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Now What? Revivalist and Global South Politics.

JOEL CARPENTER

cross three great regions of the world—sub-Saha- Aran Africa, Latin America, and southern and east- ern Asia—two trends are rearranging the social and political landscapes. One of these, the growth of democracy in civic life, politics, and governance, has attracted the attention of some of the most prominent Illustration to come scholars of public affairs. The late Samuel P. Huntington of Harvard famously called this movement “the third wave” of democratic revolutions in modern history. This trend is anything but inevitable, however. Despite dra- matic advances, democracy in many lands is fragile, and there have been many setbacks, as any reader of the “world” section of the daily news can attest. The other development, which until recently was near- ly invisible to most scholars and pundits, is Christianity’s dynamic development in these regions, which is causing a seismic shift of the ’s place and role in the world. Christianity, it turns out, is not just the fading tribal reli- gion of the Europeans. The faith is practiced worldwide, in many more places and languages than any other reli- gion. The great majority of now live outside Europe and North America. Just as the nations of the Global South and East are the most interesting places to study democracy these days, so too the main questions about Christianity increasingly arise from its new heart- lands in Africa, Asia and Latin America. One of those questions, which has received surprisingly little attention, is what these two trends have to do with each other. A number of political scientists, including Huntington, have noted that a re-energized Roman “critical self-understanding,” sponsored by evangelicals seedbed of leadership and organizational skills, advocacy, Catholicism, with a new theological purchase on free- and conducted by a healthy mixture of evangelical and and care for one’s neighbors. Likewise, the authors regu- dom, has been a critical force for democratization, espe- non-evangelical scholars. It was prompted to a great extent larly refer to studies of modern democratic movements in cially in parts of Latin America. What about some of the by INFEMIT’s concern that where evangelicals entered the the Global South and East, notably Larry Diamond’s other dynamic Christian movements, notably the Pente- political fray, the results have been mixed (to put it mild- work on how fragile new democracies in Asia seek to con- costals and other evangelicals? By the year 2000, twelve ly). On the one hand, many of the Pentecostals in solidate their gains and build some staying power. percent of Latin Americans identified as Protestants, and Guatemala backed the military dictatorship of Efrain Rios Equally central to these three books is a common defi- two-thirds of them were Pentecostals. In Africa, where Montt in the 1980s. In Kenya, on the other hand, born- nition of what it means to be an evangelical Christian. Christians now make up half of the continent’s total popu- again leaders in the older, mission-founded churches were Here the contributors buck the current trend. Many lation, Pentecostals and charismatics account for more among the most vocal critics of the Kenyan autocrat, American intellectuals find “evangelical” to be problem- than a third of the Christians. Christians constitute small Daniel arap Moi, in the 1980s and 1990s. Yet Moi made atic these days, given the immense variety and fluidity of minorities in Asian nations except South Korea (30 per- moves to co-opt other evangelical leaders, including those grassroots awakenings and revival movements in Chris- cent) and the Philippines (85 percent), but wherever there of his home denomination, the Africa Inland . So tianity worldwide. Some openly express their dislike for it are Christians in Asia, evangelicals in general and Pente- what could evangelicals worldwide learn about themselves all, which can lead to impatience with definitions. If it costals in particular are on the rise. So what relationship from a closer study of their political activity and impact? cannot be defined, perhaps it has no permanence. Anoth- do these religious movements have to the public life of And what could those who study Global South politics er tactic is simply to call them all “fundamentalists.” these regions? and religion’s role therein learn from studying evangeli- Even for the more earnest classifier, evangelicals can A cadre of evangelical intellectuals from the Global cals? Plenty, on both counts, it turns out. be frustrating. They do not stay within the confines of South and East decided to address this question. This One of the continual reference points of these studies denominations or traditions of doctrine and worship, and group, known as the International Fellowship of Evangeli- is the work in political science on the meaning and pro- they produce some remarkable hybrids, such as Presbyte- cal Mission Theologians (INFEMIT), has been led for many cesses of democracy. The authors follow the turn in this rians who cast out demons, and Orthodox adherents who years by Vinay Samuel, an Indian theologian. INFEMIT field from a primary emphasis on the structures and sys- speak in