AQUIFER SYSTEM AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCE EVALUATION IN PARTS OF HINDON-YAMUNA WATERSHED IN PARTS OF WESTERN UTTAR PRADESH
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Boctor of $I)Uo£;opt)P IN GEOLOGY
BY FAKHRE ALAM
DEPARTIVIEWT OF GEOLOGY AUGARH A/IUSLIM UWrVERSITY AUGARH (liMOIA) 2010 ABSTRACT
The study area, a part of the vast central Ganga Plain, is delimited in the east and in the west by Hindon and Yamuna rivers, respectively. It lies between latitude 28^47^ and 29*^18'N and longitude ll%il>{)" and lfl>{^ E and covers an area of about 1,345 km^ The area is well endowed with the groundwater resources but over-exploitation has created adverse impact on the groundwater regime. It is one of the densely cultivated tracts and serves as leading producer of crops especially sugarcane, paddy and wheat. The high stress on groundwater for irrigation due to pumpage of large quantities of groundwater for irrigation has threatens the sustainai^ility of agriculture development.
:/• ''" ;"',• Groundwater development has. a^eady reached to a critical stage in some part of the study area and therefore, the area wa^ trndgrtaksbrfor present work. The present research has been focused on aquifer system and its quantitative and qualitative evaluation and management of groundwater resources in multilayered aquifer. For the said purposes detailed hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical field and laboratory investigations were carried out to generate data base. The average annual rainfall in the area is about 500 mm and a decline by about 70 mm is indicated during the last two decade, which may possibly be a manifestation of climatic changes. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) exhibits a gentle slope towards south and ground elevation ranges from 192 to 256 m above mean sea level. Land use and land cover patterns show conspicuous changes in response to demographic factors and industrialization in the period from 1992 to 2008. Population explosion, increased irrigation requirements and industrialization have exerted tremendous pressure on groundwater resources which take care of 96.18 % of the total water requirements in the area. Geologically, the area is characterized by about 1000 m thick Quaternary alluvium resting over the rocks of Delhi Super Group. The bed rock has not been encountered in wells as deep as 600 m. Three major groups of aquifers have been identified separated by relatively less permeable horizons. Aquifers 1 and II have better potential and utility than aquifer III which gives lower yields due to preponderance of
1 finer elastics. Even deeper, aquifer IV has been intersected in the area to the east of river Hindon, which may or may not extend to the study area. Aquifer I, to which the present study is practically confined, continues to a depth of 126 m bgl with a persistent clay layer on top and intervened by local clay lenses. Pre-monsoon seasons 2006 and 2007 have depth to water level varying between 8.95 and 29.16 m. In corresponding post-monsoon periods, it is 8.62 to 28.96m. Deeper water table occurs in the northeastern part of the area, whereas it is shallower along river Yamuna and Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC). A general rise of water table is indicated in post-monsoon period of 2006 but due to weak monsoon changes observed are trivial in post-monsoon period of 2007. Water level fluctuations in 2006 were on the positive side to as much as 1 m. High fluctuations are associated with deeper water table conditions in northeastern and central parts and shallow water table conditions in the southwestern part. In 2007, on the other hand, 73% of the wells show negative fluctuation due to very poor monsoonal recharge and simultaneous higher rate of withdrawal due to enhanced requirement for irrigation purposes. Historical water level data on 14 permanent monitoring wells show a declining trend. Average annual decline in water level on eastern and western sides of EYC are 0.64 and 0.80 m, respectively. The flow of groundwater is, in general, towards east on the left bank of EYC and towards west on its right bank. Local variations occur on the left bank, where some flow in the opposite direction defines a major trough along river Hindon, obviously related to over-exploitation. Seepages from canal are manifested as groundwater mounds. It needs to be mentioned here that there are no chemical expressions of inferred groundwater troughs and mounds and these are indistinguishable on any chemical map. The isopermeability map shows that the bulk of the area is covered by permeability zone of 30 to 40 m/day and good correlation has been observed between Logan's estimated K and pumping test K values. The pumping tests give aquifer parameters like T and K at 887 to 2772 m^/day and 12.7 to 40.10 m/day, respectively. These values of K, however, are an order of magnitude higher than lab-determined K values. The velocity of the lateral movement of groundwater comes to 9.2 to 11.6 m/day or about 10 m/day. This implies thai groundwater would cover a distance of 1 km in 3 to 4 months time. The groundwater budget estimation for the period from 1^' June 2005 to 31^' May 2008 indicates that total recharge during three successive years was 535, 489 and 467 