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Southeast Asia: New Views of the Geology of the Malay Archipelago

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Southeast Asia: New Views of the Geology of the Malay Archipelago EA45CH13-Hall ARI 14 August 2017 13:28 Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences Southeast Asia: New Views of the Geology of the Malay Archipelago Robert Hall SE Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, United Kingdom; email: [email protected] Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2017. 45:331–58 Keywords First published as a Review in Advance on June 7, subduction, tectonic reconstructions, seismic tomography, Indonesia, 2017 Malaysia The Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences is online at earth.annualreviews.org Abstract https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-063016- Southeast (SE) Asia is surrounded by subduction zones causing intense seis- 020633 micity and volcanic activity. Subduction has been the principal tectonic driver Copyright c 2017 by Annual Reviews. of collisions that caused the growth of continental SE Asia, and most re- All rights reserved cently the collision of Australia with SE Asia. The western part of SE Asia, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2017.45:331-358. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Sundaland, is a heterogeneous and weak region, reflecting processes that can Access provided by Royal Holloway, University of London on 09/11/17. For personal use only. be observed today in the east, where there are subduction zones in different ANNUAL stages of development. A close relationship between subduction rollback and REVIEWS Further Click here to view this article's extension has caused dramatic elevation of land, exhumation of deep crust, online features: and spectacular subsidence of basins, observable with remotely acquired im- • Download figures as PPT slides • Navigate linked references ages and seismic and multibeam data obtained from oil exploration. New • Download citations • Explore related articles dating indicates that subsidence and uplift occurred at high rates during • Search keywords short time intervals. Laboratory studies, modeling, and reconstructions pro- vide valuable insights, but field-based studies continue to present surprises and new discoveries essential for interpretations of the geological history of the region. 331 EA45CH13-Hall ARI 14 August 2017 13:28 1. INTRODUCTION The term Southeast (SE) Asia is used in various ways by different disciplines and authors. I use it here for the region in which the great nineteenth-century naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace trav- eled and where he developed his ideas concerning evolution (Figure 1). Wallace (1869) called the region that includes the countries of Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, along with some of southern Thailand and the Philippines, the Malay Archipelago. He made many insightful geolog- ical observations. He drew attention to the great area of islands between Asia and Australia and to the extensive shallow seas surrounding SE Asia and Australia (Figure 1a), and he inferred that the islands east of Java and Borneo had formed part of an Australian or Pacific continent, in contrast to the western islands, which had been part of Asia. He divided the region into western and eastern parts on the basis of geological observations and contrasted their faunas. Wallace speculated that earthquakes and volcanic activity might increase sediment output from rivers, causing an ocean as wide as the modern Atlantic to be reduced to a narrow sea with islands similar to the modern archipelago. By 1869 he had a dynamic and prescient view of geological change manifested in SE Asia, but it was another century before plate tectonics offered a convincing mechanism for his interpretations (see the sidebar titled Wallace on Geology). Early-twentieth-century fixist views considered the SE Asian continent a shield. The applica- tion of plate tectonic ideas from the 1970s led to a picture of a strong stable interior region sur- rounded by collision zones dominated by plate convergence. In this review, I explain how views of the region have been changing and discuss the new data that have led to these changes. The older, western part of SE Asia has features that are consequences of processes that can be observed and are ongoing in the younger, eastern part of the region, where Australia and SE Asia are actively colliding. What we observe there today has great relevance for our understanding of the early stages of collision in orogenic belts in other parts of the world, such as the Alps, the Himalayas, and the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Because many of these features are so young, it is possible to assess timing and rates or processes with an accuracy that was not possible in older mountain belts. SE Asia has always been a region where tectonic ideas have been generated, simply because this is where things are happening (subduction, seismicity, volcanic activity, collision, faulting, subsidence, uplift). It remains such a place. Comparison of its size to that of North America or Europe (Figure 2) shows immediately how understudied the region is, and topographic and geologic maps reveal how difficult access remains to the interior of the many large islands as a result of terrain, climate, vegetation, and lack of infrastructure. Borneo is one example: Major parts of the interior of the world’s third-largest island remain almost unexplored. Seram is another example: A major mapping program of the second-largest island in the Banda Arc was undertaken Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2017.45:331-358. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Access provided by Royal Holloway, University of London on 09/11/17. For personal use only. WALLACE ON GEOLOGY “In the Malay Archipelago we have, I believe, a case exactly parallel to that which I have here supposed. We have indications of a vast continent, with a peculiar fauna and flora, having been gradually and irregularly broken up; the island of Celebes probably marking its furthest westward extension, beyond which was a wide ocean. At the same time Asia appears to have been extending its limits in a south-east direction, first in an unbroken mass, then separated into islands as we now see it, and almost coming into actual contact with the scattered fragments of the great southern land. From this outline of the subject, it will be evident how important an adjunct Natural History is to Geology; not only in interpreting the fragments of extinct animals found in the earth’s crust, but in determining past changes in the surface which have left no geological record.” (Wallace 1869, p. 27) 332 Hall EA45CH13-Hall ARI 14 August 2017 13:28 PPHILIPPINESH I L I P P I N E S MMALAYSIAA L A Y S I A BBORNEOO R N E O SSumatrau m a t r a NNEWE W SSulawesiulawesi GUINEAG U I N E A JJavaava TTimorimor BBaliali LLombokombok SSumbaumba a AAUSTRALIAU S T R A L I A PPHILIPPINESH I L I P P I N E S Sulu Philippine South China Sea Sea Sea Pacific 5°N Brunei Sabah Ocean Malaysia Celebes Sea Sarawak Caroline BORNEO Halmahera Sea EQ Sumatra SSundaunda ShelfShelf it a r t Wallace’s Kalimantan S r NNEWE W 1854–1862 a s s GUINEAG U I N E A travels a Sulawesi Banda k Seram a Buru Latitude Sea Earthquake M Java Sea Aru 5°S hypocenter depths S u n 101–200 km d a 201–300 km Tr 301–400 km en Java ch 401–500 km Indian Tanimbar 501–600 km Ocean Bali Timor 10°S >600 km Lombok Sumba Kilometers b Java Trench 0 500 1,000 AAUSTRALIAU S T R A L I A 95°E 100°E 105°E 110°E 115°E 120°E 125°E 130°E 135°E Longitude Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2017.45:331-358. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Access provided by Royal Holloway, University of London on 09/11/17. For personal use only. Figure 1 (a) Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Southeast Asia region from satellite gravity-derived bathymetry combined with SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) topography (Sandwell & Smith 2009) showing Quaternary volcanoes (yellow dots). (b) Principal geographic features and seismicity with hypocenter depths (Engdahl et al. 1998). The dashed blue lines represent Wallace’s routes during his travels in the Malay Archipelago between 1854 and 1862. by the Dutch Ceram-Expeditie 100 years ago, in 1918–1919 (Rutten 1927). Since then, there have been only a handful of studies of the island. Recent reports by Pownall et al. (2013, 2014) of Neogene ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic rocks on Seram, known elsewhere almost entirely from Precambrian terranes, illustrate what potentially remains to be discovered. Field-based studies remain vital but have become less frequent. However, although reduced in number, they have been aided recently by modern technology during investigations of previously www.annualreviews.org • New Views of the Geology of the Malay Archipelago 333 EA45CH13-Hall ARI 14 August 2017 13:28 a b ~ 5,000 kilometers ~ 5,000 kilometers Figure 2 Comparison of the size of Southeast Asia to (a) the coterminous United States and (b) Europe. The number of geological studies per unit area in Southeast Asia is significantly smaller than in both. studied and little-studied areas, of which there remain many. GPS (Global Positioning System) navigation devices, combined with public-domain SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) and ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) images, are resources that have greatly aided field studies and stimulated new interpretations. Offshore, ex- ploration for hydrocarbons has led to the acquisition of high-resolution multibeam bathymetric maps and seismic data, which have provided new insights and helped link observations on land to those offshore (see the sidebar titled Multibeam Bathymetry). Because deformation is very young or active, the remotely acquired data commonly display structures not previously seen (air photos and Landsat images, for example, are commonly limited by vegetation and cloud cover) and provide the basis for new tectonic interpretations.
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