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5 (1) | 2014
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EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Wojciech Przybylski (Res Publica Nowa, PL)
ASSISTANT EDITOR Anna Wójcik (Res Publica Nowa, PL)
ECONOMY AND BUSINESS Martin Ehl (Hospodářské noviny, CZ)
INTELLIGENT MIND Éva Karádi (Magyar Lettre International, HU) and Marta Šimečková (www.salon.eu.sk, SK)
BOOKS Katarína Kucbelová (SK)
INTERVIEW AND COMMUNITIES Máté Zombory (HU)
ARTS Anna Wójcik (Res Publica Nowa, PL)
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We kindly thank interns working for this issue: Gertrude Gecaite, Mateusz Kuryła and Emilia Zaręba
Visegrad Insight is published by Res Publica Foundation with the kind support of the International Visegrad Fund. The magazine maintains full editorial independence and opinions expressed in the articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily have to reflect or represent official position of the International Visegrad Fund, the Visegrad Group or the publisher. EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE
4 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 5 CONTENTS CONTENTS
EUROPE MusiienkoVladyslav Micha CHALLENGERS ł Siarek MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY BANKERS, CHERRY PICKING NEW EUROPE 100 10 Bankers, hipsters, and housewives: FOR A HUNGRY 68 T ech startups of New Europe Kornel a revolution of common people Koronowski Oksana Forostyna HIPSTERS, AND EUROPE ANALYSIS 16 Labor migration as an invisible but ENEMIES OF DEMOCRACY strong economic issue. Commentary HOUSEWIVES INTERVIEW WITH ATTILA MELEGH, Martin Ehl ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR 70 What people think of democracy 18 U krainian migrants in the Czech AT CORVINUS UNIVERSITY Radosław Markowski A REVOLUTION 76 W hen the party is over Republic Yana Leonityeva 22 R eport: Forecasting immigration into by Máté Zombory Dominika Kasprowicz the V4 Marta Jaroszewicz, Wadim OF COMMON 79 Normative Poles meet masculine Strielkowski PAGE 46 Slovaks Piotr Żakowiecki 25 Migration policies towards third- PEOPLE VISEGRAD ABROAD country nationals PedkoAnton Mateusz Podgórski RETREAT FROM THE EAST 29 D iaspora oriented organization in the Oksana Forostyna 82 A fresh look at the East Bruno Lété V4 Magdalena Mazur 86 W ould you call the Eastern Partnership 33 European commuters Matteo Tacconi a failed project? Interview with 36 Sticky issue or election-clincher? Matthew Bryza by Wojciech Przybylski Matthew Shearman 89 T he end of the Neighborhood Spasimir 40 F reedom of movement and cross- Domaradzki border migration. Recent debates on migration in Europe Jędrzej Burszta Ivan Krastev BOOKS 42 New Europeans Gertruda Gecaite A FIRST-HAND ACCOUNT DELUGE OF BOOKS INTERVIEW OF HOW TO OUST A DICTATOR IN DEFENSE 92 A deluge of books Katarína Kucbelová 94 W e know that we read but we don’t POPULATION FLOWS IN THE GLOBAL IN 93 DAYS PAGE 10 know what we read PERSPECTIVE OF DECADENT Petr Minarik 95 T ext dumping. Interview with Geza 46 C herry picking for a hungry Europe.
BWP Media PAGE Morcsányi Interview with Attila Melegh EUROPE 50 Lila Proics 97 All that glitters is not gold Przemysław
Máté Zombory Zdenek Matousek/PAP Witkowski INTELLIGENT MIND 98 R eviews by Katarzyna Dudzic- IN DEFENSE OF DECADENT EUROPE -Grabińska, Jan Rejžek, Michal Jareš, 50 I n Defense of Decadent Europe Ivan Ivana Taranenková, Magdalena Krastev Malińska, Judit Görözdi, Csaba Pléh, 52 T olerance requires competitiveness Renáta Deák Hywel Ceri Jones ARTS / LOOKING BACK COMMUNITIES ENTRY LEVEL COEXISTENCE 106 T he joys of obedience. Papers, Please Matthew Shearman 56 “The village will never be the same Piotr Sterczewski again.” Coexistence in northern 110 T he Vietnamese in Poland Ewelina Hungary Chwiejda Cecília Kovai S TICKY ISSUE PAGE 112 112 W here stuffed sharks don’t live: On the ECONOMY AND BUSINESS Czech artistic puddle and its fish FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT OR ELECTION-CLINCHER? WHERE STUFFED SHARKS Marek Sečkař 60 Mobility is an opportunity. Interview ESSAY with Eduard Palíšek, CEO of Siemens Although European elections in the UK tend to be fought DON’T LIVE Czech Republic on domestic issues, V4 migrants will find themselves at THE LEGENDARY WEST Pavla Francová the center of a fierce debate in May 2014. PAGE Marek Sečkař On the Czech artistic puddle and its fish 64 No drain, no gain 36 118 The Legendary Maciej Kuziemski West János Háy
6 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 7 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE
Te 2015 EU parliamentary elections official motto of Brussels: “united in diversity.” Among those is MAIDAN will coincide with the no less significant the issue of migration. With closer economic ties, which is the Eastern and Southern obvious outcome of the Ukrainian revolution, an increased Ukrainian elections to appoint new flow of people will follow, and migrants in Europe, unlike else- neighbors MIGRANTS authorities in Kyiv and to legitimize a new where in the world, have for quite some time been considered a potential threat, rather than an obvious opportunity. European path for what remains the largest WE WOULD LIKE TO BRING READERS’ ATTENTION TO THE FOCAL POINT OF THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND CHALLENG- country on the continent. While most of ES THAT LIE AHEAD FOR THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP AND and the recent debate has been understandably Te simplest fundamental THE EUROPEAN NEIGHBORHOOD POLICY overshadowed by the political cannibalism D E M OCRACY achievement In democracies, new elections bring about new policies. Will of Vladimir Putin, there are three serious this be the case for Europe in 2014? Which issues will be ad- questions that should not be overlooked in dressed by the new EU parliament and the newly appointed IS EUROPE REALLY UNITED IN DIVERSITY? POLITICAL PLAT- commission? Will Brussels and individual country capitals WOJCIECH PRZYBYLSKI continental affairs. FORMS BASED ON MIGRATION AHEAD OF THE EUROPEAN devote some energy to much-needed improvements in the Editor-in-chief ELECTIONS ATTEST TO THE CONTRARY Neighborhood Policy?
Tere are several shades of gray in European discourse on While Moscow’s foreign policy benefits from the recent surge migrants. Europeans demonstrate different, often contradic- of nationalist parties across the EU, Europe should rethink its tory attitudes toward foreigners who aspire to settle down attitude toward its Eastern neighbors and aim to reform and and earn their living among them. One such recent example integrate a common foreign policy. Despite all the odds, the was the French move to return a number of Roma migrants Eastern Partnership has worked, but the results have been to Central Europe in 2010. Tat decision, which was clearly unexpected; today’s policy must both adapt and demonstrate motivated by Nicolas Sarkozy’s need to satisfy the populist much more forward-thinking than before. demands of his constituency, did not help him win office two Understanding the years later. Te policy toward the East should not only be rethought as a tool for managing a potential crisis situation in the post-Soviet pro-European revolution Te debate on migrants took a turn for the compassionate space, but foremost as a thorough strategy aimed at bolstering after the Lampeduza tragedy in 2013, but have we not wit- relations with a troubled part of the world, integrating current nessed so many more such smaller-scale tragedies that they achievements, and reforming failed ideas. Tis encompasses THIS ISSUE OF VI PRESENTS A SERIOUS HELPING OF FOCUSED cumulatively make the migrant death toll too large to ac- the issue of migration, but it cannot be successful without se- ANALYSIS AND OPINION ON THREE MAJOR TOPICS: UNDERSTAND- ING THE UKRAINIAN MAIDAN MOVEMENT, DEBATES ON MIGRA- cept without hypocrisy? Finally, with the possibility of war rious reconsideration of the European attitude toward two, TION, AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE next door, the issue of a just and effective migration policy is often contradictory, factors: short-term economic output and a most urgent one. long-term political strategy.
By the end of 2013, we were all too comfortable watching vid- Nevertheless, several national parties running for seats in eos of people committed to the European way of life to the Brussels and Strasbourg continue to use anti-migrant rheto- WOJCIECH PRZYBYLSKI point of self-sacrifice. Teir voices have been heard far and ric as their principal weapon, first against Muslims, and now Editor-in-chief wide, despite Moscow’s efforts to discredit Ukraine as a radi- against economic migrants from Central and Eastern Europe. cal and anti-democratic nation. Public opinion in the West Te UK Independence Party recently released its poster cam- has already been disillusioned by the overambitious and dis- paign based on this issue and continues to run for European combobulated crowds of indignados and Occupy Wall Street office on a platform that goes against the shared core EU pol- protesters, and above all frightened by the fatal failures of the icy of freedom of movement, hand in hand with several other North African revolutions. grotesque political parties across the continent.
Now, we may see enthusiasm for democracy revived by Euro- At first the argument may seem rational – more migrants maidan, which, contrary to those other popular revolts, has mean less jobs – but various studies have already demon- been immensely successful and may renew trust in people’s strated that the opposite is the case. Pan-European freedom ability to improve politics in the 21st century. Te first ques- of movement is the simplest and greatest achievement of tions we pose, therefore, is how much do we know about what post-war Europe; public opinion in Visegrad countries can happened on the squares of Kyiv? Who were the people who definitely testify to that. So isn’t this a double standards? stood there and how can their experience bring about positive change? In spite of extensive analysis and projections, some of which is presented in this issue, there is a lack of political will for lib- Most of Ukraine’s people – who number about 45 million eralization of visa regimes. We continue to prepare domestic – harbor European ambitions. Teir determination to over- institutions for greater migration flows that may also reinvig- throw the post-Soviet culture of corruption represented by orate the troubled economy, but Eurostat data clearly demon- Viktor Yanukovyc and to modernize by following the Euro- strate that V4 remains balanced around zero when it comes pean example is remarkable. At the same time, it brought to to the rate of net migration. Tere is little talk about and even a head several serious issues that have been challenging the less action being taken in this matter.
8 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 9 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE BANKERS, It took three months for Ukrainians to overcome their fear and illusions of the disgusting criminal Ukrainian HIPSTERS, AND regime and push the world toward a reality check. Once they reached their tipping point, the world saw a large- scale rebellion carried out by the people, many of whom HOUSEWIVES had never been involved in protests before, and for whom the process of ousting Yanukovych was intense enough to override social and political barriers. However, life won’t A REVOLUTION go back to normal; the ongoing occupation of Crimea and other cities in Eastern Ukraine ensures that the people OF COMMON are kept on high alert. PEOPLE
OKSANA FOROSTYNA A FIRST-HAND ACCOUNT
OF HOW TO OUST A DICTATOR n a sunny morning on 18 Feb- playing the bagpipes. Tis was just an episode, ruary, thousands of people left one of thousands, demonstrating the fantastic IN 93 DAYS Maidan and went up Instytut- mix of senses that made up the Ukrainian revolu- ska Street toward the Ukrain- tion: national and party flags, EU flags, a guy play- ian parliament, the Rada. ing Beethoven’s “Ode to Joy,” men and women in Instytutska had been cut off by second-hand British and German camouflage with two barricades; in fact, the up- wooden shields sporting classic quotes or slo- per barricade was the border gans, and “V” signs, presumably inspired by “V for between two worlds, the hub of the rebellion on Vendetta.” OMaidan and the government area, also known as In a few hours, at least ten people were killed. the Pechersk Hills. Te entrance was extremely Te narrow entrance in the barricade became a narrow, about two meters wide, so people had to trap; people were beaten by titushki (paid thugs) wait in line to get in. and riot police while trying to escape. Hundreds My friends and I knew, although we didn’t were injured that day, and that was just the begin- say it out loud, that the idea was a bad one: un- ning of two days of bloodshed.
Vladyslav Musiienko like Maidan, with its many exits to the city, fortified and controlled by protesters, here on the govern- THE BEGINNING OF THE END ment hill and the other streets further up, we were Tat night Maidan was attacked, and the police squeezed between vacant office and apartment pressed forward, nearly as far as the now-famous buildings, and controlled by the riot police – the stage. Te Berkut set the Trade Union building on 1 There are 110 Berkut. In other words, the chances of escape were fire, Maidan’s headquarters since December. Te identified victims, with poor. death toll is still not clear 1; at least two burned another 16 police However, people went on enjoying each oth- bodies were found. Te fire could not be extin- officers who were killed er’s company, the sun, and the flags. First, came guished, as the Berkut had cut off the water supply. on duty during the companies (sotnias) of Maidan paramilitary units, As it would appear later, this was the only conflict. However, the then Samooborona (Self-defense of Maidan), then part of the operation that police and the SBU (the total death toll has not activists. Te line at the barricade applauded a guy Security Service of Ukraine) were prepared to de- yet been confirmed.
10 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 11 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE Photo: Vladyslav Musiienko Vladyslav Photo: competitive football clubs concluded an armistice participants and the vanguard. Tey not only during the revolutionary period. Ukraine might be had cars (and were prepared to forfeit them) and the only country in Europe in which people praised enough money to spend on petrol, but knew the ultras for defending them from the police. city very well. Local patriotism also mattered: af- ter Yanukovych came to power, all cabinets and FROM “STUDENT MAIDAN” TO positions that mattered, especially in security, AUTOMAIDAN were occupied by people from the Donetsk and However, this didn’t all happen from the begin- Luhansk regions, the most loyal to Yanukovych. In ning. During the first days of November, Maidan Kyiv and other cities, this was perceived as occu- was relatively small, just a few thousand Kyiv pro- pation, and urban folklore, far from being politi- fessionals and students, mobilized mainly by a Fa- cally correct, compared “Donetsky” with the Nazi cebook post, most of whom knew each other from occupation during the Second World War. When previous demonstrations and actions; four years of titushki began to come to Kyiv, the courage with Yanukovych leading the cabinet with unprecedent- which people secured the streets was probably a ed corruption and injustice were not easy. Before reflection of the last four years of bitterness at liv- the brutal beating on 30 November, students from ing under occupation. other cities came (which may explain why this first Maidan was called “Student Maidan”), and the MAIDAN ERUPTS night of the beating became part of the Ukrainian Back to the morning of 18 February: people re- collective memory, like a sort of Childermas. mained on the Pechersk Hills even after the first Te morning straight after that night, and the minor clashes turned into serious fighting, even next day, Maidan changed: people who had never after snipers began to shoot from the rooftops. been politically active before, came to Maidan. Police threw stun grenades into the crowd. Te It was not about signing the agreement with the crossroads of Instytutska and Shovkovychna, one EU, it was about being against the regime and its of the streets leading to the parliament, at the time brutality. blocked by trucks and a police cordon, is in fact Many new initiatives started at the beginning narrow, making it much harder to maneuver than of the new big Maidan, such as AutoMaidan 2, during previous clashes on Hrushevsky Street mostly represented by Kyiv’s middle class business and Evropeyska Square. But people stood their community and professionals. While Samooborona ground. From time to time they helped paramed- remained mostly within the Maidan perimeter ics to take away some of the injured and shell- to defend the barricades, AutoMaidan worked shocked – and they stood their ground. throughout the city and beyond, providing Maidan Tis is what Yanukovych and his allies could with firewood, food, and other essentials, patrolling not understand. Tey themselves fell victim to ploy. Fortunately, they did not achieve their goal streets, and guys exchanging expensive clothes for the streets, and protesting near luxury estates be- their own propaganda and self-isolation; they of turning Maidan into a bloodbath. Either they protective gear next to their 100,000-dollar cars. longing to Yanukovych and other authorities in the missed the point of no return, the point at which AutoMaidan is a underestimated the resistance of Maidan and Kyiv Even on the first night, the waiters and waitresses Kyiv suburbs. AutoMaidan’s race to Mezhyhirya, people were not afraid any more. First, it was just 2 movement made up in general, or some municipal executives who were were no longer nervous, as if it were the most nor- Yanukovych’s residence, was precisely recorded by that the harder the regime pushed, the harder mainly of drivers who ordered to cut off the water supply and electric- mal thing on earth to see guys in masks at the table. the police, every vehicle registered and recorded on the response was. When Maidan was attacked in protected the protest ity, acted as saboteurs, or something else alto- Te Ukrainian protests belonged to all classes and a list. Many cars from that list would be burned; the December 2013, thousands came in the middle camps and blockaded gether prevented a full scale tragedy; in any case, were a mix of multiple realities; a combination of owners of others lost their driver’s licenses in kan- of the night. Tose who could not take a taxi or th the streets. It organized Maidan stood the next day, and the day after that. 19 -century national revolution and an Occupy garoo courts, in which no effort was made to pre- carpool with friends and acquaintances came on a car procession on 29 On Tursday morning, 20 February, the riot police protest, a rebellion of repressed businessmen, an tend that the cases were legitimate. Tis happened foot. However, after the 16 January “dictatorship December 2013 to the retreated somewhat and some protesters crossed anarchist commune, and a warrior camp. Maidan to one of the leaders of AutoMaidan, who called laws,” 3 everything changed profoundly: it was President Yanukovych’s the front line. Ten, snipers began shooting. Tat became home to both Cossacks in traditional cos- for a strike near the Rada on 19 January; he had to no longer a non-violent protest. According to the residence in Mezhyhirya morning, most of the Nebesna Sotnia, “Heaven’s tumes and an IT tent (the head of the Ukrainian of- flee quickly. Another leader, Dmytro Bulatov, was “dictatorship laws,” pushed through parliament to voice their protests Company,” died, and that was the beginning of fice of Microsoft took a vacation to stay on Maidan), kidnapped and tortured. Earlier, Ihor Lutsenko, the by a disgusting breach of procedure and thus the at his refusal to Yanukovych’s end. a place for medieval weapons such as a catapult deputy commandant of Maidan and a well-known law, all forms of protest Maidan had used before sign the Ukraine-EU Why did people go to parliament on Tuesday and a ram, and almost non-stop online broadcast- activist, was also kidnapped and tortured, and was were prohibited. For instance, the provision of up Association Agreement morning? Some politicians and pundits would later ing, tweeting, and streaming. Te first catapult surprisingly asked the same question: who was to fifteen days in jail for wearing a mask, a helmet, in December 2013. say that it was a great mistake to leave the safe pe- on Hrushevsky Street, the location of the January providing financial support for AutoMaidan? Tis or “other means of concealing or protecting the rimeter of Maidan. Nevertheless, that day in the clashes, was constructed from drawings found on is symptomatic: the criminals, obviously affiliated face or the head” was met by large-scale protest 3 The Ukrainian column it was not only Self-defense who wore pro- the Internet and uploaded to a smartphone right with the police and the regime, had no idea what in just two days: people put kitchens utensils – “dictatorship laws” are tective gear, and we entertained ourselves by guess- next to the front line. Te frame holding the screen the Ukrainian middle-class was or how audacious pots, basins, and colanders – on their heads; and, a group of ten laws ing who the people marching next to us were: “I bet that activists installed in front of the police cordon and capable it was in those days. of course, helmets. As one of the dictatorship laws that were passed by this one is at least a department head,” “Tat, I’m to ruin the information blockade by providing TV- AutoMaidan is important in terms of the obliged NGOs that accept financial support from Ukraine’s parliament on sure, is a CEO,” and “I bet that one on the left is in news was made by joiners from the Carpathians. social structure of the revolution and proof that foreign institutions to register as “foreign agents” 16 January 2014. The marketing!” Maidan was an area in which all could work and it was not a Western Ukrainian project. During and to pay additional taxes, all of the social net- laws effectively restrict Tis was both usual and unusual. During the fight together, hipsters and farmers, anarchists and the Orange Revolution in 2004, people from all works were full of statements such as: “I am a for- the freedom of speech clashes in mid-January, we got used to seeing people bankers, the poor and the wealthy. Te first seri- regions took part and Kyiv held up the rear. Tis eign agent!” People chose to break the absurd laws and the freedom of with baseball bats and crowbars in the sushi restau- ous clashes in mid-January happened when foot- time, Kyiv’s young bourgeoisie were the active assembly. rants and pricey pubs on Maidan and in the nearby ball fans and ultras joined the protest. Te fans of 12 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 13 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE Photo: Vladyslav Musiienko Vladyslav Photo: deliberately instead of hiding at home, waiting for the city and join the paramedics. When she tried further repression. to pull the injured man from the firing line, some- If you can be arrested for wearing a hard hat one picked him up and covered them both with his or writing a Facebook post, why shouldn’t you shield. Tey chatted on their way back to the firing Vladyslav Musiienko throw a Molotov cocktail or a cobblestone? As the line from hospital; the next morning he was dead: risk of large-scale repressions became real, Maidan shot by a sniper on Instytutska. erupted. Shura is from Yalta, Crimea. Her father was a After a few weeks of violent clashes that saw military pilot and she was brought up in a military four activists shot, hundreds injured, and dozens family ethos. Shura graduated from the National arrested, the terror of thugs under police cover, Academy for Internal Affairs and worked briefly kidnapping and torture, the opposition leaders as a crime investigator for the police. “Here I do didn’t have anything to show for their negotia- almost the same as I once did as an investigator,” tions with Yanukovych, other than that most of she says. the “dictatorship laws” were revoked and most After what happened during the last days of activists discharged (although not absolved). the Yanukovych regime, Shura got a tattoo on her Instead, Yanukovych demanded that the buildings hand: “Nebesna Sotnia. 18.02.-20.02.” Tis tattoo on Maidan and Khreshchatyk be abandoned. In made the Berkut furious; the same Berkut who ran fact, Yanukovych acted just like a terrorist: creat- away from Kyiv after Maidan had won and who she ing threats, taking hostages, and then making de- would meet again at the checkpoint in Crimea a mands. All this meant that the protesters had to few weeks later, after the Russian invasion. Shura withdraw to a position that was even weaker than and four other activists and journalists were kid- before 16 January. napped and detained at the Russian naval base. On Tuesday morning, people went to parlia- Previously, they had been beaten, forced to kneel, ment not only in protest against the regime; they and their hands tied. Te Berkut cut Shura’s hair also came for the opposition. Tey came to support and threated to cut her tattooed arm. “Te inter- those few MPs they trusted, and to put pressure rogators at the naval base thought we were spies; on those who were not firm enough. Tey came they were fairly rational, but still naïve, and kept not just to protest, but also to block parliament if asking the hostages who was financing them; the it would not vote to change the constitution to its same questions were asked of the other kidnapped previous version, one with reduced presidential activists – Ihor Lutsenko and Dmytro Bulatov.” powers. As the Rada speaker refused to put it on Meanwhile, many people in the city of three the agenda, the tires in front of the police cordon on million panicked, buying out groceries and fuel, Hrushevsky Street were again set on fire. Te black and emptying the ATMs. Tis was actually the first smoke was a signal to the MPs inside parliament: time the panic had become serious. During the that had been a café just a few days earlier and had estate in this country, and the whole world under- “We are here and we will not accept a compromise.” winter, any trace of revolution was barely visible, recently been turned into an aid post, some other stands that other dictators might be next.” Ten came a day of massacre, and a night even just one metro stop from Maidan. injured people lay dying. A woman was crying and A couple of hours later we left Mezhyhirya, when Maidan was almost overtaken, with the Later that day, when someone announced sev- telling everyone that there was a sniper on the roof still wearing our already useless flak jackets. We streets full of thugs; and the morning, with the eral times that a grenade needed to be dismantled of Kozatsky. No one took her seriously. Te people paused in front of the TV screen at the petrol sta- Trade Union building still glowing, and Maidan just a few meters away, those on Maidan didn’t on stage prevented everyone from staying within tion in Gostomel, as did the staff of the fast food still under attack. Te metro was closed for the first even bother – something had changed profoundly. the perimeter of Maidan. Snipers were presumably café and the cashier. Te Ukrainian Parliament had time since its construction. But Khreshchatyk was Although the crowd at Maidan had earlier demon- shooting from the roof of the highest point above just voted to reject Yanukovych. We all sang the full of people, thousands again. Almost everyone strated that it was in fact a revolution of rational Maidan – the Stalinist-style building of the Ukraine national anthem along with the TV, just standing had at least one package with food and hot drinks. people – if people started to run in fear and cause Hotel. Minor clashes with titushki had been report- there, at the petrol station. Many seemed to be there for the first time, not just panic, others stopped them quickly – Maidan’s be- ed from the other sides of Maidan. For a few hours, Te revolution may not have been over, but for a Sunday meeting, but for a serious matter. havior on Tursday was different. it seemed safer on Maidan than away from it. we really did ruin Putin’s morning. Te following Tose who didn’t come to feed the mostly “Everything has changed,” said Shura, prepar- day, turmoil began in Sevastopol, and within four homeless Maidan residents came to make Molotovs ing messages of support for Ukrainian soldiers in THE REVOLUTION CONTINUES days Russian forces had seized the government and to pull up the cobblestones. Many people came Crimea in the AutoMaidan headquarters. With her AutoMaidan’s first visit to Yanukovych’s estate in buildings in Crimea. 4 After President from other cities despite numerous roadblocks. many tattoos, she looks more like a rock-star; be- December 2013 was a challenge, and provoked the With the continued violation of Crimea and Viktor Yanukovych fled Tis was the people of Kyiv taking their beloved fore Maidan she had been working as a stylist for subsequent acts of repression against the activists. the wounds of the events on Maidan still fresh in Kyiv on 21 February city apart to protect it. the most popular comedy show on Ukrainian TV. Te second time they went to Mezhyhirya was af- the minds of Ukrainian people, how will the devel- 2014, the Ukrainian On one of the plinths of the granite façade was “My old job seems so irrelevant after everything ter Yanukovych had fled, to provide security for oping conflict with Russia be played out over the Parliament adopted a cobblestone, just at arm’s length. A guy in a black that has happened.” the tourist attraction 4. Tousands came along on next few months? a resolution on mask, armed with a stick, used it to secure a new When the dead bodies were brought from that Saturday morning, 22 February, not only jour- the transfer of the garbage bag: Maidan needed more rubbish bins. Instytutska to Maidan on Tursday morning, few nalists and activists, but also families with children. Mezhyhirya residence people cried. In the new reality of the destroyed Perhaps some of these visitors had not taken an ac- The author is a Ukrainian journalist, executive editor of the into state ownership. SHURA’S STORY Maidan, it was full of Molotovs, the Trade Union tive part at Maidan; nevertheless, it was important Krytyka journal based in Kyiv. Thousands of Tat Tuesday night, Shura Ryazanceva, an Auto- building still burned, the Central Post office and for them to see the den of the tyrant, empty. Ukrainians visited this Maidan activist, dragged out an injured protestor some shops had been turned into hospitals, ten “Look, we really ruined Putin’s morning,” luxurious palace once it on Instytutska. She had been just about to leave the dead bodies lay bleeding in front of the Kozatsky I said to my friend. “Can you imagine, the whole was open to the general country the next morning, but decided to come to Hotel, McDonald’s, and the tram stop. In a tent world sees us walking around the most protected public on 22 February
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ceptions, of course, such as Germany, experience with a highly specialized European University in Budapest in which allowed entry to its labor market Czech medical doctor who returned af- 2011 (“From Job Search to Skill Search: at the latest possible deadline. Poles have ter ten years’ practice in the UK to a top Political Economy of Labor Migration Labor migration: created strong minorities in the UK and Czech medical facility, and then left after in Central and Eastern Europe”), Lucie Ireland and strengthened an old one in a few years, tired of the quasi-reformist Kureková takes a thorough look at the Germany. About two million Poles live wrangling of politicians, the low salary, economic reasons for migration from and work outside their homeland, ac- high bureaucratic burden, and the lack of the region. One of her conclusions is an invisible cording to the estimates of the Polish a broader perspective. not surprising: people from less gener- Central Statistical Office. Following the Tere is a real danger that there ous social systems – such as the Polish decline of the crisis, there has again been will be a general shortage of specialists or Slovak system – emigrate more than a rise in emigration. According to an as Europe ages and the weakest points in people from more generous social sys- but strong economic OECD study, at the end of 2012, unem- the transformation of post-communist tems – such as the Czech or Hungarian ployment in Poland reached more than states – primarily the poor quality of system. Another of her conclusions may 10% (30% among the young), and emi- public institutions – are pointed out. Of be surprising to politicians but not their COMMENTARY gration increased again. In 2012 about course, medical doctors can more easily voters: in addition to relative or absolute issue 5.2% of the population was abroad, while find work abroad than teachers, for ex- wage levels, the institutional set-up of the in 2010 it was about 3%. For comparison, ample. When a young, relatively well-ed- labor market also plays a crucial role in there were 56,300 temporary immigrants ucated teacher, faces a lack of prospects, the decision to migrate or not. in Poland in 2011. that young teacher goes to clean houses Te process of transition has creat- Tens of thousands of Slovaks have in London with the notion that it could be ed structural insecurity for entire groups MARTIN EHL sought work in the Czech Republic over the start of a new life in a different coun- of citizens. Many, upon finding them- the last few decades. According to the try and environment. Newcomers such selves in desperate situations of strug- OECD, there was substantial drop in as Vietnamese, Ukrainians, and Slovaks gling public funds and a lack of coherent wo generations of Central sands of ethnic Hungarians to Hungary immigration in 2011 (-25% in compari- are not filling these specialized ranks, labor policy, decide to resolve the situa- European citizens lived in from Serbia, Romania, and Ukraine – son with 2010) and emigration (-26% in but are mainly enlarging the already ex- tion themselves. Tis is physically visible an artificially isolated en- not to mention the Vietnamese minority 2010). Tere were about 130,000 Slovaks istent cohort of cheap labor, which to a in many Eastern regions such as Prešov, vironment until 1989. Fol- in the Czech Republic and the Chinese working abroad in 2010, and a year later great extent forms the Central European Slovakia, or Bialystok, Poland, where lowing the mass shift in minority in Hungary – are completely there were 116,000. workshop for German industry. whole generations have been depleted by whole nations during the new phenomena with deep economic Quite recently, there has been a Te economic crisis of recent emigration and incoming money, while, Second World War and consequences, in addition to the politi- fresh wave of – mainly young and well- years has influenced migration in the on the other side, there is the creation immediately after it, there cal and social ones. Among the OECD educated – Hungarians seeking work region quite significantly. Te OECD’s of new socio-economic groups whose was no possibility for the average citizens countries, the Visegrad Four are among in Austria, Germany, the UK, and other International Migration Outlook 2013, members build big houses and artificially Tof the countries between Germany and the countries with the lowest share of EU member countries. Teir motivation produced last autumn, shows that the cri- drive consumption only to show locals Russia to seek better work opportunities foreign-born populations, falling under is probably a combination of economic sis has slowed migration among OECD that emigrants live better. So far, there elsewhere. Tere were many emigration the 5% threshold. At the top of the four and political reasons, although there is countries. In 2011 (the latest numbers), is no structural sign that emigrants are waves in the wake of different uprisings is the Czech Republic, where rules are a lack of data and studies in this area. immigration in the context of free move- returning en-masse to create new busi- against communist rule, but there was no being tightened, especially for economic Some estimates speak of half a million ment in Europe rebounded by 15% after nesses and new jobs. opportunity to seek a better life without immigrants. Hungarians working permanently out- a decline of almost 40% during the cri- Despite the many economic impli- forever saying goodbye to one’s home- Attitudes toward the old emigrants side the country. Official emigration sta- sis (2007-2010). Poland and Romania cations, we are continually brought back land. It was a one-way street. But farther of Central Europe changed after the fall of tistics are unavailable. According to the are, after China, the top two countries to political questions, especially with back in history, thousands of Poles, Slo- communism. Te Baltic states and Poland OECD, an estimated 200,000 Hungarians of origin due to increased intra-EU mo- regard to the quality of domestic insti- vaks, and Czechs – not to mention the saw their old communities overseas as a worked abroad in 2011, with a significant bility. According to this OECD report, tutions after the transformation and ten different settlements inside the former natural part of their nations that helped increase in 2012. Labor emigration in people are still leaving even though im- years of EU membership. Domestic brain Austro-Hungarian empire territory – preserve tradition, language, the spirit of particular involves youth and the health migrants are more affected by rising un- drain and demographic damage are an- went to North and South America. Such freedom, and the old business spirit dur- sector. For example, 2,000 physicians re- employment. Te political consequence other side of the issue, accompanied by emigration was largely due to economic ing communism. Countries such as the quested professional certificates required in Western Europe is clear: there is now an unwelcoming attitude to new immi- necessity rather than political reasons. Czech Republic and Hungary rather saw for their employment abroad in 2011. a growing anti-immigration wave in grants from even poorer and worse-gov- Tis natural inflow and outflow ended emigrant communities as a danger to the Te Hungarian example shows there Western Europe, one well-exploited by erned countries. Tese issues are highly with the raising of the Iron Curtain. local elites that emerged from the com- are special sectors endangered by labor populist parties, which has much more political in host countries in Western Te 1989 changeover brought a munist transition, and thus there was no migration. Te Hungarian government to do with domestic policies than with Europe, where emigration is contribut- new, double experience with migra- inflow of real businessmen with Western has introduced restrictions for medical situation of emigrants themselves. ing to tension at a time of record high tion. With the change promoted by the experience as there was in Poland, where students – they have to pay for their stud- Te Baltic states, Poland, and unemployment, and in turn feeding ris- slogan “open society” and acceptance the Solaris bus factory is a prime example ies in case they leave immediately after Slovakia have sent more of their labor ing support for populist and eurosceptic into the European Union, societies that of an emigrant family setting up business school. Te Romanian medical system force – in relation to its active labor parties. Migration in Central Europe is had been closed for the last forty years back in Poland. is collapsing because doctors and nurses force – abroad than the Czech Republic, a far-reaching matter thus far only ad- started to open in many different ways; Central Europe has continued its are leaving the country. Tis has been Hungary, and Slovenia, with Lithuania dressed poorly by politicians, but with this included producing migrants as well historical tradition of producing econom- widely described in the English-speaking topping the race with 8% of its labor long-term implications for each of the as receiving them. Te new existence of a ic emigration in the last decade, driven in press and evokes similarities with all the force out of country three years after EU states and societies involved. Ukrainian minority in the Czech Republic particular by EU membership and based Visegrad countries, where young special- accession. and Poland, massive Slovak outflow to on one of the four basic freedoms: to seek ists in particular are moving westward. In her dissertation on labor mi- The author is the chief international editor of the the Czech Republic, the return of thou- work elsewhere within the EU – with ex- Te author of this text has had personal gration in CEE countries at Central Czech daily Hospodářské noviny.
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Te number of Ukrainians in the among female migrants (70% as compared 2012 MoLSA decided to instruct LOs to Statistics indicating whether Czech work- Czech Republic has grown rapidly in the to 52% among men, CZSO 2013). discontinue issuing work permits for posi- ers subsequently filled positions for which UKRAINIAN last twenty years. Starting with less than For more than two decades, Ukrainian tions for which employers do not request foreigners failed to get permits are not 10,000 in the early 1990s, the official num- migration to the Czech Republic has been Maturita (General Certificate of Secondary available. As mentioned earlier, the reces- ber of Ukrainian citizens who reside in the primarily economic in nature. Most of the Education – GCSE). In June 2012, follow- sion did not have such a dramatic impact Czech Republic today has risen to over Ukrainian immigrants are traditionally ing strong criticism from NGOs and Czech on the total number of Ukrainians residing MIGRANTS 100,000. Ukrainians are the largest mi- employed in the secondary labor market. companies employing immigrants, MoLSA in the country. Given the dynamic of the grant community in the Czech Republic: By the end of 20111 the official record re- modified the aforementioned regulations Czech unemployment rate, it seems that they constitute about 25% of all migrants ported 68,650 economically active citizens and instructed LOs to prolong and issue rather than combating unemployment and and about 40% of immigrants from coun- from Ukraine, of whom almost half were work permits for unskilled professions for a exclusion, the measures taken by MoLSA IN THE CZECH tries outside the European Union. Te self-employed with the other half being shorter period of time: up to six months for and described above merely influenced the total number of Ukrainian citizens regis- under a regular work contract. Te nature professions with no GCSE requirements, nature of Ukrainian labor migration. tered by the end of December 2013 was of the economic activities of Ukrainian up to one year for professions requiring a Another important change illus- 105,239 (MoI 2013), which represents a migrants has changed significantly over GCSE certificate, and up to two years for trated in Figure 1 is the 60% growth in REPUBLIC slight drop-off from the end of 2008, when the last five years. Figure 1 illustrates the highly qualified professions with an uni- officially registered entrepreneurial ac- the number of Ukrainians residing in the incredible drop-off in direct employment versity education requirement. However, tivities of Ukrainian migrants since 2008. country was about 132,000 (CZSO 2013). of Ukrainians (with an almost 60% drop- the new memorandum insists on an offi- In order to understand the dynamic of In addition to the official numbers, off from 2008 in 2011), which, however, cial proof of qualification requirement for the economic activities of TCNs in the an irregular component of Ukrainians im- did not coincide with the mass return of all applicants. In the middle of November Czech Republic, it is important to con- YANA LEONTIYEVA migration is worth mentioning. According immigrants. 2013, MoLSA modified the regulations sider an important fact behind these of- to official statistics, the annual number of In order to understand this devel- again, this time prolonging the maximum ficial numbers: there are different forms Ukrainian citizens who cross the border opment, it is important to note that in validity of the work permits for unskilled of irregular economic activities carried without valid documents is very small. 2008 the vast majority (91%) of employed and semi-skilled profession up to twelve out by immigrants. In addition to the However, most researchers and experts Ukrainians did not have free access to months. Te regulations concerning quali- employment of immigrants without valid agree that Ukrainians (as well as many the labor market and had to apply for fied professions with university education residence permits and/or valid work per- other immigrants groups) “fell into illegal- work permits, which are mostly issued remained the same; however the proof of mits, there is also the rather widespread krainian immigration ily ties. After the fall of the Soviet Union, ity” in the Czech Republic (Drbohlav and for a period of up to one year, and fixed qualification is now required only for new phenomenon of employment hidden to the Czech lands the Czech lands experienced a new ex- Lachmanová 2008), mostly as a result of a to a given employer, position, and region. work permits and not for prolongation of behind self-employment. Tese “bogus has a long history that tensive wave of predominantly economic rigid migration policy, especially with re- However, according to the official num- valid permits. employment” practices, in the Czech some experts date migrants from Ukraine. Te “older” gen- gard to the prolongation of work and resi- bers, the economic recession did not have Te effectiveness of these measures context often called the “Švarc system,” back to the Middle eration of immigrants maintain their civic dence permits. Tis may be all the more such a dramatic impact on the economic in boosting the employment prospects of are often preferable not only to immi- Ages. Labor migrants activities in a more traditional way and – at true in times of economic recession, as activities of Ukrainians (and the majority the domestic workforce is not entirely clear. grants but also natives. Tis alternative from Halych and Bu- the turn of the century – were clearly dis- the Czech state put more restrictions on of other third-country nationals) not sub- kovyna came for sea- employment of third country nationals. jected to work permit regulations (holders sonal work to the Czech and Moravian SUMMARY According to estimates, the number of ir- of permanent residence permits, family FIGURE 1. IMPACT OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS ON THE REGISTERED Ulands (Zilynskyj 1995) in the 14th century. regular immigrants in the Czech Republic members, students, etc.), or EU nationals ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF UKRAINIANS At the turn of the 19th century, Ukrainian > Ukrainians are the largest migration com- could be as high as the number of official- employed in the Czech Republic. On the intellectuals who had abandoned their munity in the Czech Republic. ly registered immigrants (Drbohlav et al. contrary, these groups exhibited a slight native country for political reasons were > For many years Ukrainian migration was 2010), with estimates spanning between increase in numbers. Tus, the decline in DIRECTLY EMPLOYED SELF-EMPLOYED* OTHERS** drawn primarily to Prague and other big described as temporary labor migration 50,000 and 150,000 people (Nekorjak direct employment of third-country na- cities within the Austrian part of the Hab- dominated by men; however, today more 2007). tionals (TCN) cannot be explained purely 120,000 sburg Empire. During the first decades of than half of Ukrainian nationals are settled Ukrainian migration to the Czech by staff reductions and the bankruptcy of the 20th century, the Ukrainian diaspora, Republic is rather “young;” approximately Czech companies, and seems strongly as- 100,000 (hold permanent residence permits) and which was organized under several as- nine in ten Ukrainian nationals residing in sociated with the changing approach to almost half are women. sociations of different aims and scopes, the Czech Republic are between 15 and 59 work permit regulation. 80,000 > Ukrainian immigrants in the Czech Re- was very fruitful in its educational and years of age. In the last decade, the share of At the very initial phase of the eco- 60,000 academic activities (including publishing public are clustered mainly at the bottom women among Ukrainian migrants fluctu- nomic recession, the Czech state adopted a a number of textbooks, dictionaries, and rungs of the labor market. ated between 40% and 45%, with a slight rather restrictive approach not only toward 40,000 encyclopedias, and establishing a univer- > Economic stagnation has had a dramatic increase since 2010. However, stagnation newcomers but also toward immigrants sity and the Higher Pedagogical Institute). effect on the share of employed Ukrainians, of the immigrant inflow due to a chang- already in the country. Since the beginning 20,000 Unfortunately, the subsequent Nazi and particularly those employed in jobs that do ing approach toward newcomers has re- of 2009, the Ministry of Labor and Social 0 Soviet occupations of Czechoslovakia led not require higher education. sulted in a significant increase in the share Affairs (MoLSA) sent out several memo- to the forced closing down of Ukrainian of permanent residence permit holders. randums addressed to labor offices (LOs), 2011 2007 2010 2002 2004 2005 2009 2003 2008 associations and the majority of Ukrain- Te share of permanent residence permit aimed at facilitating the employed Czech 2006 ian immigrants were assimilated into the tancing themselves from “new economic” holders among Ukrainians in 2000 was less citizens’ by means of the strict regulation of majority population (Zilynskyj and Kočík immigrants. Over the last decade these than one-fifth; it was almost one-third in the employment of TCNs. First, the MoLSA Source: CZSO 2013 2001). Many Ukrainians in the Transcar- new immigrants have become more set- 2008 (CZSO 2013) and almost two thirds rather vaguely appealed for “greater consid- pathian region, which has an especially tled and civically engaged, and there has by the end of December 2013 (MoI 2013). eration” of a general decline in the demand * Data on self-employed is not complete, and includes only trade license holders; the number of long history of immigration, continued also been a gradual change in the activi- Ukrainian female migration is more set- for foreign labor within the Czech econo- partners and shareholders (without work permit) of companies is not available. to have a close connection to the Czech ties of traditional Ukrainian NGOs aimed tled; the share of permanent residence my. In spite of a declining trend in direct ** Other migrants without registered economic activities (including children, family members, stu- lands, in many cases based on larger fam- at the new wave of immigrants. permit holders is significantly higher employment of TCNs, at the beginning of dents, pensioners and other not employed).
