We Are Iron Man: Tony Stark, Iron Man, and American Identity in the Marvel Cinematic Universe’S Phase One Films

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We Are Iron Man: Tony Stark, Iron Man, and American Identity in the Marvel Cinematic Universe’s Phase One Films

ASHLEY SUFFLEROBINSON

N 1963, STAN LEE INTRODUCED A CHARACTER HIS READERS WOULD hate. With the United States embroiled in both the Cold War I and Vietnam, a rift opened between the country’s fundamental ideals and its reality; Americans were no longer clearly the “good guys” who fought “on the side of justice and freedom” (Appy 1). Consequently, Lee—then the art director, editor, and chief writer at Marvel Comics—dared himself to make a superhero that embodied Americans’ frustration with their country. As he explains in a 2008 interview,

the young readers, if there was one thing they hated, it was war, it was the military . ... So I got a hero who represented that to the hundredth degree. He was a weapons manufacturer, he was provid- ing weapons for the Army, he was rich, he was an industrialist . ... I thought it would be fun to take the kind of character that nobody would like ...and shove him down their throat and make them like him. (“Invincible”)

The result: Tony Stark. Lee’s invention of Tony Stark and his Iron Man alter-ego helped readers wrestle with American identity during the politically con- tentious Vietnam era. While Hollywood’s characterization of Tony Stark/Iron Man certainly differs from Lee’s original comic book creation, his role does not. The Marvel Cinematic Universe’s (MCU’s) version of Stark also allows audiences to explore, examine, and

