THE HINDU WORLD ....

A well-chosen spread of articles by a galaxy of outstanding scholars on the main topics within the Iiindu traditions-it al/ adds up to the most cxciting as well as infimnative gUIde yet. (John Brockington, Profcssor of . Thc University of Edinburgh)

The Hil/du World is the most authoritativc and up-to-date single volume on ;l\ailable today. In t\veilly-four chapters, written by leading international scholars, it rrovides a comprehensive and critical guide to the various Iiteratures, traditions. and practices of Hinduism. Ideally tailored as an introduction to kcy topics in Hinduism and for usc as a definitive reference source, the book offers fresh insights into many aspects of Hindu life that arc organized under six headings: Oral Teachings and Textual Traditions, Theistic and Devotional Movements. Cosmic Order and Human Goals, Social Action and Social Structure. Vital in Persons and in Places, and Linguistic and Philosophic Analysis. The Hil1du rForM contains new research that de tines the current study of Hinduism. It rdlects upon the impact of recent poststructuralist approaches while emphasizing HlI1duism's classical heritage and everyday customs in ways that will be familiar to themselves. Exploring the enonnous diversity of Hinduism's multidimensional culture WIllie considering its status as a category for analysis, the book achieves a distinctive creative balance between scholarly "outsider" perspectives, and the beliefs and \alues of practicing Hindus.

Contributors: Surmder M. Bhardwaj, francis X. Clooney, Madhav M. Deshpande, Kathleen :VI. ErndL James L. Fitzgerald, Gavin Flood, Robert P. Goldman, Sally J. Sutherland Goldman. John A. Grimes, Alf Hiltebeitel, Barbara A. Holdrege, Walter O. Kaelber, R. S. Khare. Dennot Killingley, Randy Kloetzli, Klaus K. Klostermaier, Julius Lipner. James Lochtefeld. David N. Lorenzen, Mary McGee. McKim Marriott, Vasudha Narayanan, Laurie L. Patton, Velcheru Narayana Rao, Hartmut Seharfe, Tony K. Stewart. Hennan W. Tull, and Susan S. Wadley. Sushil Mittal is Assistant Professor of Religion at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia. He is founding editor of the International Journal ol Hindu Studies. Gene Thursby is Associate Professor of Religion at the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida. He is author of The Sikhs (1992), and a member oflhe editorial boards of the Internatiol1al J01lrnal o/Hindll Studies and iVova Religio. THE ROUTLEDGE WORLDS TH

The Routledge Worlds are widely acclaimed one or two volume thematic SUf\ey~ of key historical periods and cultures, Each is made up of specially written, original pieces by an international team of the leading experts in the field, The Routledge Worlds are ideal refer­ ence works that bring their subjects to lifc and provide both a comprchensi\e o\cf\ic\\ and a real flavour of the newest research in the area,

THE GREEK WORLD Edirt'd hI' ,~llt()11 PO\\'c!/ THE ROMAN WORLD Edilt'd hr John Wacha THF BIBLICAL \VORLD Edlled 11.1' John BartOli THF. F.ARLY CHRISTIAN WORLD Sushi] Edilal Philip FEsler THE CELTIC WOR LD Edited Aft'randa Green THE MEDIEVAL \VORLD Edited h1' Pela Lmehall (Ind Jallel L. :Velsol1 THE REFORMATION WORLD Edited Ill' Alldrell' Peltt'!!,rt'e THE ENLIGHTENMENT WORLD Edited hr Marlin Fit:::patnck. Pcter JOlles, Christa Kllelhmlf'and lain ;",lcCa/mall

THE HINDU WORl.D

Edited 11.1', Sushil Milla/ and Gelle Thul'sh1'.

Forthcoming

THE EGYPTIAN WORLD Edited Wilkll1so/l THE BABYLONIAN WORLD Edited bl' Gll'enc/oi1n Leick THE VIKING WORLD Edited b1' Ste!

--­.•.