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FIGURE 2. IMPACT OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS ON THE OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE OF EMPLOYED UKRAINIANS Te educational level of Ukrainian International Standard tle data on whether Ukrainian immigrants 2008 and 2010. Tis survey, however, sug- immigrants is often a matter of specu- want to settle in the Czech Republic. Te gests that men transfer significantly larger lation, as only limited data is available. Classification of Occupations results of a 2006 survey among work sums than women (approximately 38,000 100% Traditionally, Ukrainians in the Czech (ISCO) – MAJOR GROUPS permit holders revealed that more than CZK compared to approximately 26,000 90% Republic are portrayed as well-edu- one-third of Ukrainian respondents were CZK) (Leontiyeva and Tollarová 2011). 1 Legislators, senior officials, and 80% cated but overqualified and underpaid undecided about their future, while 36% Despite the fact that Ukrainians are 70% (Drbohlav, Janská, and Šelepová 2001; managers wished to stay in the country for at least the largest group of non-EU nationals Uherek and Plochová 2003; Drbohlav five more years. Similarly, about one-third residing in the Czech Republic, many as- 60% 2 Professionals and Dzúrová 2007; Drbohlav, et al. 2010; of respondents did not express specific pects of their immigration remain unex- 50% Ezzeddine 2012). However, according to 3 Technicians and associate professionals plans to change residence status, but 43% plored. More in-depth research is needed 40% internal statistics from MoLSA, by the end 4 Clerks did express a wish to apply for permanent to answer many outstanding questions. To 30% of 2011 the educational level of employed residency, a status that in many respects mention at least some of them: What is the 5 Service and sales/shop/market workers 20% Ukrainian citizens was rather low, as the affords them the same rights as Czech citi- influence of the economic recession on the majority of work permit holders only had 6 Skilled agricultural and fishery workers zens (Leontiyeva 2010). migration patterns of Ukrainians? Will the 10% elementary education (as listed in Table 1). 7 Craft and related trade workers Tere is no straightforward answer new state regulations (aimed at the restric- 0% According to available sample sur- to whether Ukrainian immigrants want to tion of low-qualified immigration) have 8 Plant and machine operators and veys, the share of university graduates settle down in the Czech Republic, bring an impact on transnational practices of 2011 2011 2007 2007 2010 2010 2004 2005 2009 2004 2005 2009 2008 2008 2006 2006 among Ukrainian work permit holders assemblers their families, and limit contact with the Ukrainian nationals and their preferences free access to the labour market regulated by work permits was 12% in 2001 (Horáková and Čerňanská 9 Elementary occupations destination country to a minimum. Te toward settlement in the Czech Republic? 2001) and 11% in 2006 (Leontiyeva and topic has not been researched enough. Will an observed increase in spatial con- ISCO 1 ISCO 2 ISCO 3 ISCO 4 ISCO 5 ISCO 6 ISCO 7 ISCO 8 ISCO 9 Nečasová 2009). Similarly, according to a Te issue of time-limited settlement is centration of Ukrainians result in ghet- survey conducted in 2010, 14% of all eco- those occupied in unskilled jobs, a phe- highly relevant and yet remains a practi- toization in the future? What is the role of nomically active Ukrainian citizens (in- nomenon that cannot be explained by in- cally unexplored field. Certain features of ethnic, economic, and family migration on Source: MoLSA 2011 cluding those self-employed) had tertiary dividual characteristics of immigrants, or Ukrainian immigration support the no- the integration of Ukrainian immigrants? education (Leontiyeva and Tollarová their mostly unstable legal status or lower tion of transnational spaces; for example, What is the effect of the long-term over- employment strategy may be preferred employment of semiskilled and unskilled 2011). Te results of these surveys do not educational level. (Leontiyeva 2013) the geographical proximity of Ukraine, a education of Ukrainian immigrants? Will by immigrants, as it is seems a more con- migrants. seem to support the popular stereotype Ukrainian immigration has changed high degree of separation from the nuclear it hamper their integration into the host venient and secure way to obtain formal As of the end of 2011, the vast ma- of an average Ukrainian as a university- over the last decade. Te share of per- family, intensive contact with the country society? What is the integration potential employment, especially for unqualified jority of Ukrainians were employed in educated construction worker or cleaner. manent residence permit holders among of origin, frequent visits back home, etc. of the second generation of Ukrainian im- occupations such as cleaners, cashiers, unskilled auxiliary work (58%), 20% in Tis is primarily due to the fact that the Ukrainian immigrants has grown signifi- According to a 2010 survey, six in ten eco- migrants in the Czech Republic? welders, etc. Tere are no reliable data craft and related trade work, and only 5% Czech Republic does not attract only cantly, especially following the economic nomically active Ukrainian immigrants on how widespread the “Švarc system” is in managerial or skilled jobs. Ukrainians well-educated Ukrainian immigrants. recession, when the Czech state limited (regardless of gender) has had experience The author works at the Institute of Sociology, among Ukrainian immigrants; however, are mostly employed in construction According to the available survey data, the number of new long-term visas and with sending financial remittances to sup- Academy of Sciences, in the Czech Republic. several studies suggest that it might be (44%), manufacturing (21%), wholesale a large portion of Ukrainian migrants work permits for Ukrainians. Tere is lit- port family and close relatives between an important strategy among immigrants and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, has lower than secondary education, and (Drbohlav 2008; Hofírek and Nekorjak personal, and household goods (8%), and most of those with extended schooling 2009; Leontiyeva and Nečasová 2009; transport storage and communication tend to have skilled jobs. Nevertheless, TABLE 1. EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF UKRAINIAN CITIZENS EMPLOYED* IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC IN 2011, ROW % Drbohlav, et al. 2010; Čermáková, Scho- (6%) (CZSO 2013). a comparison of the educational and oc- vánková, and Fiedlerová 2011). Domestic work is still not very cupational structure of Ukrainian migra- As mentioned above, strict regulations widespread among Ukrainian migrants, tion provides evidence of a significant e mor concerning employment in particular tar- but it has becom e relevant over the waste of human capital, and suggests get low-skilled immigrants who are em- last decade. Te involvement of migrants that well-educated immigrants are not al- EDUCATIONAL LEVEL ployed in professions that do not require a in care and domestic work is attracting ways successful on the labor market. Te NO FORMAL TOTAL, secondary education. Figure 2 provides an the growing attention of Czech research- risk of over-education among migrants EDUCATION ELEMENTARY SECONDARY TERTIARY N/A ABS. N interesting comparison of the occupation- ers, especially with regard to the rights of is relatively high; every fifth employed al structure of Ukrainian citizens who hold female immigrants engaged in domestic Ukrainian occupies a position in which work permits and those who have free ac- work – primarily cleaning and less fre- most other employees have significantly WORK PERMIT cess to the labor market. Te occupational quently care. An interesting example is lower education achievement. Te find- HOLDERS 0.1% 61.7% 35.8% 2.1% 0.3% 31,407 structure of Ukrainians with free access to the campaign “Do you who is cleans your ing that post-migration experience might the labor market was rather stable between place?” initiated by a Czech NGO and not help Ukrainian immigrants “catch up” OTHER EMPLOYED 2004 and 2011. During the same period, aimed not only at supporting the rights of in terms of matching higher educational WITHOUT WORK the employment of Ukrainians regulated domestic workers but also raising aware- attainment to more appropriate occupa- PERMIT* 0.9% 32.3% 52.7% 11.4% 2.7% 10,696 by the state experienced rather dramatic ness of the phenomenon among the na- tions, especially when the starting point is changes. At times of economic boom the tive population. Te social advertisement at the bottom rungs of the labor market, share of elementary occupations grew spot portrayed a Ukrainian teacher work- is also alarming. Institutional obstacles Source: MoLSA 2011; cited from Leontiyeva 2012 rapidly; it shrank significantly after 2009. ing as a cleaning lady, treated without to labor mobility through the use of job Notes: * self-employed citizens are not included. ** employed permanent residence permit holders, Czech school graduates, and family members who do not require Unfortunately, later data are not available respect by her employer. Unfortunately, permits as a form of regulation may lower work permits. at MoLSA; however, due to the regula- there is neither hard data nor expert es- the expectations of immigrants and slow tions described above, one should expect timates of the number of Ukrainian im- their integration in the Czech Republic. a strong trend in occupational structure as migrants (male or female) engaged in Ukrainians are among the immigrant REFERENCES a result of rather strict regulations of the domestic work. groups with one of the highest shares of 1. L ater data on the employment of immigrants in the Czech Republic are not available.
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scenario is feasible in the case of Ukraine, and Moldova, and 2% in the EU); the high who recently experienced regime change Economics, variant (2% GDP increase in Ukraine and and Russian annexation of part of its Moldova, and 2% in the EU); and the low REPORT territory. Te same relates to Moldova, demography, variant low (6% GDP increase in Ukraine which could also experience the negative and Moldova, and 2% in the EU). It must consequences of Ukrainian instability, and migration be borne in mind, however, that due to particularly a revival of the Transnistria imperfection of the statistical data (many conflict and amplified Russian pressure It is much easier to present a forecast, or migrants reside in the EU illegally, and on Moldovan authorities against its pro- at least scenarios, on the impact of eco- thus are not captured by statistics, which FORECASTING European aspirations. nomic factors on further migration. Te poorly reflect short-term migration) this In the current situation, the politi- initial findings of the report “Forecasting forecast is more likely to demonstrate cal situation will only possibly influence migration between the EU, V4, and East- tendencies rather than show actual fig- migration in Ukraine and Moldova in- ern Europe: the impact of visa abolition”1 ures. Furthermore, due to differentials directly. In the case of Ukraine, an in- by the Centre of Eastern Studies (OSW in the methodology and the lack of long- IMMIGRATION crease in political migration abroad on – Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich), a Pol- term migration data, the initial model a national scale is not likely to increase ish leading think tank and seven other covers only twelve EU countries. as instability only touches a few regions research institutions from Central and Current Ukrainian migrant stocks whose populations are characterized by Eastern Europe, and co-financed by the in the EU are estimated at approximately low propensity to migration. However, International Visegrad Fund, indicate one million people. Part stay in the EU ir- ethnic Ukrainians from Crimea and that the most important factor encour- regularly and are thus not captured by our INTO THE V4 Eastern Ukraine may decide to emigrate aging Ukrainian and Moldovan migrants forecast. Te most popular final destina- to other parts of Ukraine or, to a lesser to go abroad are the high salaries they tion countries are as follows: Poland, Italy, extent, EU states. However, this also re- expect to earn in EU countries, the the Czech Republic, Spain, and Germany. lates to Russian-speaking migrants, who jobs available, and the presence of fam- Te number of Ukrainian migrants in EU will most probably choose Russia as ily and friends in destination states (so- countries may increase in the next few their destination. If Russia toughens reg- called migration network effects). Te years (depending on economic param- ulations regarding the right of Ukrainian level of salaries and employment in both eters). However, this does not necessarily and Moldovan workers to reside in its Ukraine and Moldova also has an impact, mean that migration dynamics will actu- territory, for example following the sign- if slightly smaller, as well as the favorable ally intensify; rather it is to a large extent ing of the Association Agreement with immigration policies of particular desti- dependent on the tendency of migrants the EU, workers from these states may nation countries. Tree forecast variants legalizing their stay abroad (after years or re-orientate their job search towards EU are presented below: the medium variant an irregular stay, Ukrainian migrants dis- markets. (4% increase in GDP annually in Ukraine play a tendency to regulate their status in What are the MARTA JAROSZEWICZ, WADIM STRIELKOWSKI immigration prospects of GRAPH 1. INITIAL FORECAST OF UKRAINE’S economic factors. Political factors may MIGRANT STOCKS IN TWELVE EU COUNTRIES Ukrainian and Internal trigger mass immigration, but this is IN 1998-2050: AGGREGATED DATA (THREE above all the case when they substantially VARIANTS) Moldovan citizens instability affect the quality of life of inhabitants in a given country, particularly their security, to the European job opportunities, and access to public and migration 160,000 Union? Can they be services. As some previous research has On 28 April, Moldovan citizens were demonstrated, long-term political insta- 140,000 HIGH released from visa obligations while bility political instability affects highly- forecasted? 120,000 MEDIUM traveling for short-term purposes to the skilled migrants in particular. After all a LOW Warsaw-based Schengen Area. However, an issue that skilled labor force is required to reinstate 100,000 is currently worrying European policy stability and attract foreign investors. Centre for Eastern 80,000 makers in relation to Eastern Partnership When a war scenario becomes a reality, Studies (OSW), countries is not visa liberalization, but and there are regular armed fights, it usu- 60,000 fears that Russian intervention in Crimea ally leads to forced migration, e.g., invol- 40,000 in cooperation may lead to further increased migration untary movement of internally displaced from that country. persons and refugees. In the case of mod- 20,000 with think tanks It is not possible to forecast migra- ern armed conflicts, the numbers of refu- 0 from the V4 and tion dynamics in the case of protracted gees are generally high as conflict is rarely political conflicts and internal instability. limited to clashes just between soldiers, 2014 2010 2018 2002 2022 2042 1998 2034 2030 2050 2006 2038 2026 Eastern Europe, has Te impact of democratic accountability, but the physical violence and other abuses 2046 political stability, and ethnic tensions on also usually affect the civil population. Source: “Forecasting migration between the EU, V4, and Eastern Europe: the impact of visa abolition” attempted to shed migration decisions is much more subtle As of April 2014, there were no light on this issue. and less researched than the influence of premises to state that the internal war
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GRAPH 2. INITIAL FORECAST OF MOLDOVAN’S MIGRANT STOCKS IN TWELVE EU COUNTRIES IN 1998-2050: AGGREGATED DATA (THREE VARIANTS)
200,000 180,000 migration HIGH 160,000 MEDIUM 140,000 LOW toward third-country 120,000 100,000 80,000 nationals 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 2014 2010 2018 2002 2022 2042 1998 2034 2030 2050 2006 2038 2026 2046
Source:“Forecasting migration between the EU, V4, and Eastern Europe: the impact of visa abolition” policiesToday, European countries are increasingly often becoming host to citizens of non-EU countries. Tis article focuses primarily on migration policies of the EU states). It can clearly be seen (ex- tion states allows) will stay abroad, while (particularly a circular one), although as the Visegrad countries. cept in the high variant) that around 2026 the population that remains will not show the cases of Central European and the or 2028, the stocks of Ukrainian citizens propensity to migration. Western Balkans have exhibited, there in the EU may start to diminish and this is no evidence for impact on longer- MARIUSZ PODGÓRSKI downward trend may persist in the long- term immigration and settlement pat- term. Tis is due to demographic decline Conclusions: terns. Paradoxically, in the case of some but also growing employment possibili- Western Balkans states, long-term im- ties in Ukraine. Visas and migration even dropped after the EU visa t must be noted that Visegrad four different funds, of which two – the policy is seen as following a policy of con- In the case of Moldova (with popu- requirement was lifted. Secondly, short- countries have not developed a European Fund for the Integration of cession toward third countries, particu- lation of 3.5 million), it is estimated that migration term visa abolishment may ease mobility, common and coordinated mi- Tird-Country Nationals and the Euro- larly in the case of Ukraine. around 400,000 to 500,000 Moldovans but it will not solve the main challenge gration policy with regard to pean Refugee Fund – were the most sig- Tis is the case because Ukraine is currently reside aboard, around half of Te possible lifting of the short-term that Ukrainian and Moldovan migrants third-country nationals, mainly nificant as they directly affected national Poland’s biggest sending country. In the them in EU states. Te precise assess- visa requirement by Schengen states for are currently facing in the EU – it does because each state faces differ- migration policies. first half of 2013, 327,000 visas were is- ment of Moldovan migrant numbers has Moldovan and Ukrainian citizens should not grant them the right to legally reside ent types of immigration. Until sued to Ukrainian citizens by Polish out- been complicated by the fact that even not cause a serious increase in the num- and work. the accession of the V4 coun- POLAND posts and 644,000 in the entirety of 2012. as many as 500,000 Moldovans may have ber of migrants leaving to the EU. Firstly, tries to the European Union in 2004, each Poland stands out from the rest of the Te consulate in Lviv ranks first in the Romanian citizenship, and thus in official over the last twenty years, both states, Marta Jaroszewicz is a migration project coor- Iwas coping with immigration from East- V4 states as it has the lowest propor- rankings, with a score of 50% of all visas terms they are not regarded as migrants, but Moldova in particular, have displayed dinator in Centre for Eastern Studies in Warsaw. ern Europe in a different way. As new EU tion of non-nationals (0.1% in 20111), issued, among other Polish outposts. Just although in sociological surveys they are. high emigration rates despite legal barri- Wadim Strielkowski is an assistant professor of member states, the V4 participants had and because the primary function of its after Lviv comes the consulate in Lutsk Our assessment demonstrated that, even ers. EU visa liberalization may have cer- economics at the Charles University in Prague. to harmonize their migration policies in migration policy is skewed externally and the Consular Department in Kyiv. in the high scenario, Moldovan migrant tain short-term effects on immigration 2004-2007 to the policy mandated by the (i.e., toward Poland’s Eastern Neighbors) Just one consular outpost in Lviv issues stock in the EU may rise until 2014–2016, EU. Moreover, the V4 states became a rather than internally. It is promoted ef- almost the same number of visas as all but is then likely to decrease due to de- more attractive destination for non-EU fectively and used as an instrument by the three Polish outposts in Belarus annu- mographic factors. As Moldovan mi- REFERENCES foreigners during that period, due to the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which ally. Moreover, according to the results gration displays settlement tendencies, 1. The project is co-financed by the International Visegrad Fund; for more information on the project see: entrance of V4 to the Schengen Area in decides centrally on visa policy. A good of the newest “Monitoring of Visa Policy migrants (possibly joined by their fami- http://www.osw.waw.pl/pl/projekty/forecasting-migration-between-eu-v4-and-eastern-europe- 2007, making those countries a transit example of this might be the case of Pol- of the Consulate General of the Republic lies if the immigration policy of destina- impact-visa-abolition base for further immigration to Western ish policy toward the Kaliningrad Oblast. of Poland in Lutsk,” in 2013, 88.3% of ap- Europe. Finally, in the 2007-2013 period, In 2012, the Local Border Traffic (LBT) plicants in the city were given visas and national migration policies and initiatives agreement came into power, which might the number of free-of-charge Schengen were supported by the “Solidarity and be seen as very favorable for the Polish Visas issued to Ukrainian applicants rose Management of Migration Flows” Gen- side by increasing local trade exchange. (only 40% of respondents had to pay for eral Program. Te program consisted of On the other hand, the Polish migration their visas).2
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On the other hand, all actions re- policy for Poland, which is strongly in- June 2003,” which is the legal basis for IMMIGRATION TO POLAND IN 2013 – BASIC DATA lated to foreigners living in Poland fall fluenced by general EU trends, and set the residence of foreigners in Poland, under, control of the Ministry of Interior out potential directions for its further and whose contents have been upgraded and other government officials. Te mi- development by publishing a document to the form of a new “Act of Aliens of 12 Source: Statistics of the Polish Office for Foreigners gration and integration policies have entitled “Migration Policy of Poland – the December 2013” that will come into force (2013) and Ministry of Labor and Social Policy (2013). benefited from EU funds that paved the Current State and Postulated Actions.” by 1 May 2014. Te new “Act of Polish NUMBER OF PEOPLE THAT way for the creation of individual legisla- With regard to the integration of for- Citizenship of 2012” can be considered as REQUESTED RESIDENCE PERMITS tion. In 2012 the ministry finished issu- eigners, the following documents should examples of good practices in integration. FOR A FIXED PERIOD , ing a summary of the current migration be mentioned: “Te Act of Aliens of 13 Currently on the agenda is the “Polish
MAIN SENDING COUNTRIES BY UKRAINE , CHINA , BELARUS , RESIDENCE PERMIT FOR VIETNAM % , RUSSIA .%, TURKEY .% FIXED-PERIOD REQUESTS .% % % IMMIGRATION TO V4 COUNTRIES IN 2013
NUMBER OF ISSUED RESIDENCE PERMITS FOR A FIXED PERIOD , PL CZ SK HU
NUMBER OF ISSUED SETTLEMENT PERMITS , NUMBER OF VALID RESIDENCE PERMITS , , , ,* MAIN SENDING UKRAINE , BELARUS , RUSSIA COUNTRIES BY SETTLEMENT ARMENIA ., EGYPT% , TUNISIA% , TURKEY % PERMIT % % % % PROPORTION OF ALL NON- NUMBER OF ISSUED RESIDENCE NATIONALS (%)** .% .% .% .% PERMITS FOR LONG-TERM EU RESIDENTS ,
PROPORTION OF MAIN SENDING COUNTRIES BY ALL NON-EU UKRAINE , VIETNAM , ARMENIA , RESIDENCE PERMIT FOR LONG- NATIONALS (%)** .% .% .% .% CHINA , BELARUS.% , RUSSIA. % .% TERM EU RESIDENTS . .% %
NUMBER OF MAIN SENDING UKRAINE 31% UKRAINE 23.8% CZECH REP. 13% ROMANIA 25%, COUNTRIES BY ISSUED VIETNAM 11% SLOVAKIA 20.5% HUNGARY 9.64%, GERMANY 12% WORK PERMITS RESIDENCE PERMIT , RUSSIAN FED. 10% VIETNAM 13% UKRAINE 9.62%, CHINA 8% BELARUS 9.2% RUSSIAN FED. 7.5% ROMANIA 8.3% UKRAINE 7.8% INDUSTRIES WITH THE HIGHEST CHINA 4% POLAND 4.4% POLAND 7% CONSTRUCTION , TRADE SLOVAKIA 5.4% CONCENTRATION OF IMMIGRANT GERMANY 4.1% GERMANY 5.7% HOUSEHOLDS %, INDUSTRY % SERBIA 4%*** WORKERS BY WORK PERMIT % % MOLDOVA 1.4% SERBIA 5.6% RUSSIAN FED. 3.6%, CHINA 2.6% WMAIN SENDING COUNTRIES OF UKRAINE , CHINA , VIETNAM , IMMIGRANT WORKERS BY WORK BELARUS % , INDIA % % PERMIT .% .% * The total number of all types of immigrants and persons staying longer than three months, according to data from 31 December 2013, from the Hungarian Office of Immigration and Nationality. ** Data according to the EUROSTAT (2011) NUMBER OF ISSUED STATEMENTS OF INTENT TO ENTRUST WORK TO A *** Percentage based on data from the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (2013). Since 2011, the numbers of foreigners have changed visibly due to the process FOREIGNER , of naturalization (i.e. Romania 37% in 2011 and 29% in 2012).
Source: EUROSTAT (2011), the Hungarian Office of Immigration and Nationality (2013), the Hungarian Central Statistical Office (2013), the Czech Statistical Office ISSUED STATEMENTS OF INTENT UKRAINE 217,571 – , MOLDOVA 9,248 – , 2013, the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic (2013), The Statistical Overview of Legal and Illegal Migration in the Slovak Republic, 2013 (Presidium of the Police Force Bureau of Border and Alien Police), The Ministry of Interior of the Slovak Republic (2013), the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2013), and the TO ENTRUST WORK BY SENDING BELARUS 5,194 – , G%EORGIA 2,343 – , RUSSIA% 1,260 – COUNTRY OF FOREIGNERS % % .% Polish Office for Foreigners (2013).
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Integration of Foreigners – Assumptions Trianon of 1920. Since 2011, more than Ukraine (112,000), Vietnam (57,000), and and Guidelines.” 550,000 people have received Hungarian Russia (32,000). Te Czech government DIASPORA citizenship.4 According to the data pub- adopted the so-called Alien Act in 1999 HUNGARY lished in April 2013, the total number of and it has been amended almost every According to EUROSTAT in 2011, the naturalization requests and persons who year; the last time in 2011. Te Czech proportion of non-EU nationals in Hun- swore new citizenship oaths amounted Republic does not have one, specific mi- gary was 0.8%. Until 2013, Hungary did to 423,000 people, of which 284,000 were gration policy document like the other not have any overall policy document on from Romania, 77,000 from Serbia, and V4 countries, but has updated its “Policy migration policy and the integration of 51,000 from Ukraine.5 for the Integration of Foreigners – Living migrants. Until last year, Hungary was Together” from 2011, whose main integra- lagging behind other countries in the re- SLOVAKIA tion principles are reported every year.7 gion. Te migration strategy was finally Slovakia is a typical transit country and, For the Czech government, howev- ORIENTED elaborated by the Ministry of Interior in in recent years, the total number of its er, the process of naturalization is much August 2013 in the form of the govern- non-EU immigrants has decreased in fa- more important than its migration policy. ORGANIZATION ment’s draft Migration Strategy (2014- vor of migrants from other EU countries. In 2011 alone, 1,936 people gained Czech 2020). Te Migration Strategy and the Tird-country citizens make up 0.3% of citizenship, among which non-EU nation- seven-year strategic plan related to the the whole population and account for als were mostly Ukrainians (501), Russians IN THE V4 Asylum and Migration Fund, established only 23% of the total number of migrants (58), Vietnamese (86), and Kazakhs (48).8 by the EU for the period of 2014-2020, to Slovakia. In contemporary Slovakia was adopted as a government decree.3 there is a preference for Czech nationals, CONCLUSION Te current Hungarian migration which is derived directly from their com- Ultimately, all V4 countries have their own MAGDALENA MAZUR policy has three main features. It sup- mon history as part of Czechoslovakia. In migration and integration policies and ports free movement within the EU 2011 the Ministry of Interior prepared a their own migration principles. Poland and fully respects the Schengen laws, new strategic document (the Migration and Slovakia have the lowest proportion but implements a strict and non-sup- Policy of the Slovak Republic – perspec- of migrants among their populations, and portive policy toward third-country na- tive until the year 2020) that was adopted might be described as transit countries. tionals of non-Hungarian origin. Since by the government in the same year. It Te Czech Republic and Hungary are CZECH REPUBLIC 2008, Hungary has created a LBT of was clear that after adopting this docu- strongly focused on the naturalization Main units SPECIAL ENVOY FOR CZECHS LIVING ABROAD, MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS 70 km with Ukraine and almost 80% of ment, the government’s next step was the procedure, although their goals are differ- responsible for // ČR PRO KRAJANSKÉ ZÁLEŽITOSTI, MINISTERSTVA ZAHRANINÍCH VCÍ // Ukrainians coming to Hungary are of creation of its own migration and integra- ent: Hungary is much more interested in Te Foreign Ministry team responsible for relations with Czechs living abroad is headed Hungarian origin. On the other hand, tion policy. Tis was accomplished on 29 non-EU nationals of Hungarian origin. diaspora-related by the Special Envoy for Czechs Living Abroad. Te creation of the CLAO in 2008 was Hungary clearly supports the immigra- January 2014, when a new Concept on Te majority of these states have al- driven by the need to elevate the status of dealing with the diaspora within the Czech tion of ethnic Hungarians in neighboring Integration Policy of the Slovak Republic, ready created and issued their migration public administration/government system. Until 2008 the diaspora-related program was countries and has created a special legal also consulted with NGOs as in Poland, documents, which correspond closely to issues administered by one of the departments of the MFA. tool to fulfill this political goal. was passed.6 the principles of the EU’s policy and the Te amended citizenship law, which Migration and Asylum Fund for the 2014- introduces a streamlined and preferen- THE CZECH REPUBLIC 2020 period. Te EU’s policy is aimed at HUNGARY tial naturalization procedure for persons Even though the Czech Republic does not integrating its new members’ actions and THE STATE SECRETARIAT OF HUNGARIAN COMMUNITIES ABROAD, MINISTRY OF of Hungarian descent, came into effect have a border with any of the Eastern Eu- policies into the wider framework of vari- PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND JUSTICE // NEMZETPOLITIKAI ÁLLAMTITKÁRSÁG, in January 2011. It offers full citizen- ropean countries, it stands out among the ous European funds. KÖZIGAZGATÁSI ÉS IGAZSÁGÜGYI MINISZTÉRIUM // ship to all persons who can claim some other V4 states as having the highest pro- Te person responsible for policy concerning Hungarian communities abroad at the The author is a researcher at the Migration Stud- ethnic Hungarian background and/or portion of non-EU nationals, namely 2.6% highest political level is the deputy prime minister. Te SSHCA is in charge of the policy’s ies Institute. one ancestor living on territories sepa- (reaching a level of more than 270,000 in operational activities. Te unit took over the responsibilities of the Government Office rated from Hungary under the Treaty of 2011). Te most populous groups are from for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, which ceased to exist in 2006. Hungary has tradition- ally been active in the field of kin-state politics; however, policies addressing the issues of the Hungarian diaspora worldwide have only come to the forefront in recent years. Tis concern was manifested in various programs launched by the Hungarian government as REFERENCES well as in institutional reforms aimed at the optimal coordination of policies concerning 1. EUROSTAT: Population and social conditions, 31/12,http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-12-031/EN/KS-SF-12-031-EN. the diaspora. PDF. 2. . POLAND 3. “New Migration Stategy Published,” website of the Hungarian Government, 6 August 2013, http://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-of-interior/news/ DEPARTMENT OF COOPERATION WITH POLISH DIASPORA AND POLES ABROAD, new-migration-strategy-published. MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS // DEPARTAMENT WSPÓŁPRACY Z POLONI I 4. “Németh: A honosítás jövője a választások sikerétől is függ”, Magyar Hírlap, 2 January 2014, http://www.magyarhirlap.hu/ POLAKAMI ZA GRANIC, MINISTERSTWO SPRAW ZAGRANICZNYCH) nemeth-a-honositas-jovoje-a-valasztasok-sikeretol-fugg. Since 2013, DCWPDPA has been operating under the Undersecretary of State for Devel- 5. A. Sadecki, Hungary: Half a Million New Citizens, OSW Analyses, 11 December 2013, http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/analyses/2013-12-11/ opment Cooperation, Polish Diaspora and Eastern Policy. It was created, as an individual hungary-half-a-million-new-citizens. MFA unit in 2009. Te main motive behind the decision was to underline the significant 6. http://www.employment.gov.sk/sk/ministerstvo/integracia-cudzincov/zameranie-integracnej-politiky-sr.html role that Polish diaspora issues are to play in Polish foreign policy, as well as in the Polish 7. http://www.mvcr.cz/mvcren/article/integration-of-foreigners-within-the-territory-of-the-czech-republic.aspx MFA’s activities. It was considered essential to separate diaspora policy from consular 8. See more on website of the Czech Statistical Office, Number of Foreigners, http://www.czso.cz/csu/cizinci.nsf/engkapitola/ciz_pocet_cizincu. matters; these issues had traditionally been combined. Te initial name – Department
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of Cooperation with Polish Diaspora – was changed in 2012 to underline the fact that CZECH REPUBLIC the Polish MFA is engaged in cooperation with all individuals claiming to have Polish Other roots and living outside of Poland – both representatives of Polish minorities and Polish Except for the CLAO, there is no other body in the system of the Czech government whose citizens living abroad. governmental and only agenda is Czech diaspora issues. Tere are, however, departments in other ministries acting partially in this area (e.g. Ministry of Education, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Labor parliamentary and Social Affairs, Ministry of Health, and even Ministry of Defense). Teir work is coor- SLOVAKIA dinated by the Special Envoy. In the Parliament of the Czech Republic, the Special Envoy OFFICE FOR THE SLOVAKS LIVING ABROAD // ÚRAD PRE SLOVÁKOV ŽIJÚCICH V units cooperates with the Senate Standing Commission on Compatriots Living Abroad and with ZAHRANIÍ // the Chamber of Deputies Foreign Affairs Committee, in particular its Subcommittee on Re- Te OSLA was established by virtue of the Act on Slovaks Living Abroad and on Amend- lations with Czechs Living Abroad, Promotion of the Czech Republic Abroad and External ments and Additions to Certain Laws in 2005, which was passed as a result of a confer- Economic Relations. ence gathering the representatives of the Slovak diaspora and state bodies of the Slovak Republic in 2004. Te competences were transferred from the Ministry of Culture of the HUNGARY Slovak Republic and from the Slovak Republic Government Office. Te Office reports to the government of the Slovak Republic. At the parliamentary level, the Parliamentary Commission for National Cohesion, established in January 2011, deals with Hungarian communities all over the world (kin-minorities and the diaspora). POLAND Te Polish Senate holds patronage over the Polish diaspora and was responsible for the provi- sion of financial support to Polish communities abroad until 2012. Today, it strives to main- tain ties with Poles and people of Polish origin residing abroad mainly through the work of the Emigration Affairs and Contacts with Poles Abroad Committee. In the lower house of the Polish parliament, there is also another Committe for Contacts with Poles Abroad. Grant giving CZECH REPUBLIC SLOVAKIA Te CLAO is responsible for the provision of financial donations for the society’s cultural Certain units of the Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Work, Social Issues, and Family are units projects (including projects run by the Czech School Without Borders), for the mainte- responsible for dealing with issues related to the free movement of people within the EU. nance and repair of Czech compatriot schools, cultural facilities, and small monuments Te Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Sport supports Slovak language educa- abroad (over 500,000 euros in 2014). Te funds are allocated through Czech diplomatic tion abroad. posts. Te MFA also holds a yearly call for applications for NGOs focused on interna- tional cooperation, including cooperation with diaspora communities. HUNGARY THE BETHLEN GÁBOR FOUND (BETHLEN GÁBOR ALAP) BGF and the Bethlen Gábor Fund Management Private Limited Non-Profit Company are the central bodies that coordinate support for Hungarian kin-minorities and the Hungar- ian diaspora. For the diaspora, BGF finances and implements the Kőrösi Csoma Sándor Scholarship Program; however, most of its application options are designed for Hungari- an kin-minorities in the Carpathian Basin. Diaspora organisations may also obtain grants for projects concerning Hungarian language and culture through the Balassi Institute. Non-governmental CZECH REPUBLIC CZECH SCHOOL WITHOUT BORDERS (ČESKÁ ŠKOLA BEZ HRANIC) POLAND organizations and Te CSWB is a non-profit organization registered in the Czech Republic that con- nects all of the CSWB local branches. CSWB offers Czech language and culture/history Te DCWPPA allocates funds with a yearly call for applications open to Polish organisa- other institutions classes for children from the ages of 18 months to 15 years, complementing the day-to- tions and institutions implementing diaspora-oriented projects (close to 15,000,000 eu- day education that children of Czech origin receive in schools abroad. ros in 2014). Te aim of the contest is to help the Polish diaspora and Poles abroad carry out schemes relating to Polish community media, schools, and community infrastruc- CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION (DM ZAHRANINÍCH SLUŽEB) ture, as well as teaching Polish, in Polish, and about Poland. Diaspora organisations may Te CIC is an organization established by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports acquire funding through Polish diplomatic posts abroad or subgranting organisations of the Czech Republic, which undergirds relations with foreign educational institu- (e.g., Te Foundation Aid to Poles in the East and the “Polish Community” Association). tions and provides an information service to international applicants to study courses in the CR. SLOVAKIA HUNGARY Diaspora organisations are eligible to apply in OSLA’s call for applications (around 1,000,000 euros in 2013). Tis financial support is aimed at promoting the national BALASSI INSTITUTE (BALASSI INTÉZET) consciousness and cultural identity of Slovaks living abroad, supporting institutions es- Te Balassi Institute is the institution that plays a central role in the realization of dias- tablished for that purpose, and promoting relations between the Slovak Republic and pora policy; it provides a Program in Hungarian Language and Culture, as well as other Slovaks living abroad. linguistic and cultural training, and special grants for the diaspora.
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SECRETARIAT OF HUNGARIANS LIVING ABROAD (HATÁRON TÚLI MAGYAROK TITKÁRSÁGA) Te duty of the SHLA is to augment the work of both the Hungarian Scientists Abroad Presidential Committee and the Council of Hungarian Scientists in Diaspora, which handle issues related to Hungarian science abroad. EUROPEAN POLAND COMMUTERS FOUNDATION AID TO POLES IN THE EAST (FUNDACJA POMOC POLAKOM NA WSCHODZIE) Photo: Ester Erdelyi Ester Photo: FAPE was established by the Polish government (State Treasury) in 1992 to provide aid and support to Poles living in the states of the former USSR and the former Communist Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe.
ASSOCIATION “POLISH COMMUNITY” (STOWARZYSZENIE WSPÓLNOTA POLSKA) Te APC was established in 1990 at the initiative of the Marshal of the Polish Senate and is entirely dedicated to strengthening ties between Poland and its diaspora.
CENTER FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLISH EDUCATION ABROAD (ORODEK ROZWOJU POLSKIEJ EDUKACJI ZA GRANIC) Te CDPEA supports and promotes the learning of the Polish language among young Poles living or spending time abroad. SLOVAKIA MATICA SLOVENSKÁ MS is a scientific and cultural institution established in 1863 that focuses on issues around Slovak patriotism and the nation, including the diaspora.
Frontiers and daily migration are both a source Umbrella CZECH REPUBLIC of business and a potential tool for enhancing Tere is no worldwide umbrella organization networking Czech diaspora organisations. diaspora Tere are few organizations of this kind acting at the national level. stronger mutual trust. Would you cross borders to get to work? organizations HUNGARY HUNGARIAN DIASPORA COUNCIL (MAGYAR DIASZPÓRA TANÁCS) Te Hungarian government established the HDC in 2011, a forum of organizations for MATTEO TACCONI Hungarians throughout the world. Te organizations elect the board of the Council on a geographical basis, the members of which are in constant touch with the Hungarian government. POLAND Te Viennese in Bratislava Tere is no worldwide umbrella organization networking Polish diaspora organisations; Nobody knows how many Viennese live in Bratislava, but locals are sure that hun- however, there are organizations representing Polish communities abroad at a national dreds have settled in the city in recent years, at least judging by the growing number level (e.g., the Canadian Polish Congress and the Congress of Poles in the Czech Republic). of cars with Viennese plates circulating in the Slovak capital. Neither this observation The auhor is the Head of Inter- nor discussions on expat web forums provide statistical evidence of this exodus. In national Program at School for SLOVAKIA the forums, however, the two main reasons behind it do emerge: cheap apartments Leaders in Warsaw. Her areas and the fast connection between the two cities. of expertise include leader- WORLD ASSOCIATION OF SLOVAKS LIVING ABROAD (SVETOVÉ ZDRUŽENIE In Vienna, apartment prices range between 2,500 and 3,298 euros per square ship development as well as SLOVÁKOV V ZAHRANIÍ) meter. By contrast, the average price for a flat in Bratislava is 1,670 euros, according increasing civic and political Te WASLA was established in 2002 at the standing conference “Slovak Republic and to globalpropertyguide.com, a website that monitors the real estate market glob- participation among the Pol- Slovaks living abroad” as a representative body for the Slovak diaspora worldwide. It is a ally. It quotes data released by the Chamber of Commerce of Vienna and the Slovak ish diaspora. member of the the Europeans Troughout Te World network. National Bank.