The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 51, No. 4, 2018 © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 824 Iron Man and American Identity 825 confront American national identity. When Jon Favreau’s Iron Man was released in 2008, the United States was in a position eerily simi- lar to the situation in 1963. The country was again entangled in two seemingly unwinnable wars—this time in Iraq and Afghanistan—and public support for military involvement had sharply declined. Americans’ approval of the war in Iraq dropped from 72% in March 2003 to just 38% in February 2008 (“Public Attitudes”). The same was true for Afghanistan; in November 2001, only 9% of Ameri- cans believed the War in Afghanistan was a mistake, but by August 2008, that number had almost quadrupled (“Afghanistan”). The United States’ military policies also became a cornerstone for the 2008 presidential race, where then-Senator Barack Obama referred to the conflict as “the greatest strategic blunder in the recent history of American foreign policy” (Obama). The simultaneous onset of The Great Recession further complicated matters. While the Uni- ted States dumped money into international conflicts, national unemployment rates rose to almost 10% (“Recession”). As historian and Pulitzer Prize winner Hedrick Smith argues, by the end of the decade, the United States was no longer “one large American family with shared prosperity and shared political and economic power.” Instead, the country fractured into “two Americas” along economic and political lines (xii–xiii). Between foreign military campaigns and a faltering national economy, Americans faced a harsh reality: the historic American ideals that encouraged progress, rewarded hard work, and allowed for upward mobility no longer seemed to exist. It is no surprise, then, that Marvel chose Tony Stark and Iron Man to helm Phase One of the MCU. While Robert Downey Jr.’s Tony Stark/Iron Man might not be a direct translation of Lee’s original character, they share the same overarching purpose. Like the character of the 1970s, the MCU’s Tony Stark represents the country’s anxieties about its own contemporary reality: he embodies an America characterized by unchecked capitalism, corporate greed, narcissism, stagnation, and a powerful military-industrial complex. Stark, then, represents an America that has become disenfranchised from its foundational identity. The freedom and opportunity that characterize America’s mythic ideology appear outdated in the face of corporate power and wealth stratification. In contrast to Stark, however, Iron Man offers viewers hope for the viability of what Western historians 826 Ashley Suffle Robinson like Henry Nash Smith and Richard Slotkin have termed the Ameri- can myth. He updates the myth for the new millennium, effectively creating a hero that returns to the core of what it means to be “Amer- ican” while rejecting the nostalgia that makes the literal translation of the traditional frontier hero into the twenty-first century unten- able. This becomes especially clear when positioning Iron Man’s interpretation of American identity against the MCU’s Captain America. However, Steve Rogers reminds viewers of the United States’ exceptionalism, the World War II setting of Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) also historicizes it. Unlike Rogers, who cele- brates the traditional American myth, Iron Man reclaims it for a new generation. Ultimately, Tony Stark/Iron Man’s character arc through the MCU’s Phase One films—namely Iron Man (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), and The Avengers (2012)—engages with America’s evolving national identity as the country struggles to reconcile its past ideals with its uncertain future. In order to address how Tony Stark and Iron Man deal with these issues, one must first understand the formation of America’s national character. The construction of American identity is informed by three interrelated concepts: the American frontier, the American West, and the American Dream. The frontier line became the most defining fea- ture of nineteenth-century America, and the acquisition of the Louisi- ana territory in 1803 moved the line westward and marked the opening of what is now consider the American West (Butler and Lansing 48). As Western historians such as Henry Nash Smith, Richard Slotkin, Robert V. Hine, and John Mack Faragher explain, the West fundamentally shapes American selfhood. Initially, the West allowed for the nation to establish a uniquely American space outside of European influence. According to James Oliver Robertson, the American West also became synonymous with expansion and manifest destiny, which in turn led Americans to “seek a set of values and an identification which was unchangeable in the midst of change” (78). The unexplored wildness of the historical frontier allowed for big dreams and bigger opportunities, and the drive toward progress remains integral to American identity today. To put it briefly, “The United States created and [still] retains its national identity in the West” (Butler and Lansing 4). The emerging mythology of the American West also shaped the American Dream. During the nineteenth century, the frontier became Iron Man and American Identity 827 synonymous with both progress, freedom, and total independence (Robertson 92). These ideas were eventually distilled into the Ameri- can Dream, which values “freedom, opportunity, and security to pur- sue one’s dreams” regardless of class or status (Jillson 269). In The American West: The Invention of a Myth, historian David Hamilton Murdoch refines that definition, arguing that the American Dream privileges hard work and progress while ensuring freedom and opportunity are available to everyone (2–5). But the Dream itself is much more than a guiding concept; as historian Cal Jillson writes, “The American Dream is the spark that animates American life” (7). Thus, the triumvirate of the frontier, the West, and the American Dream combine to form what Murdoch, Slotkin, and Smith term the “Amer- ican myth,” which in turn serves as the backbone of American national identity. Even more importantly, the American myth gives rise to concepts of American heroism, which are critical to understanding how Tony Stark and Iron Man address American identity in the MCU. If the frontier itself embodied American ideals, then the frontier hero served as the paragon of American identity during the nineteenth century. Traditional frontier heroes of dime novel fame were brave, adventur- ous, independent, and conquered the wilderness in the name of progress (Slotkin 34). They had exceptional skills that set them aside from regular men while retaining their morality in the face of violence (Steckmesser 169). Frontier heroes also solidified the American myth by blurring the lines between reality and mythology. Heroes like Wild Bill Hickock and Buffalo Bill Cody were real people, not just dime novel characters. Their successes helped reassure Americans that the Dream was indeed within reach, and their fictions helped make the American myth fact (Henry Nash Smith 90–112). It is telling that images of the traditional frontier hero are almost nonexistent in the twenty-first century due to a general disillusionment with the American Dream. As Jillson points out, contemporary Americans worry about a lack of economic and social opportunities (269). In fact, 70% of Americans believe that the next generation will be less economically secure, and only 64% of Americans buy into the idea that the American Dream is achievable (Cillizza). This is especially true for young adults, who are facing a lack of lucrative job prospects in tandem with crippling student loan debt—which has surpassed 1.3 trillion dollars nationally (Eskow). As Joseph E. Stiglitz 828 Ashley Suffle Robinson explains, the economic situation for young Americans has led to a foreclosure “on our future as a nation.” While these issues are common knowledge now, in early 2008, Americans were still reeling from the onset of the subprime mortgage crisis. The systems of prosperity, opportunity, and financial security that Americans believed in crumbled overnight. So by the time Iron Man opened later that sum- mer, it appeared as if the essential elements of the American myth and national identity were under threat. Iron Man, Iron Man 2, and The Avengers reflect these anxieties, and Tony Stark embodies modern America’s disillusionment with the American myth. Stark chafes under its antiquated structure. Favreau makes Stark’s understanding—and conscious dismissal—of the Amer- ican myth clear in the first half of Iron Man. During the Apogee Awards ceremony honoring Stark’s success, the audience realizes that Stark once embraced the American Dream. A short video tribute kicks off the event and downplays Stark’s wealth while celebrating his “brilliant ... unique mind.” The narrator states that Stark built his first circuit board at age four, his first engine at six, and gradu- ated summa cum laude from MIT at seventeen; Stark’s achievements show that he once bought into the hard-work-equals-success formula of the American myth. This moment also reminds the audience that Stark’s fame comes from more than his silver spoon, and despite his current heedlessness, Stark’s reputation rests on real merit. Stark has the same exceptional skill that characterizes the American frontier hero. And yet, despite possessing the potential for American mythic heroism, Stark refuses the call. Although Iron Man never explicitly explains why Stark abandons the American myth, Stark obviously suffers the same disillusionment with the American Dream as the movie’s audience. The traditional American idea that “if you work hard and play by the rules, you should be given a chance to go as far as your God-given ability will take you” has seemingly fallen apart (Clinton). Instead, Stark embodies attitudes of contemporary Amer- ica, where status and wealth trump dedication and capability. He breaks every rule in the book, and unlike the self-made American heroes of yore, he finds success by cashing in on his father’s legacy instead of making his own. Viewers see this in the scene immediately following the Apogee ceremony, which finds Stark playing craps at a table in Caesar’s Palace. In refusing to accept the Apogee Award, Iron Man and American Identity 829

