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1982

The James River Highlands : An Area Study

Thomas P. Welch

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Recommended Citation Welch, Thomas P., "The James River Highlands : An Area Study" (1982). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 4179. https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/etd/4179

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AN AREA STUDY

BY

THOMAS P . WELCH

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science , Maj or in Geography , South Dakota State University

198z" THE JAMES RIVER HIGHLANDS

AN AREA STUDY

This thesis is approved as a creditaple and inde­ pendent inve stigation by a candidate for the degree,

Master of Science , and is acceptab le for meeting the thesis requirements for this degree . Acceptance of this thesis does not imp ly that the cone:lusions reached by the candi­ date are necessar�ly the conclus ions of the maj or depart- ment .

Lee Opheim , Ph .D. ., Date Thes.is Adviser

Edward P. Hogan' , J>h .D. Date Head , Geography Dept. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to express his appreciation to Dr . Lee A. Opheim , Associate Professor , Department of

Geography , for his direction and inspiration in the prep­ eration of this thesis . The author would also like to thank Dr . Edward P. Hogan , Professor , Department of Geo­ graphy , for his assis tance in providing a rational approach to this investigation. Also, the author wishes to thank the faculty and students of the Department of·

Geography for their interest in and support of this study .

I would like to express my love for my family an d friends for their emotional assistance and encourage� ment during my res earch and wr iting . Finally I would like to thank Carol Whitney for her patience and expertise in typ ing this thesis.

Thomas Paul Welch TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I INTRODUCTION 1

Region Versus Area '! • 2

The Study Area . . 3

Relevance of the Study 5

Review of Literature . 8

Organization . . . . . 10

End Notes ...... 12

II THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT . 13

Terrain 13

Climate 22

Soils 26

Hydrographic Features 33

Natural Vegetation ...... 40

Fish and Wildlife ...... 47

End Notes 57

III HUMAN OCCUPANCY 59

End Notes ...... 77

IV HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 78

Agriculture 78

Mining . . 87

Industry . 100 Chapter Page

Transportation . . . . . 101

Recreation ...... 105

Power and Utilities ...... 109

Population . . . 109

End Notes . . . . 119

v CONCLUSION . 120

Overview . 120

Future . . . 126

APPENDIX A . . . . 127

APPENDIX B . 129

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . 131 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 The James River Highlands 4

2 Typical Views of the James River . 6

3 Location of Ridges . 7

4 Physiographic Regions of South Dakota 9

5 Views Northwest and Northeast From Turkey Ridge ...... 14

6 Views Southwest and West From Turkey Ridge . . . . 16

7 Generalized Glacial Map 17

8 James Ridge From the East 19

9 Yankton Ridge Facing Northeast and South . 21

10 Soil Parent Material 28

11 Soil Regions of South Dakota 30

12 Soil Association Map . 32

13 Bridged Field Approach and Flood Damage to Transportation ...... 35

14 Navigational Obs tructions on the Jame s River ...... 37

15 Flora and Fauna Regions ...... 42

16 Examp le$ of Native Vegetation in the Jame s River Highlands ...... 45

17 Potential Carrying Capacity For Pheasants 54

18 Percent Indian Population , 1970 65

19 Distribution of Rur al Ethn ic Groups , 1961 70 Figure Page

20 Location of Hutterite Colonies , 1974 . 73

21 Turkey Ridge Store and One of the Many Rural Churches ...... 75

22 River Bottom Crop land , Corn , and Oats on the Flood Plain ...... 81

23 Diked Corn Field For Protection Against Flooding ...... 82

24 Ridge Top Rangeland ...... 83

25 Top Ten Counties in Corn Production . . . 91

26 Top Ten Counties in Soyb ean Production 92

27 High and Lo:w- Yields , Hay . . . . . 93

28 High and Low Yields , Alfalfa . . . 94

29 High and Low Yields , Corn 95

30 High and Low Yields , All Wheat . . . . 96

31 High and Low Yields , Oats ...... 97

32 High and Low Yields , Soybeans ...... 98

33 High and Low Yields , Sorghum ...... 99

34 Per Capita Income By Place of Residence Per $1 ,000 ...... 102

35 Area Residents Recreate at Nearby Lewis and Clark Lake ...... 110

36 Gavins Point Dam and Electric Transmission Lines in the Jame s River Highlands . . . . 112

37 Towns In The James River Highlands . . 114

38 Mains treet: Menno , South·Dakota ...... 115 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Selected Temperature/Precipitation Data For The Jame s River Highlands 24

2 Numb er of Farms /Average Farm Size in Acres ...... 88

3 All Cattle /Milk Cows & Heifers , Total Number/Hogs/ Sheep & Lambs/Chickens 89

4 Industry in the Study Area ...... 103

5 Utilities Serving the James River Highlands ...... 111

6 Towns and Townships of the Jame s River Highlands and Their Populations . . 117 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The term "Geography" is of _Greek origin derived from the words "geo" meaning the earth , and "graphos" meaning to write or describe. Geography literally means writing about , or a descrip tion of the earth . Although geography is one of the oldest- fields of human curiosity , 1 it is a relatively new discipline . Mo dern geography constitutes the first step in a process of scholar ship .

In fact it now constitutes one of the more advanced steps .

Understanding the earth , the home of humankind , requires the support of many disciplines . Instead of haphazardly dealing with the phenomena of the face of the earth in the search for system and order , modern geography now calls upon the understandings provided by other sciences devoted to the study of specific processes , the systematic sciences. Geography is a me thod of looking at particular places with a view to understanding how specific processes operate on the face of the earth to create spatially varied patterns of . phenomena . 2

In this role geography makes three contributions :

1) it contributes toward a better understanding of the earth as the habitat of man by extending the findings of other sciences ; 2) it provides a means for testing the validity of certain concepts developed by the other sciences by applying them in particular places ; and 3) it offers its own pec�liar perspective to the clarification of the issues involved in prob lems of public or private po 1�cy. . 2

In whatever part of the field a geographer spec- ializes , one finds common ground with other geographers in two ways : 1) in accepting the fundamental concept that differing patterns and assoc iations of phenomena on the earth produce similarities and contrasts between places , and that these similarities and contrasts are significant in terms of continuing processes of change and therefore worth studying , and 2) in attemp ting to understand the significance of areal differentiation more fully , they define categories of pattern s and associa­ 3 tions and study them in their areal relationship .

Region Versus Area

Great difficulty has been experienced by geographers with regard to the distinction between region and area .

While in a casual sense, the terms have been used 3

interchangeab ly , a specific definition of both terms is essential . It is necessary to define region in a contemp - orary manner.

Region can be defined as a homogenous unit determined by two or more selective geographic criterion An area is determined by only one criteria . The word "region" has been traditionally used , and remains widely current , as meaning an uninterrupted area possessing some kind of . homogenity in its core , but l�cking clearly defined boundaries . Areas , however , are limited by prescribed physical or political boundaries arb itrarily drawn or adopted . Therefore , most regions also have a definable area .

While regional studies aid in understanding the interrelationship s of the world as a whole , the study of 4 an area increases knowledge of the study site only . The term area , as used in this thes is , is defined as a physio­ graphic subdivision, specifically , The Jame s River High- lands of South Dakota .

The ·study Area

This thesis is a systematic-area geographical analysis of the James River Highlands (figure 1) . It is comprised of a ridge-bordered section of the Jame s

River located· in the. sourthern-most part of the Jame s HUTCHINSON TURNER

·· · .. . ···· . ·· · . •••• ••• ••• • • • · ·. . • • • • . } 1 • , - I I • ••. . "•. CLAY ·

SCALE IN MILES 0 16 30 Figure 1. The James River Highlands ...... Source: Hogan , The Geography of South Dakota JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

.p. 5

River Basin (figure 2) . The Highlands is a teardrop shaped area approximately _35 miles in diameter.

The James River Highlands consist of a group of three ridges , . vary�ng in elevation from 1, 255 to. 1,440 . feet above sea lev�l. The ridges consist of drift­ covered bedrock that partially block the southern end of the James River Basin. The three ridges are the most conspicuous features of the heavily dissected inter�v�lley . areas still re�aining . From east to west the Highlands are Turkey Ridge , Jame s Ridge , and Yankton Ridge (figure

3) . Al l owe their prominence chiefly to the fact that they are underlain by the relatively resistant chalk 5 and lime stone of the Niobrara formation .

Relevance of the Study

The importance of this study is to provide a general data base for use in future studies of the area , as well as to provide information necessary for future planning of the area . The last known geographic study of the James River Highlands was conducted 65 years ago .

This study is an attemp t to up date geographic understanding of the area in a contemporary study . The Department of

Geography at South Dakota State Univers ity has adopted as a maj or goal of its graduate program the completion of a series of Ma ster's theses on the geography of South 6

Fig. 2. Typical Views of the Jame s River. HUTCHINSON TURNER

Figure 3: Location of Ridges 1. Turkey Ridge SCALE IN MILES 2. James Ridge 0 16 30

3. Yankton Ridge ...... •...... Source : Flint JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

...... 8

Dakota . Each of these theses will examine the geography

of one of thirteen physiographic divisions that exist

within the state· (figure 4) . This will provide the people

of South Dakota and the nation with a clearer understanding

of the state 's geographical pattern s and conditions .

It is important to rememb er that there are limita­

tions invo lved with this study . Some of the information

provided is in a sense general to eas tern South Dakota

and other areas of the state. The area known as the

. James River Highlands includes parts of Clay , Hutchinson ,

Turner , Yankton , and Bone Homme counties . However , be­

cause of the extremely small portion located in. Bon Homme

County it is not included in the statistics utilized in

this study .

·Review of Literature

Derwent Whittlesey (American Geography : Inventory

and Prospect) defined the approach, design , and theory of

a region . By distinguishing regions from bordering areas

in that they offer an association of area-related features

and therefore possess some kind of internal cohesion .

Whittlesey gave the geographer the philosophy of region

and a working definition of area. For Whittlesey the

region is a device for selecting and studying areal

groupings of the co mplex phenomena found on the earth . 'wWi .. -

12

N 1. Minn esota River Lowland 7. Coteau Du Missouri 2. Lake Dakota Plain 8. Missouri River Trench *E SCAU Ull MIL(I 3. Coteau Des Prairie 9. Sand Hills ' 0 &I 10 4. James River Highlands 10. Pierre Hills 5. Southern Plateau 11. Southern Plateau 6. James River Lowlands 12. Northern Plateau 13. Black Hills

Figure 4: Physiographic Regions of South Dakota

SOURC E: Hogan, The Geography of South Dakota

\b 1 0

The best geographic�l inve stigation of the study

area examined only the physiographic components of the

area. This study was in the last maj or geography of

South Dakota, wr itten in 1917 by a native -born geographer , 6 Stephen Sargent Visher .

Although , various histories of South Dakota include

the James River Highlands such as those done by Herbert

Schell (History ·of ·south · Dakota) and J. L. Jennewein

··(Dakota Panorama) no known his.tory has been written

specifically for the area . Soil surveys , wildlife pop�la-

tion stud ies, human population count s, and hydrological

studies have been done by various state and federal

institutions . However, these studies were performed on

a county basis rather than falling specifically within

the boundaries of the James River Highlands . Similar

. area studies have been done, for various areas , by

Orville Gab , Ron�ld Crawford , Ans lem Rumpca , and Jeffrey

Faunce. These studies can be found in the thesis section

of the library at South Dakota State Un iversity.

Organization

This study of the Jame s River Highlands is not

limited to one criterion such as location , climate , or

human development ; rather , it incorporates a wholistic

approach to the geographical assessment of the area in 11

the context of a systematic-area study . This thesis

divides the study into three main parts , the physical

environment (terrain , climate , soils , hydrographic

features , natural vegetation , fish an� wildlife), human

occup·ance (history) , and the hunian development (agriculture , mining , industry , transportation , recreation , power and

utilities , and population) . It is conducted in the hope

that it wj.ll provide information to the residents of the

James River Highlands, the Depa;-tment of Geography at

South Dako ta State University , and other interested

individuals and. business concerns . 12

Ertd Notes 1 Dickinson , Robert E. Regiortal ·cortcept : The Anglo Americart ·Leaders . London : Routleage & Kegan Paul , 1976, pg. 1. 2 James , Preston E. and Jones , Clarence F. eds . Americart ·Geography :· · · rrtverttory arid ·Prospect . Association of American Geographers � Syracuse, N.Y. : Syracuse Univer­ sity Press, 1954 , p. 6. 3 rbid., pg. 7. 4 Harvey , David. · Explartations in Geography . · London : Edward Arno ld Ltd. , 1969 , pp . 350-353 . 5 Flint , Richard Foster . · ·pleistocene · Geology of Easterrt South Dakota. U. S . . Department of the Interior , Geological Survey , Profess ional Paper No . 262 . Washington , D.C. : Government Printing Office , l955 , p· . 54 . 6 visher , Stephen Sargent , Vermillion , South Dakota , University of So�th Dakota , Bulletin No . 8, 1918 . CHAPTER II

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The James River. Highlands is a unique· combination of river bottom and bordering ridges . Geographically, the physical environment of the James River Highlands is represented by the following features : terrain, climate, soils, natural vegetation, animal life, and hydrographic

features .

Terrain

The following is a description of the area 's topo­ graphy, as adapted from Richard Foster Flint 's Pleistocene

Geology of Eastern South Dakota and from personal observa- 1 t�on. . The James River Highlands is a teardrop shaped river bottom area bordered by three noticeable ridges .

Turkey Ridge, the largest of the three, is approximately

40 miles long by 10 miles wide, with an elevation some 300

feet higher than the surrounding landscape . Running northwest to southeast, Turkey Ridge provides a divide between the nearly parallel Jame s and Vermillion'Rivers .

The northeast flank of the ridge has a more gentle and

less conspicuous slope than the southwest flank (figure 5) .

This is a result of the northeast flank slop ing down to an

374.15S �r\1 ITU n v T CT Tr: 1 r J \lr:n lTV 1 tnn An , 14

Fig . 5. Views northwe st and northeast from Turkey Ridge. 15

ancient valley . (occup ied by the Vermillion River ) that has been modified only by glaciation , whereas the southwest

flank has been undercut by actions of the Jame s and

Mi ssouri Rivers (figure 6) . The southwe st end of the ridge is a bluff that has been truncated by the Jame s and

Missouri Rivers since the last period of glaciation in the area (figure 7).