Nole Oil Il'allslilt'raticlll ix COllrri/)[llors x

BhUmika ,)'lIshil Miflal and Gent' T/llIrsbl'

PART I: I?\TRODUCING THE HI?\DU \VORLD

On Hinduism and Hinduisms: The ,yay of the banyan 9 Julius Lipller

PART II: ORAL TEACHINGS A?\D TEXTUAL TRADITIONS 2 Veda and Upanisad 37 Laurie L Patton '") 3 _LS James L Fit::.gerald 4 Ramayarya 75 Rohert p, Goldmall and Salh' J Slither/and Goldman 5 Purarya 97 Velcheru Naramna Rao

PART III: THEISTIC AND DEVOTIONAL MOVEMENTS 6 Saiva 119 Gavin Flood 7 Sakta 140 Kathleell ivl. Erndl 8 Vai~ryava 162 Francis X, Clooney and TOllY K Slerrarf 9 185 David N Lorel/::.el1

Vll ConTents -

PART IV: COSMIC ORDER AND HUMAN GOALS 10 Dhanna 213 Barbara A, Holdrege 11 249 NOTE Hartmut Schmfe 12 264 Dermot Killinglev 13 Mok~a 288 Klaus K. Klostermaier

PART V: SOCIAL ACTION AND SOCIAL STRUCTLRE 14 309 Herman W, Tull ',\ ;,;: ha \ .:, 111 g.:n.:ral. 15 Sarpskara 332 ,':~::llag.:'" Although Marv ;\lcGI!I! ;:I.:r". \\.: u~.: carlla 16 and Jati 357 ; \,;,;:r1llm of tho,;e u' AkKim Marriott '.:.:n angliCized 111 fc 17 Asrama 3R3

PART VII: Lli\GUISTIC AND PHILOSOPHIC ANALYSIS 22 Bhasa 505 l'vladhal' AI Deshpande 23 Darsana 531 .fohn A, Grimes 24 Kala 553 Randv Kluef:::1i and A I/Hilfebeitel

References cited 587 Index 627

VllI IALS 213

249 NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION 264 ---.•. 288

'TURE 309

332 We have, in general, adhered to the standard transliteration system for each of the Indic languages, Although Indic languages make no distinction between uppercase and lowercase 357 letters, we use capitals to indicate proper names and titles; all other Indic terms, with the exception of those used as adjectives, arc italicized and not capitalized. Terms that have 383 been anglicized in form or have come into English usage are neveliheless given in their standard transliterated fonns, with diacritics karma, p(/~l~lifa, and ), Modem plaee­ names arc given in their current transliterated fonm, but without diacritics, If references to such places are made in a literary or historical context, however, they are given in their stan­ CES dard transliterated fonns. with diacritics, Modem proper names arc given in their current 407 transliterated fonns. but without diacnties, All premodern proper names, however, are in their standard transliterated t

446

478

LYSIS 505

531

553

587 627

IX CONTRIBUTORS J.lme-- c. Lochtefei

--.•. {)-,n id '\. Lorenzen

'. ~:. \.:.:"

\'a~ \teGee I~ Dcc

\Ic .... im \tarriott I~ ' ..:·-.,c', C,)llc~c. l:

'u-.hil \1ittall~ .-\~~ Surinder M. Bhardwaj is Professor in the Department of Geography. Kent State "~.!~:','n t nl\er~ll~. University. \ ;1·.. udha ,arayana Francis X. Clooney. S..I .. is Professor in the Department of Theology. Boston College. Laurie L Patton b Madhav M. Deshpande is Professor in the Department of Asian Languages and Cul!ures. \ deheru '\ara~an: University of Michigan. \-:.1. l l11\cr,ny ,)1" Kathleen M. Erndl is Assoeiatc Professor in the Department of Religion. Florida State tlartmut ScharfI.' j. University_ .. :urc'. l.i11\ ersll~ James L. Fitzgerald is Professor in the Department of Religious Studies. University of 1 on~ ..... Stewart Tennessee. -,~,'lm.i SUIC tnl\ Gavin Flood is Professor in the Department of Religious Studies. University of Stirling. (;ene Thursby I ~ Robert P. Goldman is Professor in the Depmtment of South and Southeast Asian Studies. ; '~IJ,I University of California. Berkeley. Herman \\. Tull I' Sally J. Sutherland Goldman is Lecturer in the Department or South and Southeast 'u-.an S. Wadley I: Asian Studies. University of California. Berkeley.

John A. Grimes is at Kodaikanallnternational School. Tamilnadu. India.

Aif Hiltebeitcl is Professor in the Department of Religion. George Washington University.

Barbara A. Holdrege is Associate Professor in the Department of Religiolls Studies. University of California. Santa Barbara.