tongues. With the increasing dominance of this operates the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, sponsors a tems of “electoral democracy” (elections, constitutions, scene by Pentecostal and charismatic movements, schol- geographically dispersed, interdisciplinary doctoral degree and the balance of legislative, judicial and executive pow- ars focusing on those two traditions often bristle at their program, and publishes Transformation magazine. In ers, etc.) to “liberal democracy,” with more attention to being classed under an “evangelical” rubric, since the 1997, ts leaders conceived an ambitious, three-continent how the system works (accountability, transparency, hon- Pentecostals and charismatics now greatly outnumber the study, and Timothy Shah, an American political scientist esty, and effective provision of basic services). Likewise, evangelicals who do not identify with them. of Indian descent (who is also Samuel’s son-in-law), orga- they extend attention from formal rights (speech, worship, In contrast, and much to their credit, the editors and nized and launched it two years later with major support assembly and association, arrest and trial constraints) authors of this series see local and regional webs of rela- from the Pew Charitable Trusts. The results are finally in, toward democratic cultural values and creative social ini- tionship that make a broad definition of “evangelical” a and they constitute three volumes of essays, edited by emi- tiatives. living . They use the four-fold definition devised by nent scholars and published this year by Oxford University A common core of political theory lies behind these Press.1 These works cover three continents and 16 three books. Most prominent are the works of Robert Put- Books discussed in this essay: nations, ranging from Brazil to Nigeria, from India and nam and Gabriel Almond on “civil society,” the complex China. of non-governmental organizations (youth clubs, arts Paul Freston, ed., Evangelical Christianity and Democracy in This project, Shah empasizes, has been an exercise in guilds, neighborhood improvement groups, churches, Latin America (Oxford Univ. Press, 2008). labor unions, and human rights agencies) that are expres- David H. Lumsdaine, ed., Evangelical Christianity and Democracy Joel Carpenter is director of the Nagel Institute for the Study of sions of initiative and creativity rising from the people. in Asia (Oxford Univ. Press, 2008). World Christianity at Calvin College. With Lamin Sanneh he These agencies give citizens the space they need to Terence O. Ranger, ed., Evangelical Christianity and Democracy edited The Changing Face of Christianity: Africa, the West, address issues directly and they serve as foils to authoritari- and the World (Oxford Univ. Press). an rule. Civil society is the shaper of “civic culture,” the in Africa (Oxford Univ. Press, 2008).

26 March/April 2009 B OOKS& C ULTURE the British historian, David Bebbington: settings, church leaders have taught that led protests against human rights viola- evangelical political engagement in the evangelical Christianity emphasizes 1) the personal conversion and discipleship are tions. Yet in spite of some initial success at Global South today is triumphalist, neo- centrality of ’s atoning death on the the greatest priorities, and that politics is electoral politics, Peruvian evangelicals Pentecostal “birthright” theology, all about cross (crucicentrism), 2) the authority of too dirty for Christians. Indeed, in places have played a negligible role in govern- being the people of destiny, born to have the and the centrality of Bible study where politicians practice bribery, extor- ment. dominion, believing that “our time has for spiritual growth (biblicism), 3) the tion, and cronyism with impunity, going The same might be said of evangelicals come.” Without a broader vision of how need for a personal and substantial life into politics has all the moral allure of in the Philippines. During the “People Christianity serves the common good or change (conversionism), and 4) a sense of joining the mafia. As revival movements Power” uprising against the Marcos regime undergirds and animates democracy, evan- urgency about practicing this faith in soci- grow and flourish, however, adherents in the mid-1980s, both the Philippines gelicals in elective office have been co- ety and commending it to others gain some social stability, and new expres- Council of Evangelical Churches and the opted, repeatedly, by the corrupt political (activism). sions attract the middle class. While it is Inter-Varsity student ministry mobilized machines. As author Roberto Zub sadly Applying this definition to Christian natural for evangelicals on the margins to alongside pro-democracy forces. remarked in his chapter on Nicaragua, groups in the Global South yields quite focus on changing themselves rather than They did it again in 2001, protesting the evangelicals’ votes “were being used to different results than in Europe and North changing society, evangelical movements corruption and violence of the Estrada negotiate benefits and not to increase America. In Kenya, for example, author experience growing social responsibility as regime. Yet there was little by way of sus- space for democracy.” Being an