Stark consciously denies his genius, social responsibility, and the American myth. Instead of using his skills to contribute to American progress, Stark cherry-picks the myth’s ideology. He takes its advo- cacy of individualism to an extreme, and the only contributions he makes are to his hedonism and bank account. In doing so, Stark stands in for the public’s own uncertainty about contemporary Amer- icanism and represents the country’s separation from its foundational identity. Just like the twenty-first-century America he represents, Stark’s self-absorption becomes more unsettling when viewers see Stark’s pre- occupation with his own financial gain. Favreau condenses his criticism of Stark and the America Stark represents into Iron Man’s “Jericho Missile Test.” As the scene opens, Stark saunters down the staircase of his private jet. After the cut, viewers find him standing against a picturesque backdrop of snowcapped mountains in Afghani- stan. His perfectly tailored suit and aviator sunglasses are straight out of the boardroom, but he pitches his weapons as well as any used car dealer:

Is it better to be feared or respected? I say, is it too much to ask for both? With that in mind, I humbly present the crown jewel of Stark Industries’ Freedom Line. It’s the first missile system to incorporate our proprietary repulsor technology. They say the best weapon is one you never have to fire. I respectfully disagree. I pre- fer the weapon you only have to fire once. That’s how Dad did it. That’s how America does it. And it’s worked out pretty well so far. Find an excuse to let one of these off the chain, and I person- ally guarantee you the bad guys won’t even want to come out of their caves. [Gestures at missiles.] For your consideration, the Jeri- cho. [Stark raises his hands; missiles explode.] (Iron Man)

After his speech, viewers understand that Stark is not a hero—he is a salesman. He delivers his pitch drolly, and although he success- fully pushes his weapons, he is more interested in having a drink from his pop-up bar. Furthermore, Stark’s speech, just like America’s own military policy, dehumanizes the “bad guys.” His pitch serves as a textbook example of what theorist Edward Said calls “Othering,” which is Western culture’s tendency to dehumanize and “regard other cultures with derisive contempt” (xxviii). Stark’s language reduces 830 Ashley Sufﬂe Robinson

