa Y, Kato K, Kubota T 2015. Tomato juice intake increases resting energy expenditure and improves hypertriglyceridemia in middle-aged women: an open-label, single-arm study. Nutrition journal 14: 34.

Hwang ES, Bowen PE 2002. Can the consumption of tomatoes or lycopene reduce cancer risk? Integrative Cancer Therapies 1: 121–132.

Ilahy R, Hdider C, Lenucci MS, Tlili I. Dalessandro G 2011. Phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of high-lycopene tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivars grown in Southern Italy. Scientia Horticulturae 127: 255–261.

Ilic D, Forbes KM, Hassed C 2011. Lycopene for the prevention of prostate cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) 11 CD008007, 2011 November 09.

Karppi J, Laukkanen JA, Makikallio TH, Kurl S 2012. Low serum lycopene and beta-carotene increase risk of acute myocardial infarction in men. European Journal of Public Health 22(6): 835–840.

Kavanaugh CJ, Trumbo PR, Ellwood KC 2007. The US food and drug administration's evidence-based review for qualified health claims: Tomatoes, lycopene, and cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 99(14): 1074–1085.

Kun Y, Lule US, Xiao-Lin D 2006. Lycopene: Its properties and relationship to human health. Food Reviews International 22(4): 309–333.

Li H, Deng Z, Liu R, Young JC, Zhu H, Loewen S, Tsao R 2011. Characterization of phytochemicals and antioxidant activities of a purple tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59(21): 11803–11811.

Li HY, Deng ZY, Liu RH, Loewen S, Tsao R 2013. Carotenoid compositions of coloured tomato cultivars and contribution to antioxidant activities and protection against H2O2-induced cell death in H9c2. Food Chemistry 136(2): 878–888.

Li HY, Deng ZY, Liu RH, Loewen S, Tsao R 2014. Bioaccessibility, in vitro antioxidant activities and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of a purple tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Food Chemistry 159: 353–360.

Lister CE 2013. Vegetable fruits: a cornucopia of health benefits. In: Skinner M, Hunter D eds. Fruit Bioactives: Heath Benefits and Functional Foods. Wiley Blackwell. Pp. 293–335.

Mackinnon ES, Rao AV, Rao LG 2011a. Dietary restriction of lycopene for a period of one month resulted in significantly increased biomarkers of oxidative stress and bone resorption in postmenopausal women. Journal of Nutrition Health & Aging 15(2): 133–138.

Mackinnon ES, Rao AV, Josse RG, Rao LG 2011b. Supplementation with the antioxidant lycopene significantly decreases oxidative stress parameters and the bone resorption marker N- telopeptide of type I collagen in postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis International 22(4): 1091–1101.

Macrae R, Robinson RK, Sadler MJ 1993. Encyclopaedia of food science, food technology and nutrition. London, Academic Press.

[70] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Mae N, Makino Y, Oshita S, Kawagoe Y, Tanaka A, Aoki K, Kurabayashi A, Akihiro T, Akama K, Koike S, Takayama M, Matsukura C, Ezura H 2012. Accumulation mechanism of gamma- aminobutyric acid in tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) under low O-2 with and without CO2. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60(4): 1013–1019.

Mares-Perlman JA, Brady WE, Klein R, Klein BE, Bowen P, Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis M, Palta M 1995. Serum antioxidants and age-related macular degeneration in a population-based case- control study. Archives of Ophthalmology 113(12): 1518–1523.

Marti R, Rosello S, Cebolla-Cornejo J 2016. Tomato as a source of carotenoids and polyphenols targeted to cancer prevention. Cancers 8(6).

Mazzucato A, Willems D, Bernini R, Picarella ME, Santangelo E, Ruiu F, Tilesi F, Soressi GP 2013. Novel phenotypes related to the breeding of purple-fruited tomatoes and effect of peel extracts on human cancer cell proliferation. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 72: 125–133.

McEneny J, Wade L, Young IS, Masson L, Duthie G, McGinty A, McMaster C, Thies F 2013. Lycopene intervention reduces inflammation and improves HDL functionality in moderately overweight middle-aged individuals. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 24(1): 163–168.