Walter O. Kaelber is Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion. Wagner College. R. S. Khare is Professor in the Department of Anthropology. University of Virginia.

Dermot Killingley. now retired. was Reader in the Department of Religious Studies. University of Newcastle upon Tyne.

Randy Kloetzli is an Independent Scholar.

x Contributors

Klaus K. Klostermaier is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Religion, University of Manitoba. Julius Lipner is Professor in the Faculty of Divinity. University of Cambridge. ,lames G. Lochtefeld is Associate Professor in the Department of Religion. Carthage College. David N. Lorenzen is Professor in the Centro de Estudios de Asia y Africa. EI Colegio de Mexico. Mary McGee is Dean of Students in the School ofGeneral Studies. Columbia University. McKim Marriott is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Anthropology and in Social Sciences College. University of Chicago. Sushil :Vlittal is Assistant Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion, James Igraphy. Kent State Madison University. Vasudha Narayanan is Professor in the Department of Religion, University of Florida. y. Boston College Laurie L. Patton is Professor in the Department of Religion. Emory University. ~uages and Cultures. Velcheru Narayana Rao is Professor in the Department of and Cultures of Asia. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Iigion. Florida State Hartmut Scharfe is Professor Emeritus in the Department or East Asian Languages and Cultures. University of California. Los Angeles. udies. University of Tony K. Stewart is Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion, N0I1h Carolina StatL' University. 1\ er~ity of Stirling. Gene Thursby is Associate Professor in the Department of Religion, University or hL'ast Asian Studies. Florida. Herman W. Tull is Lecturer in the Department of Classics, Princeton University. Juth and Southeast Susan S. Wadley is Professor in the Department of Anthropology. Syracuse University.

dla.

:orge Washington

Religious Studies.

I Religion, Wagner

lt~ of Virginia.

Rei igious Studies,

Xl BHUMIKA .•.

Sushi! Mittal and Gene Thursby

he Hindu Tfbrld is a contribution to a series of books on great cultures of the world. T Compare The Greek World (1995) edited by Anton Powell, an earlier volume in the series and another large book like this one that brings together previously unpublished work by authors who arc engaged in academic teaching and research. We follow Powell in organizing the work of our contributors by general themes that functIon as plausible entry points for inquiry into the Hindu world but do not pretend to reveal a deep structure or irreducible essence ofthe "world" that is retrieved, reconstmcted, and represented from a number of perspectives, However, we depart from PoweIrs procedure by assigning to each of our contributors a single noun or adjcctive derived from the Sanskrit language as the topic for their chapter. Where he proposed to bring together "some of the most influ­ cntial new approaches used by analysts of Grcek history" we propose to show that even a limited lexicon can open into a distinctive "world" of human possibilitics generated in a culture that deserves to be designated as classical. The "classical" world of Hindu culture could be regarded as an ideal type~-,a simplified model, a schematization, or an approximation that serves as a learning resource for inter­ mediate students and general readers as well as a point of departure for further empirical studies. We understand it to include a range of roles and functions, teachings and texts, ideas and images, and places in the Indian subcontinent, each invested with authority and power and each contributing to a characteristic configuration of a major civilization and its modcs of signification and significance. Among the several languages of the subconti­ nent, Sanskrit has enjoyed a disproportionately large share of cultural prestige, and so our point ofdeparture for representing what is "'classical" in Hindu culture is a set ofkey terms derived from Sanskrit that do not find ready equivalents in other linguistic and cultural systems. We invite you to enter 1I1to the Hindu world and explore it from the vantage points provided by these tem1S which serve as titles for the individual chapters of this book.

WHAT IS A HINDU WORLD?