Afghani fighters to animals living in “their caves,” further distancing Americans from any moral culpability. This is, after all, just how “America does it.” Even the missile’s name, Jericho, invokes both Biblical allegory and manifest destiny, effectively justifying its use against threats to the United States. Stark gives zero thought to who is on the receiving end of his weaponry, and his speech demonstrates a remarkable disre- gard for both violence and life. He offhandedly remarks that he will throw in a mini-bar “with every purchase of 500 million or more,” as if peddling military-grade weapons is akin to selling tchotchkes on late-night television. Stark becomes the Billy Mays of war-monger- ing, and he markets war and fear with no consideration of the conse- quences. Stark cloaks his greed in the rhetoric of patriotism, but modern audiences see through his pitch. Stark’s motivations are obviously selfish, not nationalistic. Tony Stark reflects the reality of modern America. Instead of a country which embraces possibility and progress, Stark shows viewers the truth: America has become a military behemoth that only rewards the powerful. Capitalism has escaped the confines of social responsibility, and Stark’s billionaire status reinforces real wage, educational, and class disparities. Just like Lee’s original character, the MCU’s Tony Stark exemplifies Ameri- cans’ widespread disillusionment with their country and disengage- ment with the American myth. When it comes to their reflections on American identity, however, it is important to understand Stark and Iron Man as separate entities. Iron Man is Stark’s alter-ego, much like Batman is Bruce Wayne’s. Although Stark and Iron Man usually occupy the same physical space, the characters act and react differently, which merits separate consideration (even Joss Whedon’s script for The Avengers refers to the characters separately). This is especially true for Iron Man, who starts out as Stark’s ticket to freedom in Afghanistan but becomes Stark’s method of confronting his flaws and reclaiming potential. Iron Man allows Stark—and by proxy, the audience—to reconnect with the American myth. If Stark serves as a social barometer, then Iron Man shows us that the issues facing modern America can be overcome by reconceptualizing frontier values and heroism. Although Stark opposes traditional constructions of American identity, Iron Man embraces specific elements of the American frontier narrative. For instance, he represents the total independence and Iron Man and American Identity 831 freedom that comes from occupying a frontier (in this case, a technological one). As Frederick Jackson Turner argues in his seminal work, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History,” the historic frontier “promoted the formation of a composite nationality for the American people” outside of European influences (5). As Turner explains, the frontier provides new fields “of opportunity, a gate of escape from the bondage of the past; and freshness, and confidence, and scorn of older society” (9). Its potentiality provided hope for the creation of a new, better social order (W. Wright 1–3). So when the American frontier closed in 1893, people began searching for new, often ideological frontier spaces. For the United States, frontier spaces are necessary for both understanding and reshaping national identity. With the exception of outer space, new American frontiers are largely intellectual but no less critical. Iron Man occupies one of these new frontiers. He exists at the fore- front of technological advancement and resists containment by civi- lization or science. He also goes where he likes regardless of international law or the laws of physics, which viewers see in Iron Man’s “Bogey” scene. Stark has just finished designing the Mark II suit, and he finds himself targeted by two American F-22 fighter jets during his test flight. Colonel James “Rhodey” Rhodes, the closest thing Stark has to a friend, radios the pilot and asks for a visual con- firmation on the bogey. The pilot simply responds, “I’ve got no idea [what it is].” As the planes take aim, Iron Man zips through the skies, easily escaping their modern weapons. This scene serves as an important visual for the audience. Although normal men (the pilots) are confined to their archaic airplanes, Iron Man exists beyond the limitations of modern technology. He embodies progress by doing what man has always wanted to do—fly. He moves freely around the globe and the law, and in doing so reintroduces the perpetual movement and autonomy that characterizes traditional frontier heroes. More importantly, Iron Man’s total independence demonstrates Americans’ desire to reclaim a purer freedom untainted by social structures, economic barriers, and class conflict. The emphasis on freedom and independence acknowledges both the continued importance and viability of the American myth. Iron Man also represents the transformative potential of the Amer- ican myth through what Slotkin calls “regeneration through violence.” This concept is central to America’s identity and its 832 Ashley Suffle Robinson mythology; as Slotkin explains in Gunfighter Nation, “the Myth represented the redemption of American spirit or fortune as something to be achieved by playing through a scenario of separation, temporary regression to a more primitive or ‘natural’ state, and regeneration through violence” (12). Slotkin argues that the violence of the frontier creates the transformative power of the West and subsequently undergirds the American myth. In other words, by facing and surviv- ing violence, people conquer their own darker selves, which allows them to transform into someone better. In Iron Man, Stark endures regeneration through violence while trapped in a terrorist encamp- ment. Stark is critically injured during his capture, and a fellow pris- oner, Dr. Yinsen, saves his life by implanting an electromagnet in his chest. The assault and Stark’s survival literally make him more than human. The violence Stark suffers goes beyond just the physical: he also struggles as he confronts his past. The audience sees this during his recovery when he realizes the terrorists are using Stark Industries weapons. Stark has a choice, and Yinsen puts it bluntly:

I’m sure they’re looking for you, Stark. But they will never ﬁnd you in these mountains. Look, what you just saw, that is your legacy, Stark. Your life’s work, in the hands of those murderers. Is that how you want to go out? Is this the last act of deﬁance of the great Tony Stark? Or are you going to do something about it? (Iron Man)

Here, Stark comes face-to-face with the ramifications of his actions in Afghanistan. He no longer has plausible deniability about Stark Industry’s business model; he is confronted with the horrible reality of his participation in the military-industrial complex. For the first time, Stark realizes he has blood on his hands. His regeneration through violence makes Stark want to be a better person, so he accepts Yinsen’s challenge to change his legacy and turns back to fundamental American ideals. Metaphorically, he drops his cell phone and picks up a hammer, and for perhaps the first time in his adult life, Stark gets to work. He once again embraces his tenacity and ingenuity, accelerating his personal growth. The result is not his own personal transformation, however—it is the invention of Iron Man. Iron Man and American Identity 833