Turkey Ridge has a dendritic drainage pattern .

The principal stream, Turkey Creek , divides the ridge

longitudinally, flowing for nearly 20 miles through a narrow canyon as much as 200 feet deep . The stream is interlobate in origin ; that is , it began to flow down the surface of the ridge at the time when the lowlands on either side of the ridge were occupied by lobes of glacial ice . These lobes of glacial ice stood higher than the ridge itself. The stream was therefore guided by the retaining walls created by the ice , until it intrenched itself into the glacial drift and bedrock .

Turkey Ridge is composed of chalk of the Niobrara formation covered in spots by Pierre shale . In the canyon of Turkey Creek the Smokey Hill chalk member of the Niobrara formation is exposed beneath the Sharon

Springs member of the Pierre shale . Both chalk and shale outcrops can be found along the we st flank of the ridge .

Other outcroppings are rare , however , because of a 30 to 16

Fig. 6. Views southwe st and west from Turkey Ridge. •

HUTCHINSON TURNER

Figure 7: Generalized Glacial Map SCALE IN MILES 1. Late Wis consin End Moraine 0 16 30 2. Late Wisconsin Ground Moraine ...... Source : S. D. Geological Survey JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

� '-1

• 18

200 foot thick mantle of glacial drift . The surface expres­ sions of the ridge consist of a succession of end moraines draped across the top and along the sides of the ridge .

Jame s Ridge , the smallest of the Highlands , acts as the western border of the study area. This ridge lies west of the James River approximately eight miles north of its mouth . The ridge is nine miles long , one and one-half miles wide , and. varies between 100 and 260 feet in local relief. The long axis of the ridge runs southeast, parallel with the axis of Turkey Ridge . At its southern end shale crops out . The shale is exposed overlying chalk near its northeastern end ; apparently these strata also constitute the bulk of Turkey Ridge . Glacial drift , with an obvious morainal topography , covers the ridge and is banked massively against its northern and eastern sides .

This phenomenon gives it the erronious impression of an end moraine . Individual end moraines are present , but they are secondary to the bedrock ridge and their posit ions were determined by it . W� ll logs show that the drift on and around the ridge is. very thick (figure 8) .

The third Highland , Yankton Ridge , which is the southern border of the highlands area , forms the north side of the Missouri River trench from the City of Yankton westward for 16 miles . Yankton.Ridge reaches an extreme height of nearly 500 feet ab ove the Missouri River. This 19

Fig. 8. James Ridge from the e?s t. 20

ridge resembles Turkey Ridge in that Yankton Ridge slopes on its north side to an ancient stream. v�lley, ab andoned and partially filled with glac ial drift . Yankton Ridge , as the others in the area , has ·a ma ssive core of Niobrara chalk overlain by Pierre. shale . The bedrock is veneered with drift except along the Missouri River bluf�s , where the chalk is almost continually exposed by various forms of erosion. The drift is relatively thin (figure 9) .

Along with the three ridges described, a fourth and smaller ridge , elongated eastward, and about 100 feet lower than Jame s Ridge , occup ies the southern part of the study·area. The town of Lesterville stands on the . s ummit of this ridge . This ridge lies within the borders of the study are·a . Although proof is lacking that the ridge is composed of bedrock , it is assumed to be bedrock because of two facts . One is that end moraine is draped around the ridge in a way that suggests a barrier to glacial flow . Similar glacial flow ob stacles were created by the other three ridges . The second fact is that immediately west of the town of Lesterville this ridge is bisected by a valley , incompletely filled with glac ial drift. This valley has steep slopes and a winding ground-plan pattern . Pre-drift valleys in other parts of South

Dako ta where bedrock is known to lie at or close to the surface have similar slopes and ground-plan patterns . 21

Fig . 9. Yankt on Ridge facing northeast and south. 22

The remainder of the area is composed of the

Jame s River val ley. This lowland bordered by Turkey ,

James , and Yankton Ridges is typical of mo st river valleys in South Dakota. It is very flat with alluvial deposits_ forming the bulk of its minor relief.

·climate

The physical conditions of any area are greatly influenced by the climate . The components of the climate greatly affect the environment"- . The se component s include radiation , winds , heat , humidity , cloud cover , evaporation , precipitation , and the passage of frontal systems . The

Jame s River Highlands is a relative ly small area. The town of Menno functions as the only official weather recording station in the area.. Information on weather extreme s is not complete and therefore are not be included.

The weather and climate of the study area are strongly inf luenced by its location in the central part of the North American continent . Continental climates are characterized by large annual , day to day, and diurnal temperature variations . Precipitation tends to be irregular and relat ively unreliab le in coverage , amount , and occurrence. Averages and "normal conditions" have little significance , because great variations in precipi­ tation and temp eratures occur ·often . Averages are the 23

data base included herein (tab le 1).

Weather within the study area is determined large ly by the interaction of four extensive air mas ses: cool, moist air from the northern Pacific Ocean (symbol mP); hot , dry air from the plains of north-central

Mexico and the southwest United States (symbol cT) ; warm , mo ist air from the Gulf of Mexico (symbol mT); and cold, dry air from northern Polar regions (symbol 2 cP) .

Cool , mo ist air masses from the northern Pacific

Ocean must pass over the Rocky Mountains to reach the

Jame s River Highlands . The mountains remove much of the mo isture from the air ma sses before they reach the study area. Thus , most of the precipitat ion that the

Jame s River Highlands receive s originates in the Gulf 3 0 f MeXl. . CO .

The study area falls into a Humid Continental Koppen type A class ification of climate . In this class ification , winter temperatures range for 18 to 26 degrees Fahren- heit and from 71 to 75 degrees Fahrenhe it dur ing the summer . The average growing season in the area is 150 days . During the growing season 60 to 75 percent of 4 the precipitation occurs in the form of thunderstorms .

The available moisture in the area varies from TABLE 1

SELECTED TEMPERATURE/PRECIPITAT ION DATA FOR THE JAMES RIVER HIGHLANDS

Av erage January Average July Average Seasonal Station Temperatures Temperatures Temperatures 1941- 1970 1941-1970 1941 - 1970 Fahrenheit I Celsius I Precipitation

Menno 17.3°/-8.2°/.48 inches 74.6°/23.7°/3.19 inches 47.7°/8.7°/24.19 inches

Centerville * 17.5°/-8.0°/.50 inches 75.3°/24.1°/3�11 inches 48.2°/9.0°/25.69 inches

Tyndall * 18.4°/-7.6°/.46 inches 75.6°/24.2°/3.�6 inches 48.3°/9.0°/23.93 inches

Yankton * 16.6°/-8.6°/.40 inches 74.3°/23.5°/3.04 inches 46.7°/8.2°/24.23 inches

Celsius = 5/9(Fahrenheit t 32°) * Closest Recording Station to the Area

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Climatic Center, Monthly Normals of Temperature and Precipitation (1941-1970) South Dakota, 1973, pgs. 1-2.

N � 25

year to year and affects agricultural production. and its related segments of the economy . Average annual precipi­ tation for the area is 24 inches. Ab out three-fourths of the precipitation falls during the growing season , the remainder coming in the form of snow. Av erage seasonal snowfall is 32 inches. Strong winds often accomp any the snowfall causing snow to drift in sheltered areas .

Occasionally , snow and strong winds develop into blizzards with near zero visibility and a-large drop in temperature . 5 Blizzards may be expected one or mo re time s a year .

Prevailing surface winds are from the north and northwest during the wint.er and from the south and southeast in the summer . R�latively flat terrain in the river bottom portion of the study area helps to accentu­ ate its windiness. The greatest surface wind velocities are associated with summer thunderstorms and the passage of vigOrous cold fronts during late fall , winter , or early spring. Wind velocities then may reach 50 miles per hour or more ; however, average annual wind velocity is approximately 11 miles per hour . Winds tend to be greater during daylight hours than at night . This increase is caused by winds resulting from differences in barometric pres sure , which in turn is influenced 6 by temperatures . 26

Agriculture provides the main economic base for the Jame s River Highlands . Glimatological data is extremely impor"tant in determinlng what types of crops can be produced. It is essential that the climate be monitored in order to aid 'in the development of maxi­ mum agricultural efficiency .

Soils

Soil scientists recognize the interaction of five soil forming factor s as being primarily responsi­ ble for the kind of soil that develops in any area.

These primary factors are : parent material , climate , 7 topography, time , and biological activity .

Of these factors , climate is probably the mo st important . It influences to a large extent the characteristic s of the native vegetation and is important with respect to the weathering of parent materials into the soil and the erosion of soils already formed.

Vegetation influences color of the surface layer , organic matter content and the amount of nutrients in the soil . The native vegetation of the James River High­ lands was characterized by mid- to tall-grass prairie .

Various trees and shrub s are found in the draws , and deciduous floodplain woodlands follow the course of 27

the Jame s River .

The native vegetation acting in association with the temperature regime determined the original amount of organic matter in the soils . The high summer tem­ peratuies in the area result in relatively rapid decom­ position of organic matter . This decomposition refers to both the sour ce material to humus , and the humu s to non-humus transitions . Although other areas have the same amount of precipitation , tbe warmer the temperature the faster the decomposition of organic matter . This is due to slower decomposition and chemical activity under cooler temperatures .

Parent material is the weathered , disintegrated or unconsolidated rock mas ses from which soils form

(figure 1_0) . It determines the mineralogical and chemical composit ion of the soil. The parent materials that forme d the soils of the study area consist of glacial materials deposited dur ing the late Wis consin glacial period. Additional parent materials include loess , allu­ vium , an d colluvial materials formed from up land depo sits.

Mo st of the soils in the study area have been develop ing for the same length of time . Exceptions occur on the loess and alluvial deposits throughout the area. These soils are younger than those wh ich weathered from 11 HUTCHINSON TURNER �\... \

.. • • ·· • . · . B •• ······· •1/f ,...... I •• ...... •• .. . •• •• QM •• •• . \ • BON HOMME \ YANKTON\ Qc • .. \ � \ \ . CLAV \ • \ "\,�1;. "\' • . , ...... _ ...... \ .. • • •• . . ._ ---:• •• •• •• Q .• • A�' � • I ·· • . • • · ·· · ·· • • · ···· · ·· . • ·· ········· • ·· .- • • • t . . • . • · · • • •• . . .. �: . .. •• ...... •• •• •• •• •• •• •• Figure 10 : Soil Parent Ma terial Qm - Late Wisconsin Glacial Drift , Loam Till SCALE IN MILES Qc - Late Wis consin Glacial Drift, Loam Till , 0 16 30 Qa - Alluvium Patchy Silts ...... Source : Soils of South Dakota , pg . 10 JAMESRIVER t-UGHLANDS

N co 29

glacial deposits. Native grassland. vegetation consisted of tall grass stands that left relatively_ large amouri.t s 8 of organic matter in the soils .

With regard to the three ridges found in the Jame s

River Highlands , below the mantle of glacial drift is bedrock cons isting of the Niobrara chalk , overlain in places by the :Sharon Springs member of _the Pierre shale.

These strata. are exposed in the Canyon of Turkey Creek ; other exposures are rare , as the drift mantle is 30 to 9 200 feet thick.

The entire eastern half of South Dakota is composed of Chernozem soils . Chernozem is a group of soils having a deep dark colored surface horizon rich in organic matter which grades below into lighter colored soil and finally into a horizon of carbonate accumulation. It is developed under tall and mixed grasses in a temperate to cool, subhumid climate. Ghernozem is from the Russian

1 0 · word for "b lack earth" .

A new system of soil classification , called soil taxonomy , was adopted in the United States in 1 975.

Under this new system the soil formerly called Ghernozem, which covers the entire eastern half of the state , has been reclassified (figure 11). This reclass ification

. . consists of six categories , in 9rder of decreas ing rank or increasing number : order , suborder , great group , Ill'

N

W E SCALE IN MILES . Figure 11: Soil Regions of South Dakota 0 � 50 F ===a Source: Westin, Pulr , and Bunt ley, Soils of South Dako LV * 0 31

subgroup , fam�ly , and series .

Specifically , the soils in this area consist of

Clarno Loamy Prairie· (family ) in the western half, which is composed of Clarno-Stickney-Dudley (series ), types of soil on a gently undulating topography . The Clarno soils are nearly black , deep , friable loams found on convex areas '· whereas Stickney soils are thick-surface with mild claypans . Both Stickney and Dudley_ soils occur on flats or closed depressions . The uses for these soils are generally farming , corn and spring grains , with . 11 pasture in the steeper areas . The eastern half of the

Jame s River Highlands is made up of Moody Silty Prairie

(family). This area contains Egan -Vib org-Badus (series) with a near ly level to undulating topography . The Egan soils are deep , friable , well drained silty clay loams dev�loped in a silty cap over glacial till . The Viborg soils are mo derat�ly well drained associates of Egan soils. The Badus soils occupy flats and hol low basins and are somewhat poorly drained and may be saline . Corn , soybeans , and oats are grown in these types of soils.

Maintenance of organic matter and nutrients on Egan and

Viborg , and drainage on Badus are prob lems associated 12 with these types of soils (figure 12) .

Soil associates have importance to farming in that the arrangement and kind of soil in an association HUTCHINSON TURNER

::·:1:::::;::.·:: ..

······••· •• ••• •• •• • •• • •• ......

Figure 12: Soil As sociation Map SCALE IN MILES 1. Clarno - Stickney - Dudley , Gently Undulating 0 16 30 2. Egan - Viborg - Badus , Level to Undulating ...... Source : Westin , Puhr , & Buntley , Soils of S.D. JAMES RIVER HIGHLANDS

w N 33

governs its suitability for. various. systems of farming .

The Egan�Viborg association , for example , contains soils suitab le for crops or pasture so that cash grain , dairy , or general farming all are included in the choices available to the farmer . ·An uriu sual amopnt of fertiliza­ tion is not needed and soil salinization is not a prob lem due to very limited irrigation .

·Hydrographic ·Feattires

- Perhaps the best documented surface and ground water supplies are fourid within the Jame s River Basin.