evangeli- John Karanja finds that all Protestants they grow in salience. Twenty years ago tained, principled evangelical presence in cal, he concluded, “was no antidote for meet the four-fold definition of evangeli- social scientists were describing the East the nation’s political structures. corruption.” Ditto for the continued cor- cal, whether they are in the older, mission- African revival, Brazilian , ruption in Zambia under the Pentecostal founded Anglican, Methodist, and and the house churches of China as “oth- 3. Evangelical groups often enter public president, Frederick Chiluba, and in Nige- Presbyterian churches, the somewhat erworldly,” but today these movements affairs for group-serving purposes, and they ria under the Baptist former general, newer or the show increasing civic engagement and are not immune to bribery, cronyism, and Matthew Obasanjo. , or the dozens of political participation. In one of the most influence-peddling. In Indonesia, where recently emerged Pentecostal groups. In striking chapters of this series, Kim-Kwong Christians are very much in the minority, 4. Evangelical competition and proliferation Zimbabwe, Isabella Mukonyora insists, Chan documents remarkable changes in several prominent Pentecostal nullify any idea of “evangelical blocs” or even the so-called African Independent officially atheist China: the election of became active in President Suharto’s party “new Christendoms.” In many places, evan- Churches (AICs) fit the “evangelical” cate- Christian local officials among the Liso in order to secure government permission gelical church growth gives rise to hopes gory. people, who are now predominantly to build new church buildings or obtain that the movement can sweep “godly” can- Christian; and the successful efforts of new permits for religious activities. In Brazil, didates into office by means of a united and unregistered churches elsewhere to the Universal Church of the Kingdom of evangelical electorate. These schemes do So, with a common understanding of gain government recognition. God (UCKG), the largest Pentecostal body, not work. Evangelical movements grow by what evangelical Christianity is, and what fielded slates of candidates and infiltrated proliferating and diversifying; they tend to democracy looks like, what do the authors 2. Evangelicals can mobilize quickly and pow- the Liberal Party. Its initial aim was to get increase religious diversity, choice, and find? As the study’s sponsors expected, erfully when a “kairos moment” emerges, favorable consideration for radio and TV competition. Such conditions work against evangelicals’ roles in public affairs are but they rarely succeed in sustaining a public licenses. Other Brazilian churches backed attempts to get activists to work together, quite diverse, but some general trends are presence. These books contain powerful candidates in order to assure that evangeli- whether in religion or politics. Paul Fre- emerging. stories of evangelicals responding to crises. cals got their share of government food ston wryly points out that in Latin Ameri- In Peru, civil order and human rights were vouchers. Lest U.S. evangelicals be too ca, visions of evangelical unity have 1. All over the world, evangelicals are now deeply imperiled in the 1990s by the Shin- quick to judge here, they should recall mainly led to “a plethora of would-be uni- engaging civic life and public affairs. In ing Path communist guerilla uprising and that three of the stated reasons for found- fiers.” many places, movements of the born- by President Alberto Fujimori, who after ing the National Association of Evangeli- Freston also insists that evangelical again and Spirit-filled began on society’s being elected in 1990 began to dismantle cals in the 1940s were to get favorable movements bubble up “from below,” as margins—among tribal peoples in India, the nation’s democratic institutions. Evan- licensing for religious broadcasting, more grassroots movements, not as some foreign among the urban poor in Brazil, among gelicals led the way in forming “peasant military chaplaincies, and more army sur- export from the Religious Right in the the Mayans of the Guatemalan country- patrols” to protect villagers from the gueril- plus goods for their missionaries. United States, as many earlier studies side, and across rural Africa. In many such las, while the national evangelical council Another common theme propelling claimed. Indeed, these books clearly falsify

B OOKS& C ULTURE March/April 2009 27 the notion that there are new theocracies and with government corruption and civil show, however, is that simple responses to focused and disciplined thinking about arising or, as Philip Jenkins put it, a “new rights violations. Its members in the legis- need very often lead to organizing, advoca- responsible Christian living in the world. .” Even in Zambia, where lature started coming from community- cy, and even electoral campaigns. Indeed, Evangelicals are inventive, resourceful, the born-again president proclaimed the serving ministries rather than from barber one of the main arguments of the “civil and opportunistic. But their proclivity for land a “Christian nation,” the main effect shops and the music scene. society” school of democracy is that all of ad