The introductory chapter by Julius Lipner gives careful attention to the heatedly argued question whether the terms "Hindu" and "Hinduism" serve or rather subvert - Sushi! Mitral and Gene Thursby serious scholarship. Perhaps Powell's title The Greek World could pass without question, TEACHI~ whatever a reader's attitudes toward things Hellenic or Hellenizing or Hellenistic. but The Hindu World as a title nms counter to currently influential modes of scholarly discourse. \ ed;}, epic ~ 1 Poststructuralist or postmodem assumptions now in the ascendant are politically scnsitivc \.1lmiki 1. and Pura~ and insistently nominalist. They tend to problematize generalizations as signs of t,f It long kept secre unwarranted reification and can be expected to generate resistance to the definite article "f It esoteric and d and singular designation of our title. How is it possible. it will be asked, for a thoughtful r.emg reduced to \\1 person to write under the title The Hindu World') The introductory chapter by Lipncr l..lllrie L. Patton op invites the reader to consider the issues involved in the use of the teons "Hindu" and .ktl,'n. She goes on "Hinduism" and attempts "to provide grounds. in nonessentializing tcnns. for dcscribing -,!l,m~ Within the tr Hinduism under its own rubric. Some such effort is called for in thc world of scholarship ., her!.? the .\fallah/II} if wc are to justify a range of ongoing activities" (34n23). 1,In1!.?, L Fitzgerald Readers may know Lipncr already from his fine book Hilldus. Their Religiolls Belie# .! ...Ist rang!.? of tim and Practices (199Ra [1994]). The banyan tree model that he introduced therc he develops .",umed that lnultir further here and utilizes it to commend a polycentric approach that appreciates diversity -:bIrth-. Jnd that gi within the Hindu world and the range of interpretive practices represented among the con­ ..\:-1 e\ er: ,Iluati tributors to this volume. Although it will be helpful to keep in mind Lipner's mtroduction "'.: :iL'ance that COllie while moving through this book. it is intended as the first rather than last word. After aiL '.Ii, ~Il1J paradoxes. basic tenllS of inquiry in the social sciences and humanities, as Gananath Obcyesekere ':'''' e h)ped narrall \ reminded us in The Work oj" eli/flIre (1990). are pcrennially contended, never settled. '~-')llgh the kXt. dt Readers are invited to compare Lipner's polycentric approach to "Hindu" and "Hinduism" -;;11eL'1- on gender I with other perspectives (some of them addressed in his chapter) represented in two rccent The' R(llllaWI1U. , handbooks: lilt' Studv oj" Hinduism (20(H) edited by Arvind Sharma and The Blackwell .' ':it.lln, ('I1e of th, Companion 10 Hinduism (2003) edited by Gavin Flood. "ulhe'rland (ioldr Lipner poses questions about how to formulate and frame the activities of inquiry--in ,'-:1' h.l' "qturatec which one may engage with a full range of intcllectual passions~and these are openillK . ~~ ....Ilene(.!. ll1tern: questions that invite repcated considcration in order to apprcciate the rich diversity within .~'.;nlj,litl~la In a \\a~ and among South Asian traditional communities. Here is an example. Lipner states the ...... ;..... l"nl'r~l(,~ nf L'\ L'T case f'or the heuristic advantage of acknowledging the normative status of the Veda in the !...!eJ \ la tele\ Isior Hindu world but leaves open several interpretive options such as how to understand where, . : h.' nh1st lI1tract: when. and by what means the Veda was produccd. Who were the agents or Il1tcrmediaries ;'.. ~:!l1.1 literature IS in its early transmission? What is the range and extent of its various manifestations? What !"',, .wthontatl\ might quality as a veritable or virtual Veda? Could it be mediated by a languagc other than -:'c':1l.lnt\·· l,f Yed, Vedic Sanskrit'? Other than by language? ,-,: t>:e ,ec('nd