These. supplies consist of the river itself and smaller streams or creeks . Natural and artificial lakes , stock ponds , and wells also provide for agricultural and domestic water uses. Mo st of the streams in the study area experience periods of no �low dur ing the year , inc luding the Jame s River itself in some years . Due to the location of the James River Highlands near the mouth of the Jame s River , the frequency of no flow periods is low.

The James River Basin's physiography has a maj or effect on the hydrology . The flat glaciated. valley of the

Jame s River slows surface water runoff into the stream.

As a partial consequence , average annual land runoff into 13 the stream amourits to 0.23 of a� inch across the basin. 34

There are numerous creeks . located in the James

River Highlands area. Some of the larger creeks include :

Ulmer , Turkey Ridge , Turkey , Clay , Beaver , Smokey Run ,

Mud , and Marne . These creeks are used primarily by local residents for limited recreation , stock watering , and . . . 1 4 �rr�gat�on . .

Flooding in the James River valley has been a severe prob lem for many years· (figure 13) . The maj or problem areas are along the mai� channel of the James

River in the broad, flat river valley . In many cases , the flooding problem along the main channel is amplified due to tributary inflow . The tributaries have a much steeper gradient which fac ilitates a rapid runoff into the main stream. Consequently , in time s of _rapid runoff the main channel is unaple to handle the large volume of flow. A-lthough information is not available for all of the streams in the study are� , the recorded streams 15 registered an average annual flow of 1.5 inches. The maj or f�ooding of the Jame s River is associated with spring snowmelt runoff ,_ usually during the months of

March , April , or May . Minor flooding can also occur as a result of infrequent thunderstorms . The dying of

American elm trees , caused by Dutch elm disease is , in turn , causing log jams , flooding , damage to bridges and crossings , and sediment deposits along the Jame s River . 35

Fig. 13. Bridged fie ld approa�h and Flo od damage to tran sportation. 36

This is damaging some lands , detracting from scenic beauty , and altering some fish and wildl ife .habitat

(figure 14) .

Al though mo st of the waters in the study area

are used for recreational purposes such as swirmning , boating , and fishing , many of them have water quality which is poor or generally considered un satisfactory for

such purposes .

Lakes in the study area vary in quality , but mo st have summer algal blooms that: contribute to very low transparency which detracts from their recreational use.

Sedimentation makes the lake bottoms and shorelines soft and less accessable , thereby discouraging boating . Jame s

River recreation is hampered by sediment deposits, sus­ pended solids , and high bacteria levels . Water quality affects wildlife and fish populations . Fish populations have been limited in the area lakes and streams by a

lack of visib;i.lity wh ich reduces game fish feeding and

favors rough fish such as carp . Sedimentation has reduced available habitat , forage base , spawning areas ,

and has reduced lake volume which leads to frequent

summer and winter fish kills . Algal blooms can deplete

oxygen levels during cloudy periods and cause localized

fish kills. Even when there is no flow in the James

River , many fish survive in pools . Fish in the pools are 37

Fig. 14. Navigational obstruc �ions on the Jame s River. 38

stressed , however , the stress being magnified by evapora­ tion which causes pollutants to increase in concentration .

Lakes and reservoirs located within the study area include Guthmiller , Beaver , Marindahl , Menno , Ulmer , and

West Side . All of these lakes are under.75 acres in size.

These lakes and res ervoirs have use classifications , by the South Dakota Department of Natural Res ources , of warm water permanent , semi-permanent, arid margl.nal fishlife propa- gation , immersion recreation , l�mited contact r·ecreation , 16 wildlife production , and stock watering .

In areas where precipitation and streamflow are highly variable from season to season, as well as from . year to year , such as is common in the northern Great

Plains , groundwater provide s a somewhat more reliab le source of supply for all water uses except recreation .

The sources of groundwater , or aquifers , in the Jame s

River Highlands can generally be classified as shallow or deep . The shallow aquifers are considered to be those in alluvial and glacial depos its .

There are large amounts of water stored in the shallow aquifers of eastern South Dakota . The exact amount in storage is not known . In order to gain better knowledge of these aquifers , the South Dakota Geological

Survey has undertaken a program.to map the shallow glacial and alluvial aquifers in eastern South Dakota. 39

Fieldwork to study the aquifers located in the study area 17 is not scheduled to begin un til 1983 .

Alluvial aquifers are found adj acent to streams , usually in the material previously deposited by the stream.

These depo sits are usually narrow , but are easily recharged from the readily accessible surface water source . Such deposits may be hydra�lically linked to underlying outwash ma terial s. Another source of shallow alluvial groundwater are the buried channels of preglacial rivers . The water­ bearing material in these buried valleys is ancient allu­ vium , and the outwash material from glacial runoff that he lped cap the v�lleys . Many of these deposits , inc luding those in the study are� , have not been mapped due to the difficulty in locating them and their irregular shapes .

Water quality in the study area is generally adequate for livestock watering . In late summer , water quality deteriorates due to salt concentration by evaporation and algal blooms . Only in rare in stances do these conditions make the water source unuseable for livestock watering .

The water quality-needed to irrigate a field is dependent upon the soil type and drainage . A water which is highly suitable to irrigate one soil may be incompatable with another soil. No general statement can be made about the relationship between water quality , soil character­ istics , and irrigation development . In those areas which 40

have soils which can be irrigated with low quality water , irrigation has been developed. Irrigation would develop

in other areas if high quality water could be made avail­ ab le . Generally , within the study area , if water supplies are available, they are of un suitab le quality for irrigation of nearby soils .

All of the population centers in the Jame s River

Highlands ob tain their domestic water from groundwater

supplies . Whereas during drought years quantity is a

limiting factor on use , water quality is especially poor

dur ing periods of low quantity . Problems experienced with

domestic water supply include high dissolved solids ; high nitrates ; tastes and odors due to algal bloom and organic matter ; and high sulfates which may cause diarrhea in . . . . . 18 occas�ona 1 users sue" h as v� s�tors an d t our�s t s.

Nattirgl V�g�tation

In the central lowlands region of the North American

continent , the predominent vegetation coverage is grass .

South Dakota lies within this grassland . Grass was the ·

dominant natural form of vegetation . This vegetation wa s

directly influenced by the climate and soil . These vari­

ab les determine the typ e of vegetation that can survive

and prosper unde.r natural conditions . The tall grass and tall. grass transition to mixed 41

grass vegetation is the type associated with the Jame s * River Highlands (figure 15 ) . . There are a multitude of . environmental factors , other than precipitation , that

actually control the kind of vegetation present in a

specific loc�le . •

Treelessness characterizes the tall grass prairie .

Although many scholars have cited fire as the primary

·reason for a lack of trees , summer drought appears to be

a secondary factor that restricts tree growth in all but

the more mo ist. locations . Vegetation of the true prairie

is rather drought tolerant . When periodic late spring or

ea�ly sunnner droughts occu� , true prairie vegetation can

become dormant , whereas yourig trees have more difficulty

in weathering dry perio ds . The frequency of fires , either

natural or manmade , . should not be compared to drough.t s re­ · garding the lack of tree s in the native prairie environment.

The original true . prairie in South Dakota corres­

ponds closely to what now is identified as the "Corn Belt"

region of the state . Because of the high agricultural

activity in the area , and rather level topography , by

*Note : The map included is not intended to convey the erroneous idea that the vegetation types, on the scale drawn ,_ actually have distinct boundaries . Neither should the conclusion be reached, that a vegeta�ion type is restricted to the indicated limits . w*N 'E SCALE IN MILES Figure 15 : Flora and Fauna Regions ,, 0 � 50

Source: Hogan , The Geography of South Dakota s � N 43

far the greatest portion of the true prairie has been trans­

forme d into farmland . Isolated trac.ts of prairie grasses can still be found in old cemeteries, railroad right -of­ ways , s.ome: .r.oad� ditches�;� . and wetlands .

True prairie vegetation in its natural condition contained many species . The maj or grasses included big bluestem, little bluestem, Indian grass , switchgrass , procupine grass, and tall dropseed. Some of _ the princi­ pal forbs are leadplant , grouridplum , mi lkvetch , American licorice , white and purp le prairie clover , scrufpeas , onions , blacksampson, perennial sunflowers, false boneset , 19 and prairie rose (See Appendix A) .

With deterioration caused by drought and/or grazing , depending on the site , several grasses increase in abun­ dance . They are generally less productive and less palatable than the tall grass prairie vegetation that is present when conditions are favorable. The common grasses that increase under such conditions include Kentucky blue­ grass , western wheatgrass, sideoats grama , blue grama , hairy grama , and buffalograss. Some of the more common forb s that increase are yarrow , cudweed, sagebrush , whorled milkweed, many-flowered aster , skeletonweed, and some 20 goldenro ds .

With further deterioration , another group of plants , referred to as invaders, become increasingly abundant . 44

Included among these invaders are cheatgrass , prairie threeawn , foxtail barley , Canada bluegrass , and sand dropseed. Weedy forb s include ragweeds , perenn ial 2 1 thistles, and curlycup gumweed among many others (fig­ ure 16) .

The amount of area in the Jame s River Highlands that is dominated by the three ridges located in the area , creates an abundance of pasture land . Many of the plants listed can survive on . this pasture land because of it uncultivatable topography .. Some species of native prairie may also exist along the Jame s River and its tributaries.

The predominant maj or vegetation types of the

Jame s River Highlands , as is indicated in Figure 16 , consist of tall grass prairie and tall grass transition to mixed grasses with wooded areas along the banks of the river .

The common tall grass sp�cies inc lude big bluestem , little bluestem, switchgrass, and Indian grass. Big bluestem is a rather large plant with stalk heads reaching three to eight feet . It has a bluish color and its seed heads frequently branch into three parts which resemble a turkey 's foot. Big bluestem is among the best of the prairie grasses in quality and quantity . Little bluestem has a height of only one to four feet � leaf sheaths that are slightly flattened, and leave s that are slight ly folded. 45

Fig. 16. Examples of native v�getation in the James River Highlands. 46

These features help to distinguish little bluestem from 22 big bluestem.

Switchgra.ss has a height of _ three to six feet . It

is easily identified by V-shaped patches on the upper sur­

face of the leaf blade near the stem . Switchgrass is not

as palatable as the bluestem but is readily consumed by

livestock as long as the stems remain green . Indian grass

ranges in height from four to eight feet and has golden­

yellowish , lance-shaped, dense_ panicles . This grass is

associated with bluegrass in quantity of production and is . 23 used as feed for cattle .

The tall grass transition mixed grass include s we stern wheatgrass and porcupine grass along with big bluestem. Western wheatgrass , (the state grass) , is a native , cool season , sod forming grass with very strong

rhizomes . Leaves are stiff , flat when gree� , rolled when

dry , mo stly glabrous , and feel rough to the touch . Stems

and leaves are generally blue- green giving rise to a less­ preferred name bluestem wheatgrass . Porcup ine grass in

times past was an abundant comp onent of northern prairies .

It decreased under grazing pres sure , un til today it seldom

is a maj or comp onent of the vegetation , except in isolated

tract s. It is a cool season , native perennial bunchgrass 24 that is very nutritious and relished by all livestock .

On the lower James River , woodlands fol low the 47

same distribution patterns as in the middle and upper river

valley , although a somewhat greater portion of the river

valley is occupied by trees and specie s richness is greater .

Common tree species fourid in the study area inc lude American

elm, green ash , eastern cottonwood, hackberry , bur oak ,

eastern red cedar , and several species of willow . Shrub s

in the area include American plum, chokecherry , dogwood, 25 and buckthorn .

Natural vegetation is now a small percentage of the

study area . Mo st of the present vegetation consists of

. various cultivated crops . Maj or crops grown are corn , oats ,

alfalfa , barley , wheat , sunflowers, and soybeans . Some

land is used as rangeland and pastureland or to produce

hay . Small areas of woodlands occur , as native woods ,

along the flood plain of the Jame s River and as shelter­

belts or windbreaks that have been planted since the days

of the early settlers .

Fish And Wildlife

The James River Highlands area in presettlement

time s was dominated by grass land ecosystems . Wetland

complexes were common within these portions of the land­

scape where natural drainage was poor or nonintegrated.

Woodlands were large ly confined to flood plains along the

streams and the river . The latter provided a migration 48

corridor for eastern deciduous forest organisms into the prairie region . A variety of grass land and wetland fauna inhab ited the region . Diversity of species was and is mo st pronounced in the prairie-wetland-woodland habitats along stream courses .

Wheareas many of the larger species of prairie anima ls are extinct , rare , or confine d to captivity , many of the smaller forms still persist in a few prairie areas , on private lands un suitable for intens ive agricultural development , and on public lands managed as wildlife re­ fuges or game management areas . The flora and fauna of prairie wetlands , riverine we tlands , and woodlands have been less affected because of protection afforded by hilly or rocky terrain or within lowland areas subj ect to per­ iodic flooding .

Natural or seminatural ecosystems persists along many portions of the Jame s River Valley , a representative prairie river ecosystem , and to a lesser extent along its maj or tributaries . The Jame s River is a natural refuge for fish and wildlife in this prairie region . It also provides an important north-south corridor for many migatory birds .

The river has deve loped a pronounced meandering pattern in many parts of the valley , providing exten s ive milages of active river channe ls , old oxbows or cut-off lakes , and mar shes. · Old oxbows and riverine wetlands provide 49

excellent habitat for a wide variety of aquatic fauna ,

including spawning and rearing habitat for at least 40

species of fish. Interdi spers ion of open water , wetlands ,

· woodlands , prairie , and cropland along the river corridor

is much greater than the surrounding up lands , and provides

an important habitat for over 200 species of birds and

mammals . The valley lands also have provided environmental

conditions suitable for the development of woodlands , a

habitat type that is scarce in the area.

Overgrazing of native grass lands and woodlands has

reduced the abundance of many specie� of native fauna .

Throughout the Highlands area shelterbelts constitute an

important source of food and shelter for up land game birds ,

song birds , deer , and other furbearers, which are also

adversely affected by indiscriminant grazing . Unfortu­

nately , other stresses also affect shelterbelts. These

inc lude Dutch Elm and other diseases , herbic idal drift ,

and the clearing of trees to be used as a fuel source or

enlarging agricultural fields . Taken altogether , these

stresses raise serious concerns for the ma intenance of

wildlife habitat . Many shelterbelts need to be renovated

and others developed for wildlife needs . Existing riverine

woodlands also need protection and res toration to provide

wildl ife habitat .