hoc creativity and activism often works of that rubric was to fortify the opposition, these grassroots initiatives have positive against their valuing intellectual work, which contrasted his regime’s shenanigans 6. Lausanne and evangelical students promote roles to play in the creation of democratic engaging traditions of Christian social and to that ideal. democracy. I saw a striking pattern in these values; they are the seedbeds of new political thought, and developing princi- books that the editors and authors did not democratic political movements. Evangeli- ple-driven, long-term strategies. Personally 5. There are some signs of political matura- mention: a distinct source for much of the cals’ main contribution to democratization being good and doing good, and expecting tion and principled approaches among evan- more principled evangelical social and worldwide is in their penchant, like the that God will bring sweeping social gelical movements. In some nations where political engagement across the regions. early Methodists, for getting “organized to change by means of the next revival, are evangelicals’ engagement in politics has Repeatedly, the leaders of parachurch beat the devil,” responding quickly to per- not promising ingredients for a sustained had time to ripen, authors saw a definite ministries and reform-minded NGOs that ceived needs by creating new voluntary approach to social reform. These ideas do turn from more self-serving to principled worked on behalf of the poor and the vul- associations. not fortify patient, principled service in approaches. In South Korea, early evangel- nerable, who spoke up for human rights Evangelicals’ main deficit in support politics and governance.4 ical attachments in politics were more and electoral reform and against corrup- for democratization is their lack of princi- If ever there was a time that evangelical about gaining legitimization from the tion and autocratic rule came from two pled political thought. Repeatedly, these Christians needed to develop lines of rulers than about serving biblical norms. sources: student Christian movements, studies showed, evangelicals have gone social and political thought, it is now. In the 1960s and 1970s, only the more lib- and the worldwide network of evangelical rushing into electoral politics without a Around the world, as these studies dramati- eral churches spoke out against repressive leaders affiliated with the Lausanne Com- firm set of political principles, or even cally show, evangelical movements and rule. But in the great “Democratic Strug- mittee for World Evangelization. Inter-Var- some long-term political goals. One of the their leaders face a “now what?” moment. gle” of 1987, large numbers of the more sity Christian Fellowship joined the People movement’s greatest needs, therefore, is to They have experienced personal transfor- conservative holiness and Presbyterian Power movement in the Philippines, while develop political theology and philosophy. mation, and have shared this good news churches joined the democratic move- Campus Crusade played a central role in As Young-gi Hong, the Korea chapter with many others. Signs and wonders have ment. The first democratically elected the formation of the Citizens Committee author put it, “evangelical democratic poli- appeared, and hundreds of millions have president, longtime dissident and reformer for Economic Justice in South Korea. tics and social action need more devel- responded in faith. Churches have arisen Kim Young-Sam, was an elder in a conser- Likewise in South Africa, it was the mem- oped and coherent theological foundations and grown. Many good works and the vative Presbyterian church and schooled bers of Youth Alive, the evangelical stu- so that religious conviction supports free- agencies to drive them have resulted. But in Calvinist social thought. His regime had dent fellowship started in Soweto by dom, justice, and peace, not political pre- has not come back yet. So now limited success in effecting reforms, but in Caesar Molebatsi, who drove the Con- conceptions or particularistic interests.” what? More of the same? That won’t do, the ensuing years evangelical citizens’ cerned Evangelicals movement to resist evangelicals worldwide are finding out. reform movements, such as the Christian apartheid in the 1980s. The Latin Ameri- They have a new salience and significance Ethics Movement and the Citizens Com- can Theological Fraternity, an evangelical This rich collection of cases can seem in societies where they were once mittee for Economic Justice, have multi- network with strong ties to both the Lau- exotic at points to American readers. Can marginal and nearly invisible. With new plied. These groups constitute some 70 sanne Committee and the International you imagine an Assemblies of God mem- status comes new responsibilities. The sec- percent of all the nation’s NGOs. Fellowship of Evangelical Students, figures ber holding a cabinet post in a socialist ond half of their gospel mandate, after In Brazil, Alexandre Fonseca finds that prominently in pro-democratic evangelical government? Brazil’s Benedita da Silva is spreading the good news of personal salva- the UCKG still dominates the Liberal Party work across Latin America. indeed a far remove from