Iron Man does what the deeply flawed Stark cannot: he acts within socially accepted morality to protect the public. We see this time and again in both Iron Man and Iron Man 2 when Iron Man intervenes on behalf of innocent citizens while protecting them from greedy indus- trialists like Obadiah Stane and Justin Hammer. Iron Man’s symbolic reconnection with the American myth is clearest in the final battle with Hammer and Ivan Vanko in Iron Man 2. Hammer introduces his H.A.M.M.E.R. drones on stage at the Stark Expo, an event celebrating innovations that “leave behind a brighter future.” Of course, the drone demonstration goes horribly wrong when Vanko hacks the drones’ interface and they start destroying the Expo grounds. In this scene, Iron Man stands between Vanko and the complete destruction of what Howard Stark dubbed “The City of the Future.” The most powerfully symbolic moment during the film’s climax, however, happens when a boy wearing an Iron Man mask confronts a H.A.M.M.E.R. drone alone. As the boy lifts his hand to shoot an imaginary repulsor beam, the audience tenses, anticipating the worst. Thankfully, Iron Man comes to the rescue, protecting the child and destroying the drone in one fell swoop. This moment aligns Iron Man with the original American myth once and for all. He steps in to defend America as it stands now—symbolized by the boy—so that it can become something better in the future. Unlike Stark, who struggles with narcissism, Iron Man assumes the mantle of the frontier hero. He accepts his social responsibility and “gives to the com- munity,” but he does so “without sacrificing [his] freedom” (B. Wright 205). Iron Man represents essential elements of traditional American heroism, and in doing so, advocates for the continued rele- vancy of the American myth and its foundational ideals. But the traditional frontier mythos in its entirety no longer fits contemporary America. Despite his reconnection with the American myth, Iron Man also rethinks relevance in light of modern issues like morality, fame, and technology. Although the American myth presents morality as “good versus evil,” Iron Man demonstrates Amer- ica’s movement away from that dichotomy. Instead, he muddies the waters by blurring the lines between justice and vengeance. For instance, in Iron Man, after reporter Christine Everhart reveals terrorists are using Stark Industries’ weapons to kill innocent citizens, he flies back to Gulmira to liberate the town. Although the terrorists are unambiguously evil, Iron Man’s actions are also premeditated. He 834 Ashley Suffle Robinson goes to Gulmira with every intention of killing the terrorists, which he does without any lasting psychological repercussions. Although Iron Man ostensibly returns to Afghanistan to protect the helpless, the audience quickly realizes the terrorists attacking Gulmira are part of the Ten Rings group that tortured Stark and killed Yinsen. His motivations create an undeniable rift between Iron Man and the frontier hero. As critic Jeremy Agnew argues, traditional frontier heroes use violence only when necessary. He explains, “[the mythic Western hero] is a man of intense action, but he retaliates only after he is pro- voked” (12). In contrast, Iron Man chooses to intervene with deadly force in Gulmira to satisfy his own need for revenge, and he disposes of the terrorists—some of whom participated in his imprisonment— with no remorse. Furthermore, the presence of his kidnappers in Gulmira throws Iron Man’s motivations into question. Although he saves Gulmira’s citizens, his intervention also allows him vengeance. Iron Man’s motivations are not entirely pure, which sharply contrasts the black-and- white ethos of the frontier hero. In fact, Iron Man’s choices—like the one he makes in this scene—often veer into morally ambiguous territory throughout the MCU’s Phase One films. Iron Man’s moral equivocality mirrors Americans’ increased moral relativism. Accord- ing to a Gallup poll surveying Americans’ opinions on hot-button political issues, between 2002 and 2013, America’s morality has moved away from strict codification and become more ambivalent (Wilke and Saad). Iron Man’s moral ambiguity reflects the United States’ changing mores, and in doing so, he embodies an evolving national identity. Iron Man also challenges traditional American mythology when it comes to fame and fortune. As Will Wright explains in Six Guns and Society, frontier heroes’ exceptional skill sets them apart from society, and Agnew explains they are also characterized as drifters that eschew materialism and place (12–14). Iron Man, however, rejects the idea that American heroes must be ascetics. Clearly he foregoes neither wealth nor celebrity; instead, he firmly roots himself in the social consciousness when he declares “I am Iron Man” at the end of the first film. Although Stark makes that particular assertion, Iron Man 2 gives viewers many examples of Iron Man enjoying the spotlight. At the beginning of Iron Man 2, for example, Iron Man embraces his celebrity as he swoops into the Stark Expo. Rock music blares, Iron Man and American Identity 835 dancers perform in the background, and he raises his hands to soak up the applause as a digital American flag waves in the background. The stage is a capitalist fantasy come to life, and the display of wealth further bolsters Iron Man’s fame. Unlike the self-effacing frontier hero, Iron Man embraces his rock-god status. Iron Man’s popularity again takes center stage at the end of the film as Hammer unveils his drones. When Iron Man lands on the Expo stage in order to prevent Vanko from activating the machines, the crowd goes wild despite his recent vilification by the media. Instead of condemning Iron Man’s celebrity, Iron Man 2 connects Iron Man’s heroism to his social assimilation. Again, this deviates signifi- cantly from the traditional American myth. When the frontier hero integrates into society, it means that he “is no longer either willing or able to take the role of the special person” and must either forfeit his status or move on (W. Wright 47). In contrast, Iron Man does not return to obscurity. Instead, his prominence highlights the importance of celebrity in modern American culture. Iron Man is a celebrity and a hero, which adjusts Americans’ benchmark for success. As sociologist Karen Sternheimer argues, modern celebrity culture connects wealth with moral reward, and in contemporary America, wealth becomes a material reflection of one’s worthiness (213). Given this, Iron Man’s status emphasizes his morality, and his fame becomes influence. Although traditional frontier heroism requires the rejection of place and status, Iron Man argues you can—and should—have both. Lastly, Iron Man’s existence contradicts the American myth’s anxi- ety about technology. The myth of the American West views technological advancements as a double-edged sword. Railroads are the best example of the American myth’s ambivalence toward technology. In the late 1800s, the transcontinental railroad transformed American commerce and travel. Western historians Robert V. Hine and John Mack Faragher describe the railroad’s impact, writing, “No one could doubt the power of the railroad to transform. Over the previous quar- ter-century, railroads had reshaped the landscape of the eastern half of the continent, propelled the country into sustained industrial growth, and made possible the victory of the Union over the Confederacy” (109). But although the railroad facilitated economic and political progress, it also displaced Native Americans, allowed for the rapid development of the west coast, and facilitated the closure of the 836 Ashley Suffle Robinson frontier. As technology reshaped the nineteenth-century landscape, the frontier hero often clashed with technology, and its advancement helped render the hero defunct. In contrast, Iron Man only exists because of technological progress. He demonstrates the potentiality of the technological frontier. Although the Iron Man films argue that technology itself is amoral, they also show technology is integral to both social progress and national safety. Additionally, because Iron Man is intrinsically tied to the technological frontier, he avoids obsolescence. As Marvel Comics writer Gerry Conway explains, Iron Man is the only hero in both the comics and the MCU who “can be reinterpreted for each new generation” (“Invincible”). In fact, between Iron Man and The Avengers, viewers see seven versions of the Iron Man suit, and each iteration is more powerful than the last. The amazement audiences feel when the Mark I walks through fire in Iron Man does not diminish; in fact, it only compounds as the Iron Man suit evolves to fit in a suitcase and, later, to be remotely summoned by wrist cuffs. Even as audiences become more familiar with Iron Man, he never exits the technological frontier. In embracing technological progress, Iron Man serves as a hero who represents the country’s traditional values while embracing its evolving identity. The tension between America’s traditional identity and Iron Man’s modernized mythology is what creates the hostility between Tony Stark/Iron Man and Steve Rogers/Captain America in The Avengers. Although Rogers’s relationship with the American myth is the sub- ject for another article, his influence on the MCU’s construction of American identity merits brief discussion, especially since it pits his representation of American identity against Iron Man’s. Although Iron Man embodies futurism, Captain America represents an idealized version of traditional American identity that marries the mythology of the West with a messianic, Judeo-Christian heritage. In other words, Steve Rogers demonstrates a nostalgia for the traditional frontier hero. When viewers first meet Rogers in Captain America: The First Avenger, they learn his exceptional skill lies not in a genius-level intellect but in a desire to protect his country. Although he is willing to sacrifice himself for others, unlike Stark, Rogers has a strong sense of right and wrong. When Dr. Abraham Erskine, the lead scientist on the super soldier program, asks Rogers if he “want[s] to kill Iron Man and American Identity 837