McGhie TK, Cordiner S 2015. Carotenoid composition of tomatoes. A Plant & Food Research report prepared for Heritage Food Crops Research Trust. SPTS No. 12036. https://heritagefoodcrops.org.nz/static/docs/2015-carotenoid-composition-of-tomatoes.pdf [Accessed 2 November 2016].

McGhie T, Bentley-Hewitt K, Herath T, Smith H, Martell S, Middlemiss-Kraak S 2014. The bioavailability of tetra-cis lycopene in humans and tetra-cis lycopene concentrations in selections of heritage tomatoes. A Plant & Food Research report prepared for: Heritage Food Crops Research Trust. SPTS No. 10269. https://heritagefoodcrops.org.nz/static/docs/2014- bioavailability-of-tetra-cis-lycopene-in-humans.pdf [Accessed 2 November 2016].

Mes PJ, Boches P, Myers JR, Durst R 2008. Characterization of tomatoes expressing anthocyanin in the fruit. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 133(2): 262–269.

Ministry of Health 2015. Eating and Activity Guidelines for New Zealand Adults. Wellington: Ministry of Health. http://www.health.govt.nz/system/files/documents/publications/eating-activity- guidelines-for-new-zealand-adults-oct15_0.pdf [Accessed 1 November 2016].

Mohamed MS, El-Mougi MT, Mansour EH, Saad HH 2008. Administration of lycopene and beta- carotene decreased risks of pneumonia among children. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 7(2): 273–277.

Mohanty NK, Kumar R, Gupta NP 2001. Lycopene therapy in the management of idiopathic oligoasthenospermia. Indian Journal of Urology 56: 102–103.

Mordente A, Guantario B, Meucci E, Silvestrini A, Lombardi E, Martorana GE, Giardina B, Bohm V 2011. Lycopene and cardiovascular diseases: an update. Current Medicinal Chemistry 18(8): 1146–1163.

Muller L, Caris-Veyrat C, Lowe G, Bohm V 2016. Lycopene and its antioxidant role in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. A Critical Review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 56(11): 1868–1879.

[71] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

NEVO 2016. The Dutch Food Composition Database (NEVO). NEVO online version 2016/5.0, RIVM, Bilthoven [Accessed 30 January 2017].

Nguyen M, Francis D, Schwartz S 2001. Thermal isomerisation susceptibility of carotenoids in different tomato varieties. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 81(9): 910–917.

NUTTAB 2010. Australian Food Composition Tables: Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Canberra. [Accessed 19 October 2016].

O'Kennedy N, Crosbie L, van Lieshout M, Broom JI, Webb DJ, Duttaroy AK 2006. Effects of antiplatelet components of tomato extract on platelet function in vitro and ex vivo: a time-course cannulation study in healthy humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84(3): 570–579.

Palomo I, Fuentes E, Padro T, Badimon L 2012. Platelets and atherogenesis: Platelet anti- aggregation activity and endothelial protection from tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine 3(4): 577–584.

Palozza P, Catalano A, Simone RE, Mele MC, Cittadini A 2012. Effect of Lycopene and Tomato Products on Cholesterol Metabolism. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 61(2): 126–134.

Palozza P, Parrone N, Catalano A, Simone R 2010. Tomato Lycopene and Inflammatory Cascade: Basic Interactions and Clinical Implications. Current Medicinal Chemistry 17(23): 2547–2563.

Pannellini T, Iezzi M, Liberatore M, Sabatini F, Iacobelli S, Rossi C, Alberti S, Di Ilio C, Vitaglione P, Fogliano V, Piantelli M 2010. A dietary tomato supplement prevents prostate cancer in TRAMP mice. Cancer Prevention Research 3(10): 1284–1291.

Pollack A, Madar Z, Eisner Z, Nyska A, Oren P 1996. Inhibitory effect of lycopene on cataract development in galactosemic rats. Metabolic Pediatric and Systemic Ophthalmology 19–20: 31–36.

Porrini M, Riso P 2005. What are typical lycopene intakes? Journal of Nutrition 135(8): 2042S– 2045S.