2 - Bhumikii

ass without question, TEACHINGS, TEXTS, AND THEISTIC TRADITIONS 'f Hellenistic, but The f scholarly discourse. Veda, ltihasa/epic (the Mahiibhiirata. including the Bhagavad GUlL and the RiimdyalJa of c politically sensitivc Valmfki). and Pural}a comprise a vast and internally diverse corpus oforal teaching. some 7ations as signs of of it long kept secret within a few human and restricted initiatory traditions. some to the definite article of it esoteric and difficult to understand. and much of it still undergoing the process of ked. for a thoughtful being reduced to writing and then reconstructed in critical editions produced by scholars. y chapter by Lipner Laurie L Patton opens her chapter by placing the Veda in the ritual context of sacrificial . terms "Hindu" and action, She goes on to introduce the various strata of Veda, belief and action systems, and tenns, f(Jr describing efforts within the tradition to systemati7e its teachings, Like Veda. it is difficult to know world of scholarship where the Mahiihhiirala~one of the world's and longest epics~begins and ends. James L. Fitzgerald tenns it "a tradition ofreligiolls epic" and a "library" that extends over 'eir Religious Beliej.i a vast range of time as well as of textual and cultural space, Hindus "classically" have 'cd there he develops assumed that multiple lifetimes get generated by unresolved actions productive ofrepeated appreciates diversity rebirths and that gives the epic convention of starting ill medias res a multidimensional !lted among the con­ twist {:very situation and sentient life-fonn is endowed (and pregnant) with ranges ofsig­ jpner's introduction nificance that could threaten to outstrip the imagination. This gives rise to mighty rever­ last word. After aiL sals and paradoxes. The frame story or boxed story-the story within a story~is a highly nanath Obeyesekere devcloped narrative convention in the Hindu world, too. Fitzgerald guides the reader nded. never settled. through the text. describes difliculties in the project of producing a critical edition, and du" and "Hinduism" reflects on gender identities and relations in the epic. sentcd in two recent The Riimiivcl(w, a relatively shorter epic rendered in Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit versions, I and The Blackwell contains one of the world's most widely known stories, Robert P. Goldman and Sally J. Sutherland Goldman offer an apt liquid image. for indeed the epic tale ofrighteous king­ .. ities of inquiry-in ship has "saturated" most of Asia. The theme of the ordeal of love~destined. found, d these are opening threatened. interrupted, regained, and then again in jeopardy~is developed in the rich diversity within Ramlimlw in a way that lends itself to ritual perf{mnanee and immediately connects with e. Lipner states the the energies ofeveryday life. too. In recent years. each ofthe two great epics has been seri­ s of the Veda in the alized via television. and the main characters in the Rc7miinma have been implicated in one o understand where. of the most intractable land disputes in modern India. Although the extensive corpus of liS or intermediaries Pural)a literature is less well known outside India than the great epics and may be regarded anifestations? What as less authoritative than Veda. Velcheru Narayana Rao makes a case for the "comple­ language other than mentarity" of Veda and Purana in Hindu culture (the first restricted to high-caste males and the second available to all. including low-caste males and women) and for Pural)a as \'eda can be dated, a distinct literary genre that maps out a widely influential Hindu cosmography of vast lindu world, should extent in space and time, .It questions of this These oral teachings continue to be recited and enacted in ritual dramas today and to a I\erse thematic set­ large extent are now available in print media as.·textual sources. They evidence a rich roughout this book, archaic background of poet-seer. bardie. prjestly. martial. courtly. and popular sources. stll1ctive eommuni­ They take for granted a great range of extrahuman. transhuman, and superhuman realities md reflect the most from among which a few have generated widely supported devotional and textual tradi­ he Hindu world for tions. Gavin Flood makes clear the multiple and complex features of Siva who is known Ippropriate to their by devotees as the great divine being~mahade\'G~and the extraordinary range oftextual :ion of scholarship, sources relevant to the task. Kathleen M. Ernd! introduces the theme of feminine mani­ festations of the divine and those who are devoted to one or more of them~.s'akla~by

3 Sushi! Mittal alld Gene Thursby ­ establishing a background in tenns of relevant scholarly resources and basic concepts, then giving close attention to representation of the goddess in the popular text the Miihiitmya as well as the identification of the sakti or power of the goddess with specific sacred sites in the subcontinent. Francis X. Clooney and Tony K. Stewart similarly intro­ duce the complex figure of Vi~l)u, his multiple avatiira or earthly descent manifestations, and then select two Vaisl)ava subtraditiol1s for close attention: the SrIVai~l)ava of Tamilnadu in the south and the Gau~Iya of Bengal in the northeast. Finally. David N. Lorenzen approaches some of the same material from a different angle by focus on bhakti which includes personal devotion that may be directed to (and through) a saintly person or personal form of divinity. The conserving and the revolutionary potential of mtense devotion, including aniconic or iconoclastic devotionalism. are acknowledged by Lorenzen. Apparently poles apart from the esoteric and hierarchical exclusivism of Veda, Hindu blwkti movements energized regional languages and empowered conventionally low-status people, extending the range and variety of the Hindu world,