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With regard to connections, the Gerhard Schrodinger, the mayor the biggest nation of enlarged Europe. Furthermore, as reported in May In Sopron, a fashionable town EU member states and extra-communi- distance between the two cities, a mere of Wolfsthal, is viewed as a pioneer of Tis is indeed true. 2013 by Reuters in a story about cross- with the flavor of Mitteleuropa, there tarian countries, giving advantages to 60 km, can be covered in an hour by Slovak-Austrian friendship. Once a bor- Sometimes, however, it happens border relations between Szczecin and is the highest density of dentists in the border residents on both sides of the train or car – along the new motorway der guard, married to a Slovak woman, that Poland becomes vital to Germany’s northeastern Germany, the newcomers European bloc, one per 1,090 inhabit- frontier. One of the most successful inaugurated in 2007. To sum up, those he has always advocated warmer ties prosperity. Te northeastern border re- have halted the demographic decline ants. Each clinic provides cheaper tariffs such stories is that of the local border who ultimately decide to move from between the two nations. He personally gions of Germany are a case study in this of German towns and, by sending their than those offered beyond the border. traffic agreement signed by Warsaw and Vienna to Bratislava may save money on welcomes each Slovak family that settles sense. Tey were among the weakest dis- pupils to local schools, have allowed Te European Centre for Social Welfare Moscow in 2011, which gives Russians housing and can commute easily from in his town, which now is much better tricts of the former German Democratic the authorities to avoid further cuts in Policy Research, a UN-affiliated inter- from the Kaliningrad exclave a chance their new place of residence to offices in connected to Bratislava’s city center. It Republic and are one of the less devel- education. governmental organization, outlines to obtain temporary, free visas to the Vienna and then back home, late in the takes no more than twenty minutes to oped areas of Germany today. People Paradoxically, in 2004, before in a paper on dental care in Hungary Polish Baltic area. Poles living in these evening. get there by car, but there is also a bus have moved to Berlin and other big Poland’s accession to the EU, Szczecin’s that a removable dental prosthesis costs territories can also get visas to travel to line explicitly for Slovak commuters. It German towns seeking jobs. Te popu- residents feared that Germans would between 550 and 610 euros in Sopron, Kaliningrad. stops and leaves from the Bridge of the lation has shrunk, dozens of companies cross the border and buy up the city. But while in Austria the cost averages 1,150 Nobody expected that the deal Slovak National Uprising, which spans have gone bankrupt and some schools things are unpredictable on the frontier. euros. For a non-removable, ceramic would bring so many Kaliningrad resi- Slovak the Danube and connects Bratislava’s have been closed. crown the price is 280 euros in Sopron dents over the border (the flow of Poles downtown with Petrzalka, a huge settle- Tis trend would have continued if and 866 euros in Austria. Tis, cou- to Kaliningrad is thinner). According to villagers ment built during communist times. Poland had not experienced such good pled with the massive advertisement Te Economist, in July 2013 the Polish Such border commuting is not economic performance in recent years. Low-cost campaign by local clinics, has brought consulate in Kaliningrad issued its Te same philosophy has inspired peo- confined to Vienna, Bratislava, and the Despite the fact that it is not listed among many Austrians to Sopron. Most are 100,000th visa, while in the first half of ple from Bratislava who choose to settle small Austrian villages close to Slovakia. fast-growing Polish cities, Szczecin, a dental care satisfied with the quality of services, 2013 Russians spent around 15 million in small Austrian villages just beyond the It is a much wider trend taking place coastal town of 400,000 people close the European Centre for Social Welfare euros in Poland. border, to which Bratislava’s outskirts all over Central Europe. It constitutes a to the border, has deeply improved its in Sopron Policy Research reports. Where do the Russians go? What stretch. Unlike the previous example, phenomenon that may be described as standards in the last years, gaining a new Austrians are not the only foreign do they buy? Tey primarily visit this story is real and concrete. Tere are a large daily migration within Europe’s dynamism. Tis has been a miracle for Sopron is a nice Hungarian city border- clients of Sopron clinics, although they Gdansk, Elblag, and Olsztyn. Tey shop many articles in respected newspapers borders. the German villages close to the frontier, ing Austria, 80 km from Vienna. It is also are the main contributors to their annual at cheap grocery stores, buying food and both in Vienna and Bratislava telling of since it has given them a way to revive a symbol of European reunification. In profits. In recent years, several hundred drink. Some of them also go to Ikea in the Slovak march to these tiny towns. their economic and social lives. As pric- the summer of 1989, two great events northeastern Italians have travelled to Gdansk or other places where they can Among them Wolfsthal and Kittsee, es for apartments in Szczecin have gone took place in its countryside, both ac- Sopron to take advantage of cheap den- buy nonperishables that they cannot two typical Austrian villages, with sin- Szczecin rescues up, a consequence of growth and higher celerating the fall of the Berlin Wall. Te tal care, as Trieste and Venice are not find in Kaliningrad. gle-floor, small villas standing along the salaries, hundreds of middle-class Poles first was a meeting between Austria and far from the Hungarian town. Te flow But this story is about more than main road, have welcomed the highest northeastern have bought houses in Gartz, Rosow, Hungary’s foreign ministers, Alois Mock of Italian patients has slowed recently, shopping. People from Kaliningrad get number of newcomers. Apartments are and other German villages, attracted and Gyula Horn. Tey cut the barbed however, as new low-cost dental dis- a taste of Poland beyond meat and beer; cheaper than in Bratislava, where real Germany by lower costs. Like Slovaks who move wire along the border, paving the way to tricts, much closer to Italy’s borders, the Poles, in addition to business oppor- estate, as well as construction, boomed from Bratislava to Wolfsthal, once settled a new era of cooperation. Te second, are flourishing right now in northern tunities, have the chance to interact with from European Union accession (2004) When experts analyze Poland’s eco- in their new homes they start commut- in August, was the Pan-European Pic- Croatia. But that is another story. their neighbors on a daily basis. Tis to the beginning of the global crisis nomic boom, they often highlight that ing daily to their workplaces in Poland nic, an initiative promoted by the Aus- can stimulate better relations between (2008). Now, prices have gone down, but German financial and industrial invest- (it takes thirty minutes by car), crossing trian politician Otto von Hamburg and the two peoples, overcoming prejudices are still higher than those in Kittsee and ments are one of the main engines be- the border and boosting another daily Hungarian liberal-minded communist stemming from political and historic ri- Wolfsthal. hind the remarkable progress made by European migration route. Imre Pozsgay. On that day, the borders Beyond valries between Warsaw and Moscow. remained symbolically open for three Frontiers and daily migrations are hours, to confirm the countries’ desire the European thus a source business, but also a poten- to lift the Iron Curtain and end the Cold tial tool for enhancing stronger mutual War. Several Eastern Germans spend- bloc trust, regardless of political relations ing their holidays in Hungary, heard of between states, and visa restrictions the event, went to the Sopron country- Daily migrations in Central Europe do do not necessarily represent a hurdle. side, and crossed the border, fleeing the not only involve the citizens of EU mem- Tousands of Belarusians, for example, East. It was a terrific blow to the regime ber states. Tere are masses of people flock to Poland every day, despite the of Eric Honecker, showing that people moving from Europe’s eastern neighbors fact that Minsk has not yet signed into wanted to leave the country. to Visegrad countries. Ukrainians go to effect the local border traffic agreement Now, times have changed. Hungary Poland and Hungary, Belarusians to Po- negotiated with Warsaw in 2010, report- joined the EU in 2004 and the Schengen land, and Russians from Kaliningrad to edly for political reasons. According to Area in 2007. Tere are no longer checks Poland and Lithuania. Evaluating these the Polish Office of Statistics, in July- at the border, and people can cross in flows in terms of economy, commerce, September 2013, Belarusians spent both directions. Given what happened and mutual cultural exchange depends around 180 million euros beyond the in August 1989, however, flow is much on visa rules. Te more strict the regula- border. In other words, they spent more more intense from west to east, from tions are, the less daily migrations can be on shopping more than both Ukrainians Austria to Hungary. Te fact is that the assessed in detail. and Russians. city has turned into one of the biggest For a number of years the EU has strongholds of European dental tourism, promoted local border traffic agree- The author is an Italian journalist and editor at attracting Austrian patients and foster- ments, which authorize the implemen- Rassagna East. ing yet another form of daily migration. tation of bilateral arrangements between
34 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 35 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE
STICKY BWP Media OR ELECTION-CLINCHER? ISSUE
Although European elections in the UK tend to MATHEW SHEARMAN be fought on domestic issues, V4 migrants will hen likely vot- find themselves at the center of a fierce debate ers were polled in May 2014. European immigration to the on the most im- portant issue af- UK remains a toxic political legacy six years fecting the UK in January 2014, after the opening up of Central and Eastern i m m i g r a t i o n European labor markets. However, there was the most popular response alongside “the econo- is also an opportunity to bring about a full Wmy,” with 41% of responses mentioning it. Both the complexity of immigration data refers to people who come to take advan- politicians from all political parties up- f Campaign banners on the street in Manchester. reappraisal of the issue, as new evidence and a and the lack of reliable information on tage of the welfare system (or paradoxi- ping their anti-immigration rhetoric drive among politicians, business leaders, and its diverse economic and social impact, cally British jobs), rather than movement ahead of the next European elections. however, have enabled it to become an by people who want to work in the UK. Distinguishing hateful rhetoric from resident migrants begins to change the debate. easy talking point filled with emotion, Many politicians from across the politi- people’s legitimate concerns about so- rather than a well understood policy area. cal spectrum have proven powerless in cial cohesion and crime, she was keen to combating or complicit in supporting emphasize that her research suggested IMMIGRATION AS A POLITICAL this view. that actual cases of social upheaval “are HEURISTIC Te underlying economic challeng- not as widespread as the extreme right Te political debate on the legacy of V4 es facing many working class Britons have press might have us believe.” Instead, it is immigration in the UK has become lit- partly been made attributable to rising an image created to stoke fears of further tle more than a heuristic for a number immigration rates. As new figures have cultural and economic disadvantage for of the socio-economic challenges facing revealed that net migration increased political ends. the UK. In the age of austerity, increased by 212,000 in 2013,1 politicians have competition for finite welfare resources instinctively scrambled to appear tough THE IMPACT OF UKIP has created a well of resentment as peo- on reducing numbers. Further economic Te governing Conservative Party has set ple face challenges in accessing benefits, cuts of up to 25 billion GBP after 20152 out an arbitrary reduction target for net housing, healthcare, and jobs. suggest that the climate of deep antago- migration to less than 100,000 people a Te 2008 “wave” of immigration, as nism between different communities will year. Policy measures to stop perceived the arrival of Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, worsen beyond the next general election. “healthcare tourists” and “benefit tour- and Slovaks is remembered, has led to Elisabeth Pop, Policy and Research ists” from accessing public services have their stigmatization as parasites of the Officer at HOPE not Hate, a leading an- also been made, despite evidence that state. “Economic migration” generally ti-racism group in the UK, has tracked nearly twice as many foreigners pay for
36 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 37 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE Wiktor D fact that businesses and politicians are be- With new evidence and the genuine against the climate of discrimination that ą bkowski/PAP ginning to promote these findings. threat of a European exit driving the de- had developed in the UK.12 To some extent, the new momen- bate, for the first time there is a political Precious little research has been tum to reappraise immigration has been imperative to cut through the heuristic of conducted into voting preferences in a product of a concurrent debate re- immigration and reappraise it on a factual Central and Eastern European commu- garding the future of Britain within the basis. It remains to be seen whether this nities, but it is clear that in the current European Union. With the slow march to ambitious start can provide the necessary climate, these communities have been a possible exit, interested business groups momentum for election day and beyond. left feeling stigmatized by the current have begun to mobilize to promote the government’s rhetoric. Tere is now an diverse economic benefits of continued MOBILIZING MIGRANTS FOR opportunity for the Labour Party to membership. THE UPCOMING ELECTIONS present an alternative vision for the role Lucy Tomas, Deputy Director of It would be wrong to suggest that V4 mi- of EU migrants and shift the debate ahead Business for New Europe (BNE), is one of grants are simply the objects and victims of the general election in 2015. many keen to share the role that V4 mi- of a political narrative driven by British gration has played in increasing the UK political groups in the UK. Tere are now A STEPCHANGE IN THE economy by 5 billion GBP. In represent- approximately 2.4 million EU migrants of IMMIGRATION DEBATE? ing multinational corporations, she cites voting age residing in the UK, and they Migrants from V4 countries have long the huge negative impact that restricting could present a significant shift in voter been used to providing headlines in the migration would have on the single mar- demographics in the next European Daily Mail and other tabloid media in ket. BNE’s “Migration – Making it Work”8 elections. the UK. Tis has only intensified as UKIP notes that EU migrants contributed 37% Working in conjunction with has become a greater electoral threat. But more in taxes than they received in ser- community organizations such as the in the run up to the European elections vices in the UK. Immigration reform, such Federation of Poles in Great Britain, there are many reasons to think that the as a six-month limit on jobseekers’ allow- groups such as HOPE not Hate are work- heuristic of immigration may start to be ance, is supported, but the argument is ing to support voter registration and rewritten. made as part of a broader rebuttal of anti- turnout among migrant groups. In a Te concurrent debate around the European groups and without the visceral speech to the Congress of Student Polish future of the EU has produced new advo- anger against EU migrants. Societies in the UK, Foreign Minister cates for a fact-based discussion on the Tis shift has breathed new life into Radosław Sikorski encouraged students benefits of EU immigration, and, for their f The Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk shakes healthcare on the NHS than receive it cal class that had sold out to Brussels.” By the political party debate in the months to vote, to show the government how part, V4 migrants in the UK are now in a hands with UKIP leader and member of the European subsidized by the state.3 Tese policy leaning on immigration and disillusion- before the European elections. Following young Polish people in the UK feel.10 position to vote in protest of their por- Parliament Nigel Farage. credit: measures reveal more about the political ment with mainstream parties, UKIP has publication of the delayed government re- As Elisabeth Pop has written, this co- trayal in the UK. For these reasons the insurgency by the populist UK Indepen- now positioned itself as a patriotic “com- port, Vince Cable, the Liberal Democrat ordinated cooperation among Central European elections in 2014 may also pre- dence Party (UKIP) than they do about mon sense” alternative on both immigra- Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Eastern European communities was sent the beginning of much longer reap- the impact of immigration to the UK. tion and EU issues. and Skills, has criticized the Conservative “triggered by the unprecedented hate praisal of immigration in the UK. Recent polls suggest that they will Party out for “fanning the flames of preju- media which scapegoated them for all draw one in five voters in the European THE SHIFTING NARRATIVE dice.”9 Simultaneously, David Hanson MP, the ills in British society.”11 In February The author is the political editor of Europe & Me elections4 and could very well finish in Until March 2014, there was little indica- shadow immigration minister, has called 2014, this was seen in a demonstration magazine and a contributor to New Eastern Eu- second place, ahead of both governing tion that immigration would feature any for an “open, calm, and fact-based debate by around 500 Polish and Romanian resi- rope. He writes on UK and German foreign policy, parties.5 Born as an anti-EU party, UKIP differently than in previous elections. In on the impact of immigration.” dents outside the Houses of Parliament EU politics, and Central and Eastern Europe. has harnessed resentment over increased 2010 politicians raced to make promises immigration as a key issue in their dif- that they could restrict flows of immigra- ferentiation from the three mainstream tion, thereby easing the burden of reces- parties. sion on British voters. Yet a government At UKIP’s party conference earlier report released in the first week of March this year, Nigel Farage described his feel- 2014 may provide the catalyst for refresh- ing of discomfort at not understanding ing the debate. REFERENCES the languages being spoken on a London Te UK government's recent immi- 1. Office of National Statistics, “Migration Statistics Quarterly Report, February 2014,” May 22 2014. train. Tis simple and personal example gration report6 has found relatively little 2. Reuters, “UK needs 25 billion pounds of spending cuts after 2015 vote, Osborne says,” 6 January 2014 www.uk.reuters.com/. makes his more complex claim that the evidence of displacement of UK natives 3. Johanna Hanefeld, Daniel Horsfall, Neil Lunt, Richard Smith, “Medical tourism: a cost or benefit to the NHS?” PLoS ONE 8(10) (2013). UK has a “totally distorted labor market from the labor market during economi- 4. ICM/Guardian poll, February 9 2014. because of the massive oversupply that cally strong periods. Although some job 5. YouGov/Sun poll, January 15 2014. has come to us from Eastern Europe” losses could be expected when the econo- 6. Ciaran Devlin, Olivia Bolt, Dhiren Patel, David Harding, Ishtiaq Hussain, “Impacts of migration on UK native employment: An analytical review of the relatable. my was weaker and net migration higher, evidence,” Department for Business, Innovation & Skills, Home Office, March 2014. UKIP has harnessed this view of im- the economy did adjust slowly and the im- 7. Centre for Entrepreneurs, DueDil, “Migrant Entrepreneurs: Building Our Businesses Creating Our Jobs.” migration to support its broader aim of pact was short-term. Further studies pub- 8. Business for New Europe, “Migration – making it work,” May 2013. EU withdrawal by making the argument lished in February 2014 have also revealed 9. The Huffington Post UK/PA, “Vince Cable Says ‘The Tories Are Fanning The Flames Of Prejudice’ Over Immigration Row,” March 8 2014, http://www. that it restricts the UK’s ability to manage the positive side of this process, as one in huffingtonpost.co.uk. the impact of immigration. Tis view is every seven new businesses is created by 10. Radosław Sikorski, Speech to the Congress of Polish Student Societies, Oxford Union, March 9 2014. rarely challenged, in part because Farge migrants.7 It is less remarkable that these 11. Elisabeth Pop, “EU migrant voters stand up to the politics of hate and fear,” February 27 2014, http://www.hopenothate.org.uk. attacks mainstream parties as a “politi- benefits have been discovered than the 12. mk/nh, “UK Poles in Downing Street anti-discrimination protest,” Polskie Radio, February 24 2014, http://www.thenews.pl.
38 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 39 EUROPE MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE David Mdzinarishvili/forum of migration and welfare policies. One of CSU (Christian Social Union), the sister ters argued that the migrant forces from the results of the “senseless tragedy,” as party to Angela Merkel’s conservative newly-introduced countries would boost it was termed by the media, was the in- CDU (Christian Democratic Union). Te the economies of the host countries, as troduction of Eurosur, a pan-European pamphlet outlined a new immigration “they are younger and economically more surveillance system, in December 2013. policy proposal, including a suggested active than the average British workforce; According to research conducted by the three-month ban on welfare payments they also contribute to the UK national European network United for Intercultural for immigrants. Te Social Democratic revenues far in excess of the social benefits Action, more than 17,000 migrant deaths Party (SDP), the center-left coalition part- they use.” have been documented since 1993. Te ner of Merkel’s government, accused the On the eve of the European Lampedusa tragedy was perceived as conservatives of pandering to populist Parliamentary elections, the political situ- evidence that the migration situation had sentiment. ation is tense, as divisions within the EU not been properly assessed, and that more Marine Le Pen, the leader of France’s become more evident, concretely those restrictive and control-based policies only rightwing nationalist Front National, and based on migration fears on the one hand seem to lead to more death and suffering. Geert Wilders, the Dutch anti-Islam cam- and the economic advantages of higher In January 2014, the opening of paigner, have announced that they will be mobility on the other. At the top level of European labor markets to residents of joining forces ahead of European parlia- EU institutions in Brussels, people are Bulgaria and Romania, the newest mem- mentary elections. Teir common goal is sharing opinions in which they foresee bers of the EU, sparkled heated debates in exploitation of the euroscepticism soaring “populists, xenophobes, extremists, fas- the United Kingdom. Conservative media across the EU, especially in recent months. cists” gaining even as much as 30% of and politicians both accentuated fears of Te two big policy areas shared by the seats in the next parliament. Eurosceptic an influx of “poverty migration” that was conservative parties are anti-immigration parties, or those actively committed to supposed to spread across Europe in the and anti-EU sentiments. paralyzing EU policy-making (including months to follow. Te UK government In February 2014, Switzerland voted withdrawal from the single currency), responded to these fears by announcing by a narrow 50.3% to limit immigration to are expected to achieve considerable re- that as of 1 January 2014, the country’s the country. “Freedom of movement is a sults in countries such as Greece, Austria, welfare provisions would be tightened fundamental core value of the European Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, and to make it harder for migrants moving Union and as such is not open for nego- elsewhere in Eastern Europe, while Nigel to Britain to establish themselves. David tiation,” chief operating officer of the EU Farage’s UK Independence Party is being JĘDRZEJ BURSZTA Cameron also discussed introduction of external affairs service David O’Sullivan widely considered as the possible winner a system of quotas designed to restrict said of the referendum’s outcome. Te of European elections in Britain. ne of the most funda- the freedom of movement as well as the vote is understood as a consequence of ac- Te growing European public sphere mental values of the freedom to choose place of residence and cepting the EU’s commitment to free pas- means that the relationship between lo- European Union is employment constituting much stricter sage within the borders of the Schengen cal politics and, overall, cross-European Freedom the freedom of move- rules on citizens of new countries join- Area. While not a member of the EU, policy-making is more relevant than ever ment. In 1985 all EU ing the EU. Some British commentators Switzerland is closely associated with the before. Te political and social discussions countries signed the perceived this change of heart as a result bloc by numerous bilateral pacts; further- that followed the Lampedusa tragedy have of Schengen Agreement, of the upcoming EU elections, noting more, the decision to distance the country gained wide media coverage, spilling over movement which proposed the that like John McCain, George W. Bush, from the EU – as the newly introduced to other countries, proving that the border gradual abolition of border checks and and other Republican leaders in the U.S., quotas significantly limit mobility within between national and European (transna- Oreplacing national borders with a border- Conservative Party establishment candi- the continent – remains a problem. In tional) politics are beginning to blur. Te and less Schengen Area. Te treaty, first signed dates have tactically “moved to the right” their commentaries on the outcome of May 2014 elections will certainly prove cross- by five members of the bloc, was later im- on the issue of immigration strictly for the Swiss referendum, both European to be a major turning point, as heated plemented by other countries, with the election purposes. If they succeed in the Parliament president Martin Schulz and debates on crucial issues such as the free- exception of the United Kingdom and elections, Cameron’s party will most prob- European Commission president José dom of movement and cross-border mi- Ireland, who preferred not to join, and ably reverse direction and return to a pro- Manuel Barroso emphasized that the right gration are shaping the political programs border Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, and Cyprus, EU integration course, although British to free movement within Europe is not up of competing parties. Representatives of whose requisite external border controls popular opinion remains divided as to the for debate. conservative factions are gaining more were not all in place. Iceland, Norway, future of the EU. Tis may prove a critical Te Visegrad Four countries have and more popularity among European Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, although issue that will certainly be raised during released a joint statement in reaction to voters by feeding on growing euroscepti- migration not EU members, also joined the agree- the proposed referendum on continued the proposed British anti-migration meas- cism, most prominently among citizens ment. Most of Europe became open to UK membership in the EU, announced ures (arguing that it represents a “selective of Western European states, with suc- RECENT DEBATES mobility, which influenced the growth of for 2017. approach” to core EU freedoms) aimed cess partly attributed to the world eco- legal migration between European states. A similar situation can be found in at limiting social benefits for Bulgarian nomic crisis. Te shape of the future EU ON EU IMMIGRATION In October 2013, a boat carry- Germany. Conservative parties are call- and Romanian immigrants. “Free move- Parliament will without doubt influence ing hundreds of migrants sank near the ing for the introduction of tight restric- ment of people is a cornerstone of EU Europe’s stance on migration, which is still POLICIES Italian island of Lampedusa, resulting in tions on welfare payments to immigrants integration – an indispensable functional envisioned as the non-negotiable right of more than 350 dead. Te tragic accident from Bulgaria and Romania. Teir anti- building block of a truly integrated Single every European citizen. renewed criticism of the EU’s approach to immigration campaign ran under the Market,” expressed the foreign ministers border management and irregular migra- slogan: “Tose who commit fraud are of Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, The author is a cultural anthropologist and Ameri- tion, resulting in media debates in mem- out,” distributed on a pamphlet published and Hungary. Echoing remarks stated by canist and a PhD student at the University of So- ber countries about the intertwined issues by representatives of the Bavarian party the European Commission, V4 minis- cial Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw.
40 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 41 MAIDAN, MIGRANTS AND DEMOCRACY EUROPE Jan Bajtlik
newEUROPEANS
Emigration flows from the 19th century to the present day
GERTRUDA GECAITE
lobal transformations starting in the 19th WAVES OF MIGRATION century have gone hand in hand with European migrants were determined to settle down primarily mass migration, which has been a sig- in America. For instance, since the middle of the 19th century, nificant part of modern world history. the average number of emigrants had been around 300,000 per Although the migration flows have taken year, while already at the beginning of the 21st century they various directions, almost two-thirds of numbered over a million a year. According to the National emigrants chose the United States, while Bureau of Economic Research data, the second decade of the the rest went to Australia, Canada, Ar- 20th century marked a significant decline in migrants due to gentina, and some to Western Europe. Te rise of migration U.S. quotas. Gfrom Europe to the New World has had profound impact on Some scholars oppose the explanation that restrictive the global economy, societal well-being, and population trans- policies introduced by the U.S. government led to a decreasing fer. Te 20th century marked the process of cultural intermin- number of migrants. According to them, the concept of migra- gling not only overseas but also within Europe, particularly tion is better understood by keeping in mind its political and in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). Te main driving force economic context, and other processes over a certain period of behind emigration in the 19th and 20th centuries was not only time. With regard to U.S. quotas, the House of Representatives the search for economic well-being, but also political repres- introduced the Immigration Act (in early 1924) as a tool to sion and ethnic persecution. monitor the uncontrolled stream of migrants, and put restric- In the 21st century, cultural diversity has evolved not tive quotas on newcomers to filter out those who might stay only through exchange of labor force, filling labor shortages, in the U.S. Moreover, restrictions were placed on immigration and contribution to countries’ prospects, but also through the visas according to which only two percent of the total number melting pot phenomenon, particularly in Europe. In Europe, of applicants of each nationality were granted visas to settle fertility rates among natives are decreasing, cultural diver- down in the U.S. sity brings conflict, sending countries are losing their human Large numbers of people, particularly from Transylvania capital, and there is a relatively low level of return migration. including ethnic Hungarians, also emigrated to the U.S. af- Although the labor force circulation of the 19th century has ter the First World War. Migration flows from Romania were persisted, today it presents challenges of maintaining the thus strongly linked to ethnic minorities until the early 1990s. European population, curbing cultural differences, and sus- During the Communist era, German, Hungarian, Jewish, and taining the welfare system. Greek minorities felt ethnically discriminated and moved to
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other countries with which they had historical ties (Israel, regions became very multicultural – Iraqis and Afghanis in Norway. What is more, according to Polish Census data in intelligentsia as political enemies to Siberia, or the sending of Hungary, and Germany). An ineffectual political system un- Denmark, Algerians and Moroccans in France, Poles and Turks 2011, Poles constituted the third largest resident group in the British prisoners to Australia demonstrate the use of migra- der Soviet turmoil was another reason to leave Romania. It is in Germany, Russians in Finland, Albanians and Romanians in U.S., and a smaller group in Canada and Australia. tion in excluding certain groups of people. Pogroms have also also significant to note that although the regime kept emigra- Italy, and Indians and Pakistanis in Great Britain. Moreover, played a role, with mass violence against certain ethnic or re- tion under control, ethnic minorities of Jews, Germans, and after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, emigration from tran- WHAT ARE THE MOTIVES FOR EMIGRATION? ligious groups, or even classes, although usually against Jews. Hungarians were sponsored to emigrate. For instance, after sition countries such as Poland and Romania increased con- Te objectives of migration vary in terms of time, place, as According to John Klier (2010), professor of Modern Jewish the Second World War, the communist authorities were al- siderably. In terms of migratory movement within Europe, well as other external and internal elements, and for centuries History at University College London, this happened at dif- lowed to sell Romanian citizens of Jewish and German origin living conditions have improved and it has become more or the flow of migration has been shaped by different economic ferent times, for instance, during the first Odessa pogrom in to Israel, the U.S., and West Germany. Under the Ceauşescu less similar among EU countries. Terefore, some countries and social factors. Te main driving forces behind migration 1821, Jews were accused of sympathizing with the Ottoman regime, a deal was often made in which minorities brought have shifted from sending to host countries. can be attributed to both negative and positive factors. Harsh authorities, while even earlier in 1648 Jews were targeted as re- financial profit to Romania, and were in exchange provided Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, migration has conditions such as poverty, a lack of employment possibilities, ligious enemies during the Cossack uprising against the Poles. with passports and visas. As has been revealed in the memoirs occurred within Europe when people moved from east to religious, political, and ethnical persecution, and famine all During times of political upheaval and warfare, Jews were of a number of security officers, the sum for one person varied west: there was a flow of Russians emigrating to Ukraine and encourage people to emigrate. On the other hand there was scapegoated and became “others.” Although ideology played from 15,000 to 250,000 US dollars, depending on their educa- Kazakhstan after the fall of communism, while Ukrainians a push for new land to cultivate (most of these migrants were a crucial role in pogroms, violence and brutality were caused tion level, age, and professional achievements (Suciu 2010). left for Germany, the U.S., and Israel, and Romanians mostly farmers from Europe) and to settle down in urban areas at by inhumane war and greed. Moreover, the pogroms were Tis practice was so profitable that the General Secretary headed for Germany. Immigration to the EU has thus in- the beginning of the 19th century, which constituted an escape centrally organized by the government itself, which wanted to of the Romanian Communist Party applied the same tactics creased significantly since the 1980s and even exceeded that plan for European emigrants. expel a certain class of people. According to Yehuda Slutsky to those of German descent. Tis policy had a clear goal: to of the U.S. While a few decades earlier, workers without legal According to a report by Danielle Leclercq (1999), (2008), it is impossible to assess the number of victims of po- create a homogenous Romanian society. Meanwhile, ethnic permission to enter other countries were welcomed for the Europe at that time was suffering from overpopulation in rural groms during wars. Partial data reveals that 887 major and 349 Hungarians were in a different position. Tey crossed the very simple reason that there was a demand for labor force. areas such as Silesia, Ireland, and Westphalia, which encour- minor pogroms have occurred since the 19th century. Many border illegally and settled down in Hungary without resi- It seems that outflow of migrants will be surpassed by the in- aged mass emigration of agricultural and industrial workers. people have lived in fear, many have been killed, while only dence permits. Tis kind of migration was not accepted by flux of illegal migrants, which has already become a concern What is more, the agricultural depression evolved into the po- some have managed to survive. the Romanian authorities, which feared the outcome of a mas- for Southern and Eastern Europe. For instance, in the 1990s tato blight in Ireland and Pebrine Disease infecting vineyards So far, no investigation has been conducted to analyze sive emigration and its impact on the country’s reputation. and 2000s, European governments were preoccupied by issues in France, among others, creating the necessity to move else- the impact of migrants forced to return to their country of Since the 1930s and 1940s, however, the tendency toward free such as the Schengen Area and development of the single mar- where. Moreover, new discoveries of resources such as gold in origin. Te phenomenon of forced migration may also be per- migration has slowly come to an end. ket, and their impact on migrants’ integration. It was believed North America and Australia accelerated masses of migrants ceived as the result of the human decision to choose political Other significant countries with a high emigration rate that a common EU migration policy would be the solution. seeking a better life. However, not only were far-removed refugeehood and escape Nazi and Bolshevik political repres- include the Baltic states, particularly Latvia and Lithuania. Illegal migration in Europe has been strongly influenced by places (from Europe to America) chosen as emigration desti- sion. However, as sociologist Stephen Castles notes, forced Although emigration from the Baltic states is less visible due to enlargement of the EU. Open borders led to a flow of people nations, but also nearby countries. Te first group of workers migration today refers not only to asylum seekers or refugees, its small populations, it had a huge impact on other countries’ escaping the economic recession and political turmoil in their in German and French industrial areas consisted of Poles and but also to people who have left their countries due to natural cultural and intellectual survival. For instance, in the late 19th home countries, particularly since the 1990s. According to Italians, for instance. Relatively cheap transportation allowed disasters or because they became victims of human trafficking and early 20th centuries, a huge wave of Lithuanian emigrants Population Reference Bureau data from 2013, the population workers to settle down close to their homelands, thus avoiding and the sex industry. Te scale of forced migration is vast and (around 300,000) headed to the U.S. It is ultimately difficult in Europe has increased from around 370 million people in emigration overseas. Demographic shift also played a crucial has led to demographic, economic, and cultural challenges to document the precise number of emigrants due to poor 1960 to more than 750 million. Te more newcomers are ac- role in stimulating migration. Te mortality rate of children that Europe has had to address. Although migration is driven record-keeping, as Lithuanians were not seen as belonging to cepted, the more Europe must struggle and take responsibility declined, in turn mobilizing young people to contribute to the by various inner and external factors and has gone through a separate nation and were often counted as Polish or Russian. to deal with the consequences. migration boom, supported in part by remittances from family different historical periods, it has consistently been bound to An even greater number of Lithuanians emigrated to the U.S. In the 1990s, thousands of Romanians, Bulgarians, and members overseas. peoples’ desire to find a safe place to live. to escape the Soviet reoccupation of Lithuania. Educated lead- Ukrainians migrated to countries such as the Czech Republic, It is also significant to note that migration has been used ers and professionals believed not to come back, therefore, Poland, and Hungary in search of job opportunities. Tey ini- as a force to move people to certain places and isolate them. The author graduated in social sciences from Vilnius University. many sought just permanent stay in America. tially constituted an unskilled labor force that was later joined Te examples of the deportation of the Lithuanian and Polish Te second wave refers to intra-European migration. Te by migrants with work contracts from China (mostly to the fall of the Ottoman Empire led to an influx of Muslims from Czech Republic and Hungary) and Vietnam (to Poland and the Balkan states to Turkey and northwestern Europe (France, the Czech Republic). With regard to migrants from Asian and Germany, UK, and the Benelux countries). At the same time, non-EU countries, socio-cultural differences led to a diverse 18th FORUM 2000 18. konference Christian minorities left Turkey. A few decades later, there was integration model. Meanwhile, highly-skilled workers from SAVE THE DATE Conference FORUM 2000 migration from poor countries in Europe to richer ones such as Western Europe moved to the Visegrad Group countries; France, Germany, and Great Britain, motivated by their desire however, their stays were temporary, which did not encour- October 12–14, 2014, Prague 12.–14. října 2014, Praha to improve economic prosperity and the demand for the labor age integration. Te Central and Eastern European Migration October 15, 2014, Brno, Ostrava, 15. října 2014, Brno, Ostrava, Bratislava, force to achieve it. Te main flow of people was from southern Review (2013) shows that Hungary and the Czech Republic Bratislava, Budapest, Krakow Budapešť, Krakov Europe to northwestern Europe, particularly from Portugal, maintain a significantly low level of immigration, while Poland The essential global forum for the dialogue The conference is open to public Konference je otevřena pro veřejnost Italy, Ireland, and Finland to the UK and Sweden. In the 1960s has the tendency to switch from a typical emigration country on freedom, democracy and human rights. upon registration. po předchozí registraci. and early 1970s, migration expanded from the former colonial to a net immigration country. Tis is clear from Poland’s mi- regions such as India, Sub-Sahara, and the Caribbean to the gration balance, which had a relatively high emigration level UK, France, and the Netherlands to fill labor market demands from the early 1990s to 2006, but has since 2009 exhibited a for unskilled workers. People therefore settled down in indus- balance in emigration and immigration flows. trial areas that provided work opportunities. Since EU enlargement in 2004, Poland has been the coun- Te early 1970s marked a slowdown in migration flow to try with the largest emigration flow among CEE countries, due Western Europe due to the global oil crisis that hit the world to Poland’s population and its demographic potential. In 2004- hard. It took some time to restore the economic surge that 2007 it was estimated that over one million Poles went abroad again resulted in a new wave of migration. Western Europe due to job opportunities. Te most frequent destinations were and the Scandinavian countries managed to do so and those Great Britain, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, and forum2000.cz facebook.com/forum.2000 twitter.com/forum_2000 44 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 45 INTERVIEW POPULATION FLOWS IN THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE POPULATION FLOWS IN THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE INTERVIEW CHERRY PIC KING
INTERVIEW WITH ATTILA MELEGH, FORA ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AT CORVINUS UNIVERSITY HUNGRY E UROPE
CONDUCTED BY MÁTÉ ZOMBORY .. Micha urrently the manager though the whole world participates in Another important thing is that I would even say ultraconservative – with ł Siarek of an international it, the perception of the European public the EU is divided. It was an overall, out- regard to illegal migrants, for instance, project on migra- is that everything is about Europe, and in migrant region until the 1950s; now it people without citizenship. At the same tion for eight coun- this respect it’s completely wrong. Large is an immigrant region, which doesn’t time, inside Europe, the EU is a develop- tries, Attila Melegh migration flows and migration stocks (that mean that there are no regions that are ing system that is trying to build up some insists on looking is, foreign-born or foreign citizen popula- completely out-migrant regions or immi- security for immigrants, and it is liberal- at migration from a tion residing in a country) can be observed grant regions within Europe (for reasons izing the flow of people within its borders. global perspective in outside Europe and throughout the world. of history and economic hierarchy). As What makes this picture even more com- discussing the European Union’s relation- Just to name some: the North American a rule the EU15 is receiving people. It is plicated is that there’s no such a thing as Cship to migration. What is Europe like system is one of the largest, the system of not homogenous. Furthermore, the EU EU migration policy! Tere are basically compared with other migratory systems? the Gulf countries is also expansive, and also receives a large number of migrants only a few matters on which EU leaders What are the main tendencies on the there are also dramatic migratory move- from so-called third countries, including agree, and the rest is – at least in theory – continent? What is the situation in the ments within Africa – for example, there North Africa, Latin America, and from the up to the nation states. So the EU is a very V4 countries? How to best evaluate ex- was a civil war in North Africa in 2010- Indian subcontinent. complicated animal in this respect. isting policies toward immigrants given 2011, during which 25,000 people ap- Finally, it is also important to clarify the growing economic and social need for peared in Italy, first in Lampedusa. Tey that the EU basically looks at migration How would you describe migration inside labor in Europe? later continued their journey and even got from two completely different perspec- the EU? What kind of flows can be identi- as far as France. At the same time, around tives. To the outside, it’s a very conserva- fied? How would you describe the position of one million migrants left North Africa for tive force: it persists in the notion that it Te problem is what kinds of flows to the EU in global migration flows? other destinations. So it is crucial to un- can select and control immigration. In identify? Flow data is very problematic for Te first important thing is that the global derstand that it is not only Europe that is the context of global political discussions, many reasons. Some experts say that the migration system really is global. Al- “struggling” with migration. the EU is very conservative – sometimes published flow data is completely unreli-
46 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 47 INTERVIEW POPULATION FLOWS IN THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE POPULATION FLOWS IN THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE INTERVIEW
able. We can speak of some of the major immigrants from Russia, Ukraine, and Vi- the statistics are very unreliable (rough cialism. Nonetheless, I wouldn’t say that it economies into the EU, it should not come harness the issue of immigration. Te Brit- directions, and also of the resident popula- etnam. Vietnam is very important in the estimates), as nobody can really do a sur- is over. When we look at the demographic as a surprise, as it happened with the ac- ish are not opposed to skilled Polish work- tions in various parts of Europe. Te Pol- Czech Republic. vey and ask these people directly. Just to trends and the labor market figures, it is tive support of the British government. ers; no, they want to avoid certain kinds ish-German direction is, and has always clarify: to do surveys on out-migration is a obvious that the region will need more mi- Secondly, European economies are not of immigrants. Tey are rather selective in been, a very important one. Also, the last How do you explain this? very complicated exercise. People have lit- grants, despite whatever the public thinks. competitive enough, mainly because of choosing their labor force. Cherry picking census found around 600,000 Polish resi- Under state socialism, many Vietnamese tle trust, they’re afraid of providing infor- I think sooner or later, there will be a major increasing capital costs and very high la- is the primary technique: getting the best dents in the UK (including Scotland). Tis students appeared in these countries and mation that might worsen their position. investment problem here and there will be bor costs. For the last thirty years, at least, and paying the least for it. But the EU is a is one very important direction in which were network starters, and all neighbor- But research has shown that the former an increasing need for a labor force. Why we have seen the emergence of the global strong counterforce in this. So, these are the Visegrad countries are involved. Te ing countries, including Hungary, actu- socialist countries’ dependency on remit- would the extremely global capital invest market in some sense, in which compara- five reasons why border closure is not go- other – Romania and Bulgaria, most im- ally attracted Vietnamese labor! So, for tances has increased since the 1990s. here, if there is not enough usable labor? tive advantage started to work. Previously, ing to happen. portantly from Romania toward southern example, in the mid-1980s, Hungary (and the West was able to avoid this huge com- Europe, mainly Italy – does not actually also Czechoslovakia) had physical work- Can we say that the majority of outgoing There are various fears about mass mi- petition from outside. Now, comparative You said that European countries and affect the Visegrad region that much. In ers from Vietnam. I think this is a very migrants from this region is leaving for gration from Eastern Europe to Western advantage is working: labor in China, In- the EU itself would need people in the Italy, the number of Romanian residents important relationship; Vietnam is not a economic reasons? countries, and we have recently heard dia, and Bangladesh produces the goods future, so migration is necessary in that went up to more than 600,000-700,000, small country. We are talking about more With regard to the labor market, the col- sense. But we hear many speeches, very suddenly, for various reasons. I would than 80 million people with a booming lapse of state socialism meant that very mainly political, saying that migrants even say that the crisis has not changed economy right now, which actually means high labor force participation rates fell cause problems. Can you imagine there this pattern very much. Bulgaria has also that people can increasingly afford out- radically and dramatically to very low lev- being another kind of perspective on mi- THERE’SNO grants, one that doesn’t consider them been sending out huge number of mi- migration and have the opportunity to es- els as a result of globalization. In migra- grants toward Turkey and Spain. Turning tablish links. Slovakia attracts people from tion theory, scholars say that when world a problem? to the Visegrad countries, Hungary has a Ukraine and also some from Vietnam, but capitalism intervenes in countries less in- I think that in Europe, where they say relatively low intensity of out-migration, once again, the rate is not that high. Hun- tegrated into the system, it leads to huge SUCH A THING A S negative things about immigrants while which, however, has been exponentially gary primarily has links to neighboring out-migration. Tis intervention leads using their labor, it’s going to remain the increasing from a very low level since EU territories where Hungarians live: mainly to very bad labor market figures, and so case as long as migrants keep coming. As accession. Te main targets for Hungary Ukraine, Romania, and Serbia. Tis pat- it was absolutely predictable that people EUMIGRATION soon as they stop, politicians will get into are of course Austria and Germany, and tern has been dominant but is actually would start looking around for opportuni- trouble. Tat would be my answer. Europe now the UK is also rising as the third most declining in some ways, not only because ties. Why different Central Eastern Euro- is far more hypocritical with regard to important destination country. Slovakia is these people are receiving Hungarian citi- pean countries have behaved differently in migrants than other regions. I’m not say- of course important in Austria, Germany, zenship, but also because migrants do not this way is a very good question. Te Poles POLICY! ing that migrants have a good life outside and in the UK as well. Relatively speaking, come here anymore. It isn’t worth com- started early, the Czechs never really did, Europe. Migrants suffer in the Gulf States, the out-migrant numbers are not too high ing here. Tey go along with Romanian but we have already noted that the Czech that you buy in Europe. At the same time, in Africa, and in Latin America, to such in these countries. Te Czech Republic is migrant networks to southern Europe, to labor market has also been doing better; global capital, including European capital, an extent that readers can hardly imagine! the one country that is actually showing a Italy. Hungary receives quite a number of Slovaks also waited for some time, and the goes to those countries, as capital is not in- And in Europe they don’t suffer that much. rather different pattern: it has become an Chinese citizens, and also Russians. Less Hungarians waited even longer. But now terested in social issues, it has never been! But one thing is not going to change: the immigrant country; it doesn’t send peo- people have come from Slovakia, mainly everybody is taking part, with the sole ex- So the struggle is ongoing! Tis means that European public is against immigration ple abroad on a massive scale. Te Czech because the two countries are equally ception of the Czech Republic. Tat was wages should go down in Europe. It is hard for one good reason, because Europe is labor market is surely an important issue developed, or because Slovakia has even predictable. Unfortunately, I think this eu- to imagine politicians, David Cameron, losing its economic positions. here, because it is better than those of the taken over Hungary in terms of GDP/ ro-world capitalism is not about improv- for example, telling the public that wages others. It’s been following a different tra- capita. Within the EU, Hungary receives ing labor market figures, which means that should go down by 30% in real terms to Are there examples of countries in which the population feels positively toward
jectory – it has been more urban, more quite a few people from Germany; so this trend will continue; we are definitely Micha ensure competitiveness. So immigrants industrial, it’s quite a different story. In German citizens also live here, for highly going to live in an area with a higher in- partially “solve” these problems – partial- migrants? ł general, it is long-term historical struc- varied economic reasons. In terms of im- tensity of migration and we have to pre- Siarek ly, I’m not saying fully. Especially in rather Tere are some countries even within tures and relationships that matter. migration intensity, however, these coun- pare for that, and we have to develop our competitive areas of the economy, includ- Europe. Austria and Finland are far more tries show rather low figures, compared to policies to take current developments in ing catering, which is very competitive, positive than others. Look at the United Can we speak of the Central Eastern the EU15 countries or even Austria, if you migration into account. Western countries need migrant labor. States, which is also restrictive, don’t mis- European countries as destination coun- look at the whole region. Austria sends the announcement of British prime min- Tey also need it in declining sectors of understand me, but from time to time, tries? out many out-migrants, but receives even Does this mean that there is no signifi- ister David Cameron on the restriction of the economy, as we know very well from acknowledges that immigration is what it Yes. For various groups we are targets. Po- more immigrants. cant migration between the V4 countries, immigration to the UK. If we look at the the literature on migration, so the third needs and lives on; and so it changes the land is receiving very few; it may be that that the direction is mainly East-West? data, do they support these fears? reason is that demand is not going to go legal regulations and legalizes millions of it actually has the lowest level of immi- What economic role do outgoing mi- Actually, this is a very important thing Even the census shows that there’s a rela- down. Te fourth issue I’d like to mention “illegals.” Global politics is also becoming gration among all the EU countries. Te grants play in this region? How much to mention. Slovakia has produced mi- tively big immigrant population in the is the collapse of the welfare system; immi- more positive. Te development of inter- overall stock of resident foreign citizens is money do they send to their families? grants for Hungary, but this was to do UK, but the situation is somewhat more grants increasingly fill the gaps that have national law demonstrates this very well: below 0.5% of the total population, which We are talking about relatively small num- with the Hungarian minority living there. complicated for a number of reasons. I can arisen as a result, e.g., taking care of the the UN is fighting hard to even settle the is very low – this small group is mainly bers. Te Visegrad countries do not show Of course, migration was considerable provide various arguments. Firstly, when elderly, cleaning them, feeding them, and rights of illegal immigrants. Tese devel- comprised of people from Ukraine. Some a pattern characteristic of countries such between the Czechs and Slovaks for his- Eastern Europe was pushed to change its so on also increase the demand for immi- opments are welcome and the EU should Caucasian countries and Vietnam are im- as Moldova and Tajikistan, or even Roma- torical reasons, and it still exists. However, economic system, and when it found itself grants. A considerable part of Western so- facilitate this process. portant. Te Czech Republic is different; nia and Bulgaria, where the remittances, migration is not that significant between in subsequent labor market scenarios, the ciety will need these people. Te European it’s attractive, with around 4% of the total as they are known, can climb as high as Poland and the Czech Republic, Poland British government and the British capi- trick is to use immigrant labor but react The author is a sociologist, a research fellow at population consisting of resident foreign 30% of the total GDP. In the Visegrad and Slovakia, and Poland and Hungary. In tal promoted that transformation. Now negatively. Te fifth issue is the EU itself: the Centre for Social Sciences of the Hungarian citizens. Of course they still have quite a countries, they are somewhere between general, migration has decreased among that the UK is seeing people come as a the EU cannot allow the system to collapse Academy of Sciences, and an editor of Visegrad few people from Slovakia, but they have 1-2%. We don’t know the exact figures as these countries since the fall of state so- consequence of the integration of these just because Cameron or other politicians Insight.
