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Home , Asteraceae, Solidago nemoralis, Solidago ulmifolia, Symphyotrichum boreale, Symphyotrichum praealtum, Symphyotrichum shortii

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Plant: herbs (annual or perennial), some shrubs, rarely or trees. Stem: Root: Often with tubers, , stolons, or fleshy roots : mostly simple, some compound, alternate or opposite, rarely whorled. : head supported by an involucre ( of green ); each head composed of small flowers (composite) of flat ray-like (ligulate) flowers on the outside (ray flowers) and central tube-like flowers (disk flowers) – some species may have only one or the other. Calyx absent or modified into hairs, bristles, scales or a crown (); 5 (syngenesious -united by anthers); 5 united (sympetalous), may also have hairs or bristles. Both pappus and receptacle hairs/bristles may be used in ID. : (small, one-seeded, inferior , 2 carpels, hard shell fruit) often with persisting crowned pappus which helps with dispersal. Other: Very large group, 1-2,000 genera, 20,000+ species. Dicotyledons Group

WARNING – family descriptions are only a layman’s guide and should not be used as definitive ASTERACEAE – ASTER FAMILY

Tall Blacktip Ragwort; atratus Greene Arrowleaf Ragwort; Hook. Common Groundsel [Old-Man-In-The-Spring]; L. (Introduced) Starry Rosinweed; L. [Wholeleaf] Rosinweed; Michx. Compass ; L. Cup Plant [Indian Cup]; L. -Dock [Prairie Rosenweed]; Silphium terebinthinaceum Jacq. var. terebinthinaceum -Flowered [Hairy; Large-Flowered] Leafcup; uvedalius (L.) Mack. ex Small Atlantic Goldenrod; arguta Aiton Blue-Stemmed [Wreath] Goldenrod; L. Canadal [Tall] Goldenrod; L. and L. Zigzag [Broad-Leaved] Goldenrod; L. Tall [Giant] Goldenrod; Aiton Hairy Goldenrod; Muhl. ex Willd. Gray [Old-Field] Goldenrod; Ait. Roundleaf [Rough Leaved; Swamp] Goldenrod; Muhl. ex Willd. var. patula Rough [Wrinkleleaf] Goldenrod; P. Mill. ssp. rugosa Seaside Goldenrod ; L. var. mexicana (L.) Fernald Showy Goldenrod; Nutt. Elmleaf Goldenrod; Muhl. ex Willd. Field Sow ; arvensis L. (Introduced Spiny-Leaved Sow Thistle; (L.) Hill (Introduced) Store-Front [Common] Sow Thistle; L. (Introduced) ASTERACEAE – ASTER FAMILY

Many-Ray [Woodland] Aster; anomalum (Engelm.) G.L. Nesom Northern Bog Aster; (Torr. & A. Gray) A. Löve & D. Löve (A. borealis) Common Blue [Heart-Leaved] Wood Aster; Symphyotrichum cordifolium (L.) Nesom Drummond's Aster; Symphyotrichum drummondii (Lindl.) Nesom var. drummondii [White] Heath Aster; (L.) Nesom var. ericoides Smooth Blue Aster; (L.) A.& D. Löve var. laeve White Panicle Aster; Symphyotrichum lanceolatum (Willd.) Nesom ssp. lanceolatum var. lanceolatum Side-Flowering Aster [Calico Aster]; Symphyotrichum lateriflorum (L.) A.& D. Löve var. lateriflorum New England Aster; Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (L.) Nesom Aromatic Aster; Symphyotrichum oblongifolium (Nutt.) G.L. Nesom Skyblue Aster; Symphyotrichum oolentangiense (Riddell) G.L. Nesom var. oolentangiense (A. azureus) Late Purple [Spreading] Aster; (Aiton) G.L. Nesom var. patens Hairy [White Oldfield] Aster; (Willd.) Nesom var. pilosum Willowleaf Aster; Poir. Purplestem [Swamp] Aster; (L.) A. Löve & D. Löve var. puniceum Silky [Western Silver] Aster; (Vent.) G.L. Nesom (Aster sericeus Vent.) Short's Aster; (Lindl.) Nesom [Smooth Violet] Prairie Aster; Symphyotrichum turbinellum (Lindl.) G.L. Nesom White Arrowleaf Aster; Symphyotrichum urophyllum (Lindl.) Tall Blacktip Ragwort USDA Senecio atratus Greene Asteraceae (Aster Family) Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado Notes: ray flowers yellow (3-5+); disc flowers yellow, bracts linear with black triangular points; leaves thick, tomentose above and below, with small hard teeth (points); cauline leaves lanceolate and sessile tapering to stem, basal leaves wide lanceolate to ovate with wide ; montane to alpine environments; summer to early fall [V Max Brown, 2012] Arrowleaf Ragwort USDA Senecio triangularis Hook. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado Notes: ray flowers yellow (6-8+); disc flowers yellow, phyllaries in one row, lanceolate with small black points, many flower heads in flat cluster; leaves alternate, most often with a truncated base, lanceolate, with coarse sharp teeth, prominent petioles; montane to alpine environments; large leafy ; summer [V Max Brown, 2012] Common Groundsel USDA [Old-Man-In-The-Spring] Senecio vulgaris L. (Introduced) Asteraceae (Aster Family) University of Toledo Campus, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: discoid; disc flowers yellow, bracts linear; leaves thick, pinnatifid or just coarsely or irregularly toothed, mostly glabrous, upper sessile to tapering at base on lower leaves; often a pest in waste ground; late spring to early fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Starry Rosinweed USDA L. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Alley Springs, Ozark National Scenic Riverways, Shannon County, Missouri Notes: ray flowers (8-15+) yellow, several rows of very hairy bracts which are sharp-pointed, often recurved, may be glandular; leaves alternate, lanceolate, sessile, slightly toothed or entire, usually quite hairy and rough; stem mostly rounded, usually with stiff long hairs; late spring to early fall [V Max Brown, 2009] [Wholeleaf] Rosinweed USDA Silphium integrifolium Michx. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Cave City area, Sharp County, Arkansas Notes: ray flower (15-35) yellow, bracts sharp- pointed, usually recurved, pubescent or not and often glandular; leaves thick, ovate to ovate- lanceolate, mostly opposite, entire to toothed, usually sharp-pointed, cordate and clasping at base; stem round, with short hairs or not; summer to early fall [V Max Brown, 2007] Compass Plant USDA Silphium laciniatum L. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Busiek State Forest and Wildlife Area, Christian County, Missouri Notes: ray flowers (20-35) yellow, disk yellow and wide, short-stalked to sessile, bracts sharp- pointed, often recurved, hairy and glandular; basal leaves - long, thick, pubescent, 1-2 pinnately lobed or divided, rough and glandular, upper stem leaves alternate and reduced; stem hairy; summer to early fall [V Max Brown, 2010] Cup Plant [Indian Cup; Cup Rosinweed] USDA Silphium perfoliatum L. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Maumee River Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (17-35) large, yellow, disc flowers yellow; basal leaves petiolate, middle and upper leaves ovate-triangular, toothed, and usually strongly perfoliate; stem square, somewhat pubescent or not; tall plant; summer to early fall [V Max Brown, 2003] Prairie Dock [Prairie Rosenweed] USDA Silphium terebinthinaceum Jacq. var. terebinthinaceum Asteraceae (Aster Family) Maumee River Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (13-21) yellow, disk flowers yellow; leaves mostly basal or near base on long petioles, very large, serrate, thick and rough, generally ovate and somewhat cordate at base; stem circular but with many fine angles; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2005] Yellow-Flowered [Hairy; USDA Large-Flowered] Leafcup Smallanthus uvedalius (L.) Mack. ex Small Asteraceae (Aster Family) Watauga Lake Area, Carter County, Tennessee Notes: ray flowers (10-15) yellow, and up to 3cm, disk flowers yellow; leaves coarse and large, somewhat palmately lobed, winged petiole to stem, phyllaries ovate to lanceolate; lower stem mostly glabrous, upper stem and pedicels hairy and glandular; woods; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2008] Atlantic Goldenrod USDA Aiton Asteraceae (Aster Family) Wire Road Conservation Area, Stone County, Missouri Notes: 2 to 8 ray florets, up to 20 disc florets, both yellow, usually an open pyramidal panicle, tip often nodding; basal leaves present at flowering, up to 30 cm long, elliptical to ovate with long winged petioles; middle and upper cauline leaves up to 8+ cm with similar shape and may be sessile in upper part; leaves toothed; plant erect, up to 1+ m long, glabrous below inflorescence; woods (several varieties); summer to fall (inflorescence not well developed in this sample) Additional [V Max Brown, 2014] rosettes may be present Blue-Stemmed [Wreath] USDA Goldenrod Solidago caesia L. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Pokagon State Park, Steuben County, Indiana Notes: ray flowers (4-5) yellow, disk yellow, from leaf axils; leaves long lanceolate, serrate, mostly sessile, tapered at both ends, reduced upward; stem arches, glabrous and glaucous, bluish in mature plants, not angled; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Canadal [Tall] Goldenrod Solidago canadensis L. and Solidago altissima L. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Near Ozark, Christian County, Missouri Notes: ray (5-15) and disc (2-7) flowers yellow, flowers in 1-sided plumes, bracts yellowish-green; leaves long lanceolate, 3-veined, finely and sharply toothed; stem fine hairy above and often below; summer to early fall (the 2 species and their varieties are often very difficult to ID with certainty) [V Max Brown, 2011] Zigzag [Broad-Leaved] USDA Goldenrod Solidago flexicaulis L. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Pokagon State Park, Steuben County, Indiana Notes: ray and disc flowers yellow, from leaf axils and a terminal spike; leaves ovate, sharply serrate, mostly glabrous, winged petiole, reduced upward; stem glabrous, angled, commonly “zigzag” in shape; woods; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Tall [Giant] Goldenrod USDA Solidago gigantea Aiton Asteraceae (Aster Family) Wire Road Conservation Area, Stone County, Missouri Notes: 8 to 16+ ray florets, up to 12 disc florets, both yellow, inflorescence usually a dense and large pyramidal panicle, branches often arching; leaves mostly cauline, largest near middle of stem, leaves up to 20 cm, 3-4 to 7-8 times longer than wide, acute tip, tapered at base, almost sessile, medium and lower leaves usually sharply toothed; plant erect, up to 2 m long; stem mostly glabrous below inflorescence, finely ridged; many habitats; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2014] Hairy Goldenrod USDA Solidago hispida Muhl. ex Willd. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Trace Creek, Madison County, Missouri Notes: ray and disc flowers yellow, inflorescence cylindrical or spike-like; leaves elliptical and taper to base, less petiolate upward, hairy particularly on bottom, serrate or not; stem densely hairy; woods (several varieties); summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Gray [Old-Field] Goldenrod USDA Solidago nemoralis Ait. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray and disc flowers yellow, inflorescence racemiform to paniculiform; leaves lanceolate, fine hairy, reduced upward, 3- veined, tapered to base, lowest leaves often with petioles; stem with fine, gray pubescence; most often in dry sandy areas; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2007] Roundleaf [Rough Leaved; USDA Swamp] Goldenrod Solidago patula Muhl. ex Willd. var. patula Asteraceae (Aster Family) Waterloo Recreation Area, Washtenaw County, Michigan Notes: flowers yellow, inflorescence terminal, spreading and secund, phyllaries green, ciliate; leaves ovate, serrate, very rough (scabrous) above, glabrous below, lower leaves very large, upper leaves reduced; stem 4-angled, glabrous; swamps, bogs and wet areas; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2009] Rough [Wrinkleleaf] Goldenrod USDA Solidago rugosa P. Mill. ssp. rugosa Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: flowers yellow, inflorescence racemiform or in terminal clusters; leaves lanceolate to lanceolate-ovate, serrate, veins usually sunken (rugose), upper surface rough; stem finely hairy; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Seaside Goldenrod USDA Solidago sempervirens L. var. mexicana (L.) Fernald Asteraceae (Aster Family) Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida Notes: ray and disc flowers yellow, inflorescence terminal, cylindrical, paniculiform; stem leaves strongly ascending, lanceolate, glabrous, and fleshy and ascend into the inflorescence - basal leaves longer, widest near middle toward distal end; stem thick and succulent; most often in costal areas; fall to spring? [V Max Brown, 2012] Showy Goldenrod USDA Solidago speciosa Nutt. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray and disc flowers yellow, dense and somewhat cylindrical inflorescence, much branched into a large cluster; leaves lanceolate-ovate, glabrous, usually toothed, lower leaves larger; stem large and stout, glabrous; often in open sandy areas; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Elmleaf Goldenrod USDA Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. ex Willd. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Wire Road Conservation Area, Stone County, Missouri Notes: 3 to 5 ray florets, up to 7 disc florets, both yellow, inflorescence usually an open pyramidal panicle, branches often arching; basal leaves often present at flowering, up to 12 cm long, elliptical to ovate with short winged petioles; middle and upper cauline leaves mostly sessile, up to 6+ cm, elliptical, longest leaves about 2/3 down stem; leaves mostly toothed; plant erect, up to 1+ m long; stem glabrous or with fine spreading hairs below inflorescence, ridged; woods (several varieties); late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2014] Field Sow Thistle USDA L. (Introduced) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Maumee River Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ligulate; flowers bright yellow, bracts in several series; leaves variously pinnatifid or lobed, somewhat entire to usually spiny, base cordate, clasping (pointed lobes) but not truly auriculate; common in waste places; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2005] Spiny-Leaved Sow Thistle USDA Sonchus asper (L.) Hill (Introduced) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Univ of Toledo Campus, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ligulate; flowers, bright yellow; leaves variously pinnatifid or lobed, very spiny, large rounded auricles at stem; stem glabrous or with some hairs; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2005] Store-Front [Common] USDA Sow Thistle Sonchus oleraceus L. (Introduced) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Findlay, Hancock County, Ohio Notes: ligulate; flowers yellow; leaves variously pinnatifid or lobed, usually serrate, with some prickles, lower leaves very strongly auriculate with long sharp points; stem smooth; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2006] Many-Ray [Woodland] Aster USDA Symphyotrichum anomalum (Engelm.) G.L. Nesom Asteraceae (Aster Family) Taum Sauk Mountain State Park, Iron County, Missouri Notes: ray flowers (20-40+) blue, disk flowers yellow turning red, bracts in several series - linear and sharp-pointed, spreading and reflexed; middle and lower leaves - long petiolate, cordate with pointed tip, upper stem leaves – short petiolate, not as cordate at base, all stem leaves roughened by hairs; stem fine hairy and rough; mid-summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2010] Northern Bog Aster USDA Symphyotrichum boreale (Torr. & A. Gray) A. Löve & D. Löve (A. borealis) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Waterloo Recreation Area, Washtenaw County, Michigan Notes: ray flowers (15-30) white to light blue, disk flowers pale yellow turning reddish with age, bracts in several series; leaves mostly linear, a few teeth or mostly entire, sessile but may be somewhat auriculate, up to 0.5-0.8 cm by 14+ cm, sharply pointed, one major vein; stem mostly glabrous or hairs in lines; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2009] Common Blue [Heart-Leaved] USDA Wood Aster Symphyotrichum cordifolium (L.) Nesom Asteraceae (Aster Family) Pokagon State Park, Steuben County, Indiana Notes: ray flowers (8-20) blue to purple (white), disk yellow to white turning red to purple; leaves mostly cordate, coarsely toothed, long petiolate and barely winged, long hairs below especially on veins, reduced upward; upper stem with lines of hairs; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2007] Drummond's Aster USDA Symphyotrichum drummondii (Lindl.) Nesom var. drummondii Asteraceae (Aster Family) Maumee River Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (10-20) light blue, disk flowers yellow turning red, many florets, bracts green and almost linear, tips often red and reflexed; middle and lower leaves cordate to ovate, winged petiolate, cordate to subcordate bases, toothed, somewhat hairy, upper leaves reduced; upper stem with fine hairs; fall [V Max Brown, 2007] [White] Heath Aster USDA Symphyotrichum ericoides (L.) Nesom var. ericoides Asteraceae (Aster Family) Maumee River Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (15-35) white (rarely blue), disk flowers yellow, bracts in several series, with bristles, usually reflexed; leaves linear, sessile; stem hairy, many braches; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2005] Smooth Blue Aster USDA Symphyotrichum laeve (L.) A.& D. | Löve var. laeve Asteraceae (Aster Family) Oak Openings Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (15-30) light blue, disk flowers yellow turning red-purple, bracts in several series, diamond-shaped; upper leaves lanceolate to somewhat linear, sessile to strongly clasping, mostly entire (some with teeth), lower leaves with tapering petiole; stem glabrous; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2008] White Panicle Aster USDA Symphyotrichum lanceolatum (Willd.) Nesom ssp. lanceolatum var. lanceolatum Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: white (to less often bluish), 20-40 ray flowers, disk yellow turning red to purple; upper leaves small, lower leaves lanceolate to somewhat linear, mostly sessile; lower stem smooth, some fine hairs on upper stem; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2007] Side-Flowering Aster USDA [Calico Aster] Symphyotrichum lateriflorum (L.) A.& D. Löve var. lateriflorum Asteraceae (Aster Family) Maumee River Metroparks, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: white (to rarely bluish), 9-14 ray flowers, disk yellow turning red, flowers usually on same side of stem; upper leaves small, lower leaves lanceolate, tapering at both ends, mostly sessile, hairs only on lower midrib; stem with lines of hairs; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2007] New England Aster USDA Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (L.) Nesom Asteraceae (Aster Family) Oak Openings Metropark, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flower (45-100+) purple (rarely white), disc flowers yellow turning reddish with age, bracts often reflexed; leaves long lanceolate, upper leaves clasping with cordate (auriculate) base; stem stout and densely hairy; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2004] Aromatic Aster USDA Symphyotrichum oblongifolium (Nutt.) G.L. Nesom