SOCIETY AND SACRED INTERSECT[ONS .. ' - ",- .... , " ..::.. .!: There are four categories or life-ideals (c(l/urvarga or purusurt!w) that usually are said to provide the framework for classical Hindu society. , the first of the t(mr, functions as a kind of master trope and normative center to which nearly all major Hindu ideas. ideals, and practices repeatedly rcfer. Barbara A. Iloidregc characterizes it as "an encom­ passing category that incorporates and at the same time transcends" other distinctions. She ~. -,,l ...... '-~." ~ ...::'=' eonnects it back to Vedic rta, traces it through a long process of development, and dis­ cusses its elaboration into "a pivotal category of Hindu identity" as \'ar(lclsramadharma ~f"" :-,-" ~ ..~..: '-"', """,,'-.11 which envisions a compartmentalized society composed of endogamous human lineages. "-_: " ~~ I social hierarchies based on ascribed status by birth. and a ritually guided life plan for high­ status malcs. That life plan finds an approved place for investment in activities and things that produce wealth and power (arrha); in human reproduction, emtics, and aesthetic enjoymellt (kclllla); and liberation from endless action and rebirth (lI1ok~'a), In the course ~~..:: '-:~. l~J of his analysis of arllla, Hartmut Scharfe indicates ways in which the first three (termed '.f :~"~:"~ .....!' t,'\.r..: trimrga when linked to the exclusion of lIloksa) may be involved in what he calls .•:_ .:.:.. ..: -'::~.1'!:' "a revolving hierarchy" and constitute a cluster of competing yet mutually overlapping norms, Dermot Ki lIingley carries his analysis of kama through ascending levcls of mean­ ing from a root sense as "desire" and its various refinements right up through ritual, sacred, and cosmic levels as a world-generating cause of bondage and impulse toward release-­ a source of seemingly endless suffering and delight. Where Killingley arouses the mind with the troubling thought that the entire cosmos "may be the unplanned result of an act which was prompted by kuma," Klaus K. Klostennaier marshals resources to enable us to consider a variety of ways that an ultimate resolution of this plight has been conceived 111 .• ·,·::".c·~ ,':1<.: I,ik, the Hindu world-by disciplined praetice, study, other forms of aetion, devotion, "._, ' ..;' .11,.l m, wisdom~as a human possibility. The dramatic cosmography of the Hindu world. with its overwhelming variety of kinds and levels, is pervaded by threads of significance carried by notions of action and . ,';' :~ll',mlll consequences. Hennan W. Tull describes some of the most influential ways in which I ::~l,l h,l~

the "ubiquitous" notion of karl/lall winds through the Hindu world like an attractive, .~ .- ... h.l\ l' (.I

4 - Bhamika­

I basic concepts, then dangerous, and yet unifying creeper vine. In tum the institution of a series of life-cycle lpular text the Del'i rites or samskaras has been relied upon ritually to control and reduce unwanted traces and :oddess with specific consequences of fonl1er actions. whether they occur here in this life or originate before or :wart similarly intro­ beyond it. Mary McGee provides a lively account of rites of the life-cycle, starting with .;cent manifestations, the hinge on which they tum: the act of marriage which links families and leads to new the SrIVai~l)ava of generations. Traditionally the making of marriage alliances and other forms of social ~ast. Finally, David interaction have been guided by Hindu assumptions about separate human subcommuni­ It angle by focus on ties reckoned in terms of strands of characteristics that function somcthing like genetic Id through) a saintly material. McKim Marriott. a scholar long associated with a project that seeks to Itlonary potential of understand the Hindu world through Hindu categories. contributes a dense and discerning re acknowledged by chapter on birth-status and human types under the aspect of i'ar~/{J and Jali. These are at 'xclusivism of Veda. once structural and dynamic categories. and their dynamic potential is made more evident ered conventionally by the traditional ideal of an orderly human procession through distinctive stages oflife or d. il.ITulI1a, a norm entailed in dharma, karma. and s(//!lskiira but also one that merits thc separate treatment given here by Walter O. Kaelber. Sourccs of energy and modcs of vitality are univcrsal human concerns that have been ONS given distinctivc cxpressions in the Hindu world, especially in the ways that food is under­ stood. thcorized. and shared. As R, S. Khare makes evident, food is at the point of depar­ It usually arc said to ture for some of the most profound and powerful human classification systems. Not only If the t()Ur, functions are humans "made of food." so are societies, cultures. and civilizations, Until recently major Hindu ideas, India was primarily a peasant civilization with a wide agricultural base and linked across ~es it as "an encom­ regions by networks established in marriage and kinship, by genealogical record-keeping, ler distinctions. She by patterns of disposition of the dead, and by the impulse to visit great temples and othcr ,clopment. and dis­ sacred sites, The role of the settled agricultural community-the village or grclIJllI-is \'urJuJ,l'ramadharma presented by Susan S. Wadley. She is an anthropologist who has a long association with a lUS human lineages, village in North India that has been intensively studied for two gcnerations. Vasudha :d life plan for high­ Narayanan. a religious studies scholar with a background in South India. adds an analysis :letivities and things of c1Iam, great and small temple complexes. some of which comprise major settlements or )Iics. and aesthetic the equivalent of small cities supporting ritual activities, the preservation and transmission )ksa), In the course of traditional learmng. and visits by pilgrims. James G. Lochtefeld and Surinder : first three (tenned M. Bhardwaj expand this theme to take in an even wider range of traditionally acknowl­ d in what he calls edged and attractive pilgrimage centers or tirthas. These have functioned for centuries as Jtually overlapping ways in which people in the Hindu world have experienced and expressed their distinctive ing levels of mean­ identities and allegiances and also have sought to transform or to surpass them toward 'ough ritual, sacred, something greater. ;e toward release­ y arouses the mind led result of an act LANGUAGE AND PHILOSOPHY n.:es to enable us to , been conceived in Whether one takes a social constructionist approach to the human enterprise of "con­ action, devotion, structing" and maintaining a social and cultural world or instead accepts social and cul­ tural worlds as .. language is a primary medium of expressing, if not generating, ng variety of kinds them. Worldview and ethos, patterns of belief and of action, are found to make sense and ons of action and are given meaning through language. Traditional South Asia as it centers in the subconti­ ial ways in which nent of India has been a rich source of linguistic diversity. How India's languages­ like an attractive, bhiisas-have carried the concems and institutions of the Hindu world is explored by