48 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 49 INTELLIGENT MIND IN DEFENSE OF DECADENT EUROPE IN DEFENSE OF DECADENT EUROPE INTELLIGENT MIND
tuals (with some exceptions) unable to they are also more present within Europe think through the dilemmas of modern itself. Brussels – the capital of the EU – is IN DEFENSE democracies? Why did Europe surrender very different in spirit from Brussels – the its universalistic appeal? capital of Belgium. Te former is in love What until just yesterday seemed with diversity and multiculturalism; the universally applicable in the European ex- latter is witnessing the rise of symbolic OF DECADENT perience, begins to look exceptional today. politics and the return of the ghost of Even a passing glance at China, India, and ethnically driven partition. Te crisis has Russia, not to speak of the vast reaches of put post-national politics on trial. It has the Muslim world, makes clear that both evoked collective national experiences and EUROPE ethnic nationalism and religion remain revived national narratives long thought major ideological driving forces shaping shut-up in metaphorical archives. global politics. Postmodern post-nation- We live in Europe different from alism and secularism are making Europe the one described by Aron. We must, different from the rest of the world, not therefore, face the question of we want to making the rest of the world more like defend it and how. So far the question re- Europe. mains open. IVAN KRASTEV In the world’s rising ideological cy- cle, liberalism is in retreat. Indeed, ethnic The author is the Chairman of the Centre for Lib- g Balaklava, Crimea, Ukraine, March 1, 2014. nationalism and religion are not only ever eral Strategies in Sofia, and permanent fellow at A Ukrainian man in front of Russian soldiers blocking aymond Aron’s book ago, showed that a third of these young more present in the non-European world, the IWM Institute of Human Sciences in Vienna. a Ukrainian military base. In Defense of Deca- people did not know who Adolf Hitler dent Europe was pub- was, and 40% were convinced that human
lished in 1977. It was rights had been respected to an equal de- ANT O a time of pervasive gree by every German government since N PEDK pessimism and doubt 1933. Tis in no way implies that there is O about the future of nostalgia for fascism in Germany. No, it /PAP/EPA both democracy and simply means that we now have to con- Europe. European economies had been tend with a generation that has nothing knockedR down by the 1973 energy cri- to do with this history. Today, the con- sis. Te student movements of the 1960s viction that the EU continues to derive and the wave of terrorism that followed legitimacy from its roots in the war is an in countries like West Germany and Italy illusion. shattered European societies. In general, Today, the EU does not have – and the 1970s seemed a crossroads of blind cannot have – an enemy that can justify alleys to their contemporaries. Europe’s its existence in the same manner as the role in world politics was in decline. post-1949 USSR did. Re-reading Aron’s book in 2014 Te third pillar that has crumbled is gives us a better sense of the current cri- prosperity. Te EU continues to be very sis. It suggests that we have been here rich – even if this observation does not before but it also warns that the fact apply to all its member states; however, that we survived then does not guaran- 60% of Europeans believe that their chil- tee that we will survive today, because dren will not live as well as they do. Aron’s defense of Europe is not a book Another source of legitimacy was about Europe but about the delusions of a belief in convergence, which led poor Marxism, the intrinsic instability of the countries joining the EU to expect that communist regimes, and the tendency of they would progressively acquire advan- European intellectuals to fall in love with tages in tune with membership of a rich apocalyptic self-criticism. So Aron was man’s club. Tis still had some basis in right that democratic capitalism and not fact a few years ago, but today, if the eco- Soviet communism is the future of the nomic forecasts for the next ten years are world. Now, when communism is history, to be believed, a country like Greece is however, how should we write in defense likely to remain as poor in comparison to of decadent Europe? Germany as it was on the day of its acces- Te European Union no longer ex- sion to the EU. ists, at least not as we know it. All of the So, a defense of decadent Europe pillars that served to build and justify the is only possible on the field of ideas, and existence of the EU have collapsed. here is the real question, one that Marcin A survey of German secondary Król has continually addressed in the last school students in the 14-16 age bracket, decade: Why has the spread of democ- which was published a little over a year racy in Europe made European intellec-
50 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 51 INTELLIGENT MIND IN DEFENSE OF DECADENT EUROPE IN DEFENSE OF DECADENT EUROPE INTELLIGENT MIND wDANIE L SANNUM- L AUTEN/AFP/EAST NEWS AUTEN/AFP/EAST TOLERANCE REQUIRES
COMPETITIVENESS HYWEL CERI JONES
n thinking about the theme of tolerance, I was re- ments, which at the national level often suffer from inadequate minded of a story I heard of two priests living in cooperation, indeed often inadequate coordination. And I agree Ireland. Tey lived in the same village. Both of them in this sense that this derives from the problem our opening had been preaching their own version of Christianity speaker talked about this morning, which is the fragmentation for many, many years and they were in caught up in of knowledge, which is separated in the way we organize our a deadly rivalry. As their careers were both about to work in different spheres. Tis more visible dynamic of locally end, one of them went up to the other and looking at based initiatives, of which there are now hundreds, perhaps him with great suspicion in his eyes said: “It is time thousands, of examples across Europe and in other parts of the that we shook hands. I think that after all these years we have to world, provides a much more effective framework to construct Iacknowledge that we have both been doing the Lord’s work in multi-dimensional efforts, intersectoral if you like, to combat the Lord’s vineyard, each of us in our own way.” And the other deprivation, disadvantage, and discrimination. Employers, priest replied: “Yes, as you say, you in your way and I in God’s.” trade unions, voluntary bodies, and civil society, in the broader I had the privilege during my European career to be active- sense, can often find ways to cut through the complexity of ne- ly engaged throughout the 1990s in the peace and reconciliation gotiation processes, so evident at the national level, as well as initiative in Northern Ireland, witnessing on the ground the de- the bureaucratic red tape that often characterizes it. termination of previously bitter opponents to build bridges of Te role of local and regional levels has grown in signifi- new trust, to mobilize local communities and to tackle the prob- cance. I feel this very strongly coming from Wales. Despite and lems of exclusion and alienation, while opening up more oppor- indeed because of the forces of globalization, economic initia- tunities for jobs and employment. Ex-prisoners from both sides tives have become more widely spread, with the explosion of President of the European Commission Jose Manuel Barroso, President of the European of the divide were often the leaders of these initiatives, serving decentralized networks and the “Tink Global, Act Local” mes- Council Herman Van Rompuy and President of as important role models in setting aside bitter hatred and dis- sage, which has been driving new alliances with entrepreneurs the European Parliament Martin Schulz attend trust and attracting others to follow them on the pathways to and social innovators activating their communities both socially a press conference in Oslo, on 9 December, reconciliation. I saw them building new friendships, surprising and economically. Looking back on the experience in Northern 2012 where they are to receive the 2012 Peace friendships. Ireland, power and commitment at the local level was crucial, Nobel Prize attributed to the EU. I would like to point out some of the ideas and messages but it is also crucial to recognize the significant contribution that I have taken from this moving experience, both as a par- of the European Union – working with the Irish and UK gov- ticipant and an observer of the peace process in the north of ernments, of course, as a “neutral” broker of the reconciliation Ireland. Firstly, and this was echoed by a couple of the earlier process, but also as a major founder of projects over many years. speakers, the local level of action is absolutely crucial. People do And the key point I want to make is that no matter what you do not live nationally, or internationally, or at the European level, at the local level, you need a framework of law to which you can they live in their local communities, and mutual respect and refer, and you also need a clear policy framework to accompany tolerance has to be worked at, worked hard at, at the local level. and reflect those laws. Troughout my experience of managing European social and Te financial help that the EU gave to the peace and rec- educational programs, I have seen time and time again the pow- onciliation initiative in Northern Ireland played an important er of locally based initiatives to attack problems of deprivation, part, the massive injection of structural funds was, to my mind poverty and prejudice in ways which draw on the very specific however, only one of the factors that contributed to the suc- strengths and talents of the community involved, and which can cessful transition in the north of Ireland, to the stability, greater therefore target and deliver practical results far beyond the ex- trust, and cooperation that we now enjoy in the two parts of the pectations of national, let alone international, politicians. island, north and south. It was President Jacques Delors, in the Te commitment and the engagement of citizens locally build-up of the EU, who believed that there should be a political can drive the search for solutions that cut much more easily balance between the benefits deriving from the internal mar- across the compartmentalized boundaries of departments – ket – the biggest such market in the world – and commitment education, social, cultural, economic, and employment depart- to a European policy of environmental and social cohesion.
52 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 53 INTELLIGENT MIND IN DEFENSE OF DECADENT EUROPE “THE VILLAGE WILL NEVER BE THE SAME AGAIN” COEXISTENCE IN NORTHERNROZWINIĘCIE HU TEMATUNGARY CO TYTUMMUŁ DZIANITIESŁU CONFERENCE & COCKTAIL PARTY
Cohesion meant the commitment that all corners, every part of especially for women, we cannot achieve the economic bedrock the EU, should share in the economic benefits that would derive to fund larger, more extensive systems of care and protection for from the internal market, an instrument of solidarity reflecting people and to cope with the millions of pensioners living long- shared European values. er, which has transformed the demographic situation across But equally important was the overarching legal framework Europe. Tis is also true in other parts of the world. that the EU has developed, with the obligations for member states In a word, how can the historic, unwritten contract be- to observe the European Charter of Fundamental Rights and also tween the generations, the young and the older, be sustained? to respect all the legislative developments that have taken place, Te very basis of the social models and welfare systems we have particularly in the last twenty-five years, especially in areas like painstakingly built up in Europe over the last century are at risk. equal rights for women and men in all spheres of life. Poverty and economic and social exclusion are acting as trig- Te negotiations taking place in Brussels on the future gers, unleashing anger, frustration, and intolerance, both on the regulations of the EU structural funds for the 2014-2020 period part of those in difficulty and at risk, but also on the part of are of great importance, particularly in Poland. mainstream society. Poland Transformed What is at stake, for me anyway, in particular? Apart from Let me be clear then: I believe we cannot build a tolerant, 28 May 2014 | Endorfina Foksal | ul. Foksal 2, Warsaw the controversial discussion on the size of the EU budget in happy, and prosperous society without profitable business, nor the Polish press (and therefore consequences for the Erasmus can we build a competitive economy in a social wasteland. Tis budget, by the way), I am most concerned that the new EU regu- is the message we all need to send strongly to the politicians lations empower civil society to be a partner in the implemen- who are grappling with the serious difficulties we are all facing, tation, monitoring, and evaluation of the funds when they are with the social and economic agenda of our times. Te overall delivered to Poland and the other countries. Without the active, cohesiveness of our societies, the quality of our education and clear, and visible participation of civil society, the exercise will training systems, the ways in which we look after the interests simply not have credibility. Today, in our opening session this of vulnerable groups, and the manner in which we shape the morning, the mayor also referred to this. relationship between self-improvement, work, prosperity, so- Across most of Europe we can see our societies in the grip cial justice, and fundamental rights across the board, hold real of increasing unemployment, especially among vast numbers meaning for all people. Tese, taken together, are essential in- Celebrating of young people, many of whom, no matter how well qualified, gredients in building economic competitiveness, but economic are failing to gain a foothold in the world of work. Te Eurozone and social policies must go hand-in-hand. crisis, the insatiable greed of banks, and global economic fragil- A final word: the decision by the Nobel Prize Committee ity have all wrought havoc on the fabric of our societies. Te to award the 2012 peace prize to the EU was greeted in the me- 25 years current recession in Europe and the failure to trigger growth dia, especially in the UK (as ever) with a mixed response. Some and jobs, whilst prioritizing deficit reduction, starkly highlight commentators recognize the validity of the case. Tey applaud the increasing gap between the “haves” and the “have nots.” Te the European bulwark, which has guaranteed not only peace, of economic transformation financial cuts being introduced in most European countries and but also huge areas of cooperation through the process of shar- in other parts of the world to reduce budget deficits are ham- ing sovereignty since 1957. Other commentators have seized mering the public services provided in Europe, especially for the on the present economic crisis, especially the Eurozone trou- How unleashing business helped write most vulnerable, the disadvantaged, and the disabled. bles and the Greek case, to question the wisdom of the Nobel What is the result? We can see it – the profound inse- Committee and, certainly in the UK, to question the relevance Europe’s biggest economic success story. curity felt by millions of families in our different countries is of the peace motive as the raison d’être of the EU today. increasingly leading to protests, strikes, turbulence, and misery. I am not, and never have been, a starry-eyed advocate of People are asking: what are the prospects in this world now, the EU. I worked in the European Commission and I enjoyed for our children, our young people? And of course this mood it. Te EU is, without doubt, an imperfect, incomplete con- Join key figures from the domestic and international of growing insecurity and incomprehension of the failure to struction. But when taken in the context of the overall global rein in and control the banking sector – I do not want to pick scene, I am positive that the framework that has been built up business community & 50 leading international journalists, on it exclusively, but it must be named – is matched by grow- from European law and practice has contributed massively to including Edward Lucas, Senior Editor of The Economist, ing disillusionment with political parties and politicians, and a progress of our member states to tackle equality, fundamen- growing lack of trust in their capacity to handle the crises both tal rights, and anti-discrimination. Tese are core values, core and discover what the past has to teach us in the short, and especially in the longer, term. Te seedbed for principles, which must underpin our shared, European-wide extremist parties, both right and left, for discriminatory actions commitment to peace and reconciliation. In that sense, too, in about the future. against immigrant and migrant families, and indeed against the absence of effective global architecture to address the chal- members of the indigenous population, are all too evident in lenges the world faces, I am relieved that despite its ups and the media and in our streets. Let’s look at the specific case of downs, the EU can still serve as a beacon in the world, pointing www.poland-today.pl the Roma populations in Europe. Tere are twelve to fourteen the way forward to a better future for us all, with a shared com- million Roma peoples across Europe, living at the bottom of mitment to combat negative forms of exclusion, prejudice, and the pile in absolutely desperate conditions exacerbated by the intolerance. crises all around us. CONTENT MEDIA PARTNER PARTNER What is the result? Tis mass structural unemployment The author is the former director of the European Commission’s Task Force situation is splitting European society into two. For many now, for Education, Training, and Human Resources at the European Commis- unemployment is a permanent state, yet what really matters to sion, and formerly director general of the Directorate General for Employ- people is jobs. Jobs now, today, and for the future. Without peo- ment, Social Policy, and Industrial Relations of the European Commission, Under the Patronage of the President of the Republic ple at work, with significantly higher rates of unemployment, also responsible for the European Social Fund. of Poland, Bronisław Komorowski. 25 years of freedom.
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grative life sphere. Hardly any of these demonstrations were lage elite is primarily preoccupied by changes in the composi- organized by locals; the demonstrators came from outside and tion and status of the population. left their mark on the life of the village. Te most major and shattering conflict in the village In what follows, I highlight a specific case illustrat- stems from the shifts and contradictions of the term “majority ing how the appearance of Jobbik and the Hungarian Guard population.” “I must tell you that young people don’t stay in the THE VILLAGE forged the problem of the village as home into a vital issue. village,” says the mayor. “In particular, young people with mar- While each similar incident radicalizes the distinction be- ketable professions go to the cities, and recently, ever more tween Hungarians and Gypsies, it also questions whether one frequently, they go abroad. Tose who stay in the village are who is designated as “Gypsy” can become a member of the mostly the unskilled population, largely useless in production.” WILL NEVER village, and whether the village exists at all as an integrative According to the social worker of the village: “Te urban drain life space.1 on the village has been going on for decades, maybe centuries. Before proceeding to the description and analysis of this Te cities have been dragging away the intelligent, viable, po- case, a terminological issue needs to be clarified. While the tent dwellers. At the time of the cooperatives everybody got BE THE SAME term “Roma” is used to refer to this minority group in inter- a job according to their abilities, everybody found their own national literature, until very recently this term was primarily place, and there was real integration.” associated with official language in Hungary. In my field and General unemployment, accompanied by poverty or the COEXISTENCE in Hungarian Roma communities in general, this term is rare- threat of poverty, together with demographic changes, consti- AGAIN ly used, and the group itself practically never uses the term. tute a major sense of deficiency concerning the integrity of the Instead, they use cigány (best translated as “Gypsy”), even if village. Te problem of integrity, however, is strictly connected IN NORTHERN it often has a negative connotation. Te majority population to the “Gypsy-Hungarian” differentiation, as the problem of also rarely uses the more politically correct “Roma,” instead integrity itself figures differently from the “Hungarian” and they also use “Gypsy” or unambiguous terms such as “the “Gypsy” viewpoints. HUNGARY minority” or “the ethnic (group).” Although Roma communi- In this village, about 40% of the population is of Roma ties have recently made a conscious effort to “clean” cigány of origin. In the traditional division of space in the village, the its negative connotations, I have chosen not to use the term Roma people have been located mostly in the marginal streets in this paper, as its negative meaning persists at this time. of the settlement, but they also currently inhabit the evacuated CECÍLIA KOVAI Tere are similar problems with regard to the use of magyar houses of the non-Roma. In addition to the still significant (Hungarian). In my field, Roma communities call the non-Ro- spatial divisions, the “Gypsy-Hungarian” differentiation is also ma magyar, which implies that the Roma do not belong to the present in the labor market. Te village is located just 15 km Tina Carr & Annemarie Schöne ith Eastern European accession to group of Hungarians, and that these are exclusive categories. from the city of Eger; transportation is excellent due to reason- the European Union in 2004 and While the distinction of Roma/non-Roma is completely alien able transit traffic, the town is therefore accessible for the vil- 2007, a new, formerly less relevant to the vernacular of the field, the cigány/magyar distinction lagers until eleven at night. Te most skilled people find work issue arose in the European public serves to enforce this exclusive quality. Neither option seems opportunities in Eger or locally, in more prestigious jobs, and a sphere: the issue of “the Gypsy.” Tis satisfactory, but I have opted for the former. I therefore use decreasing share of them make a living from agriculture. Tese was due to migration from Eastern “Roma” in voicing my own thoughts; when I quote from the examples, however, are characteristic of the non-Roma popu-
Europe to Western Europe and the fot.: Tina Carr & Annemarie Schöne research participants, I apply the terminology used in the field. lation, while Roma fill other positions on the labor market. unresolved social, economic, and Furthermore, when I rely on narratives from the field, I use Te village offers more opportunities for Roma than an political conflicts within the newly joined states. Te political quotation marks to indicate that the terms “cigány” and “ma- average village in the region. Tere is a furniture factory and Wscandals that erupted in relation to Roma migrants in Italy and gyar” to reflect everyday language use. a mushroom production plant nearby, both of which employ France, the strengthening of the extreme right that exploited mostly local Roma people, while the remaining part of agricul- the “Gypsy issue” in Hungary and Bulgaria, and the deadly THE MISSING FOUNDATION: THE VILLAGE tural production also offers employment. Most social scenes racist attacks, all cast the important “actor” of the Gypsy in AS A COMMUNITY are therefore split along the “Gypsy-Hungarian” divide: almost the European public sphere. Te story unfolds in a village of 2,300 inhabitants in north- exclusively Roma children attend the local school, while the Te staging of the Gypsy did not only take place in eastern Hungary. Before the transition, the nearby farmer’s co- non-Roma take their children to Eger, to more prestigious the European public sphere, but also in the Central and operative and the precision engineering factory of the village institutions. Eastern European arena and, as in the case discussed here, in provided full employment for the locals. Today, the majority of With regard to the issue of the integrity of the village, Hungarian villages, in which the economic and social prob- the population seeks employment in nearby towns; however, however, reasonable differences seem to arise depending on lems that unfolded after the transition have remained persis- the most crucial concerns are continuous outgoing migration whether the speaker is “Gypsy” or “Hungarian.” It seems that tently unresolved. In Hungary, one of the prime symptoms of and the persistent unemployment of those who stay. Te vil- these differences play a substantial role in supporting the voic- the political crisis of 2006 and the economic crisis of 2008 was f Roma Cave Dwellers near Eger, from the strengthening of the extreme right, and the subsequent, the series Once We Were Birds – The sudden emergence of the Gypsy issue in public speech. Roma in Hungary Te Hungarian extreme right party Jobbik and the closely connected Hungarian Guard Association, which drew public attention with village demonstrations, organized themselves against local Roma people who supposedly threatened the local non-Roma population, calling the Gypsies collective criminals responsible for locally occurring crimes. In addi- tion to introducing “Gypsy” discourse into the public sphere with such dangerous connotations, the demonstrations also addressed the question of the Hungarian village as an inte-
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es of those who expected the solution to certain problems to come across anyone fully in support of it either, just to under- but symbolically strong, ghetto was thereby created. “Tere dangerous to the “Gypsies.” Tere was about a hundred me- come from the power demonstration of Jobbik. line the strength of the previously mentioned contradiction. was one thing we found offensive,” says the local Roma leader. ters between the “Gypsy settlement” and the bridge leading According to “Hungarians,” the village inhabits a social Te “Gypsy-Hungarian” differentiation, as mentioned, is “Tat they insulted us, they called us stinky, dirty Gypsies, to it, where Jobbik was gathered. Only the police could enter space that is no longer able to fulfill the physical and spiritual also palpable in the judgment of the events and the reasons they threatened to hang us, and the same field guard was yell- the area in between, demarcating a no man’s land between needs of its inhabitants, as it does not provide subsistence or leading up to them. Roma talk less about the reasons; they ing that we should get away from here because they would the two parties, the Gypsies and the Hungarians. Tat day, a supportive community. Te viable population leaves due to seem more concerned with the events themselves, and the burn our houses down, and so on. It was insulting, and we locals from the village existed as “Gypsies” and “Hungarians” a lack of prospects, while there is a “great overpopulation of shocking experience of being accused of collective criminal could not protect ourselves. We couldn’t go there and explain in two separate spaces, like two disconnected entities, without a certain group which is not capable of coexistence,” as the activity. In speaking about reasons, local Roma people reach that we are not stinky Gypsies, or murderers, and we are not crossing between the two. Tis strong spatial symbolism and mayor says. Te formulations “overpopulation” and “are not to the village for support, saying that they do not even know cannibals, because they were saying things like we had already the experiences it entailed left traces on the life of the village. capable of coexistence” refer to the “Gypsy,” while “viability” who the thieves that provoke the non-Roma population are; eaten two Hungarian children and stuff. But we were locked As the mayor put it: “Te village will never be the same again.” refers to the “Hungarian” population. Tis is true even if peo- thus, collective criminalization does not hold water. At the up in here and couldn’t tell our truth!” However, it is certain that many do not want or cannot ple usually state that “it is not the majority of the Gypsies that same time, the march shed new light on questions about the Te police and the leaders of the village prevented the leave the village or the country. Nevertheless, it seems that cause problems.” Moreover, “some Gypsy families are more relationship of the Roma to the integrity of the village. Roma people from acting as political actors, as dwellers rep- being “at home” as a “Gypsy” is a task that can only be cur- normal than many Hungarian ones.” resenting their own interests in the space of the village. Most rently fulfilled with the support of a force beyond the everyday Te more minor thefts and burglaries, the constant TO WHOM DOES THE VILLAGE BELONG? non-Roma, including the mayor, expected the Roma to be social context: threat to the private sphere that locals have told me about, are THE CHURCH SERVICE AND THE MARCH completely passive, because according to them, being active “I was a confused man without a self-image, without self- not simply daily annoyances, but rather virtual manifestations In the last ten years, new forms of self-organization have de- would only provoke more violence. Te mass played an im- awareness,” says a local man who organized the church service. of a lack of integrity, proof that the village is no longer able veloped among Roma locals. Tese played a fundamental role portant role for the Roma in “proving that the Gypsies an- “Faith has given me determination, self-esteem, and the same to protect its dwellers – neither by common norms nor by in that they were not defenseless against the racist attack of the swer violence peacefully, with a service,” as one of the Roma goes for being a Gypsy. Tere is so much grievance and rejec- sanctioning the violators. Tis painful deficiency also refers to Hungarian Guard that stigmatized them as guilty of collective organizers says, but the non-Roma villagers did not particu- tion we have to face in this country, it can be harmful, but we the “Gypsy” population, since it is common knowledge in the crimes. On the one hand, approximately a quarter of the Roma larly appreciate the gesture: “Tey should rather learn the Ten can recover again and again. Tis rejection is so depressing, village that these crimes are committed by them, frequently of the village belong to one of the neo-Protestant churches. On Commandments,” many said. As it turned out, this not-so- that we are not Hungarians, we are Gypsy people, we are not by “Gypsy children.” At the same time, a fundamental contra- the other, the effect of the local activity of the We Belong Here witty response was Jobbik’s message to the local Roma leader part of this country and this village. Where shall I go? Shall I diction is outlined in every conversation, whether with locals national Roma movement has also been visible. Although the and to the Roma of the village. Te mayor did not agree with kill myself or go away from here? If I weren’t a believer, I would sitting in a local bar, with people actively involved in village prime objective of the movement was to convince the local the idea of responding to a mass event with a mass event, ei- have left the country already, but I am a Christian, a believer; life, or with the mayor; the contradiction between identify- Roma population to reveal its ethnic identity in the national ther. Te mass media reacted similarly, and most reports did I know who I am, I know my rights, I know who I am through ing problems with the “Gypsy population” as a whole and the census, the social network that developed through the cam- not even include the response of the local Roma. Tey did not my faith, that God wants to see me here, and there is a reason statement that the march of the Hungarian Guard and the paign also remained functional afterward. Tese organizations get the recognition they expected, and the much longed-for why I was born into this place.” problems that led to the march are caused by a few “problem- are not restricted to the local level; through the congregations integrative force of Christianity remained out of reach. atic families,” “immigrants” who are newcomers and do not and the We Belong Here movement, locals have developed a Te Jobbik event lasted for a couple of hours. After the The author is a PhD candidate in Cultural Studies at the University of belong to the village. Roma social network that reaches beyond the village, which speeches on the main square, the protesters started walking Pécs. Her main areas of research include changes of Hungarian-Gypsy Te event organized by Jobbik in autumn 2012 was proved itself a fundamental resource when they started to toward the “Gypsy settlement,” although the police stopped differentiation, the kinship system in Roma communities, and gender closely linked to the situation described above. Te village has organize against the march. Moreover, in the discussed case, them, and from that point on until the evening, the “Gypsy relationships. become a space in which local problems are unsolvable, where these two networks overlapped considerably. settlement” became a ghetto, with the space outside being increasing poverty, unemployment, a lack of legitimate com- A member of the county’s minority municipality came mon norms, conflict management, and the exclusive either/ up with the idea of the counter-demonstration. He is active in or nature of the “Gypsy-Hungarian” distinction have together both types of organizations and he is not a local Roma man. REFERENCES led to the point that the village could be taken over – even When the local Roma learned about Jobbik’s plans, they first 1. The research on which the article is based was conducted as part of the ACCEPT PLURALISM project carried out by the research team of the Central if only for one Saturday afternoon – by an organization that reached out to him for help. European University. The project was funded by the European Union. interprets the situation on an exclusively racist basis. Following his suggestion, the first idea of those locals In autumn 2012, with the permission of the police, Jobbik who were active in the congregations and the Roma move- and the (by then) banned Hungarian Guard held a legal gath- ment was to organize a public mass and a march on the main ering on the main square of the village. Tey then planned road of the village. However, the police rejected their request, to march to the house of the leader of local Roma minority so they were wedged between the “ghetto-walls” of the “Gypsy municipality located in the “Gypsy settlement” to hand over settlement.” “In other places, Gypsies blocked their way,” says Central European a petition. Te petition requested that the leader control and a local Roma man, who is active in one of the neo-Protestant Platform where political and partner of the stop the local crimes committed by “Gypsies.” churches and who organized the counter-demonstration. “It is business leaders, artists, expert Aspen Institute “I was warned on the phone,” says the local Roma leader, a shame that the leaders of the village let the Hungarian Guard communities or sportspeople global network can meet and act “that the Guard would come on Saturday and that they would come in. Te Hungarian Guard needed permission to come in, hand over a petition to discipline the Gypsy people so that and the mayor gave it! Nobody asked us, and the other shame- www.aspeninstitute.cz they would not steal and rob, and that children would not loi- ful thing is that the village leaders did not let us have our own facebook.com/AspenInstitutePrague ter in the streets. But honestly, who is able to do that? Shall I march; we were blocked and not allowed to come out. It was ASPEN twitter.com/Aspen_Prague hold each and every Gypsy child by the hand?!” humiliating.” Promotes cooperation among Te villagers show a sharp contradiction between the I heard many people complain about the humiliating INSTITUTE sectors and disciplines statement, “there is no problem with the majority of the feeling of being confined. Local leaders and police aimed to Gypsies in this village,” and the narrative of collective blame separate the two sides from each other, which is understand- PRAGUE against the Roma population. Te Roma children who sneak able, although the local Roma at the same time questioned Connects young into gardens and cause damage become “them,” “the Gypsies,” why Jobbik was entitled to invade the village, while they, as Central European who need to be disciplined one way or another. With one ex- local dwellers, were not allowed to demonstrate. Many appre- leaders from ception, I did not meet a single non-Roma resident who would ciated the police presence around the Roma neighborhood, various professions Publishes Aspen Review Central Europe, a quarterly on have entirely condemned the Jobbik march, although I did not but resented that they were blocked in, and that a temporary, matters critical for the region
58 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 59 ECONOMY AND BUSINESS FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT ECONOMY AND BUSINESS Vladimir Weiss
M O B ILITY IS AN OPPORTUNITY
INTERVIEW WITH EDUARD PALÍŠEK, CEO OF SIEMENS CZECH REPUBLIC
CONDUCTED BY PAVLA FRANCOVÁ
Is labor mobility in Europe an issue for Siemens, and from what perspective? Certainly, this is an issue for us. If we talk about relocating for work, we must remember that there are two factors behind it. One is positive, namely an effort by people to acquire new ex- periences, knowledge, contacts, and so on. On the other hand, there are other factors that are negative, such as the effort to break from particular social, political, and economic environ- ments. At Siemens, we naturally welcome positive motivation. We try to create conditions for our employees so they do not have to face the negative motivation to relocate.
Why do you consider labor migration positive? It is positive and important for everyone who wants to develop further. Tanks to migration, people can gain experience in an international environment. We have a system in which we publish vacant positions worldwide in Siemens. If we need, for example, a manager or technical expert, all Siemens em- ployees worldwide can see and apply for that job. Tat’s how we create big opportunities for further career development.
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But don’t people run away elsewhere? Here is an example: many research in- have enough incentive to return and work a job and motivation also lies in the op- With regard to current events in abroad to work. Can it really be such a We have many people who are on short- stitutions have recently been built in the on solving them. portunity to travel and gain international Ukraine and their impact on the migration benefit? term and long-term work internships Czech Republic using money from Euro- A prerequisite is, of course, to ensure experience. of Ukrainians, it is difficult to make pre- I’d rather blame those who don’t allow for abroad. Some even have standard em- pean Union funds. With regard to instru- that the financial evaluation of top profes- Generally, labor migration is benefi- dictions at the moment. Teir interest in immigrants to be well integrated into their ployment contracts in other countries. It mentation, these are among the best in the sionals reflects their importance to com- cial to firms that bring employees in from working in the West is long-term. On the society. Te general perspective must be makes sense and is a positive contribution world – this is one prerequisite for young panies, institutions, and society. elsewhere. It provides a new viewpoint, other hand some experts may want to help balanced. for us. We see this as a demonstration of scientists to return from abroad. Tese In the Czech Republic we have top different knowledge, and contacts, and their country and realize that if they leave, the maturity of the company in a given workplaces address the highly demanding professionals, although some do not re- compels employees to use other languag- they weaken the position of their country. How do you perceive mobility as such, country. If a corporation only accepts ex- tasks of basic and applied research, where alize this and express more admiration es. Such migration is very beneficial. It is hard to say what will prevail; there is not only from the perspective of Sie- ternal assistance and experts, it suggests scientists can apply their new expertise for neighboring countries. I am hon- no reliable forecast. mens? Do other companies exploit its that it is at a stage where it has nothing – this is the second prerequisite. We can- ored to sit on the scientific boards of In which countries or specializations are potential enough? to offer. Tere is nothing bad about that; not therefore succumb to populist voices, the three top universities – the Czech Siemens’ employees most interested? If you consider labor migration to be Our approach is possible thanks to the every company has to go through it. How- according to which money for basic and Technical University, the Brno University We send our employees to take part in beneficial, what could be done to make re- size of Siemens. Te situation is different ever, once it reaches a higher level and has applied research should only serve innova- of Technology, and the University of West various projects. Tese last from one locating for work easier? for local firms than for those that operate created its own base of experts and good tion in companies. We need to look at this Bohemia – and see what kind of specialists week to four years; the range of possibili- Tat is very difficult and complex worldwide. For smaller, local companies, it managers, it levels up with other large cor- as an interconnected system in which one work there. Tere’s incredible potential. I ties is very wide. In the last five years we issue. Te perception of migration has is obviously more difficult. porations. It not only hires professionals part cannot exist without the other. In- hope, however, that some impetuous steps have sent 500 employees to work abroad. changed a lot over time; just look at the but can also send them on. It is very im- being contemplated don’t stifle this and Most often they headed to Germany, the recent example of the anti-immigration How will the aging of the European popu- portant for us to have an equal role in this drive scientists to leave. We would then U.S., Austria, Russia, China, and Indo- measures in Switzerland. Firstly, however, lation affect labor migration? respect throughout Siemens. LABOR MIGRATION really only depend on foreign know-how. nesia. People who come here are mostly we should address issues that cause a gen- We are the victims of certain stereotypes. IS BENEFICIAL TO from Germany, Austria, and the U.S. We erally negative view of immigration. States Today, people are professionally active Does it work? But isn’t this brain drain already happen- choose delegates according to their specif- must adapt to new conditions, and I think much longer than their grandparents We (Siemens Czech Republic) have been FIRMS THAT BRING ing? It is visible in other sectors. Are peo- ic expertise for a given project or general they don’t do enough in this respect. were. Although the population is aging, it recently promoted to “lead the country.” EMPLOYEES IN ple really coming back? specialization. People who come from a different has also extended the average age of life Tis means that we are among the thirty FROM ELSEWHERE. Te world does not evolve linearly. It un- cultural background bring with them cer- expectancy and the ability to be involved countries in the world that are in direct in- dergoes fundamental change on the basis What are your expectations about the tain habits and should be able to respect in a productive workforce. If the number terest of the top management of Siemens. IT PROVIDES A of a number of factors that are very dif- interest of people from the East in work- the new environment, but you can’t expect of newborn doesn’t significantly dimish, I Tis is due to the quality of the workforce, NEW VIEWPOINT, ficult to predict, although we can prepare ing at Siemens? Are you already seeing them to completely forsake their identity. don’t see it as a fundamental problem. Te universities, and research organizations. for them. How the situation in this area or expecting to see such a development Te host country should create conditions involvement of older people in the work- We have also been remarked upon due to DIFFERENT evolves depends a great deal on the priori- in connection with recent events in that encourage tolerance of diversity. In force is often wrongly underestimated. On our size. Given the number of employees KNOWLEDGE, ties and strategies of the government for Ukraine? addition, there is also the economic im- the contrary, we should face this and adapt globally, we are among the top ten coun- AND CONTACTS, the future direction of the Czech Republic. We do not differentiate. Anyone who is pact of migration – whether positive or to it. Additionally, politicians and compa- tries. Siemens operates in 160 countries A country that does not have significant here legally and applies for a job is consid- negative. If people from abroad have the nies must think more about how to create around the world, which is something to AS WELL AS oil or coal reserves, access to the sea, or a ered only on the basis of his/her expertise opportunity to help the economy of the better conditions for families to ensure be proud of. COMPELLING great expanse for agriculture must focus and knowledge. Place of origin or religion state, adding certain competences, and population growth. on its greatest strength: activities with don’t matter. We work a lot with Russians, so on, then the overall perception might With such a large network, how do EMPLOYEES higher added value. In our case, this is a Ukrainians, Kazakhs, and others. Tey en- improve. Translated by Tomáš Volf you harness the experience of people TO USE OTHER long technical and scientific tradition that rich our Czech team, bringing with them abroad? persists in creative, well-educated, and a new approach, which helps us learn to Often, on the contrary, we hear of the Pavla Francová is a reporter for the Czech busi- In addition to their own development and LANGUAGES. SUCH hard-working people. Much will also de- perceive our cultural differences mutually. maladjustment of those who come from ness online daily Ihned.cz. experience, people bring new contacts MIGRATION IS pend on the conditions created by the state with other professionals in the field from VERY BENEFICIAL. for entrepreneurs, and thus employment. outside. Te positive effect is not just for If the priority of the state is to create that particular employee but also for the higher added value, then, logically, it will whole company, which gains better links work with companies that focus on profes- with the international environment. sionalism and expertise. Tis would also But labor migration is not always attract people from abroad, and would perfect. We hear a lot about the problem bring links to other foreign institutions, in of “brain drain.” addition to know-how. Losing the best, most qualified peo- It is similar in companies. We often ple can be a real problem for a country. hear that there is a lack of technicians and It is therefore necessary to address the novation cannot work without research, that they are not as good as in the past. problem systematically, to ensure that which, in turn, cannot happen without Tis is not true. It depends on a specific such people have a place to return to. It funding from innovation. Any imbalance company approach and how attractive is good when great professionals leave to could lead to severe consequences for that company is. We do not have difficulty expand their experience, but the key issue several years. Tis is just what we need finding good engineers. We understand is to offer them conditions to which they to focus on in the issue of repatriation of that a recent university graduate can’t – can return afterward. scientists and other experts: it is not just from day one – accomplish the same as about superior research institutions, it is someone with five years’ experience. It is But how? Isn’t it all about money and the necessary to have highly advanced and de- the job of the company to work with that capacity to pay these experts? manding challenges so that these people graduate. In addition, the attractiveness of
62 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 63 ECONOMY AND BUSINESS FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT ECONOMY AND BUSINESS
NO DRAIN, NO GAIN Jezierski Tymek
Migrations are like tides – there is little governments can do to influence them. Ten why not get over it and start supporting citizens wherever they choose to live?