Nazis,” Rogers responds, “I don’t want to kill anyone. I don’t like bullies. I don’t care where they’re from.” Unlike Stark, who is willing to bend the rules for vengeance, Rogers draws a line in the sand. This moment holds significance for multiple reasons. First, it shows that Rogers embodies the black-and-white morality characteristic of traditional American identity. Second, and more importantly, it connects Rogers with Captain America. Although Stark and Iron Man exist separately, the super soldier serum merely improves Rogers’s body. As Erskine explains, “The [super soldier] serum amplifies everything that is inside, so good becomes great. Bad becomes worse. This is why you were chosen.” Even after the super soldier serum does its work, Rogers and Captain America remain one in the same, a notable difference from Tony Stark and Iron Man. In fact, it is only because Rogers embodies the traits of a traditional American hero that Cap- tain America exists. But Rogers’s transition to superhero does not come easy, and he must rely on his intrinsic morality when he becomes Captain Amer- ica. Instead of fighting for freedom, the military initially uses Rogers as a propaganda machine. He plays his part by promoting war bonds, but when he sees the realities of war first-hand, he becomes discon- tent. He tells Peggy Carter, an agent in the Strategic Scientific Reserve, that “for the longest time, I dreamed about coming overseas and being on the front lines, serving my country. I finally got everything I wanted and I’m wearing tights.” Rogers is uncomfortable with his own celebrity, especially since it stands in the way of his purpose. Unlike Stark, who fully embraces his fame, Rogers would rather work behind the scenes than receive recognition. Eventually, Rogers enters battle, and as the audience expects, he fights selflessly for his country and countrymen. By the film’s conclusion, Captain America represents both the integrity of the US government and the values of its people, and he becomes an exemplar of traditional American heroism. Once Rogers becomes a soldier, he follows the traditional frontier hero’s pattern of swooping in and rescuing society without reward. Although he is undeniably exceptional, Rogers never sees himself as such; even when Red Skull confronts him about his exceptionality, he responds, “I’m just a kid from Brooklyn.” Rogers’s complete self- abnegation becomes clearest when he crashes Red Skull’s plane in the arctic. Rogers cannot be a traditional frontier hero and have a normal life with Peggy; to do so would require he give up what makes him 838 Ashley Suffle Robinson special, which is impossible. Instead, Rogers becomes a Christ figure and dies so others may live. His time spent trapped in what Stark calls a “Capsicle” ensures Rogers’s return to obscurity, which effectively completes his frontier hero’s journey (The Avengers). Unlike Stark, Captain America embraces the American myth instead of chal- lenging it. However, the historical setting of Captain America ultimately locates the traditional American myth in the past. Despite his undeniable heroism, at the end of the film, it is unclear whether Rogers can fit into the country’s contemporary landscape. The friction between traditional and modern American identities serves as a major motif in The Avengers, and director Joss Whedon often places Captain America and Iron Man in the same scenes to explore competing conceptions of Americanism. The first scene that includes both Iron Man and Captain America throws their respective interpretations of American identity into relief. Loki, Thor’s ne’er-do- well brother, crashes a museum gala in Stuttgart, Germany (a country which obviously evokes memories of American greatness and exceptionalism). In this scene, Loki represents the totalitarian ideals that both Captain America and Iron Man stand against as he preaches the dangers of freedom: “It’s the unspoken truth of humanity, that you crave subjugation. The bright lure of freedom diminishes your life’s joy in a mad scramble for power, for identity. You were made to be ruled. In the end, you will always kneel.” But while the MCU’s Iron Man and Captain America agree on the importance of freedom, they interpret Loki’s challenge differently. For Rogers, Loki’s words paral- lel Hitler’s ideologies. Rogers responds, “You know, the last time I was in Germany, and saw a man standing above everybody else, we ended up disagreeing.” His patriotic leitmotif plays in the background as he takes Loki on as the traditional frontier hero in a clash of good versus evil. Unlike Rogers, Iron Man’s opposition to Loki differs because of his interpretation of the American myth. As Iron Man and Iron Man 2 demonstrate, the reimagined American myth is characterized by personal freedom tempered with social responsibility. Iron Man works on his own, and reflects modern Americans’ distrust of authority. Although Captain America is the traditional, upright hero, Iron Man is a maverick. In this scene, he announces his arrival by blaring AC/ DC over the quinjet’s speaker system, and he beats Loki not with punches but with technology. As Loki gives himself up, the camera Iron Man and American Identity 839 pans out to show Iron Man and Captain America side by side, and the film visually presents audiences with two diverse—but equally heroic—versions of American identity. The tensions between traditional American values (Rogers) and a newly conceptualized American mythology (Stark) ratchet up as the movie progresses. The conflict eventually boils over in the following exchange on the S.H.I.E.L.D. helicarrier:

