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Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Flora

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Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Flora Timothy E. Paysen R. James Ansley James K. Brown Gerald J. Gottfried Sally M. Haase Michael G. Harrington Marcia G. Narog Stephen S. Sackett Ruth C. Wilson Chapter 6: Fire in Western Shrubland, Woodland, and Grassland Ecosystems Western shrubland, woodland, and grassland eco- pine found in the mountains of extreme southwestern systems lie west of the eastern humid temperate zone, New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, and extending which begins a short distance east of the 100th merid- into northern Mexico (Little 1979) (fig. 6-1, 6-2). Based ian. Shrublands include sagebrush, desert shrub, on stand physiognomy (as in Paysen and others 1982), southwestern shrub steppe, Texas savanna, and chap- many stands of this vegetation type can be considered arral-mountain shrub ecosystem types. Woodlands woodlands (relatively open grown), and many are include southwestern ponderosa pine, pinyon-juniper, classical closed forests. Differences may be due to and oak types that at times can be considered either inherent site conditions or to expressions of a develop- forests or woodlands. The woodland/forest dichotomy mental phase; fire frequency seems to play an impor- can depend on phase of stand development and on the tant role as well. realization of natural site conditions that can form savannas with tree overstories. Grasslands include Fire Regime Characteristics plains, mountain, desert, and annual grassland eco- systems (table 6-1). Fires were frequent and of low intensity. Light surface fires burned at intervals averaging less than 10 years and as often as every 2 years (Dieterich 1980; Understory Fire Regimes _________ Weaver 1951). The short fire-interval was caused by warm, dry weather common to the Southwest in early Major Vegetation Types summer, the continuity of grass and pine needles, and Southwestern United States ponderosa pine con- the high incidence of lightning. Two fire seasons usually sists of two varieties: (1) interior ponderosa pine found occurred each year, a major fire season after snow melt over most of Arizona and New Mexico, and (2) Arizona and just before the monsoon season in midsummer USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. 2000 121 122 Paysen Table 6-1—Occurrence and frequency of presettlement fire regime types by Forest and Range Environmental Study (FRES) ecosystems, Kuchler potential natural vegetation classes (1975 map codes), and Society of American Foresters (SAF) cover types. Occurrence is an approximation of the proportion of a vegetation class represented by a fire regime type. Frequency is shown as fire interval classes defined by Hardy and others (1998) followed by a range in fire intervals where data are sufficient. The range is based on study data with extreme values disregarded. The vegetation classifications are aligned to show equivalents; however, some corresponding Kuchler and SAF types may not be shown. Fire regime types Understory Mixed Stand-replacement FRES Kuchler SAF Occura Freqb Occur Freq Occur Freq Nonfire Ponderosa pine 21 SW ponderosa pine c Interior ponderosa pine 237 M 1a:2-10 m 1 Arizona pine forest K019 M 1a:2-10 m 1 Pine-cypress forest K009 Arizona cypress 240 M 1,2 m 1 Pinyon-juniper 35 Juniper-pinyon K023 Rocky Mountain juniper 220 M1 Juniper-steppe K024 Western juniper 238 M1 Pinyon-juniper 239 M1 Arizona cypress 240 M1 Southwestern oaks d California oakwoods K030 Canyon live oak 249 M1 California coast live oak 255 M1 California black oak 246 M1 Blue oak-digger pine 250 M1 M 1 Oak-juniper K031 Interior live oak 241 M1 Shinnery 31 Shinnery K071 Mohrs oak 67 M 1 Texas savanna 32 Ceniza shrub K045 M1 Mesquite savanna K060 Mesquite 68, 242 M1 Chapter 6:FireinWesternShrubland,Woodland,andGrasslandEcosystems USDA ForestService Gen.Tech.Rep.RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2.2000 Mesquite-acacia savanna K061 M1 Mesquite-live oak savanna K062 Western live oak 241 M1 Juniper-oak savanna K086 Ashe juniper 66 M 1 Mesquite-oak savanna K087 M1 Sagebrush 29 Sagebrush steppe K055 M 2a:20-70 Juniper steppe K024 Rocky Mountain juniper 220 M2a Great basin sagebrush K038 Western juniper 238 M 2a:20-70 Wheatgrass-needlegrass M2a shrubsteppe K056 Desert shrub 30 Mesquite bosques K027 Mesquite 68, 242 M 1,2a Blackbrush K039 M 1,2a Saltbrush-greasewood K040 M 1,2a Creosotebush K041 M 1,2a Creosotebush-bursage K042 M 1,2a Paloverde-cactus shrub K043 M 1,2a Cresotebush-tarbush K044 M 1,2a SW shrubsteppe 33 Grama-tobosa K058 M 1,2a Trans-pecos shrub savanna M 1,2a K059 Chaparral-Mountain Oak-juniper woodland K031 M 1,2a shrub 34 (con.) Chapter 6:FireinWesternShrubland,Woodland,andGrasslandEcosystems USDA ForestService Gen.Tech.Rep.RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2.2000 Table 6-1—Con. Fire regime types