MCM, respectively. Corresponding total discharge estimates are 688, 704 and 705 MCM. Thus deficit balance of 153, 215 and 237 MCM, respectively, is worked out. The stage of groundwater development for the three years period is worked out at 128%, 144% and 150%, respectively and the entire study area comes under over-exploited category. An alarming stage has already arrived that is likely to deteriorate further in the coming years. In the absence of any immediate remedial measures the shallow aquifer may cease to yield in the next decade. There is chemical evidence indicating that the bulk of about 150 MCM (per annum) water entering the groundwater system as canal seepage, affects the western part more than the eastern. Mass balance equation shows that this mixing of groundwater and canal seepage has to be in a ratio of 0.95:0.05. MODFLOW 4.1 has been applied to a three layered model conceived for the puipose. November 2005 situation is taken as the initial condition for steady state model calibration, which shows good agreement between observed and simulated heads with a Root Mean Square (RMS) error of 1.471 m. Two prediction scenarios were attempted. In scenario 1 (constant recharge and increase in current withdrawal rate), the minimum drawdown of < 2 m was observed along river Yamuna and in upper and lower reaches of river Hindon. A maximum drawdown of > 6 m was observed in northeastern, northwestern and southeastern part of the study area at locations, rendering 13 observation wells becoming dry by 2018. In scenario 2, the combined effect of increasing abstraction rate by 20%) and reducing recharge by 20% was examined. The maximum drawdown of > 7 m is observed in northeastern, southwestern and southeastern parts. In this scenario number of dry cells increased in comparison to scenario 1. The minimum drawdown of <2 m is observed in the vicinity of upper and lower reaches of ri\'er Yamuna and Hindon. Groundwater in the study area has 'Low to Mediun-i (Class I)' electrical conductivity and bulk of the samples are moderately hard to hard. TDS values are averaging >1000 mg/1 for both the sets of samples, post-monsoon value being higher. There is a clear tendency of redistribution of TDS and higher values concentrate in the northern half of the area in pre-monsoon period of 2006. Anomalously high TDS values, as high as > 1800 mg/1 and averaging > 1000 mg/1, suggest that the role of water - rock interaction as a mechanism for the acquisition of solute is not substantial and processes, such as, anthropogenic activities, dissolution of some naturally occurring materials or mixing with deep-seated ascending brines may have a more dominant role to play. A general decrease in average TDS during a period of about 6 months from November, 2005 to June, 2006. when there were hardly any rains, could imply dilution of groundwater due to interaction with surface water bodies or shallow groundwater. A mass balance equation suggests such dilution to the extent of 25%. Such a process of simple dilution is not tenable in the light of the chemical data available and based on ground realities. Therefore, a combination of factors, such as, precipitation/dissolution, irrigation, cation exchange, and influences of climatic and various anthropogenic factors, rather than dilution alone, explain the observed chemical changes in a more lucid way. River Krishni and the upstream sample from river Hindon show conspicuous effect of pollution implying that the pollution could be transmitted to groundwater level when these rivers exhibh influent behavior. Other river samples are with TDS of < 500 mg/1. This implies that in influent part of their courses rivers would tend to dilute the groundwater and their effluent behavior would be reflected in higher TDS content in their discharge. On Piper's Trilinear Plot, overwhelming abundance of alkalis over Ca and Mg and presence of all the anions is indicated. Bicarbonate, though, is more dominant. On L- L Diagram 3 chemical types of groundwater, 'mixed", 'mixed bicarbonate' and 'alkali bicarbonate' types, are identified. The two "bicarbonate types" tend to merge in to one cluster in post-monsoon 2006 samples. Chemical signatures of meteoric origin of groundwater are completely obliterated as a result of the acquisition of solutes in varying but substantial concentrations through various natural and anthropogenic processes. The SAR value ranges from 0.80 to 11.08 with an average value of 4.93 in the samples collected during November 2005, With the exception of 7 samples (13%), the remaining samples fall in good to excellent class from the point of view of iiTigation. During pre-monsoon 2006 period, the SAR values range from 1.68 to 16.39, average value being 6.24. Therefore the possibility of sodium hazard in the area is relatively high. About 20% samples have moderate to high salinity associated with moderate Na values. These samples are not ideal for agricultural activities. RSC estimates, on the other hand, indicate 29% and 24% samples in post-monsoon 2005 and pre-monsoon 2006, respectively, of good quality and suitable for irrigation. The remaining samples fall in doubtful to unsuitable quality in both the seasons. Estimates of these parameters (SAR and RSC) suggest that the area, in general, has tendency for depositing alkalis as NaHC03, Na (C03)2, NajSO.i and KNO3. Sodium values exceeding 200 mg/1 are measured in 49 out of 110 samples collected in November, 2005 and June, 2006. There is temporal consistency in the distribution of high Na values, particularly, in the northeastern part of the area. Sodium, due to its relative preponderance, seems to be involved in all the possible ionic species, such as, Na-CI, Na-HCOs and Na-S04. Sodium could have been derived from a number of sources, natural as well as anthropogenic. Natural processes are water-rock interaction and cation exchange in clay zones. It may also have been acquired as a result of infiltration of water in zones of reh soil and from sewage and industrial waste. Sugar and related industries also contribute Na to the system in significant proportions. High Na values in drinking water are not advisable due to the known role of this element in hypertension, heart diseases and kidney-related problems. For the two sets of samples the average Na values are 186 and 208 mg/i, respectively. Sodium concentration in groundwater, therefore, is clearl}' at a perilous level from the point of view of human health. As for as the other alkali ion K is concerned, its values, as high as >30 mg/1 occur in 22 samples. Distribution of Na and K does not seem to be inteiTelated implying different sources for the two alkali metals. The source of this ion is mainly fertilizers. Some anomalously high values suggest partial fixation of K in soils and its retention in the groundwater. There are indications that transmission of K from surface to groundwater level takes place in about a month's time. Its eventual fixation may however take up to 6 months. Saline soils could serve as a periodical/seasonal source of Na and HCO3 in the groundwater. Dissolution of even 1 mm of saline soil cover could take 47, 000 tons of Na2C03 in solution. On the other hand, per hectare application of K is only about 12 kg, which is not much and under normal circumstances is likely to get fixed and held by soils in the area. Infiltration of K. applied as fertilizer, to groundwater level probably takes about a month. It could get fixed up/equilibrate at the most in 6 months. Distribufion of Ca and Mg does not exhibit any analogy spatially or temporally, implying their mutual independence as far as their respective sources are concerned. An enigma is rather drastic depletion in concentration of Ca in the pre-monsoon season of 2006. This may partly be explained as a result of precipitation of carbonate and resultant decrease in Ca and HCO3 concentration levels in groundwater. Cation exchange seems to be in operation too and this is corroborated by an observed marginal enrichment in Na values. Magnesium has not been involved in precipitation of carbonates and therefore its concentration levels, acquired probably through interaction in clay rich zones and also probably as a result of anthropogenic influences, have been retained. Both Ca and Mg may be involved in respective bicarbonate complexes. Calcium also gets incorporated in Ca-S04. There is no e\'idence of the occurrence ionic species, such as, Ca-Cl and Mg-Cl in any of the samples. Calcium values measured in the two sets of samples (November, 2005 and June, 2006) give average values of 43 mg/1 and 19 mg/1, respectively. All the 55 samples collected in 2006 have Ca values less than the prescribed lower limit where as 49 out of 55 samples collected in 2005 have recorded such values. The study area, therefore, is a clear case of calcium deficiency which may be conducive for diseases like osteoporosis and even rickets, the latter of course when Ca-deficiency is coupled with the deficiency of vitamin D. No drastic changes are exhibited by HCO3 in its concentration levels in the two periods of sampling. Most of it has been acquired through water-solid phase interaction and dissolution of CO2 in percolating groundwater. Its distribution, both spatially and temporally, ho\vever, is prone to changes on account of precipitation and dissolution of carbonates in different seasons. As surplus HCO3 is recorded in some samples, it may be speculated that source for this anion also lies in some anthropogenic activities. It may have been derived from garbage dumps (due to dissolution of carbon dioxide generated from the decay of organic dumps) and textile and sugar industries. Relative preponderance of HCO3 permits not only the formation of bicarbonate complexes of Ca and Mg but also of Na. Even K may be involved in such complexes particularly in samples characterized by its abundance. In successive sampling periods in 2005 and 2006, concentration of SO4 exceeds 250 mg/1 in a total number of 22 samples. Values as high as 342 to 457 mg/1 in 4 samples and >30% samples with concentration exceeding 200 mg/1 clearly indicate that addition of this anion to the groundwater system is through anthropogenic activities and the biggest culprits in this regard are booming sugar and Gur industries in the area. Chloride values, though averaging 85 and 71 mg/1 in the two successive sampling seasons, are at times as high as 227 to 369 mg/1. Values not more than 20 to 30 mg/1 may be attributed to natural causes and therefore the bulk of the chloride content of groundwater too is related to human activities. Faulty sewage disposal and industrial