Rao AV 2002. Lycopene, tomatoes, and the prevention of coronary heart disease. Experimental Biology and Medicine (Maywood) 227(10): 908–913.

Rao AV, Shen HL 2002. Effect of low dose lycopene intake on lycopene bioavailability and oxidative stress. Nutrition Research 22: 1125–1131.

Riccioni G, Bucciarelli T, Mancini B, Di Ilio C, Della Vecchia R, D'Orazio N 2007. Plasma lycopene and antioxidant vitamins in asthma: the PLAVA study. Journal of Asthma 44(6): 429–432.

Ried K, Fakler P 2011. Protective effect of lycopene on serum cholesterol and blood pressure: Meta-analyses of intervention trials. Maturitas 68(4): 299–310.

Saito T, Matsukura C, Sugiyama M, Watahiki A, Ohshima I, Iijima Y, Konishi C, Fujii T, Inai S, Fukuda N, Nishimura S, Ezura H 2008. Screening for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-rich tomato varieties. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 77(3): 242–250.

Seren S, Lieberman R, Bayraktar UD, Heath E, Sahin K, Andic F, Kucuk O 2008a. Lycopene in cancer prevention and treatment. American Journal of Therapeutics 15: 66–81.

[72] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Seren S, Mutchnick M, Hutchinson D, Harmanci O, Bayraktar Y, Mutchnick S, Sahin K, Kucuk O 2008b. Potential role of lycopene in the treatment of hepatitis C and prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma. Nutrition and Cancer – An International Journal 60(6): 729–735.

Shidfar F, Froghifar N, Vafa M, Rajab A, Hosseini S, Shidfar S, Gohari M 2011. The effects of tomato consumption on serum glucose, apolipoprotein B, apolipoprotein A-I, homocysteine and blood pressure in type 2 diabetic patients. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 62(3): 289–294.

Shimada M, Hasegawa T, Nishimura C, Kan H, Kanno T, Nakamura T, Matsubayashi T 2009. Anti-hypertensive effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-rich chlorella on high-normal blood pressure and borderline hypertension in placebo-controlled double blind study. Clinical and Experimental Hypertension 31: 342–354.

Slimestad R, Verheul M 2009. Review of flavonoids and other phenolics from fruits of different tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cultivars'. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 89(8): 1255–1270.

Slimestad R, Verheul M 2011. Properties of Chalconaringenin and Rutin Isolated from Cherry Tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59(7): 3180–3185.

Stahl W, Sies H 1992. Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical isomers is greater from heat- processed than from unprocessed tomato juice in humans. Journal of Nutrition 122(11): 2161–2166.

Stevenson DE, Hurst RD 2007. Polyphenolic phytochemicals – just antioxidants or much more? Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 64: 2900–2916.

Story EN, Kopec RE, Schwartz SJ, Harris GK 2010. An update on the health effects of tomato lycopene. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology 1: 189–210.

Tan HL, Thomas-Ahner JM, Grainger EM, Wan L, Francis DM, Schwartz SJ, Erdman JW, Clinton SK 2010. Tomato-based food products for prostate cancer prevention: what have we learned? Cancer Metastasis Reviews 29: 553–568. [Accessed 19 October 2016].

The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited 2015. New Zealand FOODfiles 2014 Version 01. http://www.foodcomposition.co.nz/foodfiles [Accessed 19 October 2016].

Thies F, Masson LF, Rudd A, Vaughan N, Tsang C, Brittenden J, Simpson WG, Duthie S, Horgan GW, Duthie G 2012. Effect of a tomato-rich diet on markers of cardiovascular disease risk in moderately overweight, disease-free, middle-aged adults: a randomized controlled trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition 95(5): 1013–1022.

Tomato Products Wellness Council 2011. Nutrition Science Library, [online]. http://tomatowellness.com/science-library/ [Accessed 9 November 2016].

Tomato Products Wellness Council 2014. Nutrition Science Library, [online]. http://tomatowellness.com/report2011/report-2014.html [Accessed 9 November 2016].