ROGERS: Big man in a suit of armor. Take that off, what are you? STARK: Genius, billionaire, playboy, philanthropist. R: I know guys with none of that worth ten of you. I’ve seen the footage. The only thing you really ﬁght for is yourself. You’re not the guy to make the sacriﬁce play, to lay down on a wire and let the other guy crawl over you. S: I think I would just cut the wire. R: Always a way out. [Smirks.] You might not be a threat but you better stop pretending to be a hero. S: A hero? Like you? You’re a laboratory experiment, Rogers. Everything special about you came out of a bottle.

In this exchange, Stark and Rogers highlight the failings of each other’s interpretations of the American myth—selfishness and na€ıvete, respectively. Rogers believes that though Stark has fame and fortune, he lacks compassion for his fellow man, and Stark argues that Rogers’s adherence to 1940s-era values makes him obsolete. Throughout the first half of The Avengers, Iron Man and Captain America demonstrate the inherent paradoxes in the American myth, and the second half of the film works to find a viable compromise between the two. Luckily, by the end of The Avengers, Captain America and Iron Man find exactly that: a middle ground that reaffirms and advances the American myth. For Rogers, this comes from his appreciation of Iron Man’s intellect and skepticism. Immediately after the disagree- ment mentioned above, Loki’s allies attack the helicarrier, crippling it. As Iron Man and Captain America work to fix the engine, Rogers recognizes Iron Man’s value. Although the film plays Rogers’s “it seems to run on some form of electricity” line as a joke, it also reminds the audience that Rogers is outclassed by twenty-first-century technology. All the grit and heart in the world cannot fix the helicarrier’s engine—only Stark’s technological genius can. 840 Ashley Suffle Robinson