effluents, particularly, of textile industries, are probably the main source of this ion. As far as ionic species are concerned, Ca gets involved in bicarbonate and sulphate species, the former being far more abundant. Magnesium forms only bicarbonate complex and there is no evidence of its involvement in chloride and sulphate species. Relative paucity of Ca and consumption of all CI in the formation of alkali chloride complexes precludes formation of Ca-Cl complex. Alkalis, not only form chlorides but are also incorporated in bicarbonate and sulphate complexes. This is particularly true for Na. Thus the species likely to occur in the groundwater in the study area are Ca-HCOs, Mg-HCOj, Ca-S04, Na-Cl. Na-SO,i, Na-HC03. K-Cl and some other possible species of K depending on its abundance. Both Na and K may also occur as nitrates though in insignificant amount. Unique chemical characteristics of groundwater are the outcome of several natural and anthropogenic processes. The groundwater regime is detrimentally affected profoundly both in qualitative and quantitative terms. Signatures of the meteoric origin of groundwater have been completely obliterated. There is anomalously high concentration of major ions, particularly, Na, K, SO4 and CI which is associated with relative deficiency of Ca. Acquisition of chemical species in the groundwater is the result of a combination of processes, such as. water-rock interaction, cation exchange, dissolution of surface saline encrustations, dissolution and precipitation of carbonates, application of fertilizers, influent and effluent behavior of surface discharges and descent of household and industrial wastes to groundwater level. The role of water-rock interaction is trivial and it is very difficult to identify the role of various processes in solute acquisition in quantitative terms. As far as industrial pollutants are concerned, sugar, gur and textile industries are particularly worth mentioning. Contribution of soap industry is in the form of addition of Na to the groundwater system. Textile industries have contributed CI and may be some HCO3 and Mg. Discards and separates from sugar and gur industries consist of sulphates of Na and Ca, phosphate of Ca and some CaCOs and [Ca (0H)2]. There is hardly any doubt that the bulk of SO4 and Na in groundwater in the study area have their origin in sugar and gur industries. This is because of the use of Na-H-SO^ for getting rid of impurities and to bleach the final product. Prevalent use of Na-H-S04 compared to calcium compounds and relative dispersion of Na and Ca depending on relative solubility of their compounds has resulted in the observed trend of lesser addition of the latter to the groundwater as a pollutant. The effects of sugar and gur industries on groundwater chemistry are transmitted in three to six months time. Trace metals, such as, Zn. Cr, Cu and Mn have been contributed by textile and iron goods industries. The chemistry of shallow groundwater does not follow any defined trend and wells with contrasting chemical characters occur side by side or the same well shows markedly different chemistries in post- and pre-monsoon seasons. Such temporal and spatial characteristics tend to suggest relative lack of lateral hydraulic continuity in the shallow aquifer. This, in turn, results in precluding the stirring of groundwater. This is what is reflected in the form of each well having its own short term chemical characteristics and hardly any signatures which could be considered valid over a long period of time. Trace elements study in 22 samples shows anomalously high concentration levels for Al and Cr. Relatively high values are also reported for Mn, Fe and Pb. High values of Pb and Fe are often associated and this may be because of the pipes used in wells. High Cr values may be related to industrial influence. The cause of high Al values in all the 22 samples is not known at this stage. Chromium is carcinogenic when present in hexavalent state and 21 out of 22 samples have Cr concentration higher than the permissible limit. This is really very significant information that has come through this study and needs to be explored in greater details. The concentrations of Al in all the 22 samples are above the maximum permissible limit of 0.2 mg/1. As a matter of fact, 21 out of 22 samples analyzed have Al concentrations ten times or even higher than the maximum permissible limit. Although in general Al is not considered toxic but there had been suggestions that when consumed in higher proportion Al may be conducive for Alzheimer Disease (AD). Distribution of Al, its source and the chemical species it occurs in, are also some of the aspects that need to be taken up in future studies. Chemistry of aquifers 11 and 111, which have been encountered in the northeastern part of the area, is consistent with the water-rock interaction being the most abundant mechanism for the acquisition of solutes. It is an encouraging sign that the highly polluted aquifer I has not yet started alfecting the pristine chemical quality of aquifer II. This, in turn, indicates that the impervious barrier between the two aquifers is very affective in precluding the vertical hydrological continuity. The populace may have to resort to tapping aquifer II in future. The good news is that the quality of