5 Sushi! MiNaI and Gene Thursbi'

Madhav M. Deshpande. Then John A. Grimes takes up one ofthe most important temIS in the Sanskrit lexicon--darsana-which refers to the intuition, insight, or illuminative vision that may have its source in intense thought deep reflection. or the immediate sight of a sacred or holy object The word also serves as the label for the whole range of intellectual activity to which the term "philosophy" may refer in modem English. The topic is exten­ INTF sive and can be managed only by schematic treatment here. If available space will not allow a longer treatment of dar~'ana, neither does it allow more than a respectful but brief exploration of the companion concept of time-kala-which is surely as formidable and dominant a category for the Hindu world as it was for Augustine in the West. A classical problem for the Hindu world, at a level perhaps more profound than for the high-speed modern urban person, is to fathom the mysteries of time. Randy Kloetzli and Alf Hiltebeitel illumine ways in which that great (t)rope strings us along so many yesterdays, todays, and tomorrows. Their chapter brings the book to a close and prepares the reader to circle around through it and again with increasing discernment.

WELCOME TO THE HINDU WORLD

Although The Hindu World can serve as a general reference work. some previous study of India will help the reader to obtain maximum benefit from the book, It will be particularly useful to intermediate and advanced students engaged in regional and area studies of South Asia as well as in academic fields that range from anthropology, history. languages and linguistics, sociology and political science, to religious studies, Studcnts who arc pursuing a course of study in the world's religions, for instance, will recognize that several of our contributing authors have written substantial and sOllnd introductory tcxtbooks on Hindus and Hinduism, Along with Julius Lipncr's commendable and previously mentioned Hindus (1994), the student may refer to Klaus K. Klostermaier's A SUrl'el' ojliinduisl1I (1994 [19119]) and Gavin Flood's All introductio/1 to Hinduism (1996). as well as the chap­ ter by Vasudha \!arayanan in Willard G. Oxtoby, cd., World Religiolls.' Eastern Traditions (2002 [1996]). The Hindu World extends the treatment ofsevcral topics that are 1I1troduced in thosc tcxtbooks and ean serve to complement them in collegc and university courses of study. Our deep appreciation goes to the authors of the book's chapters and to an even larger number of outside readers, All of them are professional scholars with expertise in the lan­ guages and cultures of South Asia. Many of them have been contributors to the internatioNal juurnal oj Hindu Srudies (1997- ) for which Sushi! Mittal is the founding editor. The Journal has helped to foster an international community of inquiry and to estab­ lish Hindu studies as a recognized area of scholarly research. Without the hard work and goodwill of these many contributors, this volume would not have been possible, Nevertheless the editors alone arc responsible for the final result that you have in hand.

6