Prairie wetlands also are affected by an array of so

stresses including tillage , burning , siltation , and exces­ sive grazing . A mo st serious problem in terms of wildlife management , however , is their drainage and conversion to cropland . We ll-managed wetlands are not only valuab le to a wide variety of wetland fauna , including waterfowl , but also supply critical winter cover for up land game birds , furbearer s, and big game . Pres ervation of more acreages of wetland is essential to provide long-term habitat for waterfowl and other wildlife .

Stream and lake habifat in the Jame s River High­ lands area is affected by sediment and other effluents from crop lands , feedlots, and municipalities . The se con­ taminants need to be controlled in order to allow restora­ tion and improvement of wildlife habitat . Proposed and some ongoing clearing operat ions on the river need to be monitored closely in order to avoid adverse effects on riverine habitat .

Over 40 species of fish have been reported in the

Jame s River Highlands . These species are not un iformly distributed along the north-south axis of the area. The significant features controlling distribution of fishe s in the Jame s River Highlands include ecological factors along the mainstream of the Jame s River , the varied habi­ tat s in the many tributaries of the Jame s River , the habitats in the natural lakes and reservoirs , and the 5 1

Mis sour i River which provides opportun ity for p·eriodic fish recruitment into the lower section of the Jame s River .

Dominent spec ies inc lude northern pike , carp , fat ­ head minnows , sand shiner , white sucker , black bul lhead, orartgespotted sunfish , yellow perch , walleye , buffalo fishes , golden shiner , gar , drum , mooney , and freshwater catfish . Several nonnative species that are adapted to lakes and reservoirs further south have been introduced into suitable waters in the Jame s River Basin.· These inc lude the white bass, the largemouth and smallmouth bass , the black and white crappies, and the bluegill and the pumpkinseed sunfishes . Although adults of many of these species regularly enter the river for spawning they are not permanent residents of the Jame s River , but more properly residents of the Missouri River . The young of the species utilize the lower Jame s River as a rearing 26 area (See Appendix B) .

Changes in the aquatic environment caused by agri­ culture and other other ac tivities in the Jame s River Basin since settlement have caused changed in the fish fauna .

Contributing environmental factors have been a drop in the water table , loss of base flow from springs , increase in siltat ion in the bed of the Jame s River , reduction of suitable spawning gravel, an i�crease in the nutrient load in the water , and reduction in dissolved oxygen . 52

The nutrient load added to the river from· feedlots , indus try , and municipalities has steadily increased , Nu- trients have increased the oxygen demand in the water and caused fish kills in winter and at other time s of low flow . · An especially devastating fish kill occurred along a 100 mile reach of the Jame s River below Mitchell , South

Dakota , in January , 1974. An estimated 400 , 000 fish died , 27 apparently killed by dis charge of raw municipal waste .

Although many species of waterfowl migrate through _ the study area , they continue northward to greater nesting areas in North Dakota and Canada . Among the local ducks and geese that may nest in the Jame s River Highlands are : lesser Canada goo se, mallard, pintail , American wigeon , wood duck , canvasbacks , redhead , and ruddy ducks . The maj ority of migratory waterfowl nest in the prairie pot­ hole region which is a great distance north of the study area .

Wildlife native to the habitats of the Highlands area is discus sed in this study in more detail than are strictly migrants. Up land game birds in the study area include the ring-necked pheasant , gray patridge , bobwhite quail , and mourning dove . Up land game species provide many hours of out door enj oyment in the study area . The maj or limi ting factor for up lan4 game birds , as with mo st wildlife , is the availab ility of good habitat within the 53

normal home range of the species. For pheasants, dense

herbac eous nesting cover and adequate winter cover is

essential (figure 17) . Trends toward extensive monocul-

ture of domestic crops, use ·of pesticides , farm technology

advances , and drainage of mar shes all contribute to phea­

sant population declines . .

Many other waterbirds and nongame birds are foun d

along the James River and throughout the rest of the study

area . Nongame birds are used for obj ects of scientific

study , education , indicators ·of environment quality , and

aesthetic value . They also eat agricultural and other

ins ect pests. In short they are an integral part of every

ecosystem even though their usefulness is often overlooked by humans . A partial list of the more common species would include ; connnon merganser , red- tailed hawk , bald

eagle , rock dove , common flicker , downy wo odpecker , blue

jay, common crow , black-capped chickadee , American robin ,

starling , house sparrow , redwinged blackbird , cardinal ,

tree sparrow , dark-eyed junco , owls , meadowlark , swallows , 28 killdeer , pelicans , and various gulls .

The white-tail deer is the maj or big game specie s

found in the study area. Mu le deer have also been

sighted in the Jame s River Highlands with somewhat less

frequency . Recreat ional hunting is' the mo st preyalent use

of big game in the James River Highlands and although · HUTCHINSON TURNER

35-69.9 7Q- 104.9

········ • ·· • · • • . • ... • •• •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • ------\ . i���------������-�------. -----· \

\. •

CLAY• .. • • • • 7Q- 1 04.9 \

\• • •

=I I •

SCALE IN MILES Figure 17 : Potential Carrying Capacity For PheasantsO 16 30

Pheasants I Square l1i le ••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••. Source: S. D. Facts , pg. 34 . JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

Ln � 55

quantitative data were not ava ilable , the overall economic impact of deer hunting in South Dakota is significant .

Many smaller mamma ls exist in the Jame s River High­ lands . Among those more cormnonly viewed are ; squirrels , cottontail rabbits , jackrabbits , mink , muskrat , beaver , raccoon , red fox, coyotes, weasels , badgers , striped and spotted skunks . These furbearers have considerable eco­ nomic value and are sought by professional and amateur trapper s alike . Limiting factors for mo st furbearers include loss of habitat , weather conditions , and competi- tion with other animals . Mus·krat , mink , and beaver are almost completely dependent on mar sh or water areas for their survival, and loss of these areas due to drought , river channelization and clearing , or changes in land use practices would adversely affect these species . Fur - bearers may suffer stresses from diseases such as canine distemp er , rabies , and accidental death such as roadkills .

Small mammals such as mice , shrews , ground squirrels , and pocket gophers , are found throughout the study area.

Many of these can survive in areas un suitable for mo st other species including overgrazed pastures, roadsides , and croplands . Wet lands or riverine shorelines , however , are especially valuab le habitat for small mammals . Popu- lations of meadow mo les , meadow jump ing mice , and short­ tailed shrews may be very high in these areas . Native 56

woodlands support populations of woodland deer mice , wood­ 29 chucks , and various species of bats .

Resource demands affect the entire natural resources spectrum . This spectrum includes hab itat quantity and quality of water , wildlife , air , and land use . These demands will intensify in the future , thereby affecting any or all of the above . At present the interactions of the uses are not well un derstood . 57

End Notes 1 Flint , Richard Foster . Pleistocene Geology of Eastern South Dakota. U. S. Department of Interior , Geo­ logical Survey, Professional Paper No . 262. Washington , D.C. : Government Printing Office , 1955 . 2 Strahler , pg . 207. 3 Interview with Dr . W. F. Lyt le. 4 conservation and Development Proj ect Plant , pg. 45 . 5 Ib id. 6 rb id. 7 strahler , Arthur N. Physical Geo raphy . 3rd ed. New York : John Wiley and Sons , Inc. , 196� . pg. 2 99 . 8 south Dakota Department of Natural Resources , Re source Inventory · of · the Jame s River Basin , 1978 , pg. 2. 9 we stin, Fred C. : Malo , Douglas D. : Soils of South Dakota, Plant Science Department , Agricultural Experiment Station , South Dakota State Un iversity , Brookings , South Dakota. Bulletin 656 , 1978 , pg . 8. 1 0 Ibid. , pg. 30. 11 Ib id. , pp . 17 , 20 , and 21. 12 Ibid. , pp . 17 , 20, and 21. 1 3 south Dakota Department of Natural Resources , Resource Inventory · of · the James 'River Basin , Division of Resource Management , December, 1978, p. 35 . 14 u. s. Depar tment of Agriculture , Lower James Resource Cortservatiort and ·Develo ment ·pro '·ect Plan , Soil Conservation Service , Huron , Sout Da ota, , p . 83. 1 5 Ibid. , p. 83. 1 6 Ib id . ' p. 84A 1 7 Resource Inventory (1) , p. 59. 58

18 Missouri River Basin Commission , Jame s River Basin Suhre ional Anal Water ualit , Missouri River Basin Commission , Fe . , p. 1 9Johnson , James R. and Nichols , Jame s T. Plants of South Dakota Grasslands : A - Photographic Study. South Dako ta State Un iversity Agricultural Experiment Station , Bulletin No . 566 . Brookings, South Dakota: Agricultural Experiment Station , 1 9 70 , p. 6. 0 2 Res ource Inventory ( ), p. 80 . 2 21Ibid. , p. 81.

22Plants of South Dakota Grasslands , pp . 13-14 . 3 2 Ib id. , p. 9 .

2 4 Ib id. , p. 11 . 5 2 Missouri River Basin Commission , Jame s River Basin Subregional Arta1 is : . North Dakota and South Dakota , Fish and Vlildlife Teeffii · · ical · paper , Un iversity of North Dako ta In s titute for Ecologic al Studies , Mi ssouri River Basin Commission , February , 1 9 80 , p. 13 . . 6 2 Lower James Re source Conservation and Deve1o ment · Project Plan, 75 , U. S. Department o Agricu ture , Soi Conservation Service, Huron , South Dakota , p. 134 . 7 2 Missour i River Basin Commission, Jame s River Basin Subregional Analysis : Fish and Wi ldlife , Mis souri River Basin Commission , 1980 , p. 57 . 8 2 Ib id . , ( 1 ) , p . 1 4 1 .

2 9 rb id. , ( ), pp . 74-81 . 2 CHAPTER III

HUMAN OCCUPANCY

In dealing with a study of this nature it is impor­

tant that the human element is examined to determine its

effect on the geography of the James River Highlands .

Demographic , economic , and historical influences are as

important as the terrestrial features of an area . The human effect on an area changes many of the natural

details of an area and needs to be examined .

In studying the human occupancy of the James River

Highlands it is essential that area be viewed as a part

of the whole. Human occupancy cannot be limited to a

spec ific region .

Many theories have been presented as to how the

first human beings came to the North American continent .

Regardless of the routes used to reach the "New World,"

it is believed that the earliest Indians arrived in the region about 40,000 years ago . During this period and up un til about 4,500 years ago those Indians residing in the "New Wor ld" are referred to as the "Paleo- Indians ."

Economic life among the Paleo- Indians was charac­ terized by implied hunting and gathering . No domesti­ cated animals are known to have been used by these Indians . 60

The maj or means of subsis tence were the now extinct long­

horned Folsum bison, plains elephant , giant beaver , and

ma stadon . They also survived on elk , antelope, and lush

vegetation . Their use of tools consisted of the fluted 1 proj ectile points , sharpened stone scrapers and knives.

Following the migration of the Paleo-Indians in the

plains regio n , there came a group of people commonly refer­

red to as the Mound Builders . The origin of this latter

group of Indians to come to the Dakota area is believed to

have been the river valleys of Ohio , Indiana , and Illinois .

The Mound Builders were different than the Paleo-Indians

in that they combined hunting and gathering features with

incipient agriculture . Corn , beans , and squash were

raised on the flood plains of numerous rivers . Another

difference between the se more recent arrivals and the

earlier nomadic residents were their villages . The

villages of these new residents were more permanent with

hous ing consisting of earthen lodges . Their tools were

also more sophisticated consisting of bone awls, fishhooks ,

and bone needles. The tools used in their agricultural practices were hoes made of buffalo rib s and shoulder­ blades . Their weaponry inc luded bow and arrows , stone 2 hatmllers and axe heads , and bone knives.

The Mound Builders achieve d their name from the use of bu rial mounds. Such mounds , 60 - 120 feet .in 61

diameter and 5 - 15 feet high not only served as tombs for

humans but also as caches for food and weaponry . Although

it is no rma lly assumed that the_s.e Mound Builders inhabited

eastern South Dakota, no record of their occupancy has

been found in the study area . However, this account was

recorded within a few miles of the study area :

Spirit Hound , northwe st of Vermillion , rises 400 feet . Indians believed it was inhabited by 18 - inch devils with human form and skilled bow­ men . Lewis and Clark visited the site of the mound; after some excavating they found artifacts , and were led to believe . it·· wa s a burial mound . 3

The Mound builders lasted only ab out 300 years and are

believed to have disappeared from the region because of

either warfare or assimilation by other Indian tribes.

It has often oeen stated that these early Indians would occas ionally use fire as a means of hunting . The se

fires were intended to drive the game to a central area where the Indians could then kill them either with weapons

or by driving them over cliffs . Hur l Welch , a local his­

torian , related to the author a story told by Joe Glass , a

relative of Hugh Glass . This story explained how fire was

used by the Indians as a last attemp t at obtaining

animals for food. The prac tice of using fire as a hunt­ 4 ing tool declined with the introduction of the horse.

The next maj or Indians to move to the area were the

Ar ikara . They arrived from what is presently Nebraska and 62

Kansas in the 16th Century . The Ar ikara were an agricul­

tural group which subsisted primarily on corn , beans ,

·squash, and pumpkin , which was supplimented by buffalo and smaller game . The Ar ikara are generally associated with the introduction of the horse to the upper Missouri

Valley . The Ar ikara were a powerful people until they

fell victims to several small pox epidemics toward the

end of the 18th Century . As the Dakota (Sioux ) began moving from the western Mississippi Valley , because of

pressure from the Chippewas , they forced the weakened

Arikara northward up the Mi ssouri River to the Mandan 5 villages near Bismarck , North Dakota.

The Dakota, or Sioux , Indians were divided into

three great groups: the Eastern or Santee division; the

Middle or Wiciyela division ; and the We stern or Teton

division . Each of these three divisions were in turn

divided into many bands wh ich were some time s called

tribes. The Yankton and Yanktonai composed the Middle

or Wiciyela division. In ab out 1860 the Yankton were

divided into seven or eight bands .