groundwater hosted by it is excellent. There is a bad news too. According to CGWB assessments, yields from aquifer II may not be as high as in aquifer I. Yields from aquifer III are inferred to be even lower. The closed box recharge - discharge model suggests that recharge tends to ameliorate the concentration levels of solutes in the groundwater but additions of chemical species through uncontrolled anthropogenic processes keep on deteriorating the quality. It is, therefore, of utmost importance that immediate attention is paid towards the remedial measures to at least arrest the quality degradation and quantitative depletion of the first aquifer at the stage where it is now. If exploitation keeps on increasing at the current pace and unscientific disposal of pollutants is not checked, the time is not far off when the water will become unusable even for irrigation purposes and wells would be dry. Arguably, the deterioration of chemical quality is a faster process than depletion of aquifer. Preserving the first aquifer is all the more important as the third aquifer is a low- yielding one and the fourth aquifer, if it extends to the area of study, hosts saline water. AQUIFER SYSTEM AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCE EVALUATION IN PARTS OF HINDON-YAMUNA WATERSHED IN PARTS OF WESTERN UTTAR PRADESH
r •''/ / THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OP I doctor of $|}ilo0optip IN . GEOLOGY J- *1 \i \ ;
Jr. FAKHRE ALAM
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AUGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY AllGARH (INDIA) 2010 L) ;: SE? 2G14
T8382 (Dr. (RflshidVmar DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY Ph.D. ALIGARH-202 002 Tel Office+91-571-2700615 Fax +91-671-2700528 Res.+91-571-2721312 Cell +91-9410200862 E-mail [email protected]
r:lh April, 2010
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work presented' in-'tHc-Ph.D. thesis entitled, " Aquifer System and Groundwater Resource Evaluation in parts of Hindon-Yamuna watershed in parts of western Utta»r Pradesh" submitted by Mr. Fakhre Alam has • <• been carried out and completed under my supervision.' The work is an original contribution to the existing knowledge of the subject. He is allowed to submit the work for the award of the Ph.D. degree of the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
(Dr.Rashid Umar) Research Supervisor Acknowledgement
"Success is not a place at which one arrives but rather the spirit with which one undertakes and continues the journey". J am heartily thankful to my supervisor. Dr. Rashid Umar, Assistant Professor, Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, wnthout whose able guidance and inspiration it would have been difficult to complete my research. Working with him has been an enriching experience. I wish to express my gratitude and debt to Dr. Shadab Khurshid, Chairman, Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing all kinds of necessary facilities. 1 shall also express my gratitude to Prof. Mahshar Raza, Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh for his kind help and continued encouragement. 1 am indebted from the core of my heart to Dr. Shakeel Ahmed, Senior Scientist and team co-leader, Indo-French Centre for Groundwater Research. NGRI, Hyderabad for his invaluable suggestions during the compilation of this thesis. For financial support, I thank to INCOH, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India and University Grant Commission under UGC Fellowship Scheme. I would like to greatly acknowledge. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi for selecting me among the awardees of Senior Research Fellowship. Data collection from District Statistics Department. Irrigation Department, Central Ground Water Board and Utiar Pradesh Slate Groundwater Department are thankfully acknowledged. I am thankful to Dr. R. A. Yadav and Saifullah Khan for providing various data during my research work. I am also thankful to Haji Manzoor Hassan, for his help and cooperation during my several field visits in the study area. Pleasant thanks to my senior lab colleagues Dr. Faisal Kama! Zaidi, Dr. Izrar Ahmed, Dr. Mohammad Muqtada All Khan and Maris Hasan Khan who were of immense help during hours of need. I am also thankful to my co-researchers, Zanteer Ahmed Shah and Sana Sabir for their continuous work of proof reading and editing without any complaint. / must express my thanks to my friends Adil, Nawaz, Manoj, Taufique and Salim who have been with me in various walks oj my life. I want to express my humble feelings and gratitude for my ever-loving and dearest parents, Md. Saklain Khan and Shyara Bano. uncles, brothers and sisters who lit the flame of learning in me and whose M'ishes, affection, motivation and constant encouragement helped me to take this work to the destination. I wish to express my gratitude and debt to my father-in-law and mother-in-law whose M'ishes has always been with me throughout the entire work. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Nazia for her patience and understanding during this time.
(Fakhre Alam) CONTENTS
Page No,