Asteraceae (Aster Family) Close Memorial Park, Greene County, Missouri Notes: ray flowers (15-35+) purple, disc flowers yellow turing purplish, bracts into 4-6+ rows with spreading or reflexed tips; lower leaves withered at flowering, stem leaves sessile but barely clasping, lanceolate of oblong-lanceolate, hairy; stem hairy, stout and somewhat woody near base; summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2011] Skyblue Aster USDA Symphyotrichum oolentangiense (Riddell) G.L. Nesom var. oolentangiense (A. azureus) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flower up to 25, mostly blue (often tinged with pink), disc flowers yellow turning reddish with age, bracts distinctly diamond-shaped; lowest leaves long petiolate, lanceolate, with a cordate base, entire, petioles and upper part of leaf somewhat hairy, upper leaves greatly reduced, not clasping, sessile; stem stout, often turning reddish with age; often in sandy areas; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2008] Late Purple [Spreading] Aster USDA Symphyotrichum patens (Aiton) G.L. Nesom var. patens Asteraceae (Aster Family) Watauga Lake Area, Carter County, Tennessee Notes: ray flower up to 20-30(-40), mostly light blue, disc flowers yellow turning reddish with age, phyllaries in several rows, usually reflexed at tip; cauline leaves somewhat thick; mostly ovate to oblong to elliptical, entire, sessile and clasping with cordate base; stem tough and wiry, with short hairs and rough, somewhat ridged; woods; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2008] Hairy [White Oldfield] USDA Aster Symphyotrichum pilosum (Willd.) Nesom var. pilosum Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (15-35) white, disk yellow, bracts spreading with in-rolled pointed tips; leaves narrow and hairy; stem with dense, very long hairs; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2005] Willowleaf Aster USDA Symphyotrichum praealtum Poir. Asteraceae (Aster Family) Kitty Todd Nature Preserve, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: blue to bluish-white to nearly white ray flowers (15-30), disk yellow turning to reddish- purple, points diamond-shaped and spreading; leaves lanceolate, sessile, lower surface net-veined, leaf edges often curled down; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2007] Purplestem [Swamp] Aster USDA Symphyotrichum puniceum (L.) A. Löve & D. Löve var. puniceum Asteraceae (Aster Family) Pigeon River FWA, Lagrange County, Indiana Notes: blue to bluish-white to nearly white ray flowers (30-60+), up to 2-4 cm dia., disk yellowish turning to purplish, phyllaries slender, sharp-pointed, and loose; leaves lanceolate, sessile, auriculate and clasping, somewhat serrate to entire, scabrous above, veins hairy or not below; stem with stiff hairs; bogs, swamps, and wet areas; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2009] Silky [Western Silver] Aster USDA Symphyotrichum sericeum (Vent.) G.L. Nesom (Aster sericeus Vent.) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Busiek State Forest and Wildlife Area, Christian County, Missouri Notes: ray flowers (10-20+) blue to purple, disk cream to tan turning reddish, bracts lanceolate to ovate and leaf- like; leaves elliptical to oblanceolate, entire, surfaces with dense appressed silky hairs; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2010] Short's Aster USDA Symphyotrichum shortii (Lindl.) Nesom Asteraceae (Aster Family) Pokagon State Park, Steuben County, Indiana Notes: blue (less often reddish to white) ray flowers (10- 20), disk yellow to white turning purple, bract points diamond-shaped; leaves mostly subcordate to cordate, entire, petiolate but reduced upward; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2007] [Smooth Violet] Prairie Aster USDA Symphyotrichum turbinellum (Lindl.) G.L. Nesom Asteraceae (Aster Family) Close Memorial Park, Greene County, Missouri Notes: ray flowers (14-20+) lavender to purple, disc flowers yellow turning purplish, bracts (5-9 rows, inner ones widened at tip with sharp tip); leaves alternate, oblong- lanceolate, upper surface mostly glabrous, somewhat hairy below; stem woody toward base, some short stiff hairs in rows or sometimes nearly glabrous; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2011] White Arrowleaf Aster USDA Symphyotrichum urophyllum (Lindl.) Asteraceae (Aster Family) Oak Openings Metropark, Lucas County, Ohio Notes: ray flowers (8-15+) white (may be faintly lavender), short compared to other astors, disk white to cream- colored turning red with age, bracts long and linear; lower cauline leaves mostly subcordate, serrate, with winged petioles, upper cauline leaves with reduced petioles; stem varies from somewhat glabrous to somewhat hairy in lines on stem; late summer to fall [V Max Brown, 2008]