While _ living in the . woodland environment , in what

is now the State of Minnesota , the Yankton shared many

cultural traits with their Santee Dakota relatives. The

Yankton , however , began to move onto the prairies of

western and southern Minnesota ab out 1700 , or earlier , · 63

and adapted their culture to this relatively treeless environment . Beginning about 1765 , the Yankton moved toward the plains region of modern South Dakota. Here they acquired the horse wh ich made them mobile and far better buffalo hunters . They also came into contact with indigenous tribes such as the Ponca , Mandan , Hidatsa, and the previously mentioned Arikara . These tribes had highly developed cultures centered around permanent earth lodge vil lages , relatively int_!=ns ive agriculture , and seasonal buffalo hunt s. The Yankton adopted many cultural traits from these tribes and became transitional in their culture between the woodland dwelling Santee Dakota and 6 the plains dwelling Teton Dakota.

The first definite contact between white men and the Dakota tribe took place in north-central Minnesota in

1679 . At that date , mo st of the Dakota were centered on the Mississippi River above the mouth of the Minnesota

River and north and -west of Mille Lacs Lake in central

Minne sota. No precise documentation is available to indicate wh en the Yankton moved into southwestern Minne- sota. They were located around the Pipestone Quarry at

Pipestone , Minnesota , by ab out 1700 when the French fur trader , Le Sueur , established a trading. post in southern

Minnesota. The Yankton were p�eceded in their migrations by the Teton Dakota who drove the Omaha tribe from the 64

mouth of the Big Sioux River shortly after the year 1700 .

Around 1 765 the Oto Indians and perhap s the Omaha waged·

war against the Yankton who were then living in present

day northwestern Iowa . As a result of this war the Yank - .

ton were driven out of Iowa and settled in the James River

Valley in southeastern South Dakota . It is doubtful whether more than one or two bands of the Yanktons were

in the area prior to 1804 . These few Yankton would have

remained east of the Jame s River as the Teton Dakota

appear to have continued occupying the area until about

1790 when they drove the Ar ikara nor thward. Therefore ,

the way was open for the Yankton to expand farther into 7 the Jame s River Highlands (figure 18) .

As the wes tward expans ion of the wh ite man forced

the Indian farther west and onto the plains , a great deal of new territory wa s opened for economic development in

the form of trapping and trading . The rivers offered an excellent mean s by which the furs that had been trapped or traded for could be transported to the markets. Many name s are associated with this deve lopment . Due to the length of thi s part of American his tory , many of the minor particip ants will be overlooked.

The mo st important of the early Europeans , in regard to the development of cultural ties with the In­ dians , were the traders and trappers. Through their · HUTCHINSON TURNER

• • 0.2- 9 • 0.4 • ••• •• • •• • • 0-0.19 • • • • • • •• • • # :. • • • • •• • • CLAY •

' . 0.• 5:..:• 1.99 • .. ' •• • • •• • · · ·· . : •• · ···· . •• • ··. : •• •• • •• •• 'e. · • "'···· ··,., • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •

SCAlE IN MILES 0 16 30 Figure 18 : Percent Indian Population , 1970 ···································· Source: S. D. Facts, pg . 5 9 JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

� U1 66

contact with the Ind ians , they helped to establish a rapport between the An glo-American and the Native Ameri­ can . This began in the 1780 's when agents of England's great trading comp anies , the Hudson Bay Company and the '

North West Comp any , swarmed out of present day Michigan and Wisconsin to barter with tribesmen as far west as the Mandan villages of the central Missouri River Valley .

Prior to the influx of traders and trappers in to the area , the Indians had made contact with the white man numerous times . Lewis and Clark made contact with the

Sioux in 1804 . With th is meeting it was apparent that the Sioux were the key to the growth of the Missouri

River fur trade . American attempts to establish friendly relations with the Sioux were not successful . With the war of 1812 , the British encouraged the Sioux to drive the Americans from the upper Mi ssour i River Valley . The

Santee and Yan ktonai sided with the British . Manuel

Lisa, an early trader , persuaded the Teton and Yankton to 8 remain neutra1.

As more traders and trappers began to enter the area , the Indians became increasingly wary of the white man ' s intent . Numerous conflicts developed between the two groups. Because of the size of the Missouri River , it was deemed the mo st like ly course of travel . Little attention was paid to using the Jame s River as a maj or 67

waterway for the transportation of furs to the markets

in St. Louis . Because of this attitude , few traders

ventured into the James River Highlands area as compared with the numb er that traded - along the Missouri River .

The peak of the fur trade probab ly was reached

dur ing the 1830 's. By 1850 the fur trade was in a state

of decline . A decreasing supply of pelts coincided with

a depressed market for dressed furs in Europe. This market depression was caused by a growing preference for

silk in the manufacture of men's hats .

The Yankton Sioux , occupant s of the lower James

River Valley , were soon under pressure to relinquish the maj or portion of their lands . In 1858 the Yankton tribe

agreed to a reservation trac t of 400 ,000 acres in present­

day Charles Mix County. The Yankton left for their new home at Greenwood Agency on July 10 , 1859 . As the Indians

departed, settlers rushed in to occupy the land that was 9 vacated.

Congress created Dakota Territory on March 2, 1861,

thus giving recognition to the settlements along the

Missouri drainage . The new political division not only

included the western portion of wh at had formerly been

Minne sota Territory but also the northern part of Nebraska

Territory . Subse·quent territorial changes excluded the

Montana and Wyoming areas from Dakota Territory . President 68

Ab raham Lincoln appointed the first officials to govern

the new territory . His close friend and personal physi�

cian, William Jayne , became the first governor . The first

legislature convened in March , 1862 , at Yankton , and that 1 0 town was designated as the territorial capita1 .

Migration of settlers into the Yankton cession,

after the Indian problems had been resolved to the white man's satisfaction , soon gained momentum and new settle­ ments began to appear along the James , Vermillion , and

Big Sioux Rivers. The boom received further stimulus from the Dakota Southern Railroad , wh ich was completed from Sioux City to Yankton in the early part of 1873 .

The railroad performe d a notable service in transporting new settlers in to the territory .

South Dakota is often referred to as "Land of

Infinite Variety." Normally this slogan has reference to the many scenic wonders of the state : mountains , badlands , rivers , lakes , agricultural production , and prairies.

Each of these physical feature s presents a variety of occupational pursuits and opportunities . Although this slogan pertains to the physical phenomena of the state , its mo st important application is to the states ' inhabi­ tants . The people of So uth Dakota came from a wide variety of western and northern European nationality groups. These groups, along with the native Indian 69

population , have given the state the rich cultural heritage enj oyed today . The interchange of ideas among these people has given the state its social , economic , and political ways of life. The best of these cultural heritages, atti- tudes , values , ideas , and technologies , have emerged in the process of assimilation .

Several nationalities were represented in the migra- tion of the early 1870 's. The Norwegians , who constituted a large segment of the population along the Missouri . River , remained the dominent Scandinavian element . The

Jame s River Highlands was a staging area for the "New

York Colony." Thi s colony was composed of a group of 100 families that immigrated to the area from Syracuse, New 11 York , in 1864 .

Thousands of European immigrants , representing at least a dozen maj or nationalitie s and from every walk of life , came to the Dakota frontier . In 1890 a third of the whi te population was foreign-born . As recently as

1940 , half of the population was only two or three generations removed from Europe. Ab out one-half of the foreign-born came from western Europe and slightly more than one- fourth from central Europe (figure 19) . Although immigration to South Dakota had virtually ended by 1920 ,

Old World customs and speech have persis ted in many 12 communities in the James River Highlands . HUTCHINSON TURNER B - Bohemians D - Danes FR - French GR - German-Rus s ian · · · ····· · · · M - Mennonites · . • ... •• •• •• N - Norwegian • • •• • •• • • • • • •• �� M •• --�·�- . ' I --� .• \• ��! � . · ' Dlcv

SCALE IN MILES Figure 19 : Distribution of Rural Ethnic Group s 1961 0 16 30

Source : Dakota P.ariorama , J. L. Jennewe in , Jane ...... Boorman , Pine Hill Pres s, Freeman , S . D. , 1961 , pg 105 JAMES RIVER HGHLAND.S

...... 0 7 1

The Germans are the mo st numerous and widely dif­ fused ethnic group . In 1940 ab out one-sixth of the state 's population were either German-born or of German parentage .

They are numerous enough to· give many communities a predo ­ minantly German character . An important part in the settlement and development of Dakota was due to the migra­ tion of this large numb er of Germans from their colonial possessions in the Ukraine province of Russia after 1874.

They had moved into the Ukraine with special privileges if they would develop that region . But when the special concessions expired, the colonists failed to get them re­ newed by Rus sia . They sought new homes in the United

States and a great migration followed . Yankton citizens learned of the intended migration and induced large numbers of them to locate in the rich agricultural lands in Yank­ ton , Hutchinson , Turner , and Bon Homme counties . The first settlers arrived with t.heir small personal belongings in 1874 . Larger number s c ame in the next few . year s. The only railroad in the territory was the line from Sioux

City to Yankton . Yankton became the center of activities for the thousands of newly arrived immigrants in locating and building their new home s on Dakota 's choice farm lands where a homestead of 160 acres was free . A preemption of

160 acres could be had on the payment of $200 and a timber claim entered free on 160 acres for the planting and · 72

cultivation of ten acres of trees for a period of five years . These were obtainab le for each head of a family or anyone 21 years of age . One of these men , named Schatz , brought with him a small amount of flax seed which he planted on his homestead in northern Yankton County. That flax seed contained seed of the Russian Thistle which has spread from that small planting to become the mo st noxious 13 weed in the study area.

Among this heavy conce�tration of German-Russ ians were numerous members of the Mennonite or Hutterite reli- gions . Although closely related to the Mennonites in some of their religious beliefs , the Hutterites are quite dis­ tinct in their social organization . They have a communal society , living in colonies and holding all goods and properties in common , in accordance with a strict interpre- tation of early Christ ian teachings . There were sixteen such religious communities , ·located mo stly in the James

River Valley , when a state legislature enactment in 1 955 14 forbade additional colony expansion (figure 20) .

The Scandinavian element , comprising Norweg�an.s ,

Swedes , and Danes , makes up about a third of the foreign population stock . Norwegians are mo stly heavily concen­ trated in the eastern portion of the state . With the exception of northern Clay Co�nty , the Swedes have formed less compact communities . The heaviest concentration of HUTCHINSON TURNER •

•• ·· · ·· · • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • I • � . . . \ I \ ... �------������;---�-�--, , .. CLAY

SCALE IN MILES Figure 20 : Location of Hut terite Colonies 1974 0 16 30

Source : The Hut terites and Their Agriculture , •.•••..•..•..• ...... •.••••. 10 0 Years In South Dakota, pg. 6 JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS --...J w 74

15 Danes occurs in Turner and Yankton Counties .

South Dakota 's religious life has been influenced strongly by its immigrants. It has been estimated that ab out half of the state 's religious organizations were established by immigrant groups. Irrespective of their national origins , however , mo st early settlers were deep ly concerned with their spiritual welfare. Each new settlement had its nucleus of devout individuals who banded together for religious services . The mo st numerous , during the time of heaviest immigration , were the Catholics , while the Lutherans were a close second . The Congregationa­ lists , with their New England heritage , were third , and the Methodists ranked fourth. Today the Lutherans hold 16 the first position with the Catholics second (figure 21) .

The present day population of the study is

German-Russ ian primarily with a limited amount of Scandi­ navian land owners . This may· be a result of the collec­ tive purchasing power of the Hutterites . The Hutterites seized the opportunity to purchase and lease land left vacant after the plague of grasshopper � in the 1880 's, the great flood of 1881 , and various other agricultural and economic depressions such as those in the 1930 's. The

Indians have stayed mainly on the reservations west of the study area. The area suffers , �s does the rest of the state , from out migration of young people . With the 75

Fig. 21 . Turkey Ridge Store and one of the many rural churches. 76

population being mainly older , many of the European "folk" patterns have been retaine d and certain days of the year are set aside to celebrate national heritage . 77

End Notes 1 satterlee , J. L. History and Acculturation of the Dakota Indians , V. D. Malan , Agricultural Experimentation Station, No . 613 , South Dakota State Un iversity , Rural Sociology Department , Brookings , South Dakota, pp . 4-5. 2 Ibid. , pg . 6. 3 south Dakota : A State to Behold, South Dakota Extension Homemakers Council , 1975 , pg. 32 . 4 Interview , Mr . Hurl Welch , Parkston , South Dakota, 1981. 5 Hogan , Geography of South Dakota , pg. 9. 6 woo 1worth , A. R. , Sioux· Indians III Ethnohis torical Report on the Yankton Sioux , Garland Publishing, Inc. , New York, 1974 , pg . 22 . 7 Ibid. , pg. 24 . 8 Hogan , pg. 12 . 9 schell , Herbert S. , History of South Dakota, Uni­ versity of Nebraska Press, 1968 , pg. 71. 10 Ib id. , pg. 93 . 11 75th Anniversary Edition of the Yankton Press and Dakotan , June 6, 1936 . 12 schell, Herbert S. , South Dako.ta : Students Guide to Localized Histdr , Teachers College Pres s, Columbia Un iversity , New Yor� , New York , pp . 41. 1 3 (/Ill, Ibid. ) 14 The Hutterites · artd Their A ·riculture , 100 Years in South Da · ata , Agricu tura Experiment Station , No . , South Dako ta State Un iversity , Brookings , South Dakota , pp . 3' 4' 5. 15 Ib id. , 11 12, pg. 41. 16 Ib id. , /112 , pg. 42. CHAPTER IV

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The human development of an area expresses the way

in wh ich man had ad apted and ut ilized the area 's phyiscal

environment . In order to understand present and past

influences of the area 's residents , it is important to

review the area 's agriculture � mining , industry , trans­

portation , population , and power and utilities . By under­

standing these propertie s, conclusions can be drawn as to

the needs for future development of the area .

Agriculture

Crop production has been the heart of agricultural

production in South Dakota sinc e early settlement . From

the bare subsistence farming practices of early settlers

to the extensive agricutural knowledge of todays farmer s,

raising crops has been the maj or activity in the state .

Because of the importance of agriculture in this area of

the country , the development of the industry will be of maj or concern for many years to co me .