List of Figures i-iii List of Tables iv-v List of Appendices vi Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1-11 1.1 GENERAL 1 1.2 N.ATIONAL SCENARIO 2-3 1.3 OBJECTIVES 3-4 1.4 AREA OF STUDY AND METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED 4 1.5 PREVIOUS WORK 5-7 1.6 NEED TO CARRY OUT THIS STUDY 7-8 1.7 THESIS LAY-OUT 8-9 1.8 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK 10-11 Chapter 2 DATA COLLECTION AND METHODOLOGIES 12-29 ADOPTED 2.1 INTRODUCTION 12 2.2 METEOROLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHIC DATA 12-13 2.3 AQUIFER CHARACTERIZATION METHODOLOGY 13-15 2.4 MODUSOPERANDI FOR GROUNDWATER 15-16 RESOURCES EVALUATION 2.5 GROUNDWATER FLOW MODELLING TECHNIQUES- 17-18 MODFLOW 2.6 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL SAMPLING PROCEDURE 18-19 2.7 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR MAJOR IONS AND 19-29 TRACE METALS Chapters THE STUDY AREA 30-44
3.1 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY 30 3.2 CLIMATE AND RAINFALL 30-32 3.3 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL 33-35 3.4 LANDUSE AND LANDCOVER 35-40 3.5 WATER UTILIZATION PATTERN 40 3.6 SOIL TYPES 40 3.7 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY 41-44 3.8 SUMMARY 44 Chapter 4 AQUIFER PARAMETERS AND 45-76 HYDROGEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS 4.1 CENTRAL GANGA PLAIN 45-46 4.2 AQUIFER SYSTEM 46-47 4.3 AQUIFER GEOMETRY 47-52 4.4 SAND PERCENT MAP GRAIN SIZE RELATED 52-54 ASPECTS 4.5 GROUNDWATER LEVEL VARIATION 54 4.5.1 Depth to water level 54-58 4.5.2 Water table fluctuation 58-61 4.6 WATER TABLE CONTOURS AND GROUNDWATER 61-65 MOVEMENT 4.7 LONG TERM BEHAVIOUR OF WATER LEVELS 65 4.7.1 Hydrographs 66-69 4.7.2 Temporal variations in water table and inonthl}' rainfall 69-70 4.8 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 70-71 4.9 ISOPERMEABILITYMAP 71-73 4.10 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM PUMPING TESTS 73-74 CONDUCTED BY CGWB 4.11 SUMMARY 75-76 Chapter 5 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE EVALUATION 77-90 5.1 GENERAL 77-78 5.2 COMPONENTS OF GROUNDWATER BUDGET 78 5.3 ESTIMATION OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE 79-80 5.3.1 Estimation of groundwater recharge for the monsoon 80-81 season in the command area 5.3.2 Estimation of recharge through rainfall during the non- 81 monsoon season 5.3.3 Recharge through irrigation returns 82 5.3.4 Recharge through surface water irrigation 82 5.3.5 Recharge through canal seepages 83 5.3.6 Tola! annual recharge 83 5.4 ESTIMATION OF GROUNDWATER DISCHARGES 84 5.4.1 Estimation of groundwater draft as a result of pumping 84-85 5.5 GROUNDWATER BUDGET 85 5.6 STAGES OF GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMf-NT 85-86 5.7 GROUNDWATER BALANCE FOR SUBSEQUENT 86-87 YEARS 5.8 LONG TERM GROUNDWATER FLUCTUATION 87-89 TREND 5.9 SUMMARY 89-90 Chapter 6 GROUNDWATER FLOW MODELLING 91-112 6.1 INTRODUCTION 91-92 6.2 MODEL CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 92 6.2.1 Groundwater level data 92 6.2.2 Aquifer Geometry 93 6.2.3 Aquifer parameters 93-94 6.2.4 Recharge 94-95 6.2.5 Groundwater Draft through pumping 95-96 6.2.6 Boundary Conditions 96-97 6.3 MODELCONCEPTUALIZATION AND DESIGN 97-99 6.4 MODEL CALIBRATION 99 6.4.1 Steady State Calibration 99-102 6.4.2 Transient State Calibration 102-104 6.5 ZONE BUDGET 105 6.6 MODEL SENSITIVITY 105-109 6.7 PREDICTIONS AND ASSESSMENT 109 6.7.1 Scenario 1: Constant recharge and increase in current 109-110 withdrawal rate 6.7.2 Scenario 2: Reduction of recharge and increase in current 110-111 withdrawal rate 6.8 SUMMARY 111-112 Chapter 7 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER AND ITS 113-141 CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS 7.1 GENERAL 113 7.2 COMPOSITION OF METEORIC WATER 114-115 7.3 CHANGES IN THE CHI'MISTRY OF SHALLOW 115-117 GROUNDWATER 7.4 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES OF 117 GROUNDWATER 7.4.1 Electrical Conductivity 117-118 7.4.2 Hydrogen ion Concentration (pH) 118 7.4.3 Hardness 118 7.4.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 118-120 7.5 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATEFl 120 7.5.1 Piper's Trilinear Diagram 120-123 7.5.2 L-L Diagram 124-125 7.6 SUITABILITY OF GROUNDWATER FOR HUMAN 126 CONSUMPTION 7.6.1 Drinking Water Quality from the Point of View of Major 126-129 Ions 7.6.2 Trace Metals Concentration and Drinking Water Quality 129-131 7.7 QUALITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES 131-132 7.7.1 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) Criterion 132-134 7.7.2 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) Parameter 134-135 7.8 CHEMICAL QUALITY OF RIVER DISCHAFIGES 135-137 7.9 DISCUSSION 137-139 7.10 SUMMARY 139-141 Chapter 8 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND 142-170 CHEMICAL ALTERATION OF GROUNDWATER 998.1 GENERAL 142-143 8.2 TEMPORAL VARIATION TRENDS OF MAJOR IONS 143-148 8.3 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF AQUEOUS IONIC 148-151 SPECIES 8.4 SIGNATURES OF IONIC SPECIES IN GROUNDWATER 151-154 8.5 CHEMICAL ALTERATION OF METEORIC WATER 155-159 8.6 DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF TRACE 159-163 METALS 8.7 DISCUSSION 164-168 8.8 • SUMMARY 168-170 Chapter 9 DATA CORRELATION AND SYNTHESIS 171-198 9.1 SIGNIFICANT OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY 171-173 9.2 ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL SPECIES 173-175 9.3 INFLUHNCE OF GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS 175-177 9.4 HYDROLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND WATER 177-180 CHEMISTRY 9.5 CLOSED BOX APPROXIMATION OF CHEMICAL 180-181 CHANGES 9.6 INFILTRATION THROUGH SALINE SOIL 181-182 9.7 INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS 182-183 9.8 ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON GROUNDWATER 183-185 CHEMISTRY 9.8.1 Soap Manufacturing 185 9.8.2 Textiles Related Industries 185-187 9.8.3 Sugar and Gur Industries 187-189 9.8.4 Miscellaneous Industries 189-190 9.9 TRACE METALS 190 9.10 EXTENT OF VERTICAL INFLUENCE OF POLLUTION 190-192 9.11 POSSIBLE TIME SCALE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES 192-193 9.12 CONCEPTUAL MODEL 193-196 9.13 INFERENCES 196-198 Chapter 10 INFERENCES AND SUGGESTIONS 199-213 10.1 MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STUDY 199-202 10.2 OTHER OBSERVATIONS AND INFERENCES 202-210 10.3 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 210-213
REFERENCES 214-227
APPENDICES List of Figures
Fig No. Title Page No. 1.1 Location map of the study area 4 2.1 Map of the study area, showing locations of monitoring wells, 14 state boreholes, hydrograph stations, section line and rain gauge stations 2.2 Sampling location map of Hindon - Yamuna watershed 19 3.1a Yearly Rainfall at Baraut Raingauge Station (1995 - 2008) 31 3.1b Yearly Rainfall at Baghpat Raingauge Station (1997-2008) 32 3.2 Digital Elevation Model of Hindon - Yamuna Watershed 34 3.3a Land Use and Land Cover map (September, 1992) 36 3.3b Land use and Land Cover map (October, 1999) 37 3.4 Bar graph showing variation in Land Use pattern since 1992 to 38 2008 3.5 Block Wise Water Utilization Pattern in the Study Area 41 3.6 Geological Map of the Study Area (after Kumar 2005) 42 3.7 Map of the Ganga Plain Showing Sub-Surface Basement High 43 and Thickness of Foreland Sediments. 4.1 Hydrogeological Divisions of Uttar Pradesh (Pathak, 1978) 46 4.2 Fence Diagram of the Study Area 48 4.3 Hydrogeological cross section along line A-B 49 4.4 Hydrogeological cross section along line C-D 50 4.5 Hydrogeological cross section along line E-F 51 4.6 Hydrogeological cross section along line G-H 52 4.7 Sand percent map of the study area 53 4.8a Pre-monsoon depth to water level map (June 2006) 55 4.8b Pre-monsoon depth to water level map (June 2007) 56 4.9a Post-monsoon depth to water level map (November 2006) 57 4.9b Post-monsoon depth to water level map (November 2007) 58 4.10a Water level fluctuation map for the year 2006 59 4.10b Water level fluctuation map for the year 2007 60 4.11a Pre-monsoon water table contour map (June 2006) 62 4.11b Pre-monsoon water table contour map (June 2007) 63 4.12a Post-monsoon water table contour map (November 2006) 64 4.12b Post-monsoon water table contour map (November 2007) 65 4.13a - g Long Term Water Level Fluctuation Trend 66-68 4.14a Temporal Variability of monthly rainfall and water level at 70 Baghpat 4.14b Temporal Variability of monthly rainfall and water level at 70 Baraut 4.15 Isopermeability mapofthe area 73 4.16 Correlation between Logan's Estimated Permeability and 74 Pumping test values 5.1 Trends of groundwater balance for the years 2005 to 2007 86 5.2a Well hydrograph of Baghpat and Fakharpur 88 5.2b Well Hydrograph of Laliyan and Baraut 88 5.2c Well hydrograph of Chaprauli and Barnawa 89 6.1 Permeability distribution in second layer 94 6.2 Map showing grid pattern, recharge zone and boundary 95 conditions 6.3 Simulated groundwater pumping locations 96 6.4a Hydrogeological cross section along row 24 showing three 99 layer system 6.4b Hydrogeological cross section along row 41 showing three 99 layer system 6.5a Observed heads for November 2005 101 6.5b Computed heads for November 2005 ] 01 6.6 Calculated versus Observed heads (November 2005) 102 6.7 Calculated versus Observed heads (November 2005 to 103 November 2008) 6.8a Observed and Simulated heads at Asara, Budhpur, Fakharpur 104 and Mukari 6.8b Observed and Simulated heads at Bhagaut, Khekra and 104 Malakpur 6.9a Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 10% 106 increase of permeability 6.9b Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 20% 107 increase of permeability 6.9c Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 10% 107 increase of permeability for zone 3. 6.10a Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 5% increase 108 recharge 6.10b Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 5% 108 decrease of recharge 6.11a Drawdown and dry cell in scenario 1 110 6.11b Drawdown and dry cell in scenario 2 111 7.1a TDS distribution in Post-monsoon, 2005 120 7.1b TDS distribution in Pre-monsoon, 2006 121 7.2a Chemical facies identified on Piper's Diagram in groundwater 122 samples collected in November, 2005 7.2b Chemical facies identified on Piper's Diagram in groundwater 123 samples collected in June, 2006 7.3a Langelier and Ludwig (L-L) diagram November, 2005 samples 125 7.3b Langelier and Ludwig (L-L) diagram June 20,06 samples 125 7.4a SAR Vs B.C. (November, 2005) 133 7.4b SAR Vs E.C. (June. 2006) 134 7.5 Langelier and Ludwig (L-L) diagram for June 2007 river 136 samples 8.1a- d Temporal variations of major ions (cations) 146 8.1e- h Temporal variations of major ions (anions) 147-148 8.2 Relationship between HCO3 and CI 150 8.3 Relationship between CI and SO4 150 8.4 Relationship between alkalis and Ca + Mg 151 8.5 Relative abundance of CI + SO4 and HCO3 153 8.6 Bicarbonate Vs Ca + Mg plot 153 8.7 Alkalis Vs CI plot 154 8.8 Relationship between alkalis and SO4 154 8.9 Chemical alteration of meteoric water - a conceptual approach 157 9.1 Industries in the study area 184 9.2 Conceptual hydrogeochemical model of the study area 194 List of Tables