MACIEJ KUZIEMSKI
rain drain is a phenom- being said, would Hungary benefit more flights, and Erasmus, European graduates enon that has been in if Soros Gyementhad not migrated to moving into adulthood are well traveled existence longer than London and later to New York at the age and reasonably flexible. Unlike the cur- the actual term. Be they of seventeen? rent workforce, they dononably flexible. philosophers drawn Brain drain is not what it used to be, Una lifetime at one company, but they to Athens by Platoo- at least not in the European Union. Tere will not accept eternal internships either. ver it and stthe likes are places on earth that are irreversibly Tey demand less from their surround- of Amerigo Vespucci drained of their creative class and intel- ings while raising the bar for themselves. cruising the world in search of new lands, ligentsia. Tink of factors such as closed It doesncoming less definitibe working Bfor centuries the most innovative, skilled, borders, oppressive regimes, censorship of on a project-based scheme in London and motivated individuals have exercised media, or the shadow of war. while calling Prague “home” and spend- their freedom by seeking better prospects Europe as we know it is quite the op- ing weekends in Berlin. Can these fluid outside their countries of origin. Until the posite: we are living in the best place on and incomplete movements still be called birth of nation-states, migration by skilled earth for income equality en masse and migrations? I have no idea, but scholars workers was not considered a major prob- taking advantage of privileges we don- and data analysts may feel a little confused. lem. Not only because of the substantially arth for income eextraordinary, such as Any kind of transborder movement, less mobility of the general public, but also reliable public transportation, healthcare, however, has a beneficial impact on a because of lack of popular education and fairly accessible education at every level, source country of migrants. Te latest healthcare. Te introduction of those two and all other aspects that make our land- study by the World Bank digs into thirty institutions reshuffled the proportions of scape predictable and easy to maneuver. It years of African migrations and finds a commitment and loyalty expected by gov- is often forgotten that the economy is not direct link between migration and an ernments in exchange for various level of the sole motivator of migrants, as is espe- increase in exports of oneation and nto social security and stability. cially visible when it comes to millennials thirty years of African migrations, brain Increased mobility is a blessing for who tend to hold very different values than drain can help developing economies by everyone except the administrations that their parents, preferring collaboration opening their markets and domesticating treat the upbringing of citizens as a literal over competition and flexibility of work to local products. Strong diasporas around investment that will become fruitful the actual earnings. Add to that the unstable the world shape trade habits and sales moment individual citizens enter the labor labor market et voilà, the outcome is a with informal sanctions and boycotts, not market. Indeed, as in a market economy, completely different setting that is easy to mention the competitiveness, diversity, some investments pay back immediately, neither to analyze nor to compare to cur- and creativity of societies. some with delay, while others bring ter- rent traits. Skilled migration is becoming Te crisis of 2007 led to the real es- rible losses. A wise investor diversifies his less definitive than ever, resembling more tate price crash in the PIGS countries and portfolio, is extremely patient, and closely the 17th-18th century Grand Tours than other struggling economies, causing se- watches tendencies and movements. Tat actual migration with gap years, dirt-cheap vere depopulation and forcing many to
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move abroad. While traditional profes- approached by the governments of their ern networking and building long-term sions and living patterns have become no source countries. commitments. longer profitable, whole neighborhoods Although communication is a two- Traditional self-identities (such are redesigned by such crashes. Te de- way street, it is the duty of administra- as family and nation) are taking a beat- serted towns and villages of Sicily and tions to reach out to their citizens, even ing from contemporary scholars. Te Costa del Sol have been repopulated by if it is due to sheer pragmatism. Tis is more their durability and applicability is middle-class foreigners seeking holiday particularly true in the CEE region, where questioned, the more effort governments refuge, or creative people bored with city memories of the past era still dominate make to present national narratives as life, reinforcing the market and shaping troubled relationships and, in some cir- captivating. Tat is the tricky part, as the future identity of the communities cles, any contact with communist admin- people tend to fall for narratives that cre- that adapt to new circumstances. istrations was considered treason unless ate opportunities and associations, rather Tis interconnected world leaves it was an absolute necessity. than obligations and duties. How can di- less and less room for governments try- One of the common misconcep- asporas benefit from keeping in touch ing to control migration flows. At the tions presents migrants as unwilling to without turning about and changing their same time, economic and security threats engage with their country anymore. In habits? With the very limited toolkit that overshadow the potential benefits of in- many cases however, this is not true – policymakers have, the only way is to tact mobility. A few years from now, a according to a recent analysis by the Pew reach out to sectors that cut their teeth merely modestly wealthy Central Europe Research Center, the number of yearly on meandering through competitive en- will face the demographic problems that remittances (money sent back home by vironments, that create meaningful and rich democracies currently face. Scholars migrants) has tripled since 2000. Making mutually advantageous public-private point to this as a bottleneck for economic relocation to the home country attrac- partnerships, and encircle diasporas development of the region; it is an issue tive to upmarket emigrants requires with knowledge-transfer opportunities policymakers will surely have to address. elaborate measures that cannot be of- and homeland investment options. Tey Te recent turmoil in the Eastern fered by shabby diplomatic posts with- must break bad habits and challenge the Partnership countries may be useful in out considerable budgets. Serpentine status quo – foster national guanxi, even finding a solution. One effective way to taxation rules and horrific customer as one of many identities. Skilled émigres aid markets, advance relations, and fulfill service standards do not help, either. will return to their countries of origin, promises is to create specific measures Be they university alumni clubs offering this way or another. All they need is a and policies facilitating the mobility and job opportunities and maintaining con- little pepping up. labor of our neighbors within the EU. tacts between fellow students or HR of- What about our migrants, though? fices of multinational companies easing The author is a project coordinator at the Lech All too often they are not identified or relocation, the academic and corporate Wałęsa Institute and an editor of Res Publica Nowa. worlds serve as great examples for mod- 2 OCTOBER 2014 REFERENCES – From Job Search to Skill Search: Political Economy of Labor Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, by Lucia Kureková. NE100.ORG – Policy Briefs on the Transcultural Aspects of Security and Stability, edited by Nayef R. F. Al-Rodha. – Changing Patterns of Global Migration and Remittances, by Phillip Connor. – Does Migration Foster Exports? Evidence from Africa, by Hélène Ehrhart, Maëlan Le Goff, Emmanuel Rocher and Raju Jan Singh. Visegrad_eurozine_2014_Layout 1 02.04.14 11:47 Seite 1
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a c n a i B CHALLENGERS NEW EUROPE 100 NEW EUROPE 100 CHALLENGERS
Te Whatsapp – immensely popu- Whatsapp valuation was 19 billion dol- What if Brzoska’s easyPack had had lar messenger app – founder was born in lars. Whatsapp has fifty-five employees. substantial financial backup earlier as a TECH STARTUPS Kyiv. He moved to the United States as a Could Whatsapp’s worldwide suc- startup? Imagine how many powerful in- teenager, enrolled in college, and started cess be repeated if the idea had never left novative ideas are relegated to obscurity working in the consulting industry. A Ukraine? It would have been much less because too few expect greatness from few months after the creation of App of a success. Koum could have created a this part of the world. What if somebody OF NEW EUROPE Store by Apple, he realized its great po- good app but he may not have had enough did notice them, believed in them, and de- tential. His idea for business was simple resources to make it great. Analysis of cided to invest in them at an early stage? to the point of being obvious: “Being able money stream flows from private equity Keep these questions in mind when we to reach somebody half way across the companies to startups in New Europe announce our list of challengers – New world instantly, on a device that is always shows that he wouldn’t have received Europe 100 – this autumn. A backwater image of New Europe countries is no with you, was powerful.” But he was most enough backup on time. In all probability, longer accurate. Over the last twenty-five years, we successful with his application. As it hap- somebody with a similar product would The author is a project coordinator for “New Eu- pened, he was not alone in his optimism have taken Whatsapp’s place. rope 100”. have been witnessing a spectacular development in in Whatsapp. Te best comparison of the Why does private equity funds culture, business, and politics. Here, as an example, potential in Whatsapp was the price paid rarely invest in New Europe? What con- by Facebook for the company. Estonia’s straints have we created for ourselves? we examine three cases of success of tech startups. GDP in 2012 was around 22 billion dol- Perhaps the most important of those is lars; its population is 1.3 million citizens. our own disbelief in our own potential.
KORNEL KORONOWSKI
c Rafał Brzoska of InPost, a private postal whole new genera- brand,” encourages Arvai. In addition to services company, has thrown down the gauntlet tion of challengers in Prezi, Arvai also established the world’s to the monopolist Poczta Polska. New Europe has been first mobile newsreader to follow TED generating big ideas Talks and actively advocates for develop- that better the lives of ing a startup culture in Hungary. many. What is missing Rafał Brzoska of InPost, a private is an open debate about postal services company, has thrown what makes those in- down the gauntlet to the monopolist dividuals take such initiative and how Poczta Polska (Polish Post). Nobody re- Ato make their success stories part of the ally believed in his endeavor. Everything global narrative. One of most overlooked was at odds against him: small resources forms of development in this respect is and an enormous task to accomplish, not tech startups. to forget regulatory matters concerning Hungarian Peter Arvai is CEO and consignments weighing less than fifty co-founder of Prezi, an established in- grams, which he outsmarted by adding novative presentation software company, metal badges to all letters sent by InPost. whose software is used by over 28 milion Today, Brzoska has not only won users from over 190 countries. In 2012, a number of the battles in the David- in an interview with Te New York Times and-Goliath fight, but has also started he admitted that: “One of the challenges international expansion. He established is that people just don’t know that these a business called easyPack by InPost, amazing companies are being built in which enables the sending and collection Hungary.” Tis statement applies to the of parcels 24 hours a day. Currently, the whole of so-called New Europe. Countries company boasts around 2,500 easyPacks from Estonia to Croatia, from the Czech on four different continents, and is plan- Republic to Romania, are still not expect- ning to add 10,000 more by 2016. ed to be hubs of great innovation. Jan Koum’s tweet from February We have not succeeded in commu- 2014 read: “If there is anyone out there Zurek/ Tomasz nicating to the world that New Europe who still doubts that America is a place is a competitive place, characterized by where all things are possible”. It summa- R EP daring ideas and the spirit of entrepre- rizes his journey from a poor emigrant to OR TE neurship. “People feel empowered, see- a billionaire with a net worth of around R /EAST NEWS /EAST ing examples like Prezi, and know that seven billion US dollars; an insane for- if you work hard, and have a little bit of tune created within five years with the luck, you can build a globally successful use of an app.
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guarantees of “responsiveness and accountability” are the crux lic, and Poland, where the rule of law seems to work fairly well of the democratic dimension. Te above requisites of democ- even by OECD standards, with primary shortcomings being ju- WHAT PEOPLE racy comprise the “basic model.” Current developments, how- dicial delays and difficulties enforcing court decisions. Te sec- ever, are increasingly insisting on additional stipulations: one ond group, comprised of Romania, Bulgaria, Latvia, and more aspect of these are procedural in nature, with direct, populist recently Hungary,3 seem to have more profound problems, features, while the other, which is content and output-related, including persistent corruption, widespread discrimination THINK OF pertains to the “social justice” aspects of the democratic order, against minorities, ineffective prosecution of abuse of office, to mitigating income inequality, and to combating poverty. and separation of powers including the questionable independ- Let us briefly discuss the general results of how Europeans ence of the judiciary. Moreover, the Bertelsmann Index shows view democracy – what they think it ought to be like. that the latter group differs from the first in its poor democratic DEMOCRACY Te 2012 ESS Module results concerning the normative performance, expressed in terms of lower freedom of expres- visions of democracy by all Europeans show that two main sion scores, inferior performance of and commitment to demo- components of its liberal and electoral dimensions are: “equal- cratic institutions, mediocre socio-political integration in terms ity before the law” and “free and fair elections.” Tese are seen of vague infrastructure of interest groups, lower approval of as the most important in general and in particular countries, democratic norms, and poorer social capital (BTI 2014). with slightly more salience given to the liberal component. If Generally, no clear models of democracy in the region one looks at the sixteen aspects of democracy Module 6 asked can be depicted from these expert judgment data, except for DEMOCRACY IS IN TROUBLE. about, two components fall systematically at the bottom of the claim that Estonia, Poland, and the Czech Republic seem the salience ladder: deliberation (“activity aimed at political to lean toward a more liberal model of democracy, while other, THE CURRENT CRISIS IS FAR MORE discussion with other fellow citizens before deciding whom to less embedded democracies that frequently face acute ethnic vote for”) and pan-European responsiveness (“responsibility minority problems, tend to favor more populist solutions, like THAN AN ECONOMIC towards other European governments”). An important result those in Bulgaria, Romania, and, to a lesser extent, Lithuania, for the more expanded model of democracy is the fact that Latvia, and Slovakia. OR A FISCAL ONE ALONE. among one of the most frequently ranked aspects of democ- racy is the social justice dimension, namely the normative ex- I THEORY VS THE “REAL WORLD” pectation that democracy consists in part of “policies aimed at Te results of the analyzes employed for normative visions combating poverty.” Moreover, these relatively higher expec- and evaluative clusters of democracy as seen by West Euro- tations of the outputs of democracies are found in younger, pean and CEE citizens are based on evaluating sixteen features more fragile democracies. Now we move on to discuss the (components) of democracy. Te initial task was to discover details of CEE citizens’ attitudes towards democracies, with whether these sixteen aspects cluster together into recogniz- Teoretical assumptions particular focus on Poland. able and theoretically grounded models of democracy. Te results (detailed computations available upon request from of ESS Module 6 theme: the author) point to the following: theoretical assumptions do Comparative democratic not always fit the revealed empirical reality. Te components “Europeans views and of the four models distinguished theoretically do not cluster RADOSŁAW MARKOWSKI assessments together as expected; instead, we are witnessing a more com- evaluations of democracy.” plicated reality. All in all, however, we can certainly claim (a) Overall assessment of the rule of law in the region (and world- that the liberal and electoral components of democracies clus- t is a crisis of democracy, in particular its alleged Irrespective of the current socio-economic crisis, the major- wide) is undertaken by various projects, among the most ac- ter strongly together, and that (b) Europeans attribute “social role in mitigating market forces in creating the so- ity of Europeans consider democracy the best of all possible knowledged are the Rule of Law Index1 and the BTI Index.2 CEE justice” expectations to the way they conceive contemporary cio-political order, ensuring social justice, and fair regimes. Tis being said, so far, we know relatively little about countries’ rule of law performance evaluation indicates that, as democracy, and that is new. Socio-economic redistributive is- redistribution. Te past few years have seen new what it is exactly that Europeans appreciate about this regime of 2012, the countries of the region can roughly be divided into sues are likely to be a permanent feature of the democratic phenomena concerning democracy; normative type. For these reasons, ESS Module 6 has been deliberately two groups; the first is composed of Estonia, the Czech Repub- reality from now on. expectations toward this type of regime seem to designed to unveil the disentangled components of democracy fluctuate, disappointment with a minimalist under- for most European countries. standing of democracy appears to set the stage for On the one hand, democracy is considered a contested NORMATIVE EXPECTATIONS OF DEMOCRACIES (THEIR MEANING) AMONG CEE CITIZENS. many demonstrations, and numerous groups are voicing their concept, and on the other it is seen as multifaceted. Following (FIVE MOST IMPORTANT AND THREE – LEAST IMPORTANT) Iexpectation of a more substance-defined democracy, calling classics like Robert Dahl (1998) or David Held (2006), one is for justification of the outcomes of particular models of de- encouraged to speak of models of democracy. Regardless of MEAN SD mocracy. Indeed, democracies differ, their particular variants how serious we are about the models, we can speak of certain 1. The courts treat everyone the same 9.05 1.76 emphasize different aspects and are based on fundamentally dimensions of democracy. One of the fundamentally disputed distinctive components. “core” issues of what belongs to democracy and what does 2. National elections are free and fair 8.95 1.72 What follows is divided into sections. In the first, I not, has been the conditions necessary for democracy. Tese 3. The government explains its decisions to voters 8.88 1.72 briefly discuss the general idea and assumptions of the recent baseline, core components of democracy comprise a minimal- 4. The media provide citizens with reliable information to judge the government 8.81 1.79 European Social Survey (ESS) Module 6, which will be dis- ist approach to democracy. To summarize the ESS Module cussed thereafter. In the second, a short analysis of the “ex- 6 approach to the study of democracy, one may say we have 5. The government protects all citizens against poverty 8.64 2.05 perts’ judgments” will be presented. In the third, the Central assumed that: (a) contemporary democracy is a liberal democ- 1. Voters discuss politics with people they know before deciding how to vote 7.54 2.56 East European (CEE) democratic landscape is unveiled, with racy; this liberal principle requires that the state address its 2. Important for democracy: the government sticks to policies vs. changes policies in response to people 7.19 2.95 special focus on the Polish case. Te fourth discusses the citizens in the language of law and that citizens are effectively main findings and assessments of the newly launched initia- protected from arbitrary decisions; (b) it also has two electoral 3. Important for democracy: prevent citizens from expressing extreme views vs. everyone free to express political views 6.88 3.22 tive Polish Democratic Audit 2014, followed by conclusions. components, of which “free and fair elections” together with
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II ANALYSIS OF THE DETAILED FEATURES Czech Republic is best characterized by a clear “liberal” profile of the “social justice” facets of democracy. Finally, Slovaks, more Te results of numerous attempts to explain democratic OF DEMOCRACY: NORMATIVE AND EVALUATIVE in terms of normative expectations. Czech citizens, renowned clearly than other CEE citizens, do not cherish media freedom legitimacy points to the following5: In depicting the normative expectations of European citizens for their pragmatism, do not insist on the “social justice” fea- and or express appreciation for the day-to-day functioning of Democratic legitimacy depends more on daily experiences toward democracy as a regime type, one needs not only to look tures of democracy, probably because it is fulfilled in the coun- the media; the same applies to “equality before the law.” What is with its functioning and less on appreciating it as an ideal re- at the complex clusters of constitutive elements of particular try fairly well (lowest income inequality combined with relative extremely specific is the high value accorded to the performance gime type. It sounds trivial but it is probably a consequential models, but analyze those very components separately as well, affluence). Estonians seem fairly dissatisfied with the freedom of both “social justice” aspects of democracy, namely combating result, especially for decisions by policy makers (those who ask which will follow in this section. For the sake of simplicity, the of their media and the way minority rights are protected. Tak- poverty and leveling out income. On the other hand, account- legitimate questions in democracies about the “possibility of entries present only the top five and bottom three features ing into account that a considerable part of society is composed ability mechanisms (“government parties should be punished politics”) and those concerned with general political stability. of democracy. Te content of these tables allows us to claim of a specific, “new Russian minority” (some of whom do not when doing a bad job”) are definitely much less of a normative Democratic legitimacy also hinges on evaluations of the state the following: first, the truly important aspects of democracy even have Estonian citizenship), the overall assessment of this priority than in all other countries of the region. of economy and the actions of incumbents, but their impact from a normative perspective are the same in the West and aspect is not surprising. Hungarians visibly value the alterna- Overarching remarks concerning country-specific citi- is weaker. in CEE countries. Te five most salient elements are: “courts tiveness of their party system, the quality of information in their zens’ attitudes towards democracy will be discussed in the In general answer to the main question (whether political- treating everyone equally,” “free and fair elections,” “govern- media, and two aspects of “social justice:” combating poverty conclusions. At this point, suffice it to emphasize that: (a) the democratic or economic-redistributive factors matter more for ments explaining decisions to voters,” “media providing reli- and promoting egalitarianism. Normatively speaking, they ap- revealed features of particular democracies based on ESS data democratic legitimacy), is that it is the former matter more. able information about the government,” and “government preciate the protection of minority rights while realizing that is similar to what one might find in comparative evaluations of Tis, however, applies less to the democratic legitimacy of the protecting citizens against poverty.” Second, “electoral” and this particular aspect of democracy is poorly implemented in democracy, most notably the recent BTI 2014 indexes and WJP “social justice” dimension. Tis particular dimension and the “liberal” aspects clearly enjoy the highest assessment scores. their country. Rather low normative expectations concerning Rule of Law Index 2012-2013; and (b) in countries that seem determinants of its legitimacy unveils additional peculiarities: In this respect, the citizens of both parts of Europe differ only equality before the law calls for interpretation by specialists. to have serious problems with the quality of their democracy, it is dependent more – and in a way reversely – than the other slightly; nonetheless, citizens of the stable democracies of the It is likely to be related to the recent and particular period in as evaluated by international experts, these shortcomings are dimensions on less educated and more poorly included citizens, West cherish the functioning of the core electoral institutions Hungarian history that began with the 2010 election results confirmed by the citizens of those very countries. with poorer social assets. Tis means that the ontological status more than their eastern neighbors. Tird, in both parts of Eu- and a parliamentary constitutional majority in the hands of, de of this dimension is different and polities that seek legitimacy rope, the one single domain of democracy that is both norma- facto, a single party, resulting in very instrumental treatment of on the grounds of “social justice” redistributive policies ought tively most appreciated and highly valued in terms of its daily new constitutional provisions aimed at pursuing purely politi- New approach to to address it with different segments of their respective popula- performance is “free and fair elections,” which is the distinct cal goals. Poles express the most appreciation for the “liberal” tions; more so – as macro-contextual interactions show – in less aspect considered equally by the classics and by students of and “electoral” components of democracy (the courts treating democratic legitimacy affluent, more unequal, and more fragile democracies. democracy as an absolutely necessary condition for calling a everyone equally, the media providing reliable information, regime democratic. and elections being free and fair) with relatively high salience In this section, a new approach to the empirical study of dem- attached to “popular control” (the government explaining its ocratic legitimacy is proposed; namely, conceiving legitimacy Polish democracy III NEW DEMOCRACIES: SPECIFICITIES policies). In their evaluations of democratic performance, the as the relationship between what ought to be and how it is. OF THE ANALYZED COUNTRIES highest assessment was found in “freedom of expression of ex- In what follows, an attempt will be made to answer the as of 2012-2013 Citizens of CEE polities differ in the normative and perfor- treme views,” “media freedom,” “freedom of opposition parties,” following questions: mance assessment of their respective democracies. Among and “elections as free and fair.” In all four instances, the posi- 1) To what extent does democratic legitimacy depend Te first wave of the Democratic Audit of Poland (DAP), which the seven CEE countries under scrutiny,4 Bulgaria stands tive scores assigned are the highest among the seven countries on citizens’ key attitudes toward democracy, its ideal, and its covers and evaluates the quality of the Polish democracy as of out as a case on its own. Its citizens assess the functioning of mentioned here. Te somewhat high discrepancy between se- performance, on the one hand, and whether it hinges on vot- 2012-2013, is a multifaceted enterprise that utilizes academic their democracy the worst as compared to other countries, in lected normative expectations and performance evaluations is ers’ crucial assessments of the performance of the national research tools, such as public opinion research and “experts’ almost all aspects of democracy, except the populist dimen- due to the fact that on many issues, Poles are by far the most economy and the incumbent government, on the other? judgments” concerning numerous areas of Poland’s contempo- sion. In comparing the Bulgarians’ normative expectations normatively demanding society in the region. Slovenes reveal 2) What is the size of the relative impact of these two rary democracy. A substantial part of the inquiry is grounded of what democracy ought to be with the assessment of its relatively little specificity in their attitudes towards democracy, types of factors? in detailed inspections of available objective indicators, those performance, one arrives at the worst figures, indicating that except for relatively high appreciation of minority rights (both 3) What is the role of the particular political and socio- obtainable from the Central Statistical Office or respective min- this polity is indeed facing acute legitimacy problems. Tis also normative and pertaining to performance), by far the highest demographic factors assumed to play a role in determining istries and foundations, NGOs, and the like. At this point, let me applies to such fundamental aspects and absolutely necessary evaluation of direct democracy performance (“citizens have a satisfaction with democracy? quote excerpts from the general conclusions of its 2014 report. preconditions of democracy as “free and fair elections.” Te final say in referenda”), and quite salient normative appreciation
NORMATIVE EXPECTATIONS OF DEMOCRACIES (THEIR MEANING) AMONG WESTERN EUROPEAN CITIZENS. PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS OF DEMOCRACIES BY CEE CITIZENS. (FIVE MOST IMPORTANT AND THREE – LEAST IMPORTANT) (FIVE MOST IMPORTANT AND THREE – LEAST IMPORTANT)
MEAN SD MEAN SD 1. The courts treat everyone the same 9.26 1.48 1. In the country, the media are free to criticize the government 7.06 2.59 2. National elections are free and fair 9.01 1.58 2. In the country, opposition parties are free to criticize the government 7.04 2.56 3. The government explains its decisions to voters 8.85 1.58 3. In the country, people with extreme views are prevented from expressing vs. everyone free to express political views 6.97 2.79 4. The media provide citizens with reliable information to judge the government 8.70 1.79 4. In the country, voters discuss politics with people they know before deciding how to vote 6.51 2.60 5. The government protects all citizens against poverty 8.60 1.83 5. In the country, national elections are free and fair 6.33 2.94 1. Important for democracy: prevent from expressing extreme views vs. everyone free to express political views 7.71 2.95 1. In the country, the government explains its decisions to voters 3.67 2.68 2. Voters discuss politics with people they know before deciding how to vote 7.37 2.35 2. In the country, the government protects all citizens against poverty 2.86 2.62 3. Important for democracy: the government sticks to policies vs. changes policies in response to people 6.91 3.26 3. In the country, the government takes measures to reduce differences in income levels 2.86 2.56
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OVERALL DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN NORMATIVE NORMATIVE–PERFORMANCE MEAN DIFFERENCES Polish democracy ought to be evaluated as “satisfactory” VISIONS AND EVALUATIONS OF DEMOCRACY, BY DEMOCRATIC COMPONENT IN THE CEE AND WE POLITIES when juxtaposed with major Western European democracies, CEE VS. WE and “good” when the comparative context is limited to core CEE EAST WEST and South European countries. Te DAP and other, similar en- 1. National elections are free and fair 2.62 .81 terprises (such as the Bertelsmann Transformation Index and the Rule of Law Index) evidently point out that (a) Poland has 6 1 2. Voters discuss politics with people they know before deciding how to vote 1.03 .71 17 2 become one of the two or three most qualitative democracies 5 3. Different political parties offer clear alternatives to one another 2.71 1.84 in the CEE region, and (b) its pace of improvement is – relative 16 4 3 4. Opposition parties are free to criticize the government 1.28 .33 to other countries in the region and the European South – quite 3 impressive. 5. The media are free to criticize the government 1.37 .23 2 4 Now, for the overall assessments: first, there is very little 15 6. The media provide citizens with reliable information to judge the government 3.07 2.25 that remains to be improved as far as basic civil and political 1 7. The rights of minority groups are protected 1.95 1.91 rights are concerned. What can still be upgraded in this domain 0 is the situation of immigrants and aliens who do not hold Polish 8. Citizens have the final say in political issues by voting directly in referendums 3.83 2.62 14 -1 5 citizenship. On an optimistic note, Polish public opinion seems -2 9. The courts treat everyone the same 5.26 3.09 to be increasingly more tolerant and supportive of these groups. WEST Second, as far as the quality of the rule of law is concerned, EAST 10. Governing parties are punished in elections when they have done a bad job 3.62 1.95 the result is rather positive, but nonetheless mixed. Te domi- 6 11. The government protects all citizens against poverty 5.77 3.54 nant problem is that while formal regulations are adequate and 13 12. The government explains its decisions to voters 5.21 3.44 well designed, daily practice calls for improvement. Its Achilles’ heel is the tardiness of courts’ ruling. Te other evident short- 13. The government takes measures to reduce differences in income levels 5.52 2.99 12 7 coming is the generally low effectiveness of the justice system. 14. Politicians take into account the views of other European governments 1.16 .70 Tird, media in Poland are definitely free and allow citizens unrestricted access to reliable information. Te common de- 11 8 15. Important for democracy: citizens prevented from expressing extreme vs. everyone free to express political views -.10 -.07 ficiencies include the deprofessionalization of journalists, the 10 9 16. Important for democracy: government sticks to policies vs. changes policies in response to people 1.08 .79 massive presence of infotainment, and the weakness of print 17. Important for democracy: government formed by coalition vs. by single party .71 .40 media. Private media are too dependent on private funds and public media are at times too “sensitive” to political influence. However, in a comparative CEE perspective, Polish media seem to function quite well and are definitely much more resistant to the influences of big financial power as well as immune to electoral democracy, in particular the procedural correctness Summing up, contemporary Europeans still view de- uate their performance accordingly. Moreover, taking into “political parallelism,” at least when speaking of the major news- of elections, is hardly questioned by anybody. Elections of rep- mocracy through its liberal and electoral components, but account the institutional design of any given polity of CEE papers and outlets. resentatives are fair, free, and effective, even if participation output-related expectations are on the rise. Europeans do countries, the results presented are simply logical, which Fourth, public administration is evaluated as overly ex- in elections in Poland is very low. Other democratic institu- expect democracy to assure “social justice” as well. Te less tells us that the democratic socialization of new democratic pensive and expansive and far less effective than citizens would tions (parties and parliament), although poorly evaluated by stable, poorer, and more fragile the democracy of a given pol- citizens is effective. Poland has featured quite well in recent wish it to be. Citizens’ views do not, however, match the NIK’s the citizens themselves, seem to function much better today ity, the more this is true. However, democratic citizens of the years as far as its democratic credentials are concerned, in (Supreme Audit Office) claims in its recent report about the state than a decade ago. Indeed, the party system shows “systemic” CEE countries and their Western counterparts do not differ particular in a comparative CEE perspective. Te important of the administration. In a nutshell, these are much more posi- features, more stability, predictability, and less voter volatility. “qualitatively” in what they expect from democracy; they do message here is that macro-comparative evaluations of the tive, claiming that most functions of the state are accomplished Te responsiveness of politicians seems to work to the neces- differ more in terms of how they evaluate the performance state of democracies in CEE reveal a similar overall picture properly and that several innovations had been introduced in sary extent, although what seems to be lacking are “responsible of their democracies. In this respect, the results are pretty to those painted by their citizens. recent years aimed at opening the administration to citizens, citizens,” those knowledgeable about policy dilemmas and pro- logical. So are the data presented for particular CEE societies thereby improving its effectiveness (e.g., RIA, regulatory impact grammatic political alternatives, and cognizant of economic – Czechs, Bulgarians, Poles, Hungarians, and the rest expect The author is Director of the Center for the Study of Democracy at the assessment). Finally, the political process, which is the core of constraints and – generally – the possibilities of politics. from their democracies that which is most lacking and eval- University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS OF DEMOCRACIES BY WESTERN EUROPEAN CITIZENS. (FIVE MOST IMPORTANT AND THREE – LEAST IMPORTANT)
MEAN SD REFERENCES 1. In the country, national elections are free and fair 8.20 2.12 1. http://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index 2. In the country, opposition parties are free to criticize the government 7.99 2.00 2. http://bti-project.org/index 3. In the country, the media are free to criticize the government 7.92 2.11 3. Hungarian developments since 2010, when the constitutional majority was secured by a single party, Orbán’s Fidesz, needs separate treatment for which the space of this chapter is too limited. At this point, let us only emphasize that currently (as of early 2014), Hungary still scores well on such democratic 4. In the country, people with extreme views prevented from expressing vs. everyone free to express political views 7.79 2.43 credentials as administrative efficiency and lack of significant court delays and corruption (even compared to the first group of countries), but performs 5. In the country, voters discuss politics with people they know before deciding how to vote 6.65 2.24 extremely poorly as far as separation of powers, independence of the judiciary, media freedom, operation of the special secret police (TEK), and even 1. In the country, the government explains its decisions to voters 5.41 2.68 approval of democracy are concerned (see for instance Fehér 2014; Góralczyk 2013). 4. Data not shown; available upon request from the author. 2. In the country, the government protects all citizens against poverty 5.06 2.81 5. Again, numerous analyzes and computations are available upon request from the author. The analysis discussed here is part of a book to be published 3. In the country, the government takes measures to reduce differences in income levels 4.92 2.63 soon.
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protest was the (unsuccessful) attempt to change the election urban space, the attempt to persuade people to take part in law to permit both organizations and individual candidates to discussions on important matters, and to integrate in the open compete in elections. On the electoral rolls, which were led by air. All these aspects were considered “strange,” “unnecessary,” four former liberal politicians, there were many people from and “inappropriate for the Czech context,” and the organizers different backgrounds with divergent views, who mobilized were advised to use a more official formula, for example a po- WHEN the voters during a highly personalized campaign. Te leader litical party. of AL’aNO overtly admits that transformation into a political Of course, Occupy Olomouc is just one example of the party would mean “joining the circle of (party) thieves,” hence creation of a socio-political alternative in the Czech Republic. the lack of official place of residence, coherent program, or party It is especially interesting, however, as it perfectly illustrates THE member structure. What he stresses, however, is the direct na- the problem of citizens’ dependency on political parties as in- ture of communication with voters, who are a heterogeneous stitutions, as well as on third sector organizations, which are group themselves, as they mostly unite around their dislike of perceived as having some an oligopoly on the representation “corrupted elites” and non-transparent policies. of mass interests. PARTY'S Importantly, the alternative that AL’aNO creates may seem more real when compared to populist parties. Despite talking “NONGOVERNMENTAL” about an alternative limited to an anti-party form, it does not DOES NOT MEAN APOLITICAL seem to bother voters, especially the younger representatives of Social subjects that enter intensely into the sphere of politics OVER a larger group of those discouraged by politics. It is worth not- include non-governmental organizations, especially civic ing that they do not constitute a negative electorate, but rather ones. Tey are the ones that draw people in and are usually a group expressing its protest with the ballot box, even at the made up of active social workers. What characterizes them In reaching with our observations outside national boundaries, cost of giving their vote to an organizational and programmatic are strong bonds among their members and identification the twilight of the present system in politics can be seen more ephemera. with the targets and subjects touched on in the public sphere. Te consequences of the transfer of social capital to and more clearly. Most of the new phenomena are only marginal, “OUTRAGED” POLITICIANS the political sphere are as yet ambivalent, especially when it but taken together they foreshadow a deep transformation Global trends, although instilled in the region, have their comes to the placement of social activists or whole organiza- own dynamic, which is influenced by the social and politi- tions within the electoral and parliamentary realm. Coming of democracy. In this context, political parties – traditional vehicles cal context. In Budapest, demands for increasing the scope out into the world of politics is tempting; it creates numerous of representative democracies – have been seriously challenged. of civic oversight of state institutions or the financial sector possibilities for boosting effectiveness, such as direct influ- had already appeared before the memorable 2011. Tis was ence on the legislative process, budget financing, and getting a leitmotif of alter-globalist and pro-environmental protests. media attention. On the other hand, as many initiatives from Although they had made their presence known in public de- Central Europe show in practice, this transfer plants the or- bate before the 2005 elections and had their continuation in ganizations and social initiatives in the unknown, unfriendly 2011-2013, they did not provoke wider discussion or turn into ground and undermines their trustworthiness. In the new DOMINIKA KASPROWICZ a civic movement, either. It is worth mentioning that the sec- context, their original postulates stemming from their dis- ond wave of the Outrage! movement activity in Hungary was agreement with the party and the political status quo lose concerned mainly with the situation of Hungarian borrowers, credibility. Te organizations themselves, even if successful, who are indebted in foreign currencies. An interesting fact is do not last in the political scene even for a moment, or are his year has been dominated by a summing-up QUASIALTERNATIVE FOR A QUASIPARTY that in the specific national context that is dominated by the unable to make an appearance at all. of twenty-five years of social, economic, and Te most obvious scenario of creating an alternative for the po- Christian Right and its radical allies, this subject was started Tere are two variants of the story of introducing social political transformation in the region. A sig- litical establishment includes the foundation of new political by the authorities and, as we remember, it became one of the initiatives into the sphere of politics. Te first is the story nificant portion focuses on the condition of parties. Tis is characteristic of systems undergoing democratic crucial themes of Viktor Orbán’s political campaign. Orbán of success. Te initiatives that sometimes do pass the elec- civil society and state institutions, as well as transformation, in which populist parties, among all the new has presented foreign financial institutions as the main cul- toral rubicon, and whose aim is to have a tangible impact on the relationship between them. In both cases, subjects, come to the fore. When compared to the consolidated prits of the difficult position of more than a million house- politics (political parties, state institutions, law), namely the evaluations remain ambivalent, as regularly democracies, Central and Eastern Europe is particular in this as- holds. Tis popular subject thus found itself at the center of group of Polish quasi-parties, alternatively called political conducted research reveals an image of a quar- pect – not only did populist parties, based on criticism of those political processes, but its application was in denial of the ide- plankton, are a good example. Tese are the subjects offi- relsome society with a low degree of social capital, which goes in power, enter parliaments, they also did not disappear and, ology of its makers, turning media attention away from them cially listed in the register of political parties, yet they func- Talong with the low quality and low efficiency of traditional instead, became a lasting element of the political landscape. In and weakening their credibility. tion de facto out of the electoral and party system. Tese institutions. Tese indicators are typical of the world of post- practice, however, it is difficult to treat anti-establishment slo- Equally interesting is the example of the Czech initiative associations, trade unions, and informal organizations have politics, post-democracy, and post-ideology. gans mixed with demagogy and the charisma of leaders, which Occupy Olomouc. A group of activists carried out a project transformed into political parties, seeing the change as a In the world of “post,” the end of traditional agreements have become part of mainstream politics, as an “alternative.” of “regaining” (in this instance – literally) a space of public “necessary evil.” For them, being a party is not an objective between society and the world of politics is accompanied by Is not a party presenting itself as an alternative to parties not dialogue and initiating discussion on subjects of politics, the in its own right, but an additional asset, enabling better re- the foundation of new, often synergic enterprises, functioning absurd in itself? As it turns out, not really. economy, and social policies, from October 2011 to May 2012. alization of the group’s interests. Such is the case of Związek on the (faint) boundary of “the social” and “the political.” Tis In 2012 the Slovak elections were dominated by a party Te symbolic center of the city was also “regained,” the square Słowiańki (Slavic Union), Elektorat (Electorate), and Lepsza refers to the frequently created, current socio-political alter- alternative – most of the twenty-six registered committees near the clock tower was to be filled with passers-by, who were Polska (Better Poland), to name just a few. Although they natives (SPACE, Socio-political Alternatives in Europe). Tey were completely new or newly-created (as a result of a breakup encouraged to take part in the discussion. Te performance remain (deliberately) in the shadow of parliamentary politics herald what Rancière has called “the end and the comeback of or rebranding). Among them, AL’aNO (Ordinary People, did not gain the recognition of public opinion – at its peak and are not financed from the budget, once they pass the politics in one.” Tey are ventures that use the new space in Extraordinary Personalities, pol. Zwykli Ludzie, Niezwykłe only thirty people participated, and the admirable efforts of formal registration border they gain media publicity, a better relations between authorities and citizens, offering a more or Osobowości) stands out, a quasi-party that has achieved 8.6% the organizers did not bring about the anticipated results. position in relations with state institutions, and profession- less real alternative for traditional mediators, especially politi- of the vote to become the second biggest opposition party. Tey were met with reactions ranging from astonishment to alization of inward structures. Tey act locally and the politi- cal parties. Tey take on different forms and mark their pres- Te group has built its platform on complete denial of po- outrage. Criticism was directed chiefly at the subject and the cal party gives them the chance to improve their efficiency. ence in the countries of our region even more strongly. litical parties’ traditional formulas. Te first visible sign of this form of the performance, the literal occupation of part of the Such quasi-parties fill the gap between society and the state,
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although to a limited extent. Teir existence is also quite telling Polish example of such a movement is Kongres Kobiet (Congress when it comes to the condition of the two sectors. of Women), which from the beginning of its existence has dis- Te second, negative, variant may be represented by played strong political connections, characteristic of a party. the Hungarian movement MILLA (Million for the Liberty of Te association was founded in 2009 with, as one of its MASCULINE Speech), which started in 2010 as a Facebook fan page. MILLA most accentuated postulates, the inclusion of women in the became a voicing channel for negative reactions to Orbán’s re- party candidate list. Tis demand was undoubtedly of a politi- strictive politics toward the media, violation of the separation cal nature and was directed at a relatively broad target, which of powers, and nontransparent decision-making processes in included political parties of all types as well as the ruling class SLOVAKS MEET the highest circles of power. According to the aspirations of its of that time. A meeting held in Warsaw in June 2013 brought creators, the movement was to develop into an independent about announcement of the creation of a Political Advisory think-tank, backed by wide social support. Its role would not Board (Rada Polityczna), which was to promote the display of be limited to control functions, but would include impact on women in party candidate lists. Wanda Nowicka, Vice-Marshal NORMATIVE the political sphere. As reported by commentators, these deci- of the Sejm said: “Te Congress of Women has been present sions were made in the first stage of the movement’s activity, in politics from the very beginning, and its postulates were but social support began to fade when the leaders decided to and continue to be politic.” Nevertheless, for the moment, the redirect this social capital into the realm of politics. Te status Congress has not set about forming a party, “limiting” itself POLES and the fate of MILLA are now unsure, as the organization has to presenting its candidates on the party list of the coalition become part of the shaping coalition of the dis-united opposi- Europa Plus Twój Ruch (Europe Plus Your Move). Te political tion movements (Együtt-PM). postulates will therefore continue to emerge among other goals In Poland, there are several schemes of the relationship taken up by the association. LOOKING AT V4 CULTURES THROUGH THE LENS between political institutions and the professional non-govern- According to SPACE, the Congress of Women is an exam- mental sector in its broad understanding. Tis group includes ple of a social organization with a broad spectrum of interest, OF GEERT HOFSTEDE’S think tanks with official connections to politics, such as the whose activity in the political sphere has been a crucial issue Sobieski Institute, the Civic Institute (Instytut Obywatelski), from the beginning. What is more, the partly won the battle CULTURAL DIMENSIONS MODEL or youth organizations that constitute organizational and per- for a gender quota on party lists, which has shown that a social sonnel backup. Te counterbalance for these are control or- actor who not only postulates, but also proposes solutions, can ganizations such as “watch dogs,” who, in order to realize their permanently change the political context. Tus, congress’ influ- objectives, declare no connections whatsoever with the political ence, apart from affecting the realm of social life, advances the PIOTR ŻAKOWIECKI world. Yet, the most interesting when it comes to social alterna- development of rigid party structures in a “top-down” manner. tives to politics are more distanced subjects who transgress the Te sphere in which traditional political institutions and border between civil society and state institutions. Most of these social interests meet is extremely prolific in new initiatives. In alking about cultural differences is usually some- elaborate on civil society in their programs, diagnose the current not-so-new democracies they constitute a symbol of a newborn what of a cliché, especially if you are talking about state of the country and society, and define the challenges for the configuration of the political sphere, still in the process of being your neighbors, who you are quite sure you have government. Moreover, these organizations strive to voice their shaped – a sphere which mainstream politicians are seldom- figured out. But how much do we really know interests in the sphere of politics or by lobbying in state institu- ware of. about them, besides some (definitely very amus- tions, all in the interest of society or certain groups. Tese social The article is a part of SPACE (Socio-political Alternatives in Central Eu- ing) stereotypes, anecdotes, and perhaps some actors often take up significant political activities, which take rope) research project, funded by the International Visegrad Fund. personal acquaintances? Te question applies to the form of a direct presence in elections (having candidates on The author is an assistant professor in the Department of Political Science, most nations. But then how can one compare na- party lists) or participation in advisory and consulting bodies. A Pedagogical University of Cracow. tional cultures without delving into one’s neighbors’ hearts and Tsouls, studying their language, and so on? Well, there are ways. One is Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions model – perhaps one of the best known, fairly controversial but still likely the most comprehensive tool for studying cross-cultural differences. In a nutshell, the model consists of six dimensions, each a dichotomy, which describe crucial features of national cultures. Te model, itself first conceived in the 1970s, has withstood the test of time and (often caustic) peer review, and has been under constant de- velopment. In its most recent incarnation, the scores in each dimension range from 0 to 100, with 50 representing no clear preference. Te further a score is from the mid-point, the more determined the national character is in that particular dimension. Te scores provide a picture of what the dominant cul- ture of a particular country seems to be. For many individuals, the cultural profile of their own country seems strange. Even more so, within many countries, inter-regional cultural dif- ferences are sometimes greater than inter-national ones. Still, at a general level, the conclusions paint a rather interesting picture.