The earliest attemp ts to raise crops occurred in

the southeastern quarter of the state . The settlers of the 1860 's experimented with mixed cropping practices 79

ma inly to provide for their own needs . With th e coming of the railroads in the 1870's, settlers began to produce . small grains , especially spring wheat . Production began to increase because the railroads opened up the area to a larger market . At first it was believed that corn could • not be raised in this area because of the short growing season ; however , several successful years of corn and oat production encouraged the planting of more acres of these crops .

The efforts to reduce the impact of climate on the farmers of South Dakota wa s evident in 1912 wh en Congress reduced homestead residency requirements from five to three years . This eliminated the potential for maj or cash loses . Farmers were also allowed to be ab sent from their land five mon ths out of the year . In 1915 Congress applied the Enlarged Home stead Act of 1909. to South Dakota . This

Act permitted settlers to acquire 320 acre tracts instead 1 of the original 160 acres.

Two other factors that added to the increase in farm productions , . in the Jar.te s River Highlands, where the in troduction of hybrid crops and mo re sophisticated ma­ chinery . As more farmers in the ar ea began to switch from horses to trac tors , the amount of cropland increased drama - tically .

Ano ther factor that explains the large amount of 80

crops produced in the James River Highlands area is the

river itself (figure 22) . Since land within the area is

more fertile and to some extent subirrigated due to its

close proximity to the river , average yields are consis­

tantly larger than average yields for acreages adj acent

to the study area. It mu st be remembered, however , that

yield potential is being cut on bottom land acres since

flooding in some years curtails the numb er of acres

planted or reduces the yield due to late planting (figure

23) .

When the United States entered World War I, the

demand for increased agricultural production became

apparent . South Dakota farmers responded to this need by

increasing the amount of tilled land . Many acres along

the meandering James River previously us ed as grazing

lands for livestock were cleared and put into crop produc­

tion. Because of the nature of the ridges in the Jame s

River Highlands , the livestock was moved to the steeper

slopes that were difficult to till (figure 24) .

Along with this necessary increase in the amount

of tilled land and consequently increased production , came an increase in prices paid for the crops produced. With profits up , many farmers in the area could afford larger and more sophisticated machiner� . As a result the numb er of acres one person could harvest increased from 33.2 in 81

Fig. 22 . River bottom cropland·, corn, and oats on the flood plain . 82

Fig. 23. Diked corn field for· pr otection against flooding. 83

#rlrilr1�- �,. �. ,: '•)' -�:i�??>jr::·l

Fig . 24. Ridge top rangeland . 84

1920 to 100 in 1929 . Although total production of crops increased due to more acres bei ng harvested , average yields pe r acre dropped because of the less fertile soils 2 added to crop production.

The livestock industry has played an important part in develop ing the agricultural industry in South Dakota .

The first European settlers coming to the Dakota Territory brought cattle , hogs , sheep , and chickens with them as a food supply . Cattle and oxen were also used by the early settlers as an important source of power for clearing and plowing the land .

Differences in soil fertility , amou nts of rainfall, vegetation cover , climate, and topography between the eastern and western portions of the state have brought about different types of livestock produc tion . More precipitation and higher soil fertility in the eastern part of the state proved more suitable for grain produc­ tion . Grain and hay production , corrdinated with live­ stock feeding , dairying , an d poultry production , are the mo st suitab le types of farming in this area . The western part of the state , where rainfall is lower and soils are lighter , has been characterized by range type of livestock operations . Hog production did not extend to the We st River area of the state in any significant vo lume , but had been concentrated in the eastern counties 85

where corn was produced in volume .

The livestock indus try in South Dakota has evolved

from a local food source to the largest enterprises in the

state . Cash receipts from livestock , poultry , and their related products amounted to $127 million in 1924 . This represented 57 percent of the total cash receip ts fo r all farm commodities . By comp arision, income from livestock and poultry during 1 974 reached $1 .3 billion and accounted for over 60 percent of the total cash income to South . 3 Dakota farmers from all sources. (Income statistics can be misleading because many of the livestock and livestock products are the result of the use of grains and cash crops wh ich otherwise would have been sold. )

Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in the study area. A stab le agricultural income base is essential as agricultural problems are reflected in other sections of the economy . Wide variations occur in agri­ culture production because of drought , floods , hail , and high winds . Average annual precipitation is about 24 inches in the study area. However , averages can be mis­ leading because in 30 to 40 percent of the years , rainfall 4 is less than 85 percent of the average .

At some period during the growing season , nearly every area lacks sufficient soil mo isture for maximum crop production . Drought is defined as any period during 86

which the soil moisture in the root zone is less than

50 percent of the available capacity to hold water . Irri­ gation water supplies are obtained from both ground water and surface sources. The land being irrigated from the

James River is hampered by low base flow during the late summer months when water is mo st needed. Ground water supplies have generally been adequate where they have been developed for irrigation , but aquifers that produce high­ yield wells with good quality water are scattered and underlie only a small portion of the entire James River

Basin. The soils in the study area are suitable for limited irrigation . However , the fluctuating surface flows and ·scattered nature of ground water aquifers that can sustain large capacity wells constrain the de,velopment 5 of irrigation .

As is true throughout the entire plains region , the numb er of farms and farm operators in the study area has been declining . Nevertheless, agriculture is an expanding industry . It is growing in terms of value of production as well as product diversification . Greater output is a result of increased use of in secticides , fertilizers , resource , development , conservation programs , and more sophisticated farm ma chinery . Further effic iencies can be expected in the future .

The average size of farms in the study area varies 87

from county to county . In 1975 Hutchinson County had the

largest average farm size at 400 acres whi le Turner County

has the smal lest average farm size with 295 acres. Clay

and Yankton Counties averaged 345 acres and 340 acres

respectively . The av erage farm size in South Dakota has

increased from 439 acres in 1930 to 1,058 acres in 1976.

Statewide the numb er of farms has decreased from 83, 000 6 in 1930 to 43, 000 in 1976 . Although these figures are

based on a statewide average , they indicate the trend

found in the James River Highlands (tab le 2) .

Figures for crop and lives tock production in the

James River Highlands area will be presented in the

following tables and map s (tab les 2 and 3, figures 25

through 33) . The latest data pertaining to agricultural production come s primarily from the South Dakota Crop and

Lives tock Reporting Service Agricultural Statistics 1975.

The funding has been cut for this publication . There­ fore , these figures are the mo st recent of their riature .

Produc tion figures will be presented for all four counties in wh ich the study area lies . However, in no instance doe s the study area cover the entire county .

Mining

The presence of minerals in commerical quantities usually results in the land being used for mining or TABLE 2

NUMBER OF FARMS 1930 - 1969

COUNTY 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1954 . 1959 1964 1969

Clay 1', 312 1, 311 1, 22 4 1, 228 . 1, 170 1, 153 984 866 745

Hutchinson 1, 75 3 1, 805 1, 734 1, 79 4 1, 674 1, 683 1, 585 1, 446 1, 328

Turner 1, 986 2, 078 1,857 1, 933 1, 914 1, 866 1, 663 1, 483 1, 343

Yankton 1, 616 1, 648 1, 519 1, 422 1, 412 1, 360 1, 217 1, 066 979

Source: South Dakota Facts, pg. 280

AVERAGE FARM SIZE IN ACRES 1930 - 1969

COUNTY 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1954 1959 1964 1969

Clay 188. 5 191. 9 208. 7 203.5 212. 6 218. 8 252. 8 288. 5 330. 7

Hutchinson 291. 3 279.8 293.8 289.3 309 .9 308. 1 327. 1 35 5. 8 383. 4

Turner 19 3. 5 185. 1 203. 0 200. 9 201. 9 207. 1 231. 4 256. 4 282. 5

Yankton 196. 7 191. 8 204. 1 224. 8 221. 4 233. 6 253. 0 293. 1 317. 6

Source: South Dakota Facts, pg. 281

00 00 89

TABLE 3

ALL CATTLE 1970 - 1975

COUNTY 1970 . 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Clay 43 ,000 43,000 45 ,000 45 , 000 49,000 45, 000

Hutchinson 96 ,000 96 ,000 95 ,000 96 ,000 106 ,000 108 ,000

Turner 80, 000 78 ,000 78 ,000 79,000 85, 000 83, 000

Yankton 67,000 63 , 000 62, 000 63, 000 70 ,000 65,000

MILK COWS & HE IFERS , TOTAL NUMBER 1970 - 1975

COUNTY 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Clay 1,000 1 , 000 1,000 900 900 900

Hutchinson 7,000 6,400 6, 700 6, 300 6, 300 6,400

Turner 7,100 6, 700 6, 900 6, 800 6,800 6,900

Yankton 3,000 3,000 3, 200 3,000 2,900 2,800

HOGS 1970 - 1975

COUNTY 1970 1971 . 1972 1973 1974 1975

64 ,000 54, 900 Clay 59, 600 67,000 56, 900 54 , 600 98 ,000 78 ,000 Hutchinson 74, 300 88, 400 85, 400 83, 000 92, 500 74 , 000 Turner 61, 900 70 ,400 80,700 78, 500 66, 000 77, 000 62,000 Yankton 61, 300 67, 700 68, 300 90

Tab le 3 Continued

SHEEP & LAMBS 1970 - 1975

COUNTY 1 970 1 971 1972 1973 . 1974 1975

Cl ay 4, 200 4, 100 5, 700 4, 400 4, 100 3, 700

Hutchinson 7,800 7,700 7, 900 8, 200 7,600 6, 900

Turner 14, 900 12, 400 19, 900 20, 900 15,800 12, 000

Yankton 3, 100 3, 300 5, 000 4, 700 4, 300 3, 800

CHICKENS 1970 - 1975

COUNTY 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Clay 59, 000 62,000 45 , 900 41, 200 38 , 000 36, 00 0

Hutchinson 306, 400 344, 00 0 320, 000 303, 000 276,500 270, 000

Tu rner 299, 600 302, 00 0 240, 000 215, 300 163, 500 161 ,900

Yankton 176, 900 173, 00 0 130, 500 124, 900 122, 200 120, 000

Source : HUTCHINSON TURNER 1977 - 1978

* Not Ranked

· - ··· ·· ····. ·· · ·• · ··· · - · ·· . 8 · .. -5 • • 4 2 •• • • • • • • • • • • • b I • � I . - I I •• • •• • • •

CLAY• • • • • I I \7-7 I

I I

SCALE IN MILES Figure 25 : Top Ten Counties in Corn Product ion 0 16 30

Source : S. D. Department of Transportation , ...... Division of Railroads JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

\0 � HUTCHINSON TURNER 1977 - 1978

...... • . . • • • .... •• ••

· . 10-9 ·· . .•• • 4-4 • • • • • • • ... • ___.�._-- • �#--B___...,O�M----i· �,_� �> .-1 ___ ,· • ON H ME YAN K TO •• • • CLAY

3-3 · ········ ·· •· •• •• •• •• •• ··--···· · ··-

SCALE IN MILES Figure 26 : Top Ten Counties in Soybean Production 0 16 30

Source : S.D. Department of Transportation , ...... • ...... Divis ion of Railroads JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS

\0 N HUTCHINSON 1969 - 1974 TURNER

64 , 220 to 94 , 700

CLAY

79 , 810 48 , 930 to 74,820

SCALE IN MILES

Figure 27 : High and Low Yields 0 15 30 Hay/ Tons Source: South Dakota Facts

\.0 w HUTCHINSON TURNER 1969 - 1974

51, 600 to 79, 200

CLAY

44 , 200 to 68 , 200

SCALE IN MILES

Figure 28 : High and Low Yields 0 15 30 Alfalfa/Tons Source: South Dakota Facts

�...... �...... � � HUTCHINSON TURNER 1969 - 1974

4,515 , 000 to 7,343,8000 B fl'.

YANKTON ' '

CLAY

2,851 , 20\ to 3,840,000 to 6,583,5�0 7,074 ,800 �

SCALE IN MILES

Figure 29 : High and Low Yields 0 16 30 Corn/Bushels Source : South Dakota Facts

\0 V1 HUTCHINSON TURNER 1969 - . 1974

32, 040 to 3,360 to 51 , 100

.,•

CLAY

10 , 500 12 , 380 to 69 , 200

SCALE IN MILES

Figure 30 : High and Low Yields 0 15 30 All Wh eat/Bushels Sourc e: South Dakota Facts \,() 0\ HUTCHINSON TURNER 1969 - 1974 ·�� 2,486 , 200 to 5, ,500 1,741,600 to 3,416 , 000

CLAY

783,000 to 1,396 , 200

SCALE iN MILES

Figure 31 : High and Low Yields 0 15 30 Oats/Bushels Source: South Dakota Facts

I • � � .._

HUTCHINSON TURNER 1969 - 1974 \

121 ,500 to 361 ,200 tO 916 ,800

CLAY

748 ,000 to 1,239 ,700

SCALE IN MILES

Figure 32 : High and Low Yields 0 16 30 Soybeans/Bushels Source : South Dakota Facts

\0 00 HUTCHINSON TURNER 1969 - 1974

136 ,000 0 650 , 000 to 1,840 , 400

CLAY

61, 200 42, 000 to 248 , 500

SCALE IN MILES

Figure 33 : High and Low Yields 0 16 30 Sorghum/ Bushels

Source : South .Dakota Facts

\0 \0 100

quarrying purposes. In the James River Highlands, there are few mineral resources in commercial quantitie s and the only maj or activity at present is the production of sand and gravel for construction and road materials. This sand and gravel product ion only takes place in a very few small pits usually located as close as possible to their area of use . Contractors are brought into the area as the need for these materials develops and often supply enough sand and gravel to last the area two or three year s in one short mining operation .

Mineral exploration rights have been leased in limited areas of northern Yankton County . These explora­ tions are testing for uranium . The exact location of this testing and the results were not available to the author at the time of this study . Strong public sentiment opposed to uranium development runs throughout the study area .

Unless large deposits of uranium are discovered, the element 's development will probably not occur .

Industry

The amount of industry found in the James River

Highlands area is closely related to several factors .

Among these are population , agricultural production , natural resources , transportation , and power and utilities availab le . Though argriculture is the main economic · 101

activity in the study area , industrial diversification is needed to sustain any economy which can be and has been affected by severe droughts {figure 34). There is a limited amount of industry located within the study area ; however , the low population and inadequate transportation affect the scope to which it has developed. Aside from the retailing of goods and services in the business commu­ nity , little industry is located in the area other than some processing facilities for agricultural products .