Table No Title Page No 2.1a Results of Chemical analysis in mg/l (November 2005) 21 -22 2.1b Results of Chemical analysis in mg/l (June 2006) 23-24 2.2a Results of Chemical analysis in meq/1 (November 2005) 25-26 2.2b Results of Chemical analysis in meq/1 (June 2006) 27-28 2.3 Results of Chemical analysis of river water samples in mg/l 29 (June 2007) 3.1 Results of Statistical Analysis of Annual Rainfall Data 32 3.2 Land Use and Land Cover classification of Hindon - 39 Yamuna Watershed 3.3 Probable Geological Succession in the Study Area 43 4.1 Effective Grain Size and Uniformity Coefficient 54 4.2 Statistical analysis of water level fluctuation in 2006 60 4.3 Statistical analysis of water level fluctuation in 2007 61 4.4 Average annual decline during (1998 to 2008) in the study 69 area 4.5 Results of Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity (m/day) 71 4.6 Result of Short Duration Pump Test Conducted by CGWB 74 5.1 Non-monsoon rainfall recharge 81 5.2 Crop wise irrigation return flow 82 5.3 Recharge through surface water irrigation (MCM) 82 5.4 Recharge through canal seepage 83 5.5 Annual groundwater recharge in the study area (MCM) 83 5.6 Borewell census data 84 5.7 Groundwater draft through pumpage (MCM) 85 5.8 Stage of groundwater development (June 2005 to May 2006) 85 5.9 Stages of groundwater development (June 2005 - May 2006) 86 5.10 Stages of groundwater development (June 2006- May 2007) 87 5.11 Stages of groundwater development (June 2007- May 2008) 87 6.1 Components of groundwater balance using MODFLO W 105 7.1 Classification on the basis of EC 117
IV 7.2 Hardness classification of water 118 7.3 Classification of water based on TDS 119 7.4 Range of concentration of various major and trace elements 130 in shallow groundwater samples and their comparison with W.H.O. (1994) and B.I.S. (1991) Drinking Water Standards 7.5 Quality Classification of Irrigation Water (after USSL 19.54) 134 7.6 Quality of Groundwater Based on Residual Sodium 135 Carbonate (RSC) 8.1 Range of concentration of major cations and anions in mg/1 144 8.2 Chemistry of unaltered and altered meteoric water 157 8.3 Aqueous ionic species 158 8.4 Trace element data in mg/1 in selected water samples in the 163 study area 9.1 Zone-wise distribution of major cations and anions (mg/1) 174 9.2 Chemical Data on Deeper Aquifers 191 List of Appendices
Appendix Title Page No. I Location of monitoring wells and their coordinates i-ii II (A) Statistical Analysis of Rainfall data at Baraut Raingauge iii Station II (B) Statistical Analysis of Rainfall data at Baghpat Raingauge iii Station III (A) Water level data of monitoring wells (June 2006) iv-v III (B) Water level data of monitoring wells (November 2006) vi-vii III (C) Water level data of monitoring wells (June 2007) viii-ix III (D) Water level data of monitoring wells (November 2007) x-xi IV Lithological Logs of Boreholes xii-xxi V Results of Grain size analysis of aquifer material xxii-xxiii VI Data of well hydrographs xxiv
VII Results of Chemical analysis in mg/1 (November 2006) xxv
VIII Results of Chemical analysis in mg/1 (June 2007) xxvi-xxvii
VI CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL Land and water are the most vital resoiiiccs around which overall development of a country rests. The strong interaction between the two and their dependence on other components of socio-ecological system highlight the need for putting groundwater resources at the center of any development effort. Population growth, urbanization and effects of global climate change, such as, longer spells of summer and erratic or failing monsoon: have resulted in increasing urban and agricultural water demands. This, in turn, l-,as stressed aquifer systems where groundwater is the dominant source of water svippl)' (Taniguchi et al. 2009). More than two billion people world wide depend on groundwater for their daily supply. A large amount of world's agriculture and irrigation is dependent on groundwater, as are large numbers of industries. The econoni}' of developing as well as industrialized countries depends on groundwater, directly or indirectly. Thus, from the south western United States to Mexico, India, and northern China, local groundwater users and governments at all levels are realizing that groundwater resource, once so abundant and cheap, is getting scarcer and increasingly polluted, and therefore, something needs to be done before it is too late (Kemper, 2004). Groundwater crisis is not onls the result of natural factors, such as, climate- related factors and scanty or erratic rainfall; it has been caused b)' human action as well. During the past few decades, the water level in several parts of the country has been falling rapidly due to an increase in extraction. The number of wells drilled for irrigation of both food and cash crops has rapidly and indiscriminately increased. India's