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So what do these different dimensions tell us about the in the other V4 countries. Czechs and Hungarians are also Visegrad Four? inclined towards uncertainty avoidance, although visibly less than Poles. Strong uncertainty avoidance is actually bad for POWER DISTANCE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO HIERARCHY one’s health – in such cultures people are more stressed out Power distance is the dimension that explains the way in and tend to be neurotic, as well as reporting lower scores on 100 which a culture makes sense of unequal distribution of power. subjective health and well being. Cultures with high power distance see power as a basic fact of society and hierarchies are of an existential nature. In cultures THOSE IMPRACTICAL POLES with lower power distance, hierarchy is just inequality of roles, In the pragmatism-normativity dimension, Poland stands out 75 established for convenience. as the only non-pragmatic culture in the region. Poles are more Tis dimension is where the greatest differences lie. concerned with tradition as well as seeking “absolute truths” – Slovaks get top scores, which translates into a society that is for them things are either “black” or “white;” grey areas seem inherently hierarchical and non-egalitarian. In the workplace, suspicious. Poles, on the one hand, seek stability, while on the INDULGENCE INDIVIDUALISM employees expect to be told what to do while bosses do not other they are fairly shortsighted and expect quick results. 50 tend to consult their subordinates. Income distribution is usu- Czechs and Slovaks are on the other side of the spectrum, ally more unequal in societies with high power distance – al- being clearly pragmatic. In light of the theory, this translates though Slovakia is an exception, this holds true for Poland. into both perseverance and acceptance of change. Te more Hungary, on the other hand, is the only country with low pow- pragmatic cultures are fine with accepting various “truths” as 25 er distance and – probably not incidentally – the lowest GINI well as the fact that life simply is complex and there is no way index score in the region. Czechs seem undecided on this. of understanding it all. Hungary is a pragmatic country too, although it is somewhat less pronounced. SOME OF US ARE MORE INDIVIDUALISTIC THAN 0 OTHERS CENTRAL EUROPE SAD AND GREY? Individualistic societies – the way Hofstede defines them – All of the V4 countries have strong inclinations towards re- are basically the “Western” ones, while the cultures of South straint. It is – in fact – the only area in which there is full com- America, Africa, and Asia are essentially collectivist. Te differ- monality. In Hofstede’s terms, this translates into cynicism and ences are considerable, but they boil down to whether one has pessimism, as well as perceptions of very strong social norms. an “I”-consciousness, or a “we”-consciousness. Central Europe Indulging oneself is often seen as inappropriate, joie de vivre proves “Western” yet again, although Slovak culture is the one is suppressed. People in restrained societies lack perception in which individualism is the least pronounced. Poland and the of control over their lives – whatever happens to them is not Czech Republic are also rather individualistic, but less strong- of their own doing. Also, their self-reported happiness tends ly so – in general, among European countries, only Bulgaria, to be lower than in countries with more indulgent cultures. PRAGMATISM MASCULINITY Romania, and the countries of former Yugoslavia have collectiv- ist cultures. Hungary is on the other side of the spectrum – it SO WHAT? is quite clearly a culture in which the social framework is more For any Central European to say that our cultures differ seems loosely knit and individuals are supposed to take care of them- like a truism. For someone from the West, especially one who selves. Tasks seem to prevail over relationships, while others buys into the common, stereotypical idea of the region, prob- are classified as individuals. Viewing the world in terms of in- ably less so. Indeed, there are some essential differences, de- groups and out-groups is a feature of collectivism. spite the fact that the V4 nations share a large chunk of their respective histories. It seems perhaps most counterintuitive A MAN’S PART OF THE WORLD that Czech and Slovak cultural characteristics should be dif- UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE All four national cultures are clearly masculine, but Slovakia is ferent in so many respects, given the fact that they were united off the chart in this respect. Masculine cultures feature strong for such a long time. differentiation between genders (both social and emotional), ad- Hofstede’s dimensions are probably most useful for man- miration for strength (instead of sympathy for weakness), as well agers working away from their home countries, who need to POLAND as paternalist tendencies. Masculine cultures do not strive for understand what makes their foreign subordinates click. Given work-life balance as much as the more feminine ones. Tey also the clear differences between the V4 national cultures, it can CZECH REPUBLIC feature more competition and assertiveness in social relations. be quite problematic for international companies to manage HUNGARY Feminine values, such as collaboration and maintaining harmony regional activities in Central Europe. SLOVAKIA and good relationships with others, are less prominent. One might argue that reading Hofstede’s profiles amounts to nothing more than going through a glorified newspaper RULES ARE RULES, JUST NOT FOR EVERYONE horoscope section; one could easily chalk it up to confirma- Uncertainty avoidance is a measure of how comfortable one tory bias, trying to fit the perceptions of national cultures into feels in a situation in which there are no rules, regulations, or the framework set out by the model. Still, it is quite refreshing GEERT HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL standards of behavior – in other words, society’s tolerance for to confront common perceptions and stereotypes, often rather DIMENSIONS MODEL ambiguity. Slovak culture is the only one in the V4 where rules old ones, with analysis from a different angle. seem disposable. Slovaks seem to be more relaxed and flex- ible, while competition is less of a threat than fair play. Poles, The author is a social affairs analyst at Polityka Insight. He graduated on the other hand, feel insecure and rarely take the initiative from LSE and the National University of Singapore, and has worked for when there is no formal justification for doing so. Tis may the Chancellery of the Prime Minister of Poland and the Ministry for Ad- be related to low levels of social trust, essentially lower than ministration and Digitisation.
80 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 81 VISEGRAD ABROAD RETREAT FROM THE EAST RETREAT FROM THE EAST VISEGRAD ABROAD Singer/PAP Te flaws in Europe’s current approach to the Eastern Partnership endanger its ability to defend important interests from energy supplies to immigration challenges. It is about time Europe decides whether it wants to be recognized as a credible international actor.
BRUNO LÉTÉ
f all the world’s leading powers, none has had so much success in shaping the world around it over the last two decades as the European Union. Since the end of the Cold War, the EU has peacefully ex- panded to include sixteen new member states and has transformed much of its neighborhood by reducing conflicts and developing economies from the Balkans to the Baltics. In Othe past ten years, Europe has also made some progress in developing a coherent and effective foreign policy. Te 2003 European Security Strategy did a good job at describing some of the concerns Europeans face in the wake of a global multi- lateral system. With the launch of a European Neighborhood Policy in 2004, the EU also committed to engage its imme- diate neighbors and create an outer ring of well-governed countries based on the values of democracy, rule of law, and respect of human rights. But against a background of the 2008 financial crunch and the EU’s subsequent integration A LOOK crisis, Europe’s neighborhood policy has suffered. Foreign policy, it turns out, is not an independent variable. It is de- AT THE EAST pendent on the economic and fiscal state of the EU as well as
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on the status of European integration. Te Arab revolutions ner countries to implement. Tis rigid structure prevents standards and procedures. Instead, Brussels could outline tar- mon the courage to put economic and hard security of the in the south and the instability in Europe's east underline the EU from making a rapid impact or shaping unforeseen geted neighborhood policies and fine-tune its approach in a region at the top of its bilateral agenda with Moscow. Russia’s the necessity for Europe to become a better regional security developments. way that reflects the needs of the individual partner countries. assertive policies aimed at challenging the efforts of Eastern provider. Second, the EU must introduce more flexibility in pro- Partnership countries to seek closer ties with the EU too of- ALONG CAME RUSSIA gramming and create diplomatic and financial tools that allow ten jeopardize the security of the region as a whole. Brussels EUROPE’S EASTERN NEIGHBORHOOD A third problem with the Eastern Partnership is the illusion it to act more rapidly. In addition to negotiating lengthy Deep should therefore link its Eastern Partnership objectives to the POLICY IS FLAWED that Europe can have its go in the region without having to and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreements, the EU could wider EU-Russia relationship. By adopting sanctions against Tis year marks the fifth anniversary of the Eastern Part- take into account the role of Russia. Instead, Russian presi- bring immediate relief to partner countries by liberalizing Moscow over the Ukrainian crisis, Brussels has taken its first nership, a regional spin-off of the European Neighborhood dent Vladimir Putin has left European diplomats looking trade on their top export products. prudent steps to do so. Failure keep this effort going so may Policy to bring prosperity and security to the countries flat-footed by plunging them into a vicious zero-sum game Tird, and more importantly, Brussels simply needs to mean more difficulty in managing tensions with Russia over of Eastern Europe and the southern Caucasus: Belarus, over the fate of Eastern Europe and the southern Caucasus. bring more money to the table to support the stability and the future of Europe’s East. Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. Te Russia's probing of European weaknesses, and Europe’s dif- prosperity of its eastern neighborhood, preferably with the Eastern Partnership has certainly helped stabilize a turbulent ficulties in dealing with it, has successfully weakened EU support of the International Monetary Fund. A joint state- IT’S ALSO ABOUT EUROPE’S INTERNATIONAL region by funding socio-economic development, promoting strategies aimed at offering greater integration to Eastern ment on Ukraine by Visegrad foreign ministers on 24 February CREDIBILITY democracy and good governance, strengthening regional Partnership countries in return for good governance. recognized the financial aspects of European engagement as A re-designed Eastern Partnership will help the EU punch ac- energy security, and encouraging mobility between the EU Te ingredients of Russia’s diplomacy mix are well a priority. cording to its weight. Te flaws in Europe’s current approach and partner countries. But five years on, the objectives of the known: energy security, punitive trade measures, money- Fourth, a new Eastern Partnership would keep Brussels’ endanger its ability to defend its interest in a region that is Eastern Partnership are still far from the reality. Europe’s East lending, and military might serve to keep Europe’s neighbors door explicitly open. Te EU needs to accept that its interests important to its energy supplies and immigration challenges. is more divided than ever before. Democracy, rule of law, and weak and compliant. Ukraine’s refusal to sign an Association will sometimes demand more engagement with partner coun- Moreover, the events in Ukraine have been closely followed in respect for civil rights are dwindling while inefficient state Agreement with the EU in November 2013 preceded ardu- tries, regardless of whether these countries have achieved the all Eastern Partnership countries, where many people wonder institutions, high corruption, low productivity, and meager ous border inspections and product restrictions imposed by desired level of liberal reform. But if partner countries such whether the EU would be ready to help defend its European investments make the majority of these countries uncom- Russia, resulting in a 25% reduction in Ukrainian trade and an as Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia achieve sufficient progress, choice, if the need arises. For now Europe still inspires millions petitive. Meanwhile, the problem of frozen conflicts remains estimated 11-billion-euro loss. Meanwhile, Moscow prom- Brussels should also be consistent, and offer the prospect of in its periphery, but it will need to do better to save its fragile unresolved, which imposes an air of permanent instability ised lower loan rates, decreased gas prices, and Gazprom debt accession. credibility. In the end, the Eastern Partnership is about more right at the borders of the EU. forgiveness in return for Kyiv's loyalty. Te eviction of pro- Fifth, EU member states need to become more involved than just fixing Europe’s neighborhood. If the EU gets it right, Clearly, Europe’s policy towards its East is not working Russian president Viktor Yanukovych by democratic forces in helping reform the Eastern Partnership policy, and provide it is also about sending a signal to the world that Europe is still as it should. eventually led the Kremlin to resort to military force and Brussels with the political backing to behave like a serious geo- a credible international actor. A first problem of the Eastern Partnership is that it has tighten its grip on Ukraine by compromising its sovereignty political actor. Here, countries such as Germany and Poland been too closely modeled on the European enlargement pro- in Crimea. In Armenia, another example, Russian diplomacy can play an invaluable role. Teir value-based foreign policy The author is a senior program officer responsible for the foreign and cess. Te current philosophy of conditionality – closer rela- acted with no less ruthlessness. Faced with Moscow’s threat combined with their leading investment position in many of security policy at the German Marshall Fund of the United States. tions with the EU in return for good governance and liberal to sell weapons to Azerbaijan – Armenia’s rival – as well as the Eastern Partnership countries can help spur moderniza- reform – is too mechanistic, and builds too much on a “one- a lucrative offer for cheap energy, President Serzh Sargsyan tion of these societies. Together, Germany and Poland can approach-for-all” attitude that ignores partner countries’ was left with no choice but to abandon his country’s EU bid. mobilize European support and resources, and embed their individual needs. As a result, some conditional demands Moldova and Georgia now find themselves in a similar efforts in a wider EU strategy. made by Europe remain unaccounted for in countries such as situation: making significant headway toward signing an EU Sixth, and finally, the EU should not shrug its shoulders Azerbaijan and Belarus, for whom the EU is just one among association agreement but under intensifying pressure from at Moscow’s suspicious trade blockades or refusal to reduce many other political and economic partners. Or in the case Russia. In September 2013 Russian deputy prime minister its military presence in frozen conflicts. Europe must sum- of countries such as Moldova and Georgia, who wish to sail a Dmitri Rogozin already threatened that: “Moldova’s train en course closer to Brussels, Europe's engagement is too limited route to Europe would lose its wagons in Transnistria.” And to credibly support their endeavor. Moreover, the promise he added: “Take care not to freeze this winter,” hinting that of involving Eastern Partnership countries in the European Russia might interrupt natural gas deliveries to Moldova, integration project without offering accession to the EU is an which is completely energy dependent on Russia. Meanwhile, offer that is too ambiguous as a narrative. in Georgia, Moscow has begun the construction of fences to A second problem of the Eastern Partnership is its fo- mark the unrecognized borders of the breakaway provinces cus on long-term strategy and its resulting inability to create of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, leaving the territorial integ- short-term action plans or to address evolving situations in rity of Georgia in dysfunction. Although both countries ap- partner countries. Te three core incentives of the Eastern pear committed to signing the Association Agreement with Partnership of easier travel, financial support, and better ac- the EU, possibly already next August 2014, the issues that cess to EU markets were all designed to function in a sta- prevented Ukraine from moving forward with its EU integra- ble environment. But in the midst of the turmoil that marks tion will also weigh heavily on Chișinău and Tbilisi. most of the eastern neighborhood, the net output often falls short of partner countries’ expectations. Te six Eastern TOWARD THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP 2.0 Partnership countries are still bound to strict EU visa re- An immediate priority for European leaders should be taking A HUNGARIAN PRESS REVIEW gimes. To receive money from Brussels it often takes partner a fresh look at how they deal with their eastern neighborhood, countries months to navigate complex EU procedures, while a region that is key to Europe's prosperity and security. As the the financial amounts put on the table are dwarfed by the ongoing disengagement of the United States has shifted more extent of their financial woes. Furthermore, the signing of responsibility towards the EU, the necessity of doing so has be- Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreements - the EU's come even clearer. Europe could re-launch a stronger Eastern Want to know what's brewing in Hungary? prestigious market access initiative – demands many years Partnership policy by considering the following six proposals. of negotiations, and often this deal ultimately appears too First, the EU should adopt a more pragmatic path and Find summaries of conficting views on topical technically demanding or too politically sensitive for part- abandon the idea of approaching its East with a single set of issues and search back to 2011 for names, http://budapost.eu issues, and institutions. http://budapost.de 84 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 85 VISEGRAD ABROAD RETREAT FROM THE EAST RETREAT FROM THE EAST VISEGRAD ABROAD
WOULD YOU CALL THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP A FAILED PROJECT?
Matthew Bryza is a former United States ambassador to Azerbaijan. He is the director of the International Centre for Defense Studies in Tallinn, Estonia, and a board member of Te Jamestown Foundation based in Washington, D.C.
o way, not at all. It is see that great utility in the use of force a project that is on- still remains, at least in President Putin’s going, and because mind. Tere are all sorts of ways to use of it, we in the Euro- the full toolkit of power for disgraceful Atlantic community deeds. We must recall this now, precisely have arrived at a mo- because of the Eastern Partnership, be- ment of clarity for cause of the way President Putin has
Salvatore di Nolfi/PAP our future thinking. harnessed force to prevent the Eastern Tat brings us back to the core issue, one Partnership from achieving its goal of Nthat we have neglected in the Baltic re- safeguarding Ukraine. I think the EaP is gion – where I spend a great deal of my going to succeed in Georgia and in Mol- INTERVIEW WITH MATTHEW BRYZA ON THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP time. We have forgotten that all the major dova, although he will try to slow things BY WOJCIECH PRZYBYLSKI security challenges related to the integra- down. I don’t think these maneuvers are tion of the Baltic states into Europe have structured in a way that could possibly not been entirely resolved; these nations lead to their full range of objectives. What have formed an alliance and joined the I mean is that to a country like Azerbai- European Union, and they think they can jan, the whole precept of more for more revert to being charming little countries is not of interest, at all. In Azerbaijan they without serious future problems. In the feel that: a) there is nothing to be done wake of the recent events in Ukraine, we about the most important quest, namely
86 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 87 VISEGRAD ABROAD RETREAT FROM THE EAST RETREAT FROM THE EAST VISEGRAD ABROAD Tomasz Tomasz independence for the only country situ- countries. One of them is entirely side- Turkey is different, it is not even in the G ated between Russia and Iran; b) they are tracked (Armenia), one temporarily side- Eastern Partnership; Te vast majority of zell/PAP starting to figure out the world, and they tracked and now partially occupied, but Turks don’t care about being recognized are wealthy and strong – they are not ask- this is going to continue. Ten we have as European. Tey care about not being ing for anything more from the EU, for to Georgia and Moldova, which will keep told that they “don’t have the right to join be treated as a partner, as an equal part- moving forward, and Azerbaijan, which the club,” which is a completely different ner. I think that this view from Azerbaijan really is not that interested. So I don’t see mentality. is a bit disturbing, given that Azerbaijan a brand new idea, but I do see the need is not yet ready for full partnership in the for some hard work, “organic work” as Is it possible to build on the experience EU, which is the whole idea of the Eastern the catch phrase in Poland was during of Eastern Partnership and change or Partnership; simply by virtue of its exist- the 19th century; and maybe we are going modify the European Neighborhood ence, the Eastern Partnership program is to need some thinking on how to sustain Policy? What can Europe learn based catalyzing this debate within Azerbaijan reform and enthusiasm in the countries on this experience with respect to the and helping the process move forward. that have signed their association agree- countries south of Europe? ments. How do we keep the implementa- You mean North Africa? I’ve never What will be the next big step for the tion process moving forward without the thought about that … Generally, and Eastern Partnership? grand idea of actual accession to the EU? maybe I’m exposing my own bias, I have Well, I think that maybe planning for the Tis is going to be a challenge and while never been very enthusiastic about the next big thing is on hold, but implemen- it may not be a huge idea, it does deserve Mediterranean agenda that France has tation is totally on track. I mean, Ukraine some thought. been pushing so hard for. I have just nev- signed the political part of the EU’s As- er been convinced that the populations sociation Agreement here in Brussels, Would you agree that with Maidan, there really want to be European. Tere is and Georgia’s signing (and Moldovan as Ukrainian society proved that it wants again a thin layer of elites who have stud- well, I guess) has been moved from Au- to become a member? ied here and who have sometimes earned gust to June. Tere is a huge push in these I don’t know. I don’t think that member- their fortunes or some money here, but countries to get ready. So the Eastern ship is necessarily the thing which is driv- the vast majority of people there are not Partnership is continuing in its imple- ing the best people at Maidan, but I don’t European; they don’t want to be Europe- mentation phase; obviously, with the loss know. Incidentally, I assume that what is an. So I think there really is limited utility of Armenia in the Eastern Partnership, driving Ukrainians is different from what in the European model for these popula- it is a pared-down project. Tus, build- is driving Turks. What is driving Ukrain- tions. Tey are unique societies – each of ing on one of the most recent issues of ians is the desire to belong to Europe, to them – and they are different. We share the Brussels Forum, we are in a phase of be seen as belonging to Europe, and to universal values, of course; that is a cir- implementation of the Eastern Partner- have the ability to travel to Europe with cular judgment. But they are not looking ship, rather than developing brand-new, respect – without having to go through to the European model, I think they are exciting ideas, and I think that that’s OK. the sometimes humiliating visa process looking for European prosperity such as We must finish the work we have started; and being looked at as unwashed and it was, still is, and will be, and they seek THE END OF THE NEIGHBORHOOD but I understand you are asking about the undesirable; to be fully accepted as Eu- respect in rates that we enjoy in Europe, next project of the Eastern Partnership. ropean. And you can be European and but I also think they want to develop in I don’t think there is a brand-new idea not be in the EU, right? Look at Norway their own way. at this stage. I mean, there were the six – it is totally European and not in the EU. Te EU should stop transposing SPASIMIR DOMARADZKI various European policies hat has happened to the European onto the field of international Neighborhood Policy? It was sup- posed to be a comprehensive, flexi- relations. Tis centralized and ble, and far-reaching idea, embedded stiff management model does not in hope and security, elevating the value of liberal democracy. However, fit the contemporary dynamic of in the context of worrying news from the Eastern and Southern flanks of international relations. the European Union’s borders, and the falling into chaos, inse- Wcurity, and political instability of such a key Eastern neighbor as Ukraine, as well as the political turmoil, chaos, and insecu- rity of the countries of the Middle East, it seems necessary to reflect. Why Europe does not recognize these contemporary threats, instead of existing in a state of self-adoration that constitutes unending lethargy? Why is it that while waves of trouble flood the nearest EU shores, Europe seems unwilling to shape reality according to its own interests?
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It is commonly accepted that the Eastern Partnership is national relations is changeable. Just as it is between people, Te new member states, including Poland, found them- noring the initiative, but because the narcissistic intoxication a natural extension of the European Neighborhood Policy and yesterday’s attraction can become today’s repulsion. selves in extraordinary circumstances that both provided of the EU has subdued the need for a sober analysis of reality therefore relies on the same conceptual presumptions. Te Another of the ENP’s principles – individual approach them with new opportunities but simultaneously limited – because the behavior of potential partners was (and still is) ENP aims “to achieve the closest possible political association – assumes a personalized relationship with each of the EPS’s their tools in international relations to acceptable activities in ignored and the authorities often have nothing in common and the greatest possible degree of economic integration. Tis beneficiaries. Although this seems to be rooted in strong logic, the conformist unification of Europe. Tis explains why it is with the residual values of the ENP. It took bloodshed in Kyiv goal builds on common interests and on values – democracy, it brings the pompous ENP down to the role of mere symbol, turning out to be so difficult to wake up “old” Europe and to to force Europe to see the reality east of its border, but even so the rule of law, respect for human rights, and social cohe- loosely binding the same attitude toward countries as unlike convince it that the crippling menace from the East requires it may be doubtful that Brussels understands it. Furthermore, sion,” [official ENP website]. In other words, the concept that as Georgia and Egypt. Ultimately, it is completely different to urgent action. because of its passive attitude, Brussels has, in practice, tacitly was adopted on the eve of the biggest European enlargement talk about European values with Michail Saakashvili or even On the one hand, the ENP has turned out to be an ema- accepted double standards and trivialized its own values in the assumed the limits of its enlargement capacity, without any Bidzina Ivanishvili, on the one hand, and with former presi- nation of openness and good will; on the other, it has not been face of goods that can be traded. “Release Tymoshenko and we deeper discussion on the future shape of Europe. A policy was dent Morsi, on the other. able to escape the 19th-century Western European inclination will sign the agreement” such a philosophy not only reveals the thereby introduced that de facto introduces a strict selection Furthermore, ENP principles rely on an indisputable con- for colonization, and the post-Cold War temptation for mor- hypocrisy that Moscow has so efficiently been exploiting in its of the countries around the EU. viction of the superiority of the EU over neighboring states, alization. Tese tendencies, together with the EU’s never-end- propaganda recently, but also undermines the fundamentals of The EU clearly distinguishes between the enlarge- which will naturally give their all to receive and implement ing, deep conviction on its own attractiveness, have produced the idea of European integration. Why do these values apply ment and neighborhood policies. The latter presumes that the European values that have led to Western European peace the type of policy that today is too weak, too naïve, and too to some countries and not to others? Some might say that was a country sees its future in a united Europe, and the second, and progress. Bearing in mind the economic crisis, growing idealistic. behind the introduction of the principle of conditionality – despite its liberally polished rhetoric, sentences a country, xenophobia, and nationalism, as only a small part of the “cri- Te Polish-Swedish Eastern Partnership (EaP) initiative more for more. Unfortunately, it is precisely this principle that in the best case, to the role of close satellite. The best exam- sis of Europe,” this presumption of superiority is unfounded. was crafted on the foundation of the EU experiences and pos- caters to politicians such as Viktor Yanukovych – to whom val- ple of this is the ongoing, six-month-long, political drama Furthermore, ten years later, it is apparent that the erosion of sibilities of 2003. In practical terms, its main goal is to promote ues (in the European sense) mean nothing. Tey are not drawn in Ukraine. The lack of integration prospects deprived even the EU does not serve to initiate “external Europeanization,” the expansion of the ENP to the East, not because Western by the prospect of respect for human dignity and freedom, but the most ardent supporters of the Ukrainian quest for the but rather generates growing frustration, partially as a conse- Europe was afraid to face that challenge without Poland ear- by guarantees of personal welfare. Such welfare can, however, West of argument. Their struggle was against the exist- quence of the growing disproportion of welfare between the lier, but because the Western European countries did not con- be achieved without the EU. ing political system, rather than pro-European. The ENP EU and ENP states. sider this part of Europe a natural habitat for their civilizing Remarkably, in facing Putin’s disdain – part and parcel of is not ready to stimulate change because it does not rely Remarkably, Europe seems to be pretending that it does activities. Although the western European states will never his oligarchic approach – for European values, the European on the true transformative force of European integration, not see the growing threats at its borders. It refuses to ac- admit it, they continue to bow to the 19th-century perception states prefer to hide behind the procedure that they them- namely welfare and stability achieved through reliance on knowledge the fact that the European form of integration of Europe crafted in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars selves seem not to believe in. Te argument that Yanukovych liberal values. Instead, it turns out to be a poorly crafted will have to confront a new, Eastern “integration” or, a more in Vienna. In fact, Paris and London understand their former was “a democratically elected president of Ukraine” does not and unskillfully hidden attempt to impose a selected list of appropriately termed, “consolidation” model. Tis Moscow colonies much better than they do the EaP neighbors of the protect European values, just as it did not protect Europe in European legislative restrictions that will unevenly distrib- model is built on the enormous experience that guaranteed EU. Until now they have never had to – that was Russia’s job. 1933. ute the benefits of cooperation between the stronger (EU) the continuity of the Soviet Empire. Its basic components are, Tis is why the Eastern Partnership turned out not to Te words spoken by the Undersecretary for European and poorer (ENP/EaP) states. as usual, disregard for human dignity, disingenuousness, ma- be a visionary project, but a practical extension of the ENP’s Affairs Victoria Nuland about the EU, capture the quintes- nipulation, hypocrisy, provocation and creative interpretation, principles to another group of geographical neighbors. Tese sence of the ENP: artificial, inflexible, and selfish, built on con- and the borrowing of terminology and its manipulative exploi- countries may not have been of interest to western European fidence in its own superiority and attractiveness, and the cause Te ENP’s original sin tation. Ten years ago nobody could have imagined that Europe states, but they were in line with German dreams for econom- of atrophy and torpor instead of dynamism and awareness. would have to participate in a contest with Moscow to prove ic domination, and met Central European expectations for a Te basic principles of the ENP are akin to the EU’s internal Te (un)intended goal of the ENP is the delimitation of the its attractiveness, but is that still so difficult to imagine today? common European policy towards the East. policies rather than the Monroe Doctrine, because they do borders of European integration. Romano Prodi spoke of that Ultimately, the Eastern Partnership has proven to be not take into consideration a realist approach to international in 2002, in referring to the “ring of friends” surrounding the a failure, not because no association agreements have been relations. It is worth asking why the Americans resisted the EU. Tis concept is nothing but a neocolonial approach awk- Neither fish nor fowl signed yet, or because Armenia decided to resign from enhanc- temptation to establish their own Neighborhood Policy? Te wardly taken from the neo-imperial “close abroad” doctrine ing relations with the EU, or because Belarus is consciously ig- prospect of an unquestionably democratic Western hemi- of Moscow (recently replaced by the “brotherhood” concept). As of today, the EU is not a nation-building entity. It is a cen- Even if we accept that such an approach seemed rational from trally steered, evolutionary process of emancipating statehood the perspective of the 2004 and 2007 enlargements, it has be- facing the strong resistance of well-rooted, 19th-century na- come outdated and inapplicable in the contemporary interna- tional myths. On the one hand, these myths harmed Europe in tional reality. Tis is the case not because Europe is hesitant to many ways; on the other, they gave the masses their modernist accept new member states (I am not talking here about states identity. It is precisely this identity that determines a state’s that are altogether the size of an average European capital, and its elite’s behavior, when they reflect on the steps leading because their membership is practically unnoticeable), but to integration. Tis nation-state experience also provides the rather because, in the last decade, many changes have taken toolbox for European quasi-foreign policy. In other words, the place in the interests, aims, rhetoric, threats, and alternatives EU is trying to shape the reality of the 21st century with 19th- for all players in international relations. century tools. One of the main principles of the ENP, conditionality, Another weakness of the ENP is the fact that its basic presumes that EU partners will be able to benefit from this principles were created beyond the experience or identity policy, depending on the power of their own determination. of the new EU member states, which had to adapt to them Te more they are involved in the EU, the more Brussels will without the possibility of modifying the policy with their own give them. However, this logic completely neglects the ines- experience and perception of reality. Tus was a “European capable fact that the most the EU can bestow on such states Oscar Awards Ceremony” created – a gathering of the best is the approval to be loved. It is difficult to have a strong re- and most glamorous states, which the rest may observe from lationship based on such a presumption, especially given that behind the velvet ropes and only under the condition that they as time has proven, the main players’ attractiveness in inter- know how to behave.
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sphere would probably have been at least as enticing as the ENP was. Surprisingly, even the strongest military power recognized that no one template can be used in countries as diverse as Mexico and Cuba. American politicians did not pur- sue such an endeavor because, despite their political differ- ences, they feel responsible for the country. Tis responsibility requires prudence and deliberation. However, in Brussels, such traits are not in play. For whom is the ENP responsi- ble? For the member states? For the interests of some of the member states? For the welfare of Europeans? Or perhaps it is DELUGE OF B OOKS merely an activity designed to ensure the EU’s existence does not go unnoticed? If the main aim of the Eastern trajectory of the ENP was to anchor the post-Soviet European countries in the reality constructed by Brussels, then its implementation has been a complete failure. It is clear that in such case the post-Soviet reality has not been accurately perceived, nor has the role of Moscow or the oligarchic dependencies. It was acknowledged already at the beginning of the Eastern Partnership, albeit in a subdued voice, that financial resources are “modest.” Such diplomatic language simply hides the fact that these resources were miserable. Often, the grant recipients were the NGOs of EU member states that cooperated with the NGOs of EaP KATARÍNA KUCBELOVÁ member states. Undoubtedly, the activity of these organiza- tions will leave a certain mark, but they have no chance of taking on the political-oligarchic system in a meaningful way. he book market has heated we cannot take credit for this – all we do literacy has grown: today, modern tech- While the market is flexible enough What drove the winds of change in Ukraine was not the at- up considerably over the is keep an eye on what is being published. nology enables anyone to shoot a film on to accommodate this development, we tractiveness of the Eastern Partnership, and surely not the past decade. Direct con- At first glance there is no logic to this a mobile phone or an affordable camera, wrestle with the potential ramifications prospect of European integration, but the limits of human tact between readers and state of affairs. Writers have not enjoyed and even schoolchildren can use basic of these changes. We can rest assured tolerance for an inhumane reality. writers, as well as the re- an increase in status in my country’s so- editing software. So how is it that a pub- that they will not be reflected in the qual- Te path toward effective international relations’ leader- duced cost of publishing, cial hierarchy. Te opinion-forming me- lished book still counts for something in ity or quantity of the best literary output. ship by the EU is long. Te nation state’s foreign policy tool- have resulted in a glut af- dia in Slovakia engage in serious debates a small country that boasts hundreds or Nevertheless, rather than consisting sole- box still determines the abilities of the EU around the world. fecting many aspects of the as to whether artists “should be asking even thousands of writers? ly of high fliers, literature is a vast breed- Recent EU activities prove that no significant changes will market. Te Visegrad Four countries are for state handouts.” Te implication is Te ratio of female to male writ- ing ground and a living community. A occur in the mechanisms that shape European international noT longer perpetual moaners, publishing that writers ought to write only if their ers has gone up from one-half to two- huge amount of literary trash with a short activity. Te EU should, therefore, for its own sake, address books is now much easier, the number of books can pay for themselves or if they thirds. Although this may say something shelf life devalues quality and results in the question: has it reached the optimal point in developing its writers continues to grow, and literary life can subsidize their hobby themselves. about popular genres and their readers, new kinds of demands being placed on geopolitical borders, or will it continue to promote its readi- has intensified and speeded up. We seem As a matter of fact, only a tiny percent- it does not really answer every question. writers. Literary life has become more ness for territorial expansion? Tis question must be resolved; to be living in great times, but is this re- age of bestselling authors make a living While the number of female authors has democratic, the importance of interme- only then will relations with other players become more com- ally such a good thing? from their writing. Te electronic media increased fourfold, the number of male diaries such as the media is decreasing, prehensible and predictable, and therefore stronger. Te EU I have devoted much time and ener- are awash with bloggers and Slovakia’s authors has doubled. Nevertheless, aca- and critical discussion carries less and should abandon its own self-admiration and move toward the gy over the past few years to establishing leading daily, SME, is amazed at the enor- demics and literary critics would dismiss less weight. Authors can now reach out conscious pursuit of its appropriate role in the world. a literary award for original Slovak fic- mous number of people willing to write this emphasis on figures. Tey would say to their followers directly and today it is tion, the Anasoft Litera Prize. Right from for free. Tere is a widespread belief that that the number of works of so-called just as absurd to wait for an authority to The author is a lecturer of politics and international relations at Lazarski the outset we decided to stick to the KISS you do not need printed books to reach “high literature” has not increased, and declare someone a writer as it is to recall University in Warsaw. principle (Keep it Simple, Stupid!). Te readers. Newspapers stopped printing lit- some might even insist that the only that only ten years ago, self-promotion basic rule we followed is that every origi- erary supplements long ago and we have good literature was written in the past, al- was regarded as demeaning for an au- nal work of fiction published the previous had to contend with the fact that all the though the number of Slovak writers who thor. Direct contact between readers year, qualifies. We decided to eliminate Slovak television stations devote a total have made an impression on world litera- and writers has changed the world of lit- the nomination process for a reason: of thirty minutes per month to literature ture belies that claim. Of course, the fact erature, the market, writers, and books. Slovakia is a small country, its book mar- altogether. Last year, publishers struggled that books are written purely for enter- Something is happening and we ought to ket is correspondingly small, and so is the to recover from massive losses incurred tainment is not entirely dispiriting. From sit up and take notice. number of books published. In our first due to fraud perpetrated by a distribution the point of view of booksellers, however, year, we had sixty-three books to consid- company, which also affected authors’ the fuzzy line between those books with a The author is a Slovak poet, culture manager, er. In less than ten years, the situation has earnings. lifespan of a popular monthly, on the one and editor of Visegrad Insight. She has written changed radically. Last year, Slovak writ- Opinion polls show that very few hand, and literature whose reader appeal four books of poetry and founded the Anasoft ers produced 194 first editions of novels, people in Slovakia read books and, what lasts for years or decades on the other, litera award. novellas, and short story collections. Te is even worse, further research has indi- favors books with a shorter shelf life. In media rejoice, heaping praise on our liter- cated that the new generation coming of the past decade, books have become life- ary prize. I am sorry to say, however, that age has real difficulty understanding writ- style products and have acquired trophy ten texts. At the same time, audiovisual status.
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WE KNOW T EXT THAT WE READ DUMPING BUT WE DON’T society. Today, when this role has been Text dumping means saturating the taken over by opinion polls, politicians KNOW WHAT no longer feel the need to read. It was market with cheap products. In this case in novels that both Lenin and Masaryk sought the answer to the challenges of the a massive deluge of texts. Te Hungarian
s day, not to mention the fact that a good á y “dömping” is a phonetic version of the t á M i politician was expected to be a writer. In s WE READ llő th zö Vienna, at the turn of the 20 century, English “dumping.” S to: political events were covered by theat- Pho er plays instead of newspaper articles. Admittedly, this kind of literature caused INTERVIEW WITH PETR MINARIK a lot of damage, but there is a proverb GÉZA MORCSÁNYI that sums it up quite neatly: “Nothing BY LILA PROICS ventured, nothing gained.” Pages and pages of future books very year, Professor Jiří as tips on descaling your family’s white are churned out by printing presses, as- Trávníček and his team goods. sembled by binders, and delivered to of academics at the We know that we read but we have bookshops. Te numbers of books and Czech National Library no idea what we read. Te implications the subjects they deal with keep growing. embark on a laudable, of this seemingly banal academic finding We do not know if our neighbors read albeit dubious quest to are much more wide-ranging than may cookery books or F. Scott Fitzgerald, so éza Morcsányi is discover the reading appear at first sight. Of course, we can to be on the safe side we talk to them a translator, uni- In neighboring countries, more books habits of the Czech pop- survive without knowing that this or that about football or politics, things every- versity professor, of literature are being published every ulation. In other words, they aim to find particular writer is especially popular in one is supposed to know about. Lost in dramaturge, and has year. Is that the tendency in Hungary as Eout how many books people have read this or that part of the country, or that the excessive chaos and meaninglessness been director of the well? in any given year. As is customary with readers in this or that region prefer crime of literature, we leave the answers to key Magvető Kiadó pub- We don’t have reliable data about that, studies of this kind, the data are exam- stories to chick lit. What matters is that questions to other professions. We no lishing house since Is text dumping noticeable at Magvető primarily because literature is not a sepa- ined and classified according to age, edu- when most people are not well read and longer learn about our world from stories 1995. Since 1955, Kiadó? rate genre in book statistics. A television cation, region, etc. Predictably, the result no longer share a love of literature, it is and metaphors, we do not listen to dis- Magvető Kiadó has dealt primarily with I consider myself lucky, because since celebrity’s patched-together novel falls is displayed in the form of spreadsheets easy to lose one’s moorings. tinctive voices that exhibit signs of hard Gcontemporary domestic literature, in- I’ve been working just at Magvető, there into the same “fiction” category as, for ex- boasting masses of data. Te problem is All of you will have heard the names thinking. To find out about how we live cluding the works of Imre Kertész, Pé- has always been and still is “text dump- ample, the new translation of Ulysses. In that nobody knows what to do with this of Hašek, Čapek, Hrabal, and Kundera, now and will live in the future, we look ter Esterházy, and Pál Závada, as well as ing.” We receive a huge amount of manu- addition, there has been a recession in the data or, to sound more erudite, how to but they have no successors today. Not to opinion polls that speak a unified lan- other illustrious writers. Additionally, it scripts, poetry, and prose alike. I don’t book market during the past few years in interpret it. that they do not exist in terms of quality guage requiring no interpretation. has also published a number of works in detect any particular change in the com- Hungary (with the exception of children’s Te latest good news is that over of writing; that would be treating these If all this sounds like nostalgia contemporary world literature, among mon standard of incoming manuscripts, books); turnover has decreased and as 80% of adults in the Czech Republic have four gentlemen with excessive rever- for the past glory of the written word, them books by Andrzej Stasiuk, Lud- as there is barely ever anything of inter- likely as not the number of titles has too, read at least one book over the past year. ence. Te problem is that nobody knows so be it. It probably is, to some extent. mila Ulitskaya, Michel Houellebecq, and est, from a publishing standpoint, in the as has the number of copies. With regard However, the hard statistical data does who their successors are. By contrast, in Spreadsheet compilations of opinion Tomas Pynchon. manuscripts that come in “off the street,” to the sector of books we call literature, not tell us what book it was. It might have the 20th century (not to mention the pre- polls are undoubtedly more accurate namely among manuscripts by purely according to my sense the number of been the revised edition of Umberto Eco’s vious century) successive generations of than Dostoevsky, except that they leave In the current critical economic situ- amateur writers. Te vast majority of published books (“titles,” in publishing Te Name of the Rose, or it might just as major writers were renowned, and not no room for interpretation and shared ation, in a weakening educational and these are the product of that basic hu- lingo) has not decreased, but the number easily have been an operating manual only for their literary output; men of let- experience. Data is data: more than 80% deteriorating cultural structure, when man desire to share experience, which of copies and turnover have gone into for a washing machine. In our postmod- ters were also involved outside the liter- of Czechs, Moravians, and Silesians in- according to multiple assessments there has brought about the rampant texts, sharp decline. But I’m almost certain that ern times, when texts are just variations ary realm. disputably read at last one book per year, is ever increasing functional illiteracy and blogs, and comments on the Internet. I no single manuscript with even the most whose meanings are hidden within them, In order to succeed, politicians had so there’s no reason to feel depressed. when users are reading ever shorter texts rather see a decisive change in the fact minimal literary value remains unpub- it is a moot point that, strictly speaking, to be well versed in literature and it was on the Internet, there is a great deal of that – speaking with a certain amount lished. (And this has been the case for a the message contained in an Italian se- works of literature that helped them take The author is the publisher at Větrné mlýny pu- literary – or purportedly literary – text of resignation – slowly, more people are very long time, although it may come to miotician’s work can be just as profound the temperature and gauge the mood of blishing house. being generated. writing than reading – at least literature. an end in the coming decade.)