Understory Mixed Stand-replacement FRES Kuchler SAF Occura Freqb Occur Freq Occur Freq Nonfire Mountain mahogany-oak M 1,2a scrub K037 Transition of K031 & K037 M 1,2a Chaparral K033 M 1,2a Montane chaparral K034 M 1,2a Coastal sagebrush K035 M 1,2a Plains grasslands 38 Grama-needlegrass- M1 wheatgrass K064 Grama-buffalograss K065 M1 Wheatgrass-needlegrass K066 M1 Wheatgrass-bluestem- M1 needlegrass K067 Wheatgrass-grama- M1 buffalograss K068 Bluestem-grama prairie K069 M1 Mesquite-buffalograss K085 Mesquite 68, 242 M1 Desert grasslands 40 Grama-galleta steppe K053 M 1,2a Grama-tobosa prairie K054 M 1,2a Galleta-three-awn shrubsteppe M 1,2a K057 Annual grasslands 42 California steppe K048 M 1,2a Mountain grasslands 36 Fescue-oatgrass K047 M1 Fescue-wheatgrass K050 M1 Wheatgrass-bluegrass K051 M1 Foothills prairie K063 M1a Cheatgrass c aM: major, occupies >25% of vegetation class; m: minor, occupies <25% of vegetation class bClasses in years are 1: <35, 1a: <10, 1b: 10 to <35, 2: 35 to 200, 2a: 35 to <100, 2b: 100 to 200, 3: >200. cThis type was not defined by Kuchler. dAdded subdivision of FRES. Paysen 123 Paysen Chapter 6: Fire in Western Shrubland, Woodland, and Grassland Ecosystems Fuels The structural and compositional changes in South- western ponderosa pine over the past 100 years or more have been repeatedly documented (Biswell and others 1973; Brown and Davis 1973; Cooper 1960). What was once an open, parklike ecosystem, main- tained by frequent, low-intensity fires, is now a crowded, stagnated forest. In addition to stand changes, general fire absence has led to uncharacteristically large accu- mulations of surface and ground fuels (Kallander 1969). The natural accumulation of pine needles and woody fuels is exacerbated by the slow decomposition rates characteristic of the dry, Southwestern climate (Harrington and Sackett 1992). Decomposition rate (k) (Jenny and others 1949) is the ratio of steady state forest floor weight to the annual accumulation weight. Harrington and Sackett (1992) determined k values of Figure 6-1—Southwestern ponderosa pine distribution. 0.074, 0.059, and 0.048 for sapling thickets, pole stands, and mature old-growth groves, respectively. Decom- position rates this slow, which Olson (1963) considers quite low, border on desertlike conditions. Humid, and a secondary season in the fall. Once a fire started, tropic conditions would have k values approaching 1.0 the forest floor was generally consumed, but the damage where decomposition occurs in the same year as the to trees was highly variable. Low intensity surface material is dropped on the ground. fires predominated and were probably large where dry Fuel loading estimates can be obtained from predic- forests and adjacent grasslands were extensive such tions based on timber sale surveys (Brown and others as on the gentle topography of high plateaus in Arizona 1977; Wade 1969; Wendel 1960) and using Brown’s and New Mexico. Damage to trees was highly variable (1974) planar intersect method for naturally accumu- but mortality to overstory trees was generally minor. lated downed woody material. Forest floor weights Figure 6-2—Typical Southwestern ponderosa pine fuels near Flagstaff, Arizona. 124 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. 2000 Chapter 6: Fire in Western Shrubland, Woodland, and Grassland Ecosystems Paysen have been studied extensively in Arizona and New The next two heaviest weights (18.3 and 18.0 tons/ Mexico; results show high variability between sites. acre) also occurred on the north rim of the Grand Ffolliott and others (1968, 1976, 1977), Aldon (1968), Canyon. Mean forest floor loading for the entire 62 and Clary and Ffolliott (1969) studied forest floor stands measured was 12.5 tons/acre (28.0 t/ha). When weights in conjunction with water retention on some woody material greater than 1 inch diameter was Arizona watersheds. These and other works included added, the average increased to 21.7 tons/acre (48.6 t/ prediction equations relating forest floor weight to ha). The heavier material does not have much to do stand basal area (Ffolliott and others 1968, 1976, with extreme fire behavior, except as a spotting po- 1977), age (Aldon 1968), height and diameter (Sackett tential; these fuels do contribute to localized severity and Haase 1991), and forest floor depth (Harrington when burned. A range of forest floor fuel loadings is 1986; Sackett 1985). summarized in table 6-2. The forest floor consists of a litter (L) layer, recently Of the 12.5 tons/acre (28.0 t/ha) average of forest cast organic material; a fermentation (F) layer, mate- floor fuel load found in the Southwest, about 1.0 ton/ rial starting to discolor and break down because of acre (2.2 t/ha) was L layer material, 3.8 tons/acre weather and microbial activity; and the humus (H) (8.5 t/ha) was in the F layer, and 6.1 tons/acre (13.7 t/ha) layer, where decomposition has advanced. The loosely was H layer.
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