Grain elevators are the mo st common agricultural processing facility and are used mainly for storage .

The industries in the study area as reported in the

South Dakota Manufacturers and Processors Directory for

1980 are found in Table 4. As indicated, most industries in the area emp loy less than 25 people . Dakota Industries is the only exception . Because Dakota Industries is one · of several branches of a Sioux Falls based firm, employee figures may vary according to production demands . Dakota

Industry is the largest indus try located in the study area .

Transportation

Because of the rather low population density in the

State of South Dakota, it is necessary for that population to be mobile . This mob ility is necessary to procure goods and services located outside of the rural environment . TURNER 1972 - 1974 HUTCHINSON

· ······· ·· 4 . 4.5- .99 - -- · ·· ·-... • 5.0-+ • •• • • •• • •• • • • • I • , .. . \ . ' . • . \• .

CLA• Y • •

\•

• 4.0• -4.49 • • •

SCALE IN MILES Figure 34 : Per Capita Income By Place 0 16 30 of Re sidence Per $1 , 000 ...... Sourc e: South Dakota Fact , pg. 151 JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS � 0 N TABLE 4

INDUSTRY IN THE STUDY AREA

NUMBER OF CITY INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTS EMPLOYEES *

Irene Dakota Industries c Clothing and Parachut es Riley Company A Feed, Grain , Fertilizers Tri-County News A Pub lishing and Printing

Menno Fair Manufacturing A Snow Blowers , Sup er Haul Boxes , Augers, Grain Handling Systems , Wagon Roofs , Sprayers Hutchinson Herald A Publi shing and Printing

Wakonda Madson Corporation A Pickup Toppers

* A - Fewer than 2 5 employees B - 25 - 99 employees C - 100 - 250 employees

Source : South Dakota Manufacturers artd Processors Directory, 1980, South Dakota Department of Economic and Tourism Develop­ ment , Industrial Division , Pierre , South Dakota, 1980 .

� 0 w 104

The automobile is the mo st common means of transportation .

Transportation by other methods is virtually nonexistent .

Railroads were instrumental in the early develop­ ment of the study area . Many of the towns survived only by being located along main or branch lines. The rail­ road system in South Dakota has r� cently become a victim of economic downfall . All of the railroad lines in the

James River Highlands have either been abandoned or are 7 under the process of abandonme�t . Although the State of

South Dakota has taken over the ownership of the railroad system, the future of the system in the study area is unknown .

There is no commercial air service available in the

James River Highlands . The nearest connecting service. is in Yankton. Private charter provide s air service from

Yankton to Sioux Falls. For many air travelers in the

study area distance traveled and economic savings justify mo tor vehicle travel to Sioux Falls . Sioux Falls is

serviced by Ozark , Western , Republic , and Frontier Airlines.

A few undeveloped airstrips are located in the study area wh ich are used soley by privately-owned planes.

The only federal highway that transects the James

River Highlands area is U.S. 81 , wh ich runs north and south . Two state highways int�rsect U. S. 81 on an east to we st course , these are S.D. 18 and S.D. 46. Because 1 05

of the difficulty and expense of maintaining bridges across the James River , many county roads in the area have been allowed to deteriorate . Flood damage has accelerated this deterioration .

Bus transportat ion for freight and passengers in the area is severely limited. In mo st parts of the area , mo tor vehicle travel is necessary to reach bus service outside the area. The Jackrabbit Bus Line serves the towns of Menno and Irene once �aily . All other towns in the study area either have no bus service or are flag stops.

Water transportation was instrumental in the develop ­ ment of the area historically . Early settlers used the

James River to transport goods and passengers . At pre­ sent , however, the river is used strictly for recreational boating and canoe ing .

The development of any of the aforementioned trans­ portation systems in the area is highly unlikely . The economic base does not promote this development . Agricul­ tural commoditie s mu st be trucked from the area which

•J provides increased costs and therefore decreases profits.

Recreation

A very important aspect invo lved in the discuss ion of an area is the available recreation facilities. The 1 06

Jame s River is the mo st extensively used stream in the study are , but its potential has not yet been reached.

The sporadic nature of the stream flow and the corres­ ponding variations in water quality have limited extensive recreational development along the river . The river normally has relatively high discharges during spring and summer periods as a result of snow melt and spring rains . However , during the later summer , fall , and winter , surface runoff diminishes and the river will· drop to a relatively low base flow, or to no flow at all. This is a natural characteristic of a prairie stream.

Much of the recreational use pres sure now exper­ ienced at lakes in the James River Highlands area could be shifted to the James River and its valley . The wooded va lley provides a scenic contrast to the nearly treeless prairie and surrounding farm land , inviting many types of recreational activities. Much of the wooded stream bank is being lost through convers ion of the land to agricul­ tural uses . The se lands are privately owned and no direct intervention by the government is possible . Because the bank s of the river and the surrounding farm land are pri­ vately owned, public access to the river bank is limited.

The river itself is open to public use .

In recent years , there seems to be a growing trend in most areas of the country towards the need for 107 increased recreational opportunities . This might include hiking and ski trails , equestrian trails , historical and nature information trails , and off road vehicle trails .

Very little , if any , of this type of recreation develop­ ment is available in the Jame s River Highlands , although

• the bank s of the river provide an exceptional potential .

Another aspect of the recreational potential of the James River is the historic and prehistoric signifi­ cance of the river and its valley . Indications are that the bank s of the Jame s River provided shelter for Indian winter camp s and that higher ground near the river was used for summer camps . The river also provided a trans­ portation route for many of the early travelers and settlers of the region . Much work in the way of compre­ hensive surveys is needed to accurately record significant sites and thereby promote their preservation and develop-· ment .

As was mentioned earlier in this section , there exists a ser ious prob lem in access to the James River . At the present time , the maj ority of the land along the river is privately owned, thereby precluding easy public access.

Under present South Dakota law , landowner 's permission is necessary prior to crossing private land . The river itself is pub lic domain and is available for boating , swimming , and fishing , and the banks are private property which 108

limits picnicking , hiking , hunting , and other recreational land uses. A need exists to provide better public access at more areas along the river 's course.

The James River Basin lies within the central migra­ tory flyway and is a maj or producer of waterfowl . Hutchin­ son and Yankton Counties contain 250 acres and 21 acres of

United States Fish and Wildlife Service Waterfowl Produc­ 8 tion Areas respectively . These areas are open to public hunting , trapping , and other nonmotorized recreational uses in accordance with state and federal regulations .

National Wildlife Refuges are managed primarily for water­ fowl production and as migratory resting areas . Hunting of up land game birds and big game , trapping and fishing are generally permitted on the refuges in the study area.

These wildlife product ion areas provide an opportunity for visitors to ob serve and photograph birds and other animals in their natural habitat . Limited picnic and camp ing facilities are also provided.

An extens ive recreational area , used by many resi­ dents of the study area, is located to the south of the

Jame s River Highlands . This developed area is located on the shores of Lewis and C�ark Lake which const itutes part of , the border between South Dakota and Nebraska . Such activities as swimming , sailing , boating , hiking , fishing , huntins, camping , and water skiing can be enj oyed along 109

Lewis and Clark Lake (figure 35) .

Governmental bodies invo lved in providing recrea­ tional opportunities in the James River Basin include the

Bureau of Reclamation , Fish and Wildl ife Service , Corp s of

Engineers , Bureau of Land Management , South Dakota Depart­ ment of Wildlife , Parks and Forestry , and many county and local entities. Most of the facilitie s are made available at little or no cost to the users . The water resource is an important element in the re�reation picture , both directly for boating , swimming , and fishing and indirectly for sight seeing , wildlife production , and habitat .

Power and Utilitie s

Electric power and telephone service to the James

River Highlands come s from several sources (tab le 5) .

Natural gas is not available in the area; however , propane gas is supplied by numerous private and cooperative bus ­ inesses . The electric power is supplied to both rural and urban homes and businesses by a group of cooperatives.

Telephone service is also supplied by various companies .·

Gavins Point Dam supplies much of the electric power to the local electric cooperatives (figure 36) .

Population

Historically the population of South Dakota has been primarily rural in nature . Recently , however , there 110

Fig . 35 . Area residents rec reate at nearby Lewis and Clark Lake. 111

TABLE 5

UTILITIES SERV ING THE JAMES RIVER HTGHLANDS

Electrical .Power* . . . Telephone . Service*

Bon Honnne - Yankton Electric Dakota Cooperative Turner - Hutchinson Electric Northwestern Bell Clay - Union Electric Bison State Northwe stern Public Service

* Information supplied by Dorothy 0. Fleishacker , Administrative Secretary, Public Utilities Commission, Pierre , South Dakota 112

Fig . 36 . Gavin s Point Dam and. electric transmi ssion lines in the James River Highlands 113

has been a shift to an increasing urban and decreasing rural population . Several factors have contributed to the decline in rural population . Among the factors contribu­ ting to this decline are improvements in agricultural practices, including consolidation of farms , improved farm machinery , and increased productivity . Although the location of towns within the Jame s River Highland was originally the resul4 of the location of railroad lines , this has changed. Due to the abandonment of all railroad track in the area , the original towns now service a much 9 smaller market area (figure 37) .

The small towns in t·he area serve as minimum con- venience centers . They offer such retail businesses as cafes , service stations , grocery stores , banks , and post offices. In a few of the larger towns feed stores , grain elevators, hardward stores , imp lement dealers , and pharma­ cies also may be found. More diversified products and services can be found in metropolitan centers that , al- though not located in the study area , are easily access­ ib le . None of the towns located within the area has a population exceeding 1,000 . Menno is the largest town with a population of 805 (figure 38) .

The population of the James River Highlands suffers the same out migration as doe$ the rest of South Dakota.

The primary reason for this population loss is the lack ·Of HUTCHINSON TURNER

• MENNO

• SCALE IN MILES Figure 37 : Towns In The Jame s River Highlands 0 16 30

• ...... Source : South Dakota Road Map JAMES RIVER HGHLANDS � � � 115

\ \

Fig . 38. Mainstreet: Menno , South Dakota 116

jobs in the area. This loss of population affects the

local economy in many ways . Low population is not con­

ducive to the promotion of manufacturing and industry .

Local businesses suffer because of low cash flow and competition from outside consumer markets . The decline

of the fami ly farm has also contributed to the loss of population in the study area (tab le 6) .

Population characteristics for the Jame s River

Highlands indicate that counti�s suffer population loss.

Yankton and Clay Counties have greater than 50 percent urban residence wh ile Hutchinson and Turner show less than 50 percent . In all four counties only 50 percent

of the population is between 18 and 65 years old . Hutch­

inson and Turner Count ies have a median age of 36 and 28 respectively . All of the counties rank between lOth and

20th statewide with regard to the numb er of families and · 10 households . 117

TABLE 6

TOWNS AND TOWNSHIPS OF THE JAMES RIVER HIGHLANDS AND THEIR POPULATIONS

Component Parts 1980 1970 .Change

Clay Coun ty Bethel Township 2·41 258 - 6.6 % Pleasant Valley Township 221 255 -13.3% Spirit Mound Township 236 261 - 9.6% Star Township 193 273 . -29.3% Wakonda Town 381 290 31.4% Irene Town * 250 214 2.0% Turner County Childstown Township 322 333 - 3.3% Salem Township 265 376 -29.5% Irene Town * 266 240 10 .8% Hutchinson County Menno City 805 796 1.1% Mo lan Township 213 263 -19.0% Sweet Township 332 293 13 .3% Valley Township 249 253 - 1.6% Yankton County Jamesville Township 264 331 -20.2% Les terville Town 156 181 -13 .8% Irene Town * 5 7 -28 .6% Mar inaahl Township 220 2 40 - 8.3% Mayfield Township 266 343 -22.4% Hission Hill Town 198 161 23 .0% Mission Hill Township 345 290 19 .0% Turkey Valley Township 264 334 -21.0% Utica Town 1 00 89 12.4% Utica Township 867 1718 -49.5% Volin Town 156 157 0.6% Volin Township 285 344 -17 .2% Walshtown Township 240 281 -14.6% Total for the Study Area 7340 8581 -15.0%

Total for Irene Town * 521 461 13 .0% * Irene Town is located in Clay , Turner , and Yankton Counties . continued 118

Tab le 6 Continued

Note : This table shows population for both towns and township s. The United States Census Bureau has changed its methods of enumeration . Instead of doing census counts by enumeration districts, the 1980 census was conducted by voting precincts . The towns indicated are not included in the popu­ lation figure s of the township in which they lie. Because of the irregular boundary of the study area , some townships may not lie entirely within the area.

Source: U. S. Census Bureau 1980 119

End Notes 1 crop and Livestock Reportin Service Bulletin, South Dako ta Agriculture 1975 , Sout� Dakota Department of Agriculture , U. S. Department of Agriculture , Published May , 1976 , 94 pages, pg. 7. 2 Ibid. , pg. 8. 3 Ibid. , p g. 51 . 4 Missouri River Basin Commission, Jame s River Basin Subregional Analys is: Agricultural Technical Paper , Mis souri River Basin Commis sion , 1980 . 5 rbid. , pg. 2. 6 crop and Live stock Reporting Service , pg. 92. 7 Personal interview with personnel of the Third District Planning Office , Yankton , South Dakota. 8 Missouri River Basin Commission , James River Basin Subregional Analysis : Water Associated Outdoor Recreation , Mis souri River Basin Commis sion , February , 1980 , pg. 7. 9 Re source Conservation and Development Plan , Lower James Re source and Development Council. U. S. Department of Agriculture , Soil Conservation Service , Huron, South Dakota, 1975 , pg. 27 . 10 Riley , Marvin P. and .Butler , Eugene T. South Dakota Population ; ·Housirtg , artd Farm · census Facts , Agricultural Experiment Station , South Dako ta State Un ivers ity , Brookings , South Dakota , Bulletin No. 611 , May 1973 , pp . 10-24 . CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Overview

The James River Highlands is a scenic and distinc­ tive area of South Dakota. As the United States develop s.r so does the pace at which society evolves . The res idents of the Jame s River Highlands manage to live their lives in the tranquil manner often associated with rural America.