Rogers also finds value in Stark’s distrust of authority. When Stark questions Fury’s motives for assembling the Avengers, Rogers seems to dismiss his criticism. However, Rogers instead takes Stark’s dissen- sion to heart and investigates Fury’s motives on his own. He finds S.H.I.E.L.D.’s illegal weapons cache, and he and Stark confront Fury about his deception simultaneously. In that moment, Rogers realizes that the American government has changed since World War II, as has his country’s identity. Although he is still the “good man” Ersk- ine chose for the super soldier program, Rogers learns that his blind faith in the US government is misplaced. In doing so, Captain Amer- ica reaffirms the American myth while acknowledging the need to adapt it for a modern era. For Iron Man, compromise comes from the shocking realization that money and genius are not always enough. Rogers finds Stark looking at Loki’s destroyed prison, deeply shaken by S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson’s death:

STARK: [Coulson] was out of his league. He should have waited. He should have... ROGERS: Sometimes there isn’t a way out, Tony. S: Right, I’ve heard that before. R: Is this the ﬁrst time you’ve lost a soldier? S: [Sharply.] We are not soldiers. I’m not marching to Fury’s ﬁfe. R: Neither am I. He’s got the same blood on his hands that Loki does. But right now, we’ve got to put that behind us and get this done.

Two important things happen in this exchange. First, Stark begins to understand the true power of sacrifice. Coulson dies in the line of duty—“doing his job” as Rogers points out—and no amount of preparation could save him. He starts to realize the power, and sometimes inevitability, of sacrifice. Second, Stark recognizes Rogers’s exceptionalism comes from his character, not his medical upgrades; Rogers’s morality and courage, not his super strength, make him a leader worth following. Rogers’s understanding of his duty puts Coulson’s death in perspective while reminding Stark that the Aven- gers have a responsibility to put Loki in check. However, Rogers’s earlier assessment of Stark’s character stands. Stark is not “the guy to make the sacrifice play,” it is Iron Man. Viewers see Iron Man’s shift from lone wolf to team player when the Iron Man and American Identity 841

Avengers assemble for the Battle of New York. At the beginning of the ﬁlm, Iron Man operates as an independent agent, proudly declar- ing “following’s not really my style.” This becomes obvious when Thor steals Loki from the quinjet, and Iron Man and Captain America debate tactics:

CAPTAIN AMERICA: Stark, we need a plan of attack! IRON MAN: I have a plan. Attack.

But as The Avengers unfolds, Iron Man realizes the value of team- work, and in doing so, his character undergoes a critical shift. This becomes clear during the movie’s climactic fight scene where the Avengers assemble to stop an alien invasion. Instead of barreling head-long into battle like he does at the beginning of the film, Iron Man defers to Rogers, saying “Call it, Cap,” and then follows Rogers’s orders. But it is Iron Man’s willingness to sacrifice himself that shows a reconciliation between his version of American identity and Captain America’s. At the climax of the Battle of New York, he guides a nuclear warhead into space to save the city, knowing full well he could die in the process. After defeating the Chitauri invaders and falling back to earth, Captain America kneels next to Iron Man’s seemingly lifeless body, and the audience sees a moment of growing respect between these two disparate characters. Iron Man understands that the selflessness of Rogers’s Americanism has merit, while Rogers begins to respect Iron Man’s commitment to progress (although the moment quickly breaks up thanks to Iron Man’s trademark humor). More importantly, the audience reconnects with the American myth through Iron Man, his character presents a feasible, modern iteration of American identity for the twenty-first century. As film journalist Noah Gittell points out, “the cowboy has been replaced by the superhero as the most common expression of Ameri- can values.” Iron Man exchanges the cowboy’s horse for a suit, six shooters for repulsor rays, and his trusty sidekick for J.A.R.V.I.S., but he is more frontiersman than not. Iron Man’s connection with the frontier hero—and Tony Stark’s disassociation with it—allows him to serve as not only a modern American hero but also a critic of the American myth. In short, he becomes the nexus for the recon- struction of American national identity. 842 Ashley Suffle Robinson

In the MCU, Iron Man’s points of divergence from the frontier myth are neither flaws nor failures. Rather, they acknowledge that while the American myth remains fundamental to American identity, many of its traditional constructions are archaic. Thus, Iron Man represents a return to a frontier mythology that is not a restoration of the original myth. He embraces independence and hard work, but he avoids Stark’s narcissism and greed. His intelligence sets him apart, but he uses his knowledge for progress rather than personal gain. Most importantly, he reminds us that although traditional heroism has a place, the world also needs a hero unafraid of dirtying his hands. He embodies the need for freedom, and he assures us that frontiers still exist. Iron Man—a character that embraces some aspects of traditional American national identity while rejecting others— pushes for a fundamental transformation of American identity fit for the twenty-first century.

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Ashley Sufﬂe Robinson holds a PhD in nineteenth-century literature from the University of Arkansas, and her research focuses on the English Victor- ian novel, the American myth, nineteenth-century transatlantic literature, gender, and popular culture. Her previous scholarship has appeared in The CEA: Critic and A Fistful of Icons: Essays on Frontier Fixtures in the American West from McFarland Press.