94 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 95 BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS BOOKS
Do you keep track of the (literary) prod- ALL THAT ucts of other publishers? What kind of directions do you see in publishing If so, what would be the reason for that? strategy? First of all, what is typical of business is Are there more first-time authors? What Of course, naturally I watch my col- GLITTERS IS NOT true of publishing: in fortunate circum- kinds of texts do they typically write? leagues’ work, if only because I love to stances, relatively large profits can be gen- I don’t feel that there are more first-time read, first and foremost. I see that it’s be- erated with relatively small investment. authors, but there aren’t few, that’s for coming more mixed, there is less and less And because it’s becoming increasingly sure. My impression is that they typically room for squeamishness. A large part of GOLD difficult to predict what will be success- write poetry and stories. And of course, the enormous quantity of books of litera- ful. Fortune favors the brave, anyway. Ad- since it has become commonplace in the ture belongs – in the business sense – in ditionally, there is still a (book) industry last two decades in professional circles the “unmarketable” category. So: “Trift, structure in place – no matter how creaky for everyone to harp: readers want sto- thrift, Horatio,” as Hamlet said. – that bombards the audience with newer ries, it’s the end of the postmodern, we and newer mountains of books. To put need novels, and so on, one has the ten- To what extent have e-books become PRZEMYSŁAW WITKOWSKI it mildly, I don’t find it out of the ques- dency to think that young writers are tak- assimilated in Hungary, how do you see tion that in one or two decades books ing that into account. (Except for those it? (and mainly literature) as a mass product who don’t.) Perhaps contributing factors Little: e-books represent a negligible por- f we were to assess the level of support from the Ministry of Culture. erary hierarchy of authors. If we compare may simply lose their audience, and/or include that the canon is crumbling, nice tion of book turnover, so this line of busi- readership in Poland through Forced to regularly take part in competi- the nominees and winners of the main that the aforementioned structure may and slowly, there is more and more of an ness is just swallowing money for now, the prism of the number of lit- tions, they have no guarantee that in the prizes it is easy to see that these types do become unfinanceable. But for now the “eb ura fakó”1 kind of literary, political, and the punitive VAT fee is not helping erary prizes that are awarded next quarter they will continue to be pub- not match in different prizes. Different system that supports and finances writ- and roadside outcry at the canon, the matters. there, it might be concluded lished, and their editions do not exceed literary milieus have become entrenched ing and writers and helps out publishing commercial book industry is bringing In any case, the same tendencies that that we are looking at a reader’s 1,500-2,000 copies. around the various awards, and the win- is still powerful enough (although differ- new or seemingly new genres into fash- prevail on the conventional market also paradise. Large sums of money Local governments have cut spend- ners of these “beauty contests” are easily ently so in western Europe than here). ion, etc. prevail in this tiny area. for the winners of numerous ing on culture, a phenomenon that is par- predictable every year. So it is with the literary awards, multiple categories, lo- ticularly visible in these times of global Nike Prize, the Gdynia Award, Silesius, Translated by Vera Schulmann Ical authorities bidding to grant more economic crisis. “Festivalizations” of cul- and the Mackiewicz Award. Quite of- funds, all this could be seen as indicat- ture by local authorities and the Ministry ten, the nominated books are not in any The author is a Hungarian theater critic and journalist at Tilos Rádió. ing a boom of the book market in Poland. have supplanted permanent, continual, way unique or innovative, but they win Unfortunately, the reality is the opposite. bottom-up support by local cultural the prize because a colleague is due his Both local governments and news- initiatives. New literary prizes are just “share.” Verdicts are often so bizarre that REFERENCES papers compete in the creation of new lit- a symptom of this process. Due to their the poet Konrad Góra and literary critic 1. Translator’s note: A now famous phrase said by Miklós Bercsényi prior to the second dethronement of Habsburg Emperor Josef I in 1707. The literal erary awards. Te Gdynia Literary Prize, great media coverage, these awards give Grzegorz Czekański created a new award, meaning approximates, “The lord of dogs is a dog.” In other words, Josef I is a dog who should rule over other dogs, which the Hungarians are not. Today, the Angelus Central European Prize the impression that sponsoring entities actually an anti-prize: the Pumpkin Prize. it is used to signify the overthrow of the ruling order, or, in this case, the overthrow of the literary canon. in Literature, the Nike Literary Award, are paying special attention to the cul- Te award gala takes place in the middle “Polityka” Passport, the Wroclaw Silesius tural field. In reality, however, this media of the day, just before Christmas, on the Poetry Award, and the Warsaw Literary uproar covers only lower spending and street, and the ceremonial laudation is Award are just a few of the dozens of cutting, and often a complete lack of ide- cooked pumpkin cream soup, which is large and small literary “laurels.” Under as in local cultural policy. It is a great deal awarded to the winners, for those who some, by winning the “book of the year” easier to organize a contest than to create are brave enough to attend. Tis prize is title, aside from prestige, an author may cohesive, reasonable, and long-term cul- awarded for the worst books. Te worst receive up to 150,000 zlotys (35,000 eu- tural strategies for the region. of the best, because the nominees are ros), which, under Polish conditions and Tese awards also constitute a fairly among those nominated for and winners the rates applicable in the Polish literary desperate attempt to make books a mar- of the most prestigious awards of the year. world, is simply a staggering sum. ketable commodity and transform au- Czekański says: “We wanted to create a Unfortunately, this apparent boom thors into intellectual celebrities. Tis is critical evaluation of literary awards and conceals the reality. Books are not a par- impossible in a country where a statisti- ask about their meaning and selection ticularly salable commodity in Poland. cal reader buys half a book a year. Only criteria. And also to fight for readable, Publishing houses stopped issuing in- a few Polish writers are able to live on clear language by literary critics. Because formation on the number of copies their book sales, and this is largely be- their language today is so strongly meta- printed in books long ago, as these num- cause a large part of their income is from phorical and vague that it precludes the bers would make you laugh rather than translation rights and editions on the existence of objective evaluation criteria.” encourage you to purchase the book. western market. Only authors of popular In looking at the contemporary Polish lit- Volumes of poetry are even worse off: romance novels or cookbooks can earn erary scene, it is hard to disagree. the average number of printed copies is decent money from sales in Poland, but 500. In a country of 38 million, that is of course they are never nominated for The author is a poet and writer. He holds a PhD less than a drop in the ocean. Every year literary prizes. in Political Science from University of Wrocław. we encounter the fall of another literary Unfortunately, the multitude of magazine, unable to survive the lack of awards does not translate into a joint lit-
96 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 97 BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS BOOKS KATARZYNA JAN REJŽEK DUDZIC-GRABIŃSKA ABOUT ABOUT A Dog On the Road Devil’s Workshop by Pavel Vilikovský
Pes na cestě (A Dog On the Road) by Pavel Vilikovský, by Jáchym Topol translated as Pes na cestě from Slovak to Czech by Miroslav Zelinský, Větrné mlýny 2013, 212 pp.
Chladnou zemí (Devil’s Workshop) by Jáchym Topol, translated as Warsztat diabła from Czech to Polish by Leszek Engelking, W.A.B., 2013, 192 pp. Větrné mlýny, a publishing house based Tis is roughly the message of this caus- in the Moravian capital of Brno, has done tic work, which openly cites a similarly a great job of keeping up with all that is inclined iconoclast, Tomas Bernhard, as new in contemporary Slovak fiction and its inspiration. Not many contemporary Central Europe- Warsztat diabła (Devil’s Workshop), presenting some of it in Czech transla- Vilikovský is not the only Slovak an authors hold such a good position on the most recent novel by Topol, takes tion as part of a series entitled, tongue-in- writer to hold a merciless mirror up to the Polish publishing market as Jáchym the reader on a bumpy ride through the cheek (and in Slovak), “Česi, čítajte” (“Hey his public. He has found his followers Topol. Tere is no reason that he should life story of a nameless character from Czechs, read!”). Tese days we can only in younger, extraordinarily talented col- not – his work takes readers into sur- Terezín, a city infamous for being a sigh with nostalgia for the days when most leagues, such as Pavol Rankov and Peter realistic landscapes of distorted mirrors ghetto and concentration camp during Czechs had no problem understanding Krištúfek. But unlike them he doesn’t placed between our needs and wants, the Second World War. Tanks to his the language spoken in the smaller “half” need the huge canvas of a novel, popu- between our ever-haunting history and contact list of rich Holocaust survivors, of Czechoslovakia. Tanks to the beloved lated with dozens of characters. His call- shaky future. He has a great deal to say he manages (with some help from his theater nights broadcast from Bratislava ing card is a laconic, almost aphoristic and gives every book lover that pleas- uncle and young volunteers) to organ- on nationwide television every Monday, eloquence, sarcasm, and a detached view, ant shiver that comes from contact with ize a self-sufficient commune, provid- as well as popular bands such as Prúdy, no something that present-day Czech litera- something bigger than simply a story, ing tourists to Terezín with alternative dictionaries were necessary. ture is sorely lacking. But make no mis- something with gruesome and harsh, but leisure activities – still dealing with the A recent offering from this Brno take: Vilikovský is no moralistic preacher. in a way very beautiful, aesthetics. deaths of thousands of people, but in a publisher is the essayistic novella A His narrator’s musings are complement- Te Polish publishing house W.A.B. more fun-fair way. Dog On the Road by Pavel Vilikovský, ed by the story of a brief, wild, and ul- has decided to once again cooperate with Topol pushes many gruesome published in Slovakia three years ago timately doomed love affair between an Leszek Engelking (or perhaps Engelking boundaries in ways that are not at all ob- and published in Czech last autumn in ageing man and Margarethe, a young decided to cooperate with the publishing vious in the Polish perception of the past. Miroslav Zelinský’s translation. Although Austrian woman. house?), literary critic, scholar, essayist, Te grotesquery of Warsztat diabła has the author is now in his seventies, his In the wake of his collection of short poet, writer and, as in this case, transla- the potential to once again open up dis- language is that of an angry young man stories, Čarovný papagáj a iné gýče (Te tor. Engelking mastered the distinctive cussion about the nature of remembrance who doesn’t mince words in discussing Magic Parrot and All Tat Kitsch) for style of Topol’s prose long ago, ensuring and forgetting. And as it often happens, the Slovaks, their rancorous chauvinism which the author won the Anasoft Litera not only faithfulness to the source ma- the slightly different Czech point of view and nationalism, as well as the present- Prize in 2006 and which Kniha Zlín pub- terial, but also linguistic plasticity and could shed light on common history and day status of writers. “It’s quite obvious lished in Czech translation six years ago, freshness. It is thanks to his talent and contemporary issues. that a nation that’s dirty up to its ears Czech readers have now received a fur- hard work that almost everything Topol won’t elect the immaculate Virgin Mary ther piece of mordant writing from one writes is published in Poland. as its leader,” he wrote, almost as if he of Slovakia’s most distinguished men of had foreseen the more worrisome times letters. of Marian Kotleba, the recently elected governor of the Banská Bystrica region. Translated by Julia Sherwood
98 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 99 BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS BOOKS MICHAL JAREŠ IVANA TARANENKOVÁ ABOUT ABOUT You’re Writing a Poem? Te Saturn by Justyna Bargielska by Jacek Dehnel
Piszesz wiersz? (You’re Writing a Poem?) by Justyna Bargielska, Saturn by Jacek Dehnel (Te Saturn), translated from Polish to Czech as Píšeš báseň? by Lucie Zakopalová, Protimluv, 2013, 100 pp. translated from Polish to Slovak as Saturn by Karol Chmel. Kalligram, 2013, 216 pp.
Although Czech readers are familiar Another key feature of Bargielska’s Jacek Dehnel’s novel Saturn was inspired between Francisco and Javier’s uncon- with Justyna Bargielska’s texts from liter- writing is her distinctive acceptance of by art historian Juan Jose Junquera’s hy- nected monologues – gradually joined by ary magazines and anthologies of Polish death as a natural part of life, utterly de- pothesis that the Black Paintings, a series the voice of the grandson who treats his poetry, this is the first book by “one of void of melodrama. A profusion of shad- of frescoes ascribed to Francisco Goya, father with the same indolence – is inter- the most interesting contemporary Pol- ows and fears related to death and dying was in fact painted by his son Javier. Since spersed with chapters that are ekphrases ish poets,” as her translator, Lucie Zako- pass through the pages of this book, like his character remains veiled in mys- of individual paintings in the series. palová, calls her, to appear in the Czech the summation of the memories of grand- tery, Dehnel decided to turn this “blind While the original and other language Republic. Píšeš báseň? (You’re writing a parents, relatives, acquaintances, and spot” of history into a story of a fraught versions of the novel are accompanied by poem?) is a collection of poems and fic- complete strangers who are no longer father-son relationship, characterized reproductions of the Black Paintings, the tion selected from three different col- with us. Tere are also memories of mis- by fundamental alienation. In Dehnel’s Slovak translation features reproductions lections of poetry, as well as Bargielska’s carriages, shadows of lives that are mostly reading, the antagonism is not limited of Goya’s Capriccios, which have nothing first book of prose miniatures, Obsoletky not spoken of, but which she wants to to the specific instance of the powerful, to do with the text. Te picture of Sat- (Stillbirthlets). In her poetry she articu- summon back to life simply because they gargantuan figure of the painter and his urn that appears on the title page of the lates childhood traumas, reviving long- are real. Te dead have a particular place melancholic son, who was doomed to a original is also missing from the Slovak forgotten memories of an almost faded in Justyna Bargielska’s writing. Hers is by life in the shadow of his dominant father. edition. world of pre-adolescent experience. She no means a nostalgic or decadent lyrical Instead, it is presented as an archetype, Although Saturn has been labeled avoids melodrama, relying instead on poetry – she ensures that it is leavened part of “a treadmill, where father poisons historical fiction, history forms only the the seemingly simple language of a disin- by a healthy dose of humor and gentle son, son – grandson, and grandson – abstract backdrop to the central father- terested child narrator who cannot fully sarcasm. She has found the key to ex- great-grandson, each in a different, more son conflict. Te female characters, too, comprehend what is happening around pressing herself in inhabiting the world sophisticated way” (quoted from the are reduced to bland companions to her. Te key word here is “seemingly,” for of childhood memories and an awareness English translation by Antonia Lloyd- their hate-filled husbands. Te author Bargielska demonstrates a virtuosic mas- of a world in which death, faith, longing, Jones, Dedalus Books, 2013), which also uses strikingly sensual language to add tery of this particular type of writing. Her and life can coexist. It is this that makes marked Javier’s relationship with his son authenticity to his story, which comes primary theme is ‘”discovering the world,” Bargielska unique and original. Mariano. Not surprisingly, the book’s title across quite effectively in the Slovak i.e., life and death. It is a kind of under- derives from the most famous painting translation. stated, natural self-discovery, as well as Translated by Julia Sherwood in the cycle: Saturn Devouring His Own By focusing on the antagonistic rela- the discovery of a somewhat concealed, Son. For Javier, the experience of painting tionship between fathers and sons, Dehnel but all the more genuine, unique, and in- is an act of liberation from the suffocat- has created a somewhat less personalized timate religious faith percolating beneath ing influence of his father, a validation of and more abstract parallel to the “books the torrent of words, accompanied by an his human and artistic independence. In of fathers” in contemporary Slovak litera- authentic, childlike sense of wonder. a further tragic twist, it is because of the ture, in particular Peter Macsovsky’s novel son that the paintings become part of the Mykať kostlivcami (Tugging at Skeletons) “great” Goya’s artistic legacy. Rather than and Balla’s novella V mene otca (In the serving merely as an inspiration for the Name of the Father). text, the Black Paintings become an in- tegral part of its structure. Te interplay Translated by Julia Sherwood
100 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 101 BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS BOOKS MAGDALENA MALIŃSKA JUDIT GÖRÖZDI ABOUT ABOUT Te X-s A Simple Story Comma A Hundred Pages by György Spiró – the Fencing Version by Péter Esterházy
Az Ikszek (Te X-s) by György Spiró, translated from Hungarian to Polish as Iksowie Egyszerű történet vessző száz oldal – kardozós változat by Péter Esterházy (A Simple Story Comma A Hundred Pages by Mieczysław Dobrowolny, W.A.B., Warszawa 2013, 704 pp. – the Fencing Version), translated from Hungarian to Slovak as Jednoduchý príbeh čiarka sto strán by Renáta Deáková, Vydavateľstvo: Kalligram, 2013, 100 pp
György Spiró’s monumental novel Te X-s commentary on recent times. Character lem has not. Te exhumation of the pillars Te latest book by the Hungarian post- and what is effect? Te novel presents only appeared in full Polish translation in of Bogusławski is based as much on a real of collective imagination, whilst still lively modernist Péter Esterházy, A Simple several options, simultaneously question- 2013 – thirty-two years after its Hungarian historical figure of Wojciech Bogusławski, and present, never goes unnoticed. Half the Story Comma A Hundred Pages – the ing all of them. Te story has been re-told appearance. Te public debate it stirred, or director of the National Teatre, as on trouble occurs if this exhumation is con- Fencing Version, is his distinctive contri- to the degree that it makes us wonder if rather the visible absence of such, shows Tamás Major, a legendary actor and direc- ducted by a member of the community; he bution to the debate about the possibili- an “objective” narrative of history is pos- how short the shelf life of political litera- tor with whom Spiró worked at the time. may simply be stigmatized as a traitor, plot- ties of the genre of the historical novel at sible at all, and whether any historical ture is. Just as short as the life of former de- As a matter of fact, it was Major who, in ting for the sake of the other country – even the beginning of the third millennium. (and historiographical) narrative might mons, which are reduced to a grainy image 1983, ordered the writing of Az Imposztor worse if the demythologization is done by Te novel is set in the “fencing peri- be just a construct based on some pre- on film. What has happened to Te X-s over (Charlatan) – a drama about Bogusławski, an outsider. In such case, the message may od” of the second half of the 17th century, determined design. the years may serve as an important lesson developing one of the novel’s plot threads. simply not get through. a time of Ottoman rule when Hungary In terms of form, the novel is struc- in the life of contemporary literary works. Polish reception of Te X-s was In telling the story of Te X-s today, was divided into three parts. Te plot tured as several layers of text: the main To call Spiró’s novel merely a politi- marked by exceptional readings that con- one cannot remain unaffected – just as revolves around a meeting between the text is supplemented, corrected, and cal book is obviously to underestimate the taminated the two aforementioned facets, in telling any story of literature, or of the lord of a castle in Upper Hungary and the sometimes even supplanted by footnotes, work, yet it is precisely that which preclud- relegating the work to the category of po- influence of one culture on another. How regent of the Netherlands’ government undersigned with the writer’s initials ed the publication of the novel in Poland litical novel. Te keen interest in the text immense is the role of coincidence, how in Pressburg, who brings the promise and, in the Slovak version of the novel in the 1980s, and which today evidently expressed by “Literary Diary” (“Pamiętnik great the influence of particular individu- of a historical breakthrough and a “new (published in 2013), sometimes also the causes dismay and is diminishing in impor- Literacki”) was undercut by a more vo- als, sometimes important only for an in- future for Hungary.” Tese hopes, how- initials of the translator, Renáta Deáková. tance. Tis fact cannot be ignored, and thus ciferous reading by Jerzy Robert Nowak stant, and how strong the impact of their ever, are dashed as a result of various Te result is a fascinating guessing game what benefits may it actually imply, apart – today a person on the fringe and of mar- arbitrary choices! All right, it happened; activities unleashed and kept in motion as to who is actually telling the story. Tis from the certain market value that stems ginal importance; at the time of the book’s we have Te X-s in Polish. But why only in by human weakness, which make people polyphony acquires a further intertextual from the attractiveness of forbidden fruit? publication, however, he was an influential 2013? And what now? vulnerable to blackmail by those in pow- dimension as quotations from world lit- Firstly, Te X-s is a piece of literary intellectual and a popularizer (how ironic!) Well, nothing. Te transgressive er. Esterházy’s answer to the question of erature are incorporated into the text. fiction about Polish intellectuals from the of Hungarian culture. It was Nowak who power of the text has expired over the years. the kinds of forces that drive history con- Readers will recognize some of them as second half of the 19th century. It is a novel described Te X-s as peevishly anti-Polish Commentary on the 1970s in a state under tradicts the Romantic notion of heroic Slovak poetry or Slovak motifs. Tis layer based on extensive archival research con- (he used the graceful term “Pole-Eaters,” to forceful occupation is valuable, but already self-sacrifice as well as Lukács’s notion of has, however, been entirely contributed ducted by the author, also a translator and be more precise) and as a manifestation of unfamiliar. Te history of Poland at the social ineluctability. Instead, he suggests to by the translator, who has applied the enthusiast of Polish, Czech, and Slovak lit- a “spiteful Jewish attack” on sacred Polish times of the Enlightenment is not a subject that it consists of human pettiness, ma- author’s creative method in the process erature, especially drama; a hard-working values. He, thus, effectively prevented that could easily reach the wider public. A nipulated in the background by the secret of translation. philologist devoted to Central European not only the publication of the book, but great epic turn? Restoration of plots made police acting on the inscrutable whim of Last but not least, it is worth em- cultures. It is therefore a meticulous work all further investigation into Spiró’s liter- with a flourish? We’ve been through this those in power. phasizing some key features of the novel with great historical attention to detail – a ary work in Poland. He even managed to both in our own literature and in transla- Esterházy’s book casts doubt upon that counteract the gravity of the ques- feature hardly to be found in the literary prevent Spiró’s attendance at the Warsaw tions from other languages. What remains, the possibility of creating a narrative out tions it raises: the use of irony, humor, works of national writers, who are not so premiere of Az Imposztor. Te line of cri- therefore, is entertainment (significant! of past events. It does not straightfor- and playfulness. Witty and entertaining, sensitive to our “obvious” cultural markers. tique presented by Nowak is also present We deal here with over 700 pages of great, wardly meet reader expectations of a plot Péter Esterházy’s text is a pleasure to read. Secondly, Te X-s is hyperbole, which today, yet the pluralism of political debate amusing reading!) and educational value (a that provides answers to questions such Trough the personal and historic tri- is quite typical of a historical novel pub- fortunately excludes similarly radical cen- more gripping picture of those times would as: Why did the Pressburg meeting fail? als and tribulations of his characters, the lished in times of censorship. Te work sorship activity. Recent heated debate in be hard to find on the contemporary Polish Who murdered the protagonist and for main message of the novel is: have fun! may therefore be interpreted just as it was Poland about excessive demythologization literary scene). And, of course, the market- what reason? What happened first and in Hungary – as a depiction of Hungarian of the Warsaw Uprising heroes as shown in ing force of forbidden fruit. what happened later, i.e., what is cause Translated by Julia Sherwood society of the 1970s, especially the intel- Robert Gliński’s film, may serve as an ex- lectual elite of the time, and as a result, a ample. Times have changed but the prob- Translated by Joanna Zawada
102 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 103 BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS DELUGE OF BOOKS BOOKS CSABA PLÉH RENÁTA DEÁK ABOUT ABOUT Love Letter in Cuneiform Script Te Healer by Tomáš Zmeškal by Marek Vadas
Milostný dopis klínovým písmem, (Love Letter in Cuneiform Script), Liečiteľ (Te Healer) by Marek Vadas. Translated from Slovak to Hungarian translated from Czech to Hungarian as Az ékírásos szerelmeslevél by Borbála Csoma, Typotex 2013, 340 pp. as A gyógyító by Annamária Pengö-Toth, Magyar Napló 2014, 157 pp.
Tis is a challenging and must-read book in Te stories are complicated by two In February, Slovak writer Marek Vadas’ world is about the everyday; his narrator the style of the best, late 20th-century Czech soft coups. Several highly-detailed, em- novel Te Healer, entitled A gyógyító / marvels at the world and imperceptibly prose writing of Hrabal and Kundera, com- bedded stories are told as dreams, dreams Liečiteľ in Hungarian, was presented at transports the reader to the faraway con- bined with an anxiety-driven, fragmented that last for weeks and have a very subtle the Slovak Institute in Budapest. Te tinent. Te spice of humor and the gro- narrative. Its underlying narrative com- underlying message. Te psychological book was published by Magyar Napló in tesque is not lacking in his simple and bines oppressive Central European history reconstruction is simple. Someone is left a translation by Annamária Pengö-Toth. straightforward sentences. full of precise historical detail, with a good by his wife. Tis adulterous situation is Te original work appeared in 2006, pub- It is no wonder that Te Healer amount of Orwellian newspeak and Kaf- symbolized by the unhappy husband as lished by K. K. Bagala (L.C.A. Publishers won the most prestigious Slovak literary kaesque, circular references to constantly a cloning/spying experiment, in which Group), which publishes exclusively con- award in 2007, the Anasoft Litera main changing laws thrown in. he learns that he never really had a wife; temporary Slovak literature. prize, and that it has appeared in four edi- Te main protagonists’ family life his partner was an assistant in a study in Vadas’ novel was inspired by his tions in Slovak since then. Although it is is broken many times by history. Te in- which Brave New Science was trying to African travels. It was there that he en- not really typical of contemporary adult nocent expert with a young baby is ar- discover the sources of evil by making countered such a widely different life and literature, Vadas’ books are adorned with rested on charges that are never clarified. him, the protagonist, a clone of Hitler. worldviews, which – as he himself put it illustrations. Te illustrations by Mário Despite the rehabilitation exercises to But as it goes in Eastern Europe, even – sensitized him to life’s smallest quivers. Domček – a young Slovak graphic art- which he is subjected, he never regains this experiment was genetically contami- He experienced how African people liv- ist – dapple the African stories with new his innocence, because as the new pow- nated, and he turns out to be the clone ing in poverty are able to find their hap- dimensions. Te book’s Hungarian pub- ers-that-be, bursting with “goodwill” nev- of a Russian soldier carrying the ashes piness in the humble everyday. Tey live lication is a peculiar event, given that er stop telling him, the legal situation for of Hitler. Tis is further complicated by together with their gods, and with the the impact of Slovak literature in the his rehabilitation is constantly changing. perspectives that alternate between ac- souls of their deceased relatives, with Hungarian context is small and its recep- Te Hrabal/Kundera style is ap- tual events and dreams seen through the whom they discuss their daily thoughts tion minimal, and few Hungarian pub- parent on two fronts. Firstly, there is eyes of psychiatrists and the protagonists and from whom they seek advice. Tis lishers take the risk of putting a Slovak the ever-understated description of the themselves, some of them disturbed widely different way of living unfolds for author’s book on the market. changing historical-political background. citizens. the reader in a symbolic world. Childlike In the course of his frequent African Communist cups are mentioned offhand Zmeškal’s book is full of surprises. naiveté and mature wisdom call out as travels, Marek Vadas became adviser to a and Russian tanks move dustily in the Te shifts in perspective lend it a light one in Vadas’ stories. Africa’s faraway Cameroonian king. We hope this volume background, without too much fuss on tone, so that it at times resembles a de- world comes to life through his delightful will have as great a success among the the part of the narrator. On the other tective story. On the other hand, due to stories, and his magical pictures enchant Hungarian readership as its author has hand, the erotic lightness of Hrabal is ap- its clear political Kafkaesque overtones, the reader. Death sits in the corner of had with the king. parent in a combination of authoritarian it can be a difficult book to read, while the pub, a little boy is born from a book. cruelty and anal eroticism. Te reader its Czech freshness gives it a momentum Despite these magical elements, Vadas’ Translated by Vera Schulmann re-experiences the erotic play of Closely that makes it hard to put down. To learn Observed Trains in a much harsher set- about the cuneiform aspect, one has to ting. Eroticism ceases to be light; it takes read it. on a politicized form.
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Computer games are a good way to formulate statements about cooperation and resistance. Tey create behavioral processes – rewarding certain actions and punishing others. And as such, computer games can be seen as a metaphor for power relations.
PIOTR STERCZEWSKI
he work permit is fine. f Screenshot from Te vaccination certificate Papers, Please is valid. Te duration of THE JOYS stay written in the access permit is consistent with what the immigrant says. Height, weight, and the OF OBEDIENCE. physical description from the ID supplement match what I see Tthrough a small window of my booth. I already take out my approval stamp, but with a last glance I spot that the access PAPERS, PLEASE permit has expired two days ago. I put a red DENIED stamp on the passport and give the documents back to the im-
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migrant. She protests, but I already call ten confronts you with extraordinary suggests that while regimes rely on the ative sections) serve as a critique of cer- confiscated from innocent immigrants. the next person and feel a slight sense of situations and offers meaningful choices, cooperation of low- to mid-level officials, tain phenomena in a double sense of the At the border, the roles are inverted: the relief: finding a discrepancy in the papers usually connected with deviation from this group is also subject to oppression word: as close examination and as ethical player’s character, holding clumsily forged means that I didn’t overlook anything, so procedures. Some are rather benign: for (which should be taken into considera- evaluation. Te shared idea is to convey documents, now faces an inspector from I won’t see notification of a mistake and a example, an entrepreneur asks you to tion in discussions of political and moral an intended message not only through another country. Tis scene underlines penalty will not be taken from my already give some business cards to engineers responsibility). educational info and the aesthetics of the expressive power of interactivity – it small wage. passing the border and gives you a small A computer game, as an interactive the game, but also through its mechan- is compelling precisely because of the re- Papers, Please is a computer game reward. Some are connected with regular system, is a good way to formulate state- ics. Games can, as a procedural medium, versal of the power structure in which the about being a border inspector in people asking for help: a couple is fleeing ments on cooperation and resistance, as provide insight into how certain systems player was engaged. Everything depends Arstotzka, a fictional Eastern Bloc coun- another country, but only one of them it has clever ways of making the player work and the specific positions inside on the good will of the official who will try during the Cold War. And while the has the proper papers; someone needs complicit. A game creates behavioral those systems. Papers, Please achieves most probably notice the faulty papers. premise of the game seems absurd at to enter Arstotzka to undergo surgery; a processes – it rewards certain actions this by forcing the player to obey the au- He lets the protagonist through freely. first glance – why would anyone want to young girl asks you to reject the visa of a and punishes others, and as such can be thoritarian logic while allowing them to check documents for fun? – Lucas Pope’s man who will force her into prostitution. seen as a metaphor for power relations navigate their own way through various The author is working on his PhD at the Institute small yet ambitious production not only Tere are also more ethically ambiguous in general (some games – like Portal or options of resistance. of Audiovisual Arts of the Jagiellonian University proves to be surprisingly engaging, but situations: a drug dealer offers you a bribe BioShock – subversively use this as a plot Tere are, however, some aspects in in Cracow, conducting research into the ideo- also manages to convey some complex for letting him through with contraband; device). Papers, Please and its engaging, which Lucas Pope’s game seems to have logical aspect of computer games. ideas about the logic of living in an au- a group of revolutionaries asks you to skillfully designed gameplay rewards the unrealized potential. Te parable-like thoritarian state. poison a regime agent. An arrest warden players’ speed and effectiveness, which in construction of the game world certainly Te game’s minimalistic, pixelated gives you a small bonus for deciding to turn is designed to make them more auto- says something about politics in general, graphics help set the dull, static tone of detain people. All of these choices are far mated and less sensitive to entrants’ indi- but on the other hand it stops short in its this Soviet-like reality; the main screen from obvious – violations of rules result vidual problems. In quickly scanning the opportunity to say something more spe- consists of the inside of the inspector’s in financial penalties, so you cannot help documents for discrepancies under time cific about the modern world. Te Cold booth with a table for examination of everyone. On the other hand, accepting pressure, it is easy to forget the oppres- War era setting is a safe choice as it seems documents and the general view of a grey, bribes may be something that lets your sion in which the player is participating. to belong altogether to the past, although heavily guarded border checkpoint with family survive, and if you are effective Te rules are merciless and sometimes similar – if not even more acute – politi- its ever long queues. Just as a game world enough, it may make you more capable embarrassing: when someone’s gender cal and ethical problems may be observed is sketched with rough lines, the player’s of helping strangers in need. Te choice or weight stated in the documents does on modern borders. Would the protago- character is barely described; at the be- of whether or not to cooperate with the not seem to match what you see, you are nist of Papers, Please have different wor- ginning we know only that he has been mysterious revolutionary group is also supposed to carry out a full-body scan ries and dilemmas at the outer border of drawn in a “work lottery” and moves with difficult – what if their violence gets out (remarkably similar to the infamous ones the European Union, at the West Bank, at his four-member family to a substandard of hand? What if they fail and expose performed in airports in the U.S. until Lampedusa, or at a U.S. airport? Te last flat in the border city. Te daily wage is their contacts? recently). On some days, you automati- example is surely hinted at by the pres- dependent on the number of travelers It is precisely in this range of mean- cally deny entry to people from certain ence of a (anachronistic in the Cold War processed at the checkpoint without ingful choices where Papers, Please has countries or confiscate passports from era) full-body scan, but other than that, mistakes, so the game forces the player the most interesting things to say. Te your fellow citizens. Tere is no sense in there are not many references to contem- to work quickly. Mistakes or intended specific expressive potential of inter- wondering about the rationale of the re- porary issues. Te author, however, has breaches of the rules result in financial activity allows the player to be put in a gime’s decisions or in questioning them; defended his choice in interviews, and it penalties. At the end of each day there is complex, uncomfortable situation; enact- you just obey and focus on not making is worth noting that games openly tack- a screen with a tight family budget: this ing someone’s ethical choices gives one costly mistakes. Te game depicts the ling political topics have generally more is the moment that provides the proper a significantly different feeling than judg- banality of evil rather than the obvious mixed reception and sometimes meet context for everyday actions at a border ing them from a safe, detached position. atrocities of an authoritarian state. distributional obstacles – such were post. Keeping in mind that there are four Lucas Pope’s game succeeds in depicting Papers, Please is not the only game the cases of Endgame: Syria, about the people on the brink of survival living off the diverse forms and extent of negoti- to put the player in an uncomfortable or Syrian civil war, and the satirical Smuggle one wage is bound to make the player ating with an institution. While many morally ambiguous role in order to pro- Truck, alluding to the U.S.-Mexican bor- more thorough in checking papers, but games cast the player as a superhero-like voke reflection on a certain issue. Such a der, which were both rejected in their also more flexible when it comes to ac- figure, for instance a ruthless revolution- premise is often used in so-called serious original form by the App Store due to cepting bribes or engaging in other shady ary or a lone warrior against an oppres- games (designed with purposes beyond their controversial content. In general activities that might bring some extra sive system, the fragile position of border mere entertainment, such as education though, Lucas Pope’s game is successful money. inspector in Papers, Please does not give or persuasion). Sweatshop gives you the both in terms of artistic value and critical And such occasions do happen. the option of unconditional resistance. task of managing a factory in a country acclaim. While the core of the gameplay is based Playing a brave and generous man may be with a cheap workforce, forcing you to Papers, Please has twenty different Celebrating V4+Japan Year on clear, binary situations – the docu- tempting, but opposing the authoritarian maximize effectiveness and exploit work- endings, most of them negative. One of ments are either correct or not – dealing state can also result in a prison sentence ers as much as possible; Unmanned is a the game’s possible outcomes seems to with them becomes increasingly complex or the death of the family. Tis dialectic story about an American military drone resonate particularly well with its tone Cultural exchanges, such as classical because of new regulations introduced of obedience and resistance (and – on operator and an exploration of the para- and topical complexity. It occurs when music concerts, art exhibitions and by the regime with little or no explana- a different level – of egoism and altru- doxical situation of a person with the the player decides to escape the country film screenings to deepen cultural tion. Even if you memorize all the rules ism) is what sets the basic narrative and daily job of killing people from a safe dis- using forged papers. Whether the inspec- understanding. On the 10th anniversary and exceptions and learn to proficiently thematic tension of Papers, Please, and tance; Harpooned! lets the player control tor takes his family with him depends on of V4 relationship with Japan. handle the torrent of IDs, certifications, can also be read as a statement on post- a Japanese whaling vessel. Such games the amount of money left, and the pass- permits, and supplements, the game of- communist memory: the game world (which usually also contain some inform- ports for relatives had to be previously
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in the cultural life of Warsaw doesn’t look Even if we do find some assets, there Vietnamese culture either by limiting it to any better. Te main obstacle is the clo- is the separate question of what to pres- a presentation and promotion of the most THE VIETNAMESE sure and the lack of flow of information ent, and how. Firstly, Vietnamese culture evident symbols and “catchy folklore,” or between both groups, which actually af- is not uniform, it varies – sometimes con- just the opposite, an over-generalization fects all levels of social hierarchy from siderably – by province. If we ask: “Who by lumping sushi, martial arts, and color- the occasional parties organized by the decides which culture do we present?” ful dragons together under the common IN POLAND Vietnam Embassy, which are aimed ex- and the answer is “S/he who wields the label of “Asian culture.” clusively at the Vietnamese community, most power,” then the question of inter- Some respondents point out that to the grassroots and local initiatives that play between the spheres of culture and we are facing this kind of phenomenon
Artur Hojny/F often do not allow Poles to take part for politics arises. Other issues subsequently in the Festival of Five Tastes (Festiwal the simple reason that they are conducted emerge: other questions about the influ- Pięciu Smaków), perhaps best known to only in Vietnamese. Te priority of such ence of this interplay on the validity of the residents of Warsaw. Despite, as we OR Given that Vietnamese UM events is to give the Vietnamese a chance the presented picture and about who is may suppose, the sincere intentions of to spend some time in their own circle. going to identify himself with a culture the organizers, the cultures of particular culture is one of the As one of the participants of the research presented in this way. As one of the re- Asian countries are treated cursorily and admits: “Te truth is that these are usu- spondents put it: what is presented dur- constitute a mix, which as a result teaches richest and most ally parties organized by rich Vietnamese ing these rare events organized by official the audience nothing new. It seems that developed cultures in just for themselves. It means that they Vietnamese institutions is “more a ste- the main focus of potential future artistic have a chance to meet, drink together, reotype about Vietnam than what being initiatives should chiefly be to disprove the world, it may come eat well, and incidentally enjoy the pleas- Vietnamese is really about. And you may lies about national stereotypes and open ant feeling that they are doing something ask each person, I mean such ordinary the Vietnamese culture to Poles in a more as a surprise that such connected with culture, that they are not Vietnamese, who comes to such a fes- effective way. Tis is significant, given the a numerous minority just tradesmen but can also show inter- tival, is this or that really Vietnamese? fact that better knowledge of such a nu- est in higher culture.” Ultimately, if a And he will most likely answer that there merous minority would doubtlessly en- is almost completely small group of Poles appear at a party for is nothing Vietnamese here.” Here, the able the development of an interesting Vietnamese, they are sure to have profes- question arises of the paradoxical stereo- artistic collaboration and would enrich invisible on the Polish sional or personal connection with the typification and oversimplification of the both sides with exceptional works of art artistic and cultural Vietnamese minority, or they are people and experiences. from mixed marriages or close friends of scene. the Vietnamese. Translated by Mateusz Kuryła A large number of the respondents claimed that the problem in organization The author is a Polish art historian, currently of less low-key cultural events that would working on her PhD at École des Hautes Études have a bigger chance of attracting a Polish en Sciences Sociales on the figure of the immi- audience is linked not only with a lack of grant in art. EWELINA CHWIEJDA funds, which is typical not only of the Vietnamese, but also – more interestingly – with a lack of time and people. Another lthough information respondent stressed the fact that current concerning the number Vietnamese immigration is dominated by of people of Vietnam- tradesmen focused chiefly on multiplying
ese descent currently their profit. Tey devote all their time and Micha
ł
R
living in Poland is only consider the Vietnamese nice and friend- energy to this purpose for remittances or ogala/F
estimated and perhaps ly, and the Vietnamese themselves, espe- investment in business development. OR
inaccurate, as many center in Wólka Kosowska near Warsaw cially those who came with the so-called UM do not have regulated and previously the 10th-Anniversary first wave of migration to Poland in the legal status, most researchers agree on Stadium, than with Vietnamese poetry 1960s and 1970s and were educated in aA number close to 30,000 people. After or any other kind of art or tradition from Poland and speak Polish well, show a high immigrants from the geographically and that country. level of cultural and social integration. culturally related Russia and Ukraine, the Given that Vietnamese culture is Te Vietnamese in Warsaw (Wie- Vietnamese minority is the most largest one of the richest and most developed tnamczycy w Warszawie)1 research immigrant community in Poland. How- cultures in the world, partially attribut- project conducted in 2011 and 2012 by ever, despite being a community of such able to its variety and regional nuances, a group of students at the Institute of significant size, they remain a group that it may come as a surprise that such a nu- Sociology of Warsaw University (the au- Poles know relatively little about. Poles merous minority is almost completely in- thor of this text among them), depicts a do not know anything about their culture visible on the Polish artistic and cultural rather pessimistic view of the present-day and their opinions about the Vietnamese scene. What is the reason for this? Te cultural exchange between Poles – in this are mostly based on the widespread stere- question becomes even more interesting case between the inhabitants of Warsaw otype of “small traders,” conjuring an im- when we look at the fact that, in spite of – and the Warsaw Vietnamese communi- REFERENCES age that has more to do with stalls selling the previously mentioned stereotype of ty. Te promotion of Vietnamese culture 1. Chwiejda E., Milczewska K., Waluk M., The Vietnamese in Warsaw. Perception of Vietnamese and cheap, imported clothing in the shopping Vietnamese-as-traders, Poles generally and the participation of the Vietnamese Polish cultures by immigrants in context of their personal biographies, IS UW, Warsaw 2012.