As a result of this lifestyle the resident s of the area are friendly , honest , and hard working . They possess a great deal of respect for both the environment and their fellow man .

The geology of the area was influenced by actions of the late Wisconsin glac ier . The three ridges that dominate the area are composed of chalk of the Niobrara formation covered in spots by Pierre shale . Actions of eros ion have provided these ridges with numerous minor ravines and interlobate valleys .

The remainder of the area is composed of the Jame s

River Valley . This lowland bordered by the Turkey, James , and Yankton Ridges is typical of mo st river valleys in

South Dakota. It is very flat with alluvial deposit s� 121

forming the bulk of its minor relief .

All aspects of a physical environment are interre­ lated. With regard to the Jame s River Highlands , climate , soils , vegetat ion , and wildlife are the aspects of the environment with the largest impact.

The study area falls into a Humid Continental Type

A Classification of climate . In this class ification , winter temper�tures range from 18 to 26 degrees Fahrenheit and from 71 to 7 5 degrees Fahi::_enheit dur ing the summer .

Av erage annual precip itation for the study area is 24 inches with the bulk of moisture being received during the early summer . About three-fourth-s of the precipitation falls during the growing season , wh ich averages 150 days .

Soils in the study area consist of Clarno Loamy

Prair ie in the western half and Moody Silty Prairie in the east. Both classes of· soil are suitable for various systems of farming including cash crops , dairy , and. pasture uses .

An unusual amount of fertilization is not needed and soil salinization is not a prob lem due to very limited irriga­ tion .

The availability of water is very important with regard to natural environment and domestic develbpment .

Surface and ground waters are plentiful in the maj ority of the area. Water quality may be affected by low flow at certain time s of the year , however , generally water is 122

plentiful and quality is good.

The vegetation in the study area is reflective of the climate and soils of the area. The dominent vegetation types are tall grass and tall grass transition to mixed grass. Western wheat grass , big bluestem, and switchgrass are abundant throughout the non- tilled sections of the area. The bank of the James River provides an excellent environment for the growth of trees and shrubs.

The prairie grassland ecosystem of the - area along with the riverine environment provide good habitat for wildlife . Fish , birds , mammals , and reptiles are all numerous throughout the area . Bird and fish life dominate the area in terms of numbers . Fish species common to the area are pike , bullhead, carp , and catfish. Common birds include ducks , doves , pheasants, and blackbirds . Some of the more frequent mammal species ob s erved are whi tetail deer , cottontail rabbits , muskrat , and pocket gophers .

Redbarbed garter snake and frogs are the mo st frequent reptiles .

The his tory of settlement for the James River High­ lands starts with the presence of nfomadic Indians . The mo st influential tribe to remain in the area is the Yankton

Tribe of the Sioux Indian Nation . However , they now con­ stitute a very small percentage of the population . The first wh ite men in the area were the trappers and traders 123

of the 18th Century . With the introduction of the railroad in 1873 the area was open to a rapid influx of settlers eager to homestead. In a contemp orary sense mo st of the present population are descendant s of these early settlers and many "folkpatterns" have been maintained.

The effects of glacial deposits, alluvial deposits , rich parent material and organic matter have provided this area with highly product ive soils . This rich soil has promoted socio-economic characteri stics that follow agriculture as the predominant human activity. A variety of agricultural goods are produced within the study area.

The se goods include grain crops, livestock , dairy 'and poultry products . Agriculture contributes much more to the economy and lifestyle of the Jame s River Highlands than any other source .

The success of American agriculture in application of knowledge and technology to production of an abundance of relatively inexpensive food is one of the most impres­ sive achievements in world history . Maximum production is not yet in sight . Agricultural services are the main sour ce of emp loyment in the towns located within the study area. Energy and resource shortages could exert serious limits on the futher development of agriculture in the area thus limiting town_ growth .

As the technology and scale of agriculture increases , 124

the numbers of farmers and farm workers decrease. As farm

population decreases , the towns in the area which depend

on agriculture lose population , un less these towns can

attract other bus ine ss or industry . Agricultural land is

the only natural resource of consequence in the study area .

Manufacturing and processing is a limited resource .

Only six indus tries are listed in the South Dakota Manu­

facturers and Pro cessors Directory . Of those listed,

Dakota Industrie s in Irene is �he largest, employing be­

tween 100 and 250 people.

Of paramount concern in the study area is the lack

of transportation . The prob lem not only limits potential

for industrial development , but also seriously affects

agricultural profits . The increasing costs of transporta­

tion will cause marginal farming operations to achieve

limited success. All of the railroad lines in the area have either been abandoned or are under the process of

abandonment. This combined with limited access to the

interstate highway system places increased pres sure on

the state highways in the area. No commerical air service

is available in the Jame s River Highlands .

Numerous rec�eational opportunities are available

to the res idents of the James River Highlands. Among the more popular are fishing and hunting . Water associated

recreation in the forms of swimming and canoeing are 125

enj oyed on the scenic Jame s River . Sailing , swimming , camp ing , and fishing can be enj oyed at the extensively developed recreational facilities on Lewis and Clark

Res ervoir , which is adj acent to the study area.

Power and utilities are provided to the residents of the study area by several sources . The maj ority of the power is generated at near by Gavins Point Dam.

Northwestern Bell and Bison State Telephone provide the maj ority of the study area wi�h telephone service .

The population of the study are is relatively low by eastern South Dakota standards . There are no towns in the area with a population greater than 1,000. Including rural figures , the total population of the study area is less than 7,500. This low population is a factor of sub­ stantial proportion with regard to industrial development in the area. Indeed, there is limited industry , which is primarily of an agricultural nature . The area relies on independent farming as the prime economic stimu lus . Agri­ cultural land is the only natural resource of consequence in the study area , and because the distance to urban areas is substantial , population is likely to continue declining . The results of this population decline is not difficult to visualize : the small towns will wither , young people will depart , and services will deteriorate . 126

Future

The James River Highlands show little promise for

change in the foreseeable future . Industrial development

is a problem that needs to be -dealt with on ·an area-wide­ basis . Out migration is a problem that will influence

industrial development . With a lack of jobs . available to

the younger population , they tend to leave the area in

search of a more lucrative lifestyle. Agriculture will

continue to be the main economic fac tor developing the

study area . The aes thetic quality of life in this rural

environment is admirab le and the cultural and scenic value s will persist because of a lack of development . APPENDIX A

LAT IN PLANT NAME S

Connnon Name Latin Name

Gras ses Big Blues tem Andropogon Gerardii Little Bluestem Andropogon Scoparius Indiangrass Sorghastrum Nutans Switchgrass Panicum Virgatum Porcup ine Gra ss Stipa Spartea Tail Dropseed Sporobolus Asp·er Leadp lant Amorpha Canescens Ground Plum As tragalus Cras sicaprus Mi lkve tch Astragalus Crassicaprus American Licorice Glycyrrhiza Lep idota Prairie Clover Petalostemon Candidus Scrufp eas Psoralea Onions Allium Blacks amp son Echinacea Sunflowers He lianthus False Boneset Kuhn ia Eupatorioides Prairie Ro se Ro sa Kentucky Bluegras s Poa Pratensis We stern Wh eatgrass Agropyron Sideoats Grama Bouteloua Curtipendula Blue Grama Bouteloua Gracilis Hairy Grama Bouteloua Hirsuta Buffalograss Buchloe Dactyloide s Yarrow Achillea Millefolium Cudweed Art emi sia Ludoviciana Sate Brush Artemi sia Whorled Mi lkweed Asc lep ias Many Flowered As ter As ter Ericoides Ske letonw eed Lygodesmi a Juncea Go ldenrods Solidago Spp Cheatgrass Bromu s Spp Prairie Threeawn Ar istida Spp Foxtail Barley Hordeum Jub atum Wavyleaf Thistles Cirsium Undulatum Cur lycup Gumweed Gr indelia Squarrosa continue d 128

Appendix A Continued

Common Name Latin Name .

Trees American Elm Ulmus Americana Green Ash Rraxinus Pennsylvanica Eastern Cottonwood Populus Deltoides Hackberry • Celtis Occidentalis Bur Oak Quercus Macrocarpa Eastern Red Cedar Juniperus Virginiana Wil low Salix spp .

Shrub s American Plum Prunus Americana Chokecherry -Prunus Virginiana Dogwood Cornaceae Buckthorn Rhamnus Cathartica APPENDIX B

LATIN ANIMAL NAME S

Common Name s Latin Names

Fish Pike Esox Lucius Carp Cyprinus Carpio Fathead Minnows Pimephales Promelas Sand Shiner Notropis Stramineus White Sucker --catostomu s Commersoni Black Bullhead Ictalurus Me las Orangespotted Sunfish Lepomis Humilis Yellow Perch Perea Flavescens Walleye Stizostedion Vitreum Buffalo Fishes Ictiobus Goldne Shiner Notemigonus Chrysoleucas Gar Lepisosteus Platostomus Drum Ap lodinotus Grunniens Catfish Ictalurus White Bass Morone Chrysops Largemouth Bass Micropterus Salmoides Smal lmouth Bass Micropterus Dolomieui Crapies Pomoxis Bluegill Lepomis Macrochirus Pumpkinseed Sunfish Lepomis Gibbosus

Birds Canada Goose Branta Canadensis Mallard Anas Platyrhynchos Pintail Anas Acuta American Wigeon Anas Americana Wood Duck Aix Sporisa Canvasbacks Aythya Valisineria Redhead Aythya Americana Ruddy Duck Oxyura Jamaicensis Ring-necked. Pheasant Phasianus Colchicus Gray Patridge Perdix Perdix Bobwhite Quail Colinus Virginianus Mourning Dove Zenaida Macroura Common Merganser Mergus Cucullatus Red-tailed Hawk Buteao Jamaicensis continued 130

Appendix B Continued

Common .Name Latin Name .

Bald Eagle Haliaeetus Leucocephalus Rock Dove Columb a Livia Common Flicker Colaptes Auratus Downy Woodpecker Picoides Pubescens Blue Jay Cyanocitta Cristata Common Crow Corvus Brachyrhynchos Black-capped Chickadee Parus Atricapillus American Robin Turdus Migratorius Starling Sturnus Vulgaris House Sparrow Passer Domesticus Red-winged Blackbird Agelaius Phoeniceus Cardinal Richmondena Cardinalis Tree Sparrow Spizella Arborea Dark-eyed Junco Junco Oreganus Owl s Asio Headowlark Sturnella Neglecta Swallows Petrochelidon Pyrrhonota Killdeer Charadrius Vociferus Pelican Pelecanus Gu lls Larus

Mammals White-tail Deer Odocoileus Virginianus t-1ule Deer Odocoileus Hemionus Squirrels Spermophilus Cottontail Rabbit Sylvilagus Floridanus Jack Rabbit Lepus Townsendii Mink Mu s tela Vison Mu skrat Ondatra Zibethicus Beaver Castor Canadensis Raccoon Procyon Lotor Red Fox Vulpes Vulpes Coyotes Canis Latrans Weasels Mus tela Nivalis Badgers Taxidea Taxus Striped Skunk Mephitis Mephitis Spotted Skunk Spilogale Putorius Gound Squirrels Spermophilus Richardsonii Pocket Gophers Geomys Bursarius Meadow Voles Microtus Pennsylvanicus }1eadow Jump ing Mice Zapus Hudsonius Short-tailed Shrews Blarina Brevicauda Woodland Deer Mice Peromyscus Maniculatus Woodchuck Marmota Monax Bats Las iurus BIBLIOGRAPHY

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South Dakota Department of Transportation , Top Ten Counties in Corn and Soyb ean Production 1977-1978 , Divis ion of Railroads , Pierre , South Dakota , 1979 .

South Dakota State Planning Bureau , South Dakota Facts : An Ab stract of Statistics and Graphics Concerning The People and ·Resources of South Dakota. Pierre , South Dakota: State Planning Bureau , 1976.

Un ited States Department of Agriculture , Lower James Re­ source ·conservation and Develo ·mertt Pro '· ect Plan , So1 Conservat1on Serv1ce , Huron , Sout Da ota, 1975.

Miscellaneous

Lytle , W. F. , Climatologist, South Dakota State University, Personal Interview , March 1981.

Welch , Hur l E. , Parkston , South Dakota , ·Personal Interview , December 1981.

Third District Planning Office , Personnel, Yankton , South Dakota , Personal Interview , July 1980.

75th Ann iversary Edition of the Yankton Press and Dakotan , June 6, 193-6 . 134

Related Literature

Cla Eastern Council s, South Dakota, 1974 .

Climate of South Dakota, Agricultural Experiment Station , South Dako ta State University , Brookings, South Dakota, Bulletin 582 , November 1971.

Crop Production in South Dakota, South Dakota Depar tment of Transportat ion , Division of Railroads , Pierre, South Dakota , August 1979.

Economic Im act Due to Flood Conditions Within The Lower James Conservancy Su ...;District , Sc uc er , Pau , Nohr , and Ass ociates, Mit. chell , South Dakota , 1973.

Hous ing and Land, Planning and Deve lo ment , District III, Planning Office , Yankt on , Sout Dakota , December 1977 . B

Hutchinson County , Comp rehens ive County Water and Sewer Plan , Schmucker , Shaffer , Paul , and Nohr , Mitchell, South Dakota, 1970 .

Plan, Turner Count , South Da ota , Sout Eastern Counci o Governments , Sioux Falls , South Dakota , 1979 .

Population Estimates and Pro ections , U. S. Depar tment of Commerce , Bureau of t� e Census , U. S. Government Printing Office , Washington , D.C. , No . 854 , November 1979.

1980 Census Press Release Annoucement, Sioux Falls , South Dakota.

Recreational Use of ·The Jame s ·River South Dakota, National Park Service , Midwe st Center , Lincoln , Nebraska , 1980 .

Rus sell , Richard J. Clima tic Years , The Geographical Review , Vol. 24 , 1934 .

Rothrock , E. P. The Surface of a Portion of the James Basirt irt South ·oakota , Vermillion , South Dakota, Bulle tin No . 54 , June 1946 . 135

Soil and Water Conservation Needs Inventory, South Dakota Soil Conservation Service , Huron , South Dakota, August 1970 .

South Dakota Economic and Business Ab stract , School of Business, University of South Dakota , Vermillion, South Dakota, 1980.

Task

Turner