Toor RK, Lister CE, Savage GP 2005. Antioxidant activities of New Zealand-grown tomatoes. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 56(8): 597–605.

[73] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Trivedi D, Mohanty I, Srivastava S, Gupta SK 2001a. Lycopene, a natural antioxidant protects against cataractous changes in lens epithelial cells. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 33(3): 241–242.

Trivedi D, Srivastava S, Gupta SK 2001b. Prevention of cataract development by lycopene: an experimental study. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 33(3): 241–242.

Unlu NZ, Bohn T, Clinton SK, Schwartz SJ 2005. Carotenoid absorption from salad and salsa by humans is enhanced by the addition of avocado or avocado oil. Journal of Nutrition 135(3): 431–436.

Unlu NZ, Bohn T, Francis D, Clinton SK, Schwartz SJ 2007. Carotenoid absorption in humans consuming tomato sauces obtained from tangerine or high-beta-carotene varieties of tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55(4): 1597–1603.

US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory 2016. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28. Version Current: September 2015, slightly revised May 2016. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/ [Accessed 19 October 2016].

Valderas-Martinez P, Chiva-Blanch G, Casas R, Arranz S, Martinez-Huelamo M, Urpi-Sarda M, Torrado X, Corella D, Lamuela-Raventos RM, Estruch R 2016. Tomato sauce enriched with olive oil exerts greater effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors than raw tomato and tomato sauce: A randomized trial. Nutrients 8(3): 14.

Valero MA, Vidal A, Burgos R, Calvo FL, Martinez C, Luengo LM, Cuerda C 2011. Meta- analysis on the role of lycopene in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutricion Hospitalaria 26(6): 1236–1241. van Breemen RB, Pajkovic N 2008. Multitargeted therapy of cancer by lycopene. Cancer Letters 269(2): 339–351.

Van Patten CL, de Boer JG, Tomlinson Guns ES 2008. Diet and dietary supplement intervention trials for the prevention of prostate cancer recurrence: a review of the randomized controlled trial evidence. Journal of Urology 180(6): 2314–2321.

Wang Y, Cui R, Xiao Y, Fang J, Xu Q 2015. Effect of carotene and lycopene on the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. Plos One 10(9): e0137427.

Wertz K 2009. Lycopene effects contributing to prostate health. Nutrition and Cancer-an International Journal 61(6): 775–783.

Wood LG, Garg ML, Powell H, Gibson PG 2008. Lycopene-rich treatments modify noneosinophilic airway inflammation in asthma: proof of concept. Free Radical Research 42(1): 94–102.

World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research (2007) Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. Washington DC: AICR.

Xu X, Li J, Wang X, Wang S, Meng S, Zhu Y, Liang Z, Zheng X, Xie L 2016. Tomato consumption and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific reports 6: 37091.

[74] © THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR PLANT & FOOD RESEARCH LIMITED (2016) The nutritional composition and health benefits of tomatoes - update 2016. January 2017. PFR SPTS No.14216.

Yoshimura M, Enomoto T, Dake Y, Okuno Y, Ikeda H, Cheng L, Obata A 2007. An evaluation of the clinical efficacy of tomato extract for perennial allergic rhinitis. Allergology International 56(3): 225-230.

Yoshimura M, Toyoshi T, Sano A, Izumi T, Fujii T, Konishi C, Inai S, Matsukura C, Fukuda N, Ezura H, Obata A 2010. Antihypertensive effect of a gamma-aminobutyric acid rich tomato cultivar 'DG03-9' in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58(1): 615–619.

Zhou JR, Kanda Y, Tanaka A, Manabe H, Nohara T, Yokomizo K 2016. Anti-hyaluronidase activity in vitro and amelioration of mouse experimental dermatitis by tomato saponin, esculeoside A. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 64(2): 403–408.

Zou ZY, Xu XR, Lin XM, Zhang HB, Xiao X, Ouyang L, Huang YM, Wang X, Liu YQ 2014. Effects of lutein and lycopene on carotid intima-media thickness in Chinese subjects with subclinical atherosclerosis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo- controlled trial. British Journal of Nutrition 111(3): 474–480.