her Assemblies tion and baptizing those who accept it, is and has a caucus of dozens of legislators, INFEMIT itself is a product of this net- brother, John Ashcroft, in the United giving witness to God’s justice, peace and but its formal platform and practical action work, which might help explain these States. Even so, there is not one of the full flourishing, teaching the nations God’s have changed considerably. While first authors’ interest in highlighting this strain main trends listed above that does not larger plan of redemption. preoccupied with gaining favors from the of evangelical thought and action. But it is apply to evangelicals in the United States. So evangelicals are founding schools, existing regime, the UCKG caucus mem- indeed significant. Little could the Anglo- It is astonishing to see that evangelicals seminaries, universities, community devel- bers have become more concerned with American founders of the Lausanne and worldwide, with their enormous variety, opment agencies, businesses, media out- the needs of their poor urban constituents campus ministry movements have imag- have these broad family traits. As I read lets, health clinics, women’s associations, ined that their emphasis on thoughtful these studies, I was reminded repeatedly of youth groups, and, indeed, political move- Bible study and a “whole gospel for the some of the traits that Mark Noll found in ments and parties. Yet this activism is very whole world” would help animate demo- early . short on theory and principle. That is per- cratic movements around the globe. The The most central trait, according to haps the greatest take-away lesson from irony would not be lost on Campus Cru- Noll, is a quest for religious authenticity. these pioneering studies. Evangelicals have sade’s creator, the late Bill Bright, who was Evangelicals want true religion, real Chris- created new religious, social and political an early supporter of the Religious Right tianity. The heart of evangelicalism, there- pluralism. But what do they think about in the United States. fore, is neither theological, nor political, that? How do they reckon with it? Now nor commercial, nor therapeutic. It tends what? 7. Evangelicals are much better at social action to be personal first, then small-group com- than at electoral politics. These three books munal second; it aims to make Christiani- are filled with accounts of evangelicals ty real to ordinary people. Calling founding churches (of course), but also evangelicals “other-worldly” never did cap- 1. According to Shah, the research and initial writ- ing were finished by the middle of 2002, but these starting schools, organizing poor and vul- ture the spirit of their outlook. They focus books only now appear. For studies of such protean nerable workers, strengthening and encour- on personal character formation as well as and even volatile settings, this lag time is a serious aging fellowships of women, combating on eternal . They value being problem. For Christian scholars, international work is child abuse, starting loan cooperatives for good and doing good, but they are more urgent and essential. We simply must get better at sponsoring, organizing, and communicating it. One small businesses, running health clinics, intent on changing themselves than on important solution, I think, is to strengthen study cen- operating feeding programs and advocating changing the world. Indeed, one classic ters in the Global South and East. for basic civil rights. Evangelicals have a evangelical social ethic that Noll identified 2. R. Drew Smith, “Conclusion,” in Smith, ed., natural affinity for plain and poor people. and several of these studies’ authors found Freedom’s Distant Shores: American Protestants and Post-Colonial Alliances with Africa (Baylor Univ. Press, They also quickly apply their talents for still current today is that the best way to 2006), pp. 225-226. organizing and managing projects, picking change the world is through changing 3. Andrew F. Walls, The Missionary Movement in up on contemporary popular culture, and hearts, one at a time. Christian History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith (Orbis Books, 1996), p. 81. sensing how relates to new situa- Even so, evangelicals can offer a 4. Mark A. Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism: The tions and forces of change. prophetic social critique. Historian Age of Edwards, Whitefield, and the Wesleys (InterVar- But how does this activism promote Andrew Walls argues that early evangeli- sity Press, 2003), pp. 232-33, 254-55, 261-62, identifies democracy? One recent study disparaged calism was “a religion of protest against a these traits in early evangelicalism. They continue to this day. evangelical social work as, at best, “indirect Christian society that is not Christian resistance” to social injustice and social enough.”3 But evangelicalism’s historic misery; mere “faith-based social service strength—its personalism—is its sociopolit- delivery” when what was truly needed was ical weakness. Its intent focus on personal “direct resistance” in the form of protest salvation and spiritual formation can sap and advocacy.2 What these three books the movement’s resources away from

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