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ON THE CZECH ARTISTIC PUDDLE AND ITS FISH
MAREK SEČKAŘ
n his 2010 book Te $12 Million that are regularly reached at Christie’s or Stuffed Shark, the English au- at Sotheby’s, but the question is whether thor Don Tompson describes there is at least some parallel. After all, it the contemporary art market is said that what happens in the big sea as a crazy world populated by is usually repeated, on a smaller scale, in eccentric billionaires who are the little puddle. So what does the Czech eager to spend huge amounts art world look like? Does it contain any of money, and where objects stuffed sharks? And are there any people of dubious value are often passed off as who are willing to buy them? Ienormously valuable pieces of art. As a typical example, he takes Damien Hirst’s THE STAR? work entitled Te Physical Impossibility With regard to stuffed sharks themselves, of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, a there are none. But there is one stuffed stuffed shark marinated in formaldehyde Saddam Hussein. David Černý’s 2005 which was sold in 2004 to the American work Žralok (Shark) refers to Hirst’s collector Steven Cohen for the above- Physical Impossibility very directly. It suggested sum. Can such a picture also consists of a life-size, laminate figurine of be related to the Czech art market? Of the executed Iraqi dictator presented ex- course, it cannot be expected that Prague actly in the same way as its more famous auction halls will ever resound with prices predecessor. It is also one of the few re-
f Richard Adam Gallery in Brno focuses on Czech contemporary art.
112 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 113 ARTS/LOOKING BACK ENTRY LEVEL ENTRY LEVEL ARTS/LOOKING BACK Zdenek Matousek/PAP cent Czech works that created some con- THE INDEPENDENT ARTIST? troversy on the international scale when In speaking about contemporary forms it was banned from an art festival held in of live art, namely conceptualism, it is the Belgian town of Middelkerke in 2006. sometimes suggested that it emerged as David Černý (1967) is a conspicu- a protest against the commodification of ous personality. In fact, he is currently traditional art forms, as a reaction to the the only Czech artist who bears some fact that irrespective of their real mean- comparison to such trademark names as ing, art works often end up in the pos- Jeff Koons or Tracey Emin. He became session of rich people who use them to widely known at the very beginning of enhance their social prestige. If so, such his career when he came up with a rather a reaction is mostly unsuccessful. Even cheeky stunt: he repainted the famous works that can hardly be considered nice Tank No 23, purportedly the first Soviet and that are not original in the least end vehicle to enter Prague during the libera- up in sumptuous private collections just tion of 1945, and soon after turned into a as easily as impressionist paintings and monument, pink. Te early 1990s were an works by old masters. Absolutely every- auspicious time for defacing Soviet me- thing is marketable, only depending on morials, but Černý’s act still led to strong how it is presented and how far the artist reactions. Te artist was arrested and the is ready to go. tank itself was repainted its original color. Tis, however, is not the only pos- Tis, however, provoked the reaction of sible approach. Another way of doing several MPs who put on dungarees and things can be exemplified by Kateřina repainted the tank pink once again. In Šedá (1977), a Brno-based conceptual the end, Černý was released and the tank, artist who was awarded the Jindřich pink ever since, was turned into a work of Chalupecký Prize (a prestigious award art and is now on display at the Military promoting young Czech artists) in 2005 Technical Museum in Lešany. for her project Je to jedno (It Doesn’t Černý has since become a success- Matter), in which she let her aging ful artist able to benefit from his rebel- grandmother make drawings of objects lious fame while remaining on relatively sold by the hardware store in which she good terms with the authorities. In fact, had worked all her life. Since that time, he is very successful at obtaining offi- Šedá has gradually built her reputation cial commissions. He was asked by the by further, expanding works. In 2008, government to create a work that would she participated in the Berlin Biennale represent the country in Brussels dur- with the project Furt dokola (Over and ing its EU presidency in 2009. Te very Over), in which she took several of her well-known sculpture Entropa stirred up neighbors to Berlin and let them climb controversies around Europe, but when over makeshift fences, thus symbolizing we look at the work more closely, we can the overcoming of barriers and the rekin- see how well it illustrates Černy’s abil- dling of neighborhood spirit in her native ity to prosper on the boundary between district of Brno-Líšeň. One could shrug conformity and provocation. After pro- over such an idea, but given the fact that tracted rigmaroles, Entropa ended up at Šedá was really able to persuade several the Techmania Gallery in Plzeň, which is dozens of villagers to do such things ac- said to have paid about ten million Czech cording to her instructions, it must be crowns for it. Another Černý work, the admitted that the project’s declared in- famous London Booster (a huge model of tention (overcoming barriers between a double decker bus provided with me- people) was definitely fulfilled, at the f David Černý, Žralok (Shark) chanical arms for doing push-ups, with very least. Šedá is currently involved in that remain. Kateřina Šedá says that such the project at all. In the end, a compro- work of art for me,” she says. “My ambi- which the Czech Republic presented it- several other projects, such as one called things don’t express the meaning of her mise was reached: three reproductions tion isn’t to produce souvenirs in bulk. I self at the Summer Olympics in London Bedřichovice nad Temží (Bedřichovice work, and if they do, then they constitute were created, they sold well, and the art- want my projects to be perpetual, to have in 2012), was finally bought by the busi- upon Tames), which consists of transfer- a meaningful body that she is unwilling ist kept the original. a life of their own. As far as my career is nessman and politician Andrej Babiš and ring the cultural center of a Moravian vil- to tear apart. Such was the case of her It In other cases, however, coopera- concerned, my goal is to change the para- now decorates a square in front of the lage with all its activities first to the Tate Doesn’t Matter project, which comprised tion does not work so smoothly. Once, digm, to find a new art form.” According headquarters of his company Agrofert. It Modern in London and subsequently to about seven hundred drawings and three Soffiantino told Šedá that he had sold to Šedá, gallerists and art-dealers decide must be said, however, that according to the Moravian Gallery in Brno. thousand questionnaires. Šedá’s Italian twenty of her “blue drawings.” She ob- what is good and what is not, but this is accessible information, this installation However, such things are hardly col- gallerist Franco Soffiantino assessed the jected that she had never done anything often misleading. It is actually very easy doesn’t correspond to the artist’s original lectible. Or they are, but then it is not real price of the whole at around two million of the kind. It doesn’t matter, he said, you for an artist to guess what gallerists are intentions. Art works always take on a life collecting; rather than that, it is gleaning, Czech crowns and planned to sell it piece will if you want to. Tis is an approach looking for and what may be easily sell- of their own. amassing any leftovers, such as photo- by piece. Šedá, however, didn’t consent to Šedá would never concede to. “I am inter- able, but the true meaning of art consists graphs, drafts, and other documentation this; in fact, she didn’t want to part from ested in the event itself; the event is the of seeking new ways.
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Such an approach could be used as one million crowns, there was only one make a breakthrough, after all, if there or influential personalities. One such ex- a successful example of the above-men- painting which could be considered, with is no gallery to exhibit their works? It is ample is definitely Richard Adam (1953), MOST EXPENSIVE CZECH PICTURES tioned protest against commodification. a pinch of salt, a work of contemporary true that high quality galleries have been formerly an employee of the Czech In- But Kateřina Šedá rather disagrees: “If art: a 1990 untitled canvas by Zdeněk disappearing in the Czech Republic for surance Company, whose name became 57,422,500 CROWNS there is a protest, then perhaps it con- Sýkora (1920-2012) which sold for nearly several years and there are now very few widely known approximately ten years Te most expensive Czech painting ever sists of the fact that I don’t heed the rules two million crowns. Of course, works of those that focus exclusively on con- ago. Adam has collected the works of auctioned was Tvar modré (Shape of Blue), a 1913 work of abstract Cubism by of the market. But I don’t reject them: I by younger, truly contemporary authors temporary authors. Among the galleries contemporary painters since his youth; František Kupka. In 2012, it sold, purportedly to Russia, for 57,422,500 crowns simply don’t care about them.” Still, Šedá also sell, sometimes, but they usually picked by Art+ as the most successful in he started his activities as a mere enthu- 18,490,000 CROWNS Te most expensive Czech painting auctioned has to pay a price for this independent bring much lower prices. Furthermore, 2013, none can be classified as belonging siast. He simply liked paintings, so he in 2013 was Zátiší (Still Life, 1909) by Bohumil Kubišta; it sold for 18,490,000 stance. In the Czech Republic, she has auction lists contain absolutely no works to this category. bought them as long as he could afford it. crowns. been bought by no more than a single of conceptual art – which, by the way, Robert Hedervári also says that the Soon, canvases were piling up in his small collector. It is better abroad, where she contrasts with the list of nominees of the collector as such can be considered an en- Prague studio, so much so that it became 6,000,000 CROWNS Te most expensive Czech painting by a post- is represented in several prestigious gal- above-mentioned Jindřich Chalupecký dangered species in the Czech Republic. nearly uninhabitable. At that time, hardly war artist was also auctioned in 2013; it was Dívka se švihadlem (Girl with a leries and private collections. But her in- Prize, where conceptualists prevail by a Art collecting is now generally out of anybody knew of him, but he became a Skipping Rope, 1957) by Mikuláš Medek, which reached 6,000,000 crowns come from sales cannot cover even the huge margin. fashion among the middle class and big celebrity in artistic circles. Te thing was One euro is approximately 27 Czech crowns. cost of her often expensive projects. She Robert Hedervári, the owner of companies are not very interested in ac- that in the 1990s, the interest in contem- must apply for grants and donations and, the Prague-based gallery Vltavín, also quisitions either. A few individuals can porary art was in steep decline. Tis was despite her undisputable fame, she defi- explains this fact with Czech collectors’ be found among the richest people – one perhaps because one whole generation of nitely cannot be considered rich. conservativeness. Te Czech art market such example is Vladimír Železný, once collectors was taking its leave, or simply is still largely dominated by realistic land- the director of the first private Czech TV because of the political and economic SELLERS AND BUYERS scape paintings, such as works by Julius channel Nova and later a rather peculiar shift taking place at the time, but the fact gallery takes on the role of institutions rent paid to the city reaches 1,800,000 Perhaps there is not always full agree- Mařák and his disciples, i.e., pictures cre- politician who succeeded in amassing is that suddenly nobody was buying con- such as the National Gallery in Prague, crowns per year. Te gallery as such is a ment between Kateřina Šedá and her ated by the end of the 19th century which a very impressive collection of Czech temporary painters. Richard Adam was which have this activity in their job de- non-profit venture. It does not do trade Italian gallerist, but Franco Soffiantino is could be considered “behind the times” paintings of the 1960s. Tis collection, left alone on the market and it logically scription and which receive money for with paintings; it earns some money by still a man who could hardly find a coun- even at the time of their origin. Tese are however, can be hardly considered auda- took control of it. At the same time, he it from the state budget. “Contemporary renting its space for purposes that have terpart on the Czech art scene. Not only bestsellers and the safest investments. cious or innovative. It only contains time- was not only interested in owning paint- art should be first collected and mapped often little to do with the arts, but this does he believe in conceptual art and its Another secure investment are Czech proven names; there is a lot of money in ings; on the contrary, he socialized with by the National Gallery,” Richard Adam is only enough to cover about two-thirds marketability, he also trusts young, start- modern style painters of the inter-war it, but the owner’s taste or ambition is artists, supported them financially, and argues, “but in the last fifteen years they of its entire expenses. Te rest of the ing artists and is willing to invest in them. period, but the closer we get to the pre- hardly detectable. In his prime, Železný even paid their tabs in pubs. In return, have bought practically nothing. All the money must be gained from sponsors Tis definitely isn’t the norm in the Czech sent, the more investors seem to lose was a strong player on the Czech political he could have whatever he chose and was important things are here.” and the gallery’s operation is still sup- Republic. And it isn’t only the fact that art their guts. Moreover, it is also obvious scene, although he definitely has not been usually offered friendly prices. Step by On the other hand, the collection ported by Miroslav Lekeš’ entrepreneur- will never make a lot of money in such a that in the sphere of contemporary art, able to stir up the art world. step, he built a collection that was unpar- has retained its “private” character, at ial activities. small country. Te main problem seems the established art market mechanisms alleled throughout the country. least to a degree. While Adam aims to It is paradoxical that in a country to be that the Czech art market is con- cease to work. Potential buyers often THE COLLECTOR? Adam made good use of his collect- amass an objective and comprehensive whose art market can be considered very servative. According to Ročenka Art+, a choose a painting at an exhibition and So who is the Czech collector? A person ing in 2004 when he was approached by selection, he also relies on his personal conservative, the best and most compre- publication released as a yearly supple- then buy it directly from the author, thus who is not only rich but also in love with the Brno-based businessman Miroslav taste and is reluctant to include works hensive picture of its contemporary art ment to the magazine Art & Antiques, skipping the gallery as an intermediary. originality and artistic independence? Lekeš, who invited him to participate in by authors he dislikes, although he ac- life is provided by a private collection. which sums up all the main events on the Hedervári says that by conceding to this To put it briefly, the Czech Republic has a joint venture. Together, they founded a knowledges their importance. Terefore, It is also paradoxical that in order to see Czech art market, among the 157 items practice, artists are actually sawing off the no Charles Saatchi of its own. But this private gallery focused on contemporary combined with the collection’s renown, this collection, you must avoid the coun- auctioned in 2013 whose price exceeded branch they are sitting on: how will they doesn’t mean that there are no interesting art. Tey agreed that the collection’s core Richard Adam’s personal likes acquire a try’s capital, Prague, and go straight to its would consist of paintings in Adam’s pos- broader meaning and may play an im- rather provincial “second city” of Brno. session, but that it would keep expand- portant role in how future generations In which case you must skip the National Seize the opportunity and contribute to Visegrad Insight ing with the final objective of providing will one day perceive our period’s artistic Gallery and go to a former factory hall. STUDENT Impress us with your ideas and contribute to the next issue of Visegrad Insight. a comprehensive picture of the Czech image. But maybe all this only proves the fact art of the last three decades. For this It is somewhat curious that the col- that art can live and thrive regardless of READERS! purpose, a renovated factory hall, a nice lection ended up in Brno, a city whose cash flow, state-run institutions, and so- ANSWER THE QUESTION: example of 19th-century industrial archi- representatives are not very famous for cial mechanisms. Which is good. Indeed, GET YOUR TEXT tecture, was rented from the city of Brno their love of art. For that matter, the re- maybe there are no sharks, live or stuffed, What are the challenges for Central Europe? and Richard Adam became the gallery’s lationship between the gallery and the in the Czech artistic puddle, but there are PUBLISHED! artistic director. municipality is sometimes tense. Last still many interesting fish to watch. We are looking for analyses or essays up to 15,000 characters, Adam says that the collection he year, the gallery was nearly ousted from written in English by MA or PhD students, or recent graduates The author is a Czech translator and writer. from around the world. operates is still in progress. Te 1990s its building when it fell behind in its rent are practically complete and the 2000s and the city terminated its contract. Te COMPETITION Entries will be assessed by the Visegrad Insight editorial board. are also about 75% finished. Now, he is conflict was only resolved when the gal- EUR 200 FOR focusing on the youngest generation, lery received the support of the country’s The prize for the best contribution will be awarded paid publication in the next issue the artists who started working in 2010. whole cultural community and the mu- of Visegrad Insight, out in the fall of 2014. The two runners-up will be awarded THE BEST publication on the Visegrad Insight website. Te collection now comprises several nicipality was forced to give in. Currently, hundreds of paintings and is still grow- the situation seems stable, but it still can- ARTICLE Please send us your contribution, a brief CV, and contact information to ing. Given its size and fame, one may not be excluded that the gallery will have [email protected] by 1 September 2014. ask whether the collection may still be to seek new shelter elsewhere. In fact, its considered truly “private.” In fact, the operation costs are considerable: just the
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JÁNOS HÁY
hen I was grow- their ideas. Te pictures of us that ap- a powerful empire. Tey’d promised to ing up, the peared in the foreign press showed peo- come and help us: Don’t give up, Hun- portal of the ple just as young as those on the streets of garian brethren! But they didn’t come, legendary West Paris, London, and New York, but the at- and my mother told me about the piles was closed to tentive observer, looking past the smug- of young Hungarian bodies shot down us. Some light gled jeans, could immediately detect the by the soldiers of that powerful em- managed to fil- meagerness and the fear. A shoddy pair pire, about the steams of blood flowing ter through the of shoes or the shabby material of a shirt through the streets of Budapest. I dreamt keyhole, and we stood there hoping that revealed the quality of our attire. A few about it often; I could see the streams of Wa glimmer would reach us, too. Of course tiny, hardly noticeable quirks in our faces blood, and I walked the boulevards and those standing closer to the keyhole got betrayed everyone’s subservience to the Rákóczy Avenue with dread whenever we more, sometimes even in the form of a power-wielding elite. Being able to shout went shopping in the capital. But paren- western car in place of those dilapidated at concerts, carouse at school gatherings, tal disapproval notwithstanding, we re- socialist vehicles, while those standing sport long hair and jeans, all that was mained in the vicinity of the light source. farther away contented themselves with possible only through the largess of the One of these days the portal will open, The portals of the legendary West have opened wide, and cans of beer or packs of brand-name cig- elite. And if the elite happened to be in even if just a crack, we said to our bud- arettes. Tese items were safeguarded, a foul mood, reason enough was found dies, and we’ll slip out into that legendary for a moment we thought we had stepped into the light. put on display, shown to friends. Tese to render your life untenable, to ban you world. “Like hell you will!” they’d come weren’t objects; they were symbols, tiny from school, from the capital, from your back at us. Tey didn’t believe we’d ever But we soon found out that although we’d like to have emblems of freedom. We were happy place of work, or to revoke your passport. get across. Tose times were so marked everything they have in the West, we just can’t grasp it. whenever we somehow came into pos- by disbelief that people not only didn’t session of a shopping bag emblazoned believe in God and the state, they didn’t with a western ad, with an English-lan- Slipping through believe in the possibility that one of their guage inscription; we spent fortunes buy- friends could ever get through the West’s ing jeans smuggled into the country; we the cracks portal. But eventually, once every three laid out exorbitant sums in doorways for years, an ever-so-slight opening did be- records on which it wasn’t the greats of We sought out the light filtering through come available to obedient citizens, and rock-n-roll we heard, but the sounds of that keyhole, but our parents didn’t ap- we took advantage of that opportunity flower power, freedom, and happiness. preciate our pursuit. Tey resented those and slipped through the crack so that, We were young and wanted to look like westerners beyond the portal, those who, with a bit of money and the travel dis- our western counterparts, we wanted our parents told us, had made a promise counts available to university students, to listen to music like theirs, to applaud when our homeland took up arms against we could enter that legendary world.
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It was as if we’d suddenly stepped thoroughly pruned and chastened by the carriers. But he didn’t find them and, the one, so is the other; as is the quality tancy is identical to that of their most ad- not serve as a bridge, because there is no out of a black-and-white film. For no new regime. Uncle Stevie and Aunt Ma- cursing, he slammed the passports on the of work, so is the quality of human rela- vanced western counterparts, the village bridge. Tere is a huge chasm whose edge fathomable reason, the communists re- rie were needed now, as was Uncle Alex’s seat. We’d arrived. tions. Tis is precisely the level at which population, from the point of view of life can be approached only at great peril, and garded color as an enemy of the system. son. Te makeup and alignment of the Our homeland, I later told my bud- the community operates. Industrial crops expectancy and life prospects, education crossing it would be a Herculean feat. It Gray and faded sameness governed the elite changed. Yet one who got outside dies, will never cross its own border at don’t require a culture of work, nor do and healthcare, lives in the third world. is virtually impossible to rise up out of environment. Te farther east you ven- the portal didn’t see these values, albeit Hegyeshalom, because that’s forever be- they require workers. As a result, the Teir counterparts cannot be found in the lower level of Hungarian society. Be- tured, the paler everything became. And he was a product of its positive discrimi- yond our capabilities. We’d have to step culture of everyday life in the villages has the legendary West, but in the not-at-all ing bound to the soil and social class has along with the colors, the composition nation, he just marveled at the lights of over our own shadow, or pull ourselves become more and more paltry, and it’s no legendary East, in Ukraine, Belarus, and created a kind of modern caste system: of the air also changed. I hailed from a the legendary West, at its wealth, and at out of somewhere by our own hair, in longer accurate to refer to these places farther, in Asian realms. a shrewd pseudo-democratic framework country in which there was the smell of the fact that the exercise of power was other words it’s a physical impossibility, as communities. Tere are no common that dazzles you with the illusion that poor-quality toiletry products, the odor not part of everyday life, that a sales clerk because our homeland is not the realm labor that formerly brought together with your choices you can modify your of burnt grease emanating from restau- or a policeman didn’t find it necessary to of Baron Münchhausen. And then, bada- relatives and neighbors, and no system A tale own and the country’s destiny. You can’t. rants, and the stench of toilets combined demonstrate that it’s up to him whether bing bada-boom, nobody reckoned with of civic connectedness has evolved. Te Not a single participant in the regime with auto exhaust and the unregulated you get served or penalized. Te West it, not even the best informed party hacks, deterioration is exacerbated by the lack of two Hungarys change did anything to maintain social discharge of industrial smoke pouring appeared to be a liberated community, not even the teacher of the “Foundations of money that extends to everything. mobility through positive discrimination. out of factory chimneys. Compared to building upon cooperation, where peo- of our Worldview” course, although she I’m watching the procession on Corpus Tese losers also take part in that dem- Where you have fallen, there you will re- the world beyond the portal, the coun- ple could walk the streets with heads held really did know everything, our little Christi; my relatives are there, my former ocratic game that allows parties and main: this became the guiding principle, try I’d come from was foul smelling and high, not shuffling along while staring at country drifted over into the world of de- acquaintances, classmates, and school- individual representatives to get into whether it was spoken or not. Today, grimy, bad music surged from the radio, the tips of their shoes, like their eastern mocracy, so that, within a framework es- mates. On this day they wanted to look parliament. Every four years, for a quick at leading universities, the number of and revolutionary marches at celebra- neighbors. Here, I remark to my travel tablished through free elections, it could their best. Tey’re dressed in cheap Chi- month, they too pop into the heads of those who came from below can’t even tory gatherings stirred crowds who were partner, it’s not only not forbidden to reintroduce private property as the basis nese under- and outerwear, their faces a political elite that will do anything for be counted. Teir experience has no way in no mood to be stirred. Te buildings step onto the grass, it’s downright com- of a capitalist economy. Tere’s no other are drawn; they’ve been marking time for power. Ten this elite, like a drinker who of entering the minds of the social elite. were run down, the materials execrable, pulsory. It’s good to step on grass, not to possibility, they said, we have to either ac- years in this paralyzing absence of pros- can’t recall the previous night, forgets And though only members of the elite the apartments and shops meager. Te mention that smoking grass is also pos- cept this, or keep what was, but of course pects. And there is no way out. What they about them for another four years, while are in a position to effect change, we can people who lived in these nasty houses, sible. I was in a shop in Paris with a friend “what was” has collapsed. see is that their children are stuck in this preaching about the political bifurcation expect no solidarity from them, because in that nasty smell, in that colorlessness, from there, who earlier had been a friend (…) condition as well, that nothing will ever of Hungarian society, because it’s in the they don’t even know what the issue is. were not nasty – they were anguished; from here, but he left this slave country change, for everything has turned away interest of the elite to maintain the ide- No one with origins at the lower end of they were people who didn’t think they behind and became a free person. His from them: luck, the leaders they chose, ological tension, as well as to offer the society lives where the elite lives; the two had anything coming to them, who were coat swept a bottle of wine off the shelf Always maybe even God himself. mediocrities the possibility of securing strata never interact. To a member of the glad they got what they got. True, they onto the floor: What now? Nothing, he I ask a long-time friend where so- well-paying jobs in return for party loyal- elite, Hungary extends only as far as the muttered about this and that, the intel- said, as he turned away and moved on. the same crop and-so is. “Haven’t you heard?” he says, ty. In truth, it’s economic bifurcation that border of his district and social group. lectuals craved more rights, the simpler We were on our way home. “You can “he died last month,” and he went on to every responsible thinker ought to have Te greatest losers are the Roma. folk wanted better pay, but basically they feel we’ve crossed the border,” I said, as if Te disintegration of the provincial list all the others close to me in age, who, been talking about since the first years Tey live mostly in the poorest regions, accepted things as they were. Tey lived they’d changed the air in the compartment industry and agriculture completely in their forties, after a few years of strug- that followed the change in regime. In where there’s hardly any need even for within a state-guaranteed security, in a at the border. Te old air was back. We’d undermined the villages, the communi- gle followed by a fatal illness, ended up reality there are two Hungary’s: the mis- trained labor, much less for untrained. world of modest but secure betterment, almost forgotten about it in the course of ties that even in the worst of years were in the graveyard. Only on paper does this erable, impoverished Hungary, despised Te unscrupulous powers-that-be use where the farthest possible reaches of a month, that thick, oily, train-smell. As a able to preserve something of the by- village population live in Europe. While by the well-off as an Asian horde, and the them as political pawns, either in the the population could fill their stomachs. kind of added bonus to the domestic air, gone world of folk tales, of the farmer’s the living standards of the inhabitants of arrogant elite Hungary that lives in its guise of a national threat or as victims of Tey still remembered the times between we were treated to the domestic border inherent strength, the joy of knowing Budapest’s elite districts are at the level of green-belt reservations; between the two majority racism. Each tack finds partners the two world wars when they tramped guard. No easy-going smile, as if to say, that every year – at times less, at times Europe’s upper crust, and their life expec- is the ever-shrinking middle, which can- among the corrupt leaders of the Gypsies, about with empty stomachs looking for I’m sure you had a good time, but I bet more – something would come of what work so as to be able to bring something you could hardly wait to come back home. they had planted in the ground. Agricul- home, some money or food. Tey hated Without a word he set upon our things tural diversity, the greatest variegation GLOBSEC is the leading annual foreign policy GLOBSEC 2014 will focus on several pivotal that world of snobbery, in which the most and undid them, leaving little doubt that of plant husbandry, was replaced by the and security forum in the region of Central issues, including: inconsequential civil servant could slap a he was searching for something. Written most primitive sort of plant cultivation. Europe and one of the world’s major transat- day laborer, a field hand, a working stiff, on his face was a question he eventually Along the way to my native village, I take lantic conferences. Crimea Crisis across the face, the world in which the asked out loud: “Where is it?” “What?” note of the crops. Where earlier orchards upper crust was entitled to everything, we asked as he tore into the tent flaps, bloomed – cherry, apple, strawberry, the Since 2005, GLOBSEC has been a prestigious and the rest to practically nothing. the sleeping bag, our dirty underwear, plantings of the dreams of my father, who and vibrant platform for top politicians, diplo- Competitiveness but he didn’t find the books about the was head of the local cooperative – now mats, business leaders, influential experts and miserable fate of our country that we’d we see hectare after hectare of canola academics to discuss their ideas and shape Te lights of the bought in Paris and left with an acquaint- and sunflower, or wheat if by chance the foreign and security policies. 14 - 16 May 2014 | Bratislava ance in Vienna, because they didn’t fit in ground hasn’t been left fallow. Primitive our backpacks. Te authorities were so industrial crops, all you need for them is Confirmed guests at GLOBSEC 2014 include: legendary West H.E. Robert Fico Michael Chertoff John Allen vigilant that they know who shops at that a seeding machine, a threshing machine, H.E. Viktor Orbán former U.S. Secretary of Western population had food on the little Hungarian-language bookstore, and and a tractor driver. Te technology of Homeland Security table, and the country – albeit by obey- they were anticipating our arrival in order agricultural production has replaced ing strict orders – set out on the path of to confiscate the books lest we poison the crop rotation. We sow, we reap, always modernization. Te new economy was Hungarian population, to expel the book the same crop. Te culture of work and in need of brainpower; moreover, the bearers from university, fire them from the culture of everyday life are siblings, pre-war governing stratum had been their jobs, and isolate them as contagion as alike as two eggs, almost twins. As is For more information, please contact: [email protected] 120 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 121
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but no government has taken up the me- than the lives of hundreds of thousands tell Hungarians what is expected of them? cious not only of the government and Te portals of the legendary West ticulous work needed by this stratum to do. Never before has the leading intelli- A kind of unipolar identity has replaced New values the political elite, our neighbor is suspi- have opened wide, and for a moment we slowly but surely extricate itself from the gentsia ever had such scanty knowledge our multifarious self-definition, which cious to us, as is our fellow worker; once thought we had stepped into the light. ranks of the prospectless through respon- of the country whose leadership it is re- took into account familial, professional, in a new world suspicion takes hold, it seems to pervade We soon found out that although we’d sive education and strategies for rising sponsible for. But this lack of knowledge sexual, and, for that matter, biological everything. Independent opinion and like to have everything the denizens of out of profound poverty. I’m marching extends beyond the country, to the sur- connections. Te reason we’re failing in Te portal wings of the West have been conjecture, if there is any, switches own- the West have, we just can’t grasp it. We with the Gypsies in Miskolc. Tey’ve rounding world as well. We have no idea our careers, in our family life, in our re- thrown wide open. We could mount our ers in doorways, the way those western thought we would have it coming to us assembled to protest against racism, al- of how the present balance of forces in lationships, is that the enemy is making horses and launch another campaign of phonograph records once did. Te sanc- for free or as a gift; after all, we deserve though the crowd is chanting the old the world operates, or of our place in it. success impossible. Tis unipolar identity plunder, or just ride out for a few years to tity of ownership is pervading the view it. We all wanted to live like the Germans, revolutionary slogan demanding work We stick to the Euro-Atlantic axis, hav- is one of the main characteristics of intel- try our luck. Anything can be done, but of the world, and if someone spits at but we can’t operate like Germany. It and bread. Of course no one hires them, ing exchanged our former big brother lectuals opposing one another: they act the portal cannot be closed again, nei- capital, if someone talks about exploita- wasn’t modern and up-to-date thinking because there is no work. Tey get bread for the current one, without giving a only in their interests. But it also char- ther from within nor without. Te light tion by capital, no one sees that person that stepped across the borders, but the only in the form of charity, just enough to thought to the direction in which Europe acterizes the multitudes that have fallen keeps pouring in: enlightenment in place as an advocate of a better world, as the manipulative manifestations of the west- go hungry but not starve to death. Tey is headed, to the changes this continu- by the wayside. Te vacuum left by this of blackouts, and here as well as there the legendary figures of the classical left – ern marketplace, the advertisements, the are humiliated public toilers, their fami- ous migration of peoples from the East absence of true self-evaluation is often doubloons glisten, and the dazzle of the Rosa Luxemburg, Plekhanov, Gramsci – commercial channels’ stridency, which, lies have been foundering for generations will bring, to the set of values determin- filled with a sentimental, old-fashioned, golden light fills every cranny. During were once regarded, he’s seen as a pauper in this wrack and ruin, has had the effect without real jobs, and no one among the ing how the surrounding world is evolv- national consciousness, with origins in the dictatorship, being poor or unsuc- motivated by envy. You can be sure, if his that those logo-emblazoned shopping decision-makers stands before them to ing. Of course we don’t know anything the 19th century, whose principles, once cessful was practically a badge of honor. pockets were full, he too would brush off bags once had, which we carried around say: “Brethren, there is a solution.” about the neighboring countries, either. forward-pointing, are now timeworn. Whoever lived in poverty couldn’t have those fallen by the wayside and, like his so proudly. We wanted freedom, a liber- We can’t blurt out two words in Slovak Behind the vision of the solitary nation been a stooge of the state. Te heroes of old friends, make for Lake Balaton to laze ated and open world, but we fled into the or Croatian, and we bristle when we’re fighting the good fight lurks the longing resistance hailed from their ranks. It was in the sun. shackles of ideology, into the confines of A puddle of not addressed in Hungarian during our that Lehel, a Magyar chieftain, will again they who refused to compromise in or- the Carpathian Basin, and even if we were ski trips and summer vacations. A Czech blow his mythic horn, and those roving der ascend to professorships, academic able to come to terms with that, the eco- confused or Polish cultural achievement generally bands will finally set out for the states titles, or well-paid positions in public of- Beyond nomic constraints would continue to hold comes to us by way of a detour through of Europe, in order to lead the straying fice, perhaps at the head of a firm. Te us captive. Te boundary of Europe is not self-awareness the West. Whatever doesn’t receive the world back onto the straight and nar- dictatorship was unable to bully these the borders the periphery of the European Union. West’s stamp of approval, we don’t need. row. We are a people of freedom fighters, erstwhile heroes into submission, but Even now, Europe’s boundary is where In any case, the members of the elite wash We pay no attention to our neighbors; we geniuses, and towering talents, a chosen gold, that soft metal, has proved capable Te golden portal is wide open. If you it has been for centuries, and we, along their hands of this. As cultured European don’t consider them companions in dis- people, whose mission to preserve life’s of breaking their spine. Practically the don’t like it here, you can move abroad. with those who share our fate, are at the citizens, they condemn all forms of rac- tress. We’re part of the legendary West. true flame has come to us from on high. only measure of value in the new world Universities, scholarships, guest labor. near edge of that boundary. Tere are no ism, although they have no direct experi- We think our culture is at a higher lever Te right-wing leadership operates by is money. You have no money? You’re in- Te most flexible stratum of the country border guards, we may come and go, but ence of it, given that the price per square than theirs. We regard ourselves as a means of faith systems, which serve as a competent. You have no money? You’re has fled beyond the borders. And within there’s no doubt that all our money will meter of living space in the green belt is so great nation, and our accomplishments catalyst for the other side to follow suit. a shiftless, untalented, blundering good- the borders, the talented are dwindling; be used up the first time we shop. Tat high, the district is guaranteed to be Gyp- make us comparable to the others, while Tere aren’t humans, but demons, demi- for-nothing, a born loser. Te intelligent- we are a small country in which, despite is, if we even get as far as the border. To sy-free; nor do they have to worry about in fact we are an insufferably arrogant gods, and heroes, on both sides, but I sia didn’t want to be good-for-nothing. our feverish self-image, not even by the majority this freedom means noth- their children going to school with Gyp- and self-important little country. When suspect the personages of Greek mythol- Te Hungarian citizenry entered the re- chance are there two geniuses to each ing; they’re concerned with the current sies. Tey don’t know what the problem we’re not blustering about daring to be ogy wouldn’t find much in common with gime change without wealth; the money head, not even one to two heads. I saw day’s lunch and dinner, with the heating is, they declare that every person is born great, we’re ranting about daring to be them. European social thinking – which it was able to get its hands on came most- my native village after the village leaders and electricity bills. And if they happen to free and equal, that this is true of the Gyp- small; instead, we ought to be exactly is built upon precision, doubt, reflexive ly from the state; earning a livelihood de- drove away their children to seek their look up because their necks are cramped sies as well, so let them avail themselves the size we are. No, we’re unable to lift a investigation of the possible, as well as pended on redistribution and does to this fortunes in the city. Tat village, like so from constantly watching the tips of their of that right. Tey have no idea of what’s 200-kilogram weight, because this coun- upon the conviction that we must accept day. Of course, the respective powers- many Hungarian settlements, didn’t stink shoes, it’s not the portal of the legendary going on in the villages that are becoming try is not a Bulgarian weightlifter. On the responsibility for the consequences of that-be abuse this; they don’t want voters from its head, but from the absence of a West they see, but the palaces of the mas- Gypsified, among the families foundering other hand we can easily manage fifty our actions – is as far from us as when so much as believers. No wonder, then, head. We don’t have to wait years for the ters of their country, the iron gates and in the poverty-stricken settlements, and kilograms; after all, we go body-building we were idling east of the Carpathians that the cultural and professional elite has negative consequences of this outward fences equipped with high-powered se- what the responsibility of those who live in our free time, and could move the 200 until we’d rounded up enough horses for been sucked into party politics. An intel- migration. Te system of the family med- curity systems. Tose gates can’t be seen in brighter circumstances is. It was for kilograms – or even a thousand – in in- the Conquest of Hungary. As if it weren’t lectual gives his preferred side not only ical practice is on the brink of collapse through, not from inside or out, because the sake of a concept of a better society crements of fifty. Tere can be no serious enough for the well-off European states his vote, but his whole personality as well. because of the departure of doctors. Only there is no keyhole; the gate is operated that the champions of the Enlightenment accomplishment without realistic self- to have to deal with those Greeks who va- Under circumstances such as these, how occasionally does the overworked family electronically, no light seeps through, and seized their pens and struggled for rights image. I’m small, I’m David, and knowing cation all year long from EU coffers, and can we expect a member of the elite to doctor go out to the smaller settlements. it never opens even a crack. If by chance and justice. Te Hungarian elite today this I’ll undertake an audacious task. But those countless Muslims who are secretly preserve his critical attitude toward the Who cares? Tose are second-class citi- a chink does open, security guards stand knows nothing of the country it leads. Hungarian thinking on both the right and working on the creation of a gigantic cali- world? He can practice only one-sided zens anyway, the B-listers of our era, they ready to restore the peaceful image pro- Te leading topics in the press are always the left is stomping about in a puddle of phate, now here come those Hungarians, criticism, and is incapable of taking a should be glad they make as much as they jected by the industrial cameras, and to those that concern the intellectual class, confused self-awareness. It seeks exter- with this cunning battle technique of pre- stand against manifest blunders if his do – thus does the prevailing power and throw the intruder out. no one knows about, or wants to openly nal explanations for individual setbacks, tending to retreat, then sneakily shooting team commits them. Tere are hardly the well-off elite wink at each other, after discuss, those suffocating at the depths and now the authority we could point at their arrows behind them. But who would any public figures left who have been able all, they can easily purchase the highest Translated by Eugene Brogyányi of poverty. It’s the ideological bickering indignantly for forty years, which once venture to remove these obsolete feel- to maintain the credibility of their state- quality medical care, along with anything that echoes the loudest: the appoint- played the part of our parental figure, is ings from the hearts of our fellow coun- ments. We assume self-interest is behind else; it’s their birthright. In the words of The author is an acknowledged Hungarian poet. ment of a theater manager, a primitive gone. We need an enemy to have caused trymen, and accept the consequences of every pronouncement; if we pay attention the new Gospel: to he who has, more will corruption scandal, an anti-Christian our setbacks, an enemy we can point at, leaving only emptiness there? to word choice maybe we can discredit be given. From he who has not, all will joke by a reporter at a peripheral radio and who can that be if not a political ad- the speaker: what indebtedness is lurking be taken. station. Tese arouse more indignation versary, or the world organizations that in the background? By now we’re suspi-
122 VISEGRAD INSIGHT 1 (5) | 2014 123 ON THE COVER A LITTLE HERO WITH BIG IMPRESSIONS
f The picture of Nikoloz was taken on Saturday, March 15th, 2014 in the night before the Crimea- -Referendum took place.
A year ago, Evgeniya Rudenko emigrated with her seven-year-old son Nikoloz to Lyon, France, where she works as a journalist. However, the events surrounding Maidan in Kyiv and the Crimea prompted her to take a trip with her son to their native country: Nikoloz should see with his own eyes how his homeland was chang- ing under the pressure of engaged citizens. On Maidan, the two laid flowers for the murdered protesters. After a full day of intense impressions, the small Ukrainian boy proudly wears the orange hardhat given to him by activists. On Maidan, Kyiv’s Independence Square, Nikoloz saw the barricades set up by protesters to protect them from the police. On the square, there are still the paving stones used by the people against the police special units. The piled up car tires are still there, which were set on fire by anti-government protesters in order to create smoke when the po- lice tried to storm the square. The protests against the government of President Yanukovych began in The events on Maidan have been well document- Gerald Neugschwandtner studied political November 2013, much blood was shed in Febru- ed; however, the question remains, how will the science and photography, and teaches Political ary 2014. revolution be remembered in the minds of boys Campaigning at the University of Vienna, Aus- Today on Maidan, there is a sea of flowers in such as Nikoloz? How will these memories and tria. He was campaign spokesman for Arnold memory of the fallen. People from all over Ukraine the tales of the “Heavenly Hundred” influence Schwarzenegger during the 2003 recall election come together. The Ukrainian population bows to young people growing up in Ukraine and their in California. He is represented by ASAblanca. those who were killed on Maidan for the freedom perception of the relationship with their neighbor, com photo agency. of their country. They are called the “Heavenly Russia? Nikoloz’s helmet symbolizes a new soci- Hundred.” The first to be killed was Serhiy Nigoy- ety, which is currently being built by the people, an, an Eastern-Ukrainian of Armenian origin. He some of whom have been risking their lives for the was shot on Maidan on the morning of 22 January cause. Will Nikoloz one day be able to return to a 2014. better Ukraine? READ ON YOUR TABLET
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