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The Sweet Grass Hills and Blackfeet Indians: Sacredness, Land, and Institutional Discrimination

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The Sweet Grass Hills and Blackfeet Indians: Sacredness, Land, and Institutional Discrimination University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2013 The Sweet Grass Hills and Blackfeet Indians: Sacredness, Land, and Institutional Discrimination Cassie Sheets The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Sheets, Cassie, "The Sweet Grass Hills and Blackfeet Indians: Sacredness, Land, and Institutional Discrimination" (2013). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 1091. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/1091 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Blackfeet Indians and the Sweet Grass Hills: Sacredness, Land, and Institutional Discrimination by Cassie Sheets B.A., Women’s Studies, Gettysburg College, 2009 Thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology, Rural and Environmental Change, Inequality and Social Justice The University of Montana Missoula, MT May 18, 2013 Approved by: Sandy Ross, Dean Graduate School Celia Winkler, JD, Ph.D., Chair Department of Sociology Becky Richards, Ph.D. Department of Sociology Robin Saha, Ph.D. Department of Environmental Studies Sheets, Cassie, M.A., 2013 Sociology The Sweet Grass Hills and Blackfeet Indians: Sacredness, Land, and Institutional Discrimination* The Sweet Grass Hills of north-central Montana are part of the four Tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy’s traditional territory and play a vital role in perpetuating Blackfeet culture. The Blackfeet Tribe of Montana was forced to sell the Sweet Grass Hills to the federal government in 1888 after the decimation of bison populations. In 1992, the first large-scale corporate mining proposal in the Sweet Grass Hills was proposed by Lehmann and Associates and Manhattan Mineral, Ltd. In response to public outcries, environmental impact statements were issued by the Bureau of Land Management, the agency that manages the area, and Secretary of Interior Babbitt closed the Sweet Grass Hills to mineral entry through Public Land Order 7254 from 1997 to 2017. To assess how the Blackfeet Tribe and other stakeholders have attempted to influence stewardship of the Sweet Grass Hills from 1985-present, I engage a discourse analysis of public documents and informant interviews. Post-structuralism and standpoint theory frameworks are used for analysis. I found that Blackfeet Indians succeeded in influencing stewardship of the Sweet Grass Hills through sharing of cultural information, which has been part of a ‘burden of proof’ to demonstrate their traditional ties to the Sweet Grass Hills to the dominant society. However, Blackfeet Indians failed to influence stewardship of the area through legal means because American Indian religious and cultural are subjugated, which I argue exemplifies institutional discrimination against Blackfeet Indians. Blackfeet Indians’ group identity politics were weakened because Canadian Blackfeet were excluded from consultation processes. Non-Native American residents living near the Sweet Grass Hills emphasized protecting their private property rights which decreased their support for Blackfeet influence over the area. The establishment of a Blackfeet Tribal Historic Preservation Officer in 2004 increased the potential for Blackfeet Indians’ influence of stewardship in the area, but there is ambivalent evidence that consultations with the Office have been effective in affording Blackfeet power. With several years left before Order 7254 expires, assessment of discrimination against and political opportunities for the Blackfoot Confederacy is necessary before their culture and the Sweet Grass Hills landscape once again become vulnerable to mining in 2017. *Note: The Bureau of Land Management’s “West Hi-Line Draft Resource Management Plan”, which addresses future management options for the Sweet Grass Hills and was released to the public on March 22, 2013, was not included in this thesis data and analysis. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank several people who made this thesis possible and supported me throughout my time in graduate school at The University of Montana. Thank you to Celia Winkler of the Sociology Department for her support as my advisor and as a teacher. She offers insightful theoretical perspectives and support for justice issues, both of which were valuable to me during graduate school and this thesis research. I could not have done this research without Robin Saha of the Environmental Studies Program introducing me to the Sweet Grass Hills scenario and trusting me to conduct research in the name of environmental justice. He has given me a tremendous amount of academic freedom and guidance during my research on the Sweet Grass Hills. Becky Richards of the Sociology Department introduced me to environmental sociology and kept me on track throughout the thesis process, which is an invaluable contribution. Thank you to Jake Hansen of the Writing Center for reminding me that writing well is an attainable goal. Thanks to fellow Sociology Department graduate student Mike King for offering me peer support on more than one level. I would also like to thank Daisy Rooks of the Sociology Department for her support as we worked together in different venues. Thanks are in order for the University of Montana Mike and Maureen Mansfield Center and the University of Montana Wilderness Institute. Without the financial support offered by both of these organizations, this research would not have been possible. The Pat Williams Scholarship Award is made possible by a congressionally appropriated grant administered by the U.S. Department of Education. The funding of this project does not imply endorsement of specific activities by the federal government. Last but not least, thank you to my friends and family who support me throughout my ambitious intellectual and activist pursuits. Most of all, thank you to Devin, who helps me get through everything. iii Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..…………………1 Chapter 2 Background………….………………………………………………………………………….7 Ecosystem ................................................................................................................................ 7 Cultural Significance of the Sweet Grass Hills ....................................................................... 8 Blackfeet Indian and U.S. Legal History ............................................................................... 13 Mining History and Public Land Order 7254 ........................................................................ 18 Similar Scenarios ................................................................................................................... 23 Chapter 3 Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 32 Post-structuralism .................................................................................................................. 32 Standpoint Theory ................................................................................................................. 34 Chapter 4 Data and Methods...................................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 5 Findings………………………………………………………………………………………..49 Sacredness and Cultural Connections .................................................................................... 49 Conflicts in Consultations ..................................................................................................... 63 Rights Claims ........................................................................................................................ 70 Legality .................................................................................................................................. 79 Chapter 6 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………..87 Political Strategies, Laws, and Values ................................................................................... 87 Discrimination and Burden of Proof ..................................................................................... 91 Challenging Multiple Use ...................................................................................................... 95 Blackfeet and ‘Local,’ non-Native American Relationships ................................................. 97 Blackfeet Tribal Historic Preservation Office ....................................................................... 98 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 99 iv Bibliography Archival Sources ..................................................................................................................... 106 Non-Archival Sources ............................................................................................................. 111 Appendices Appendix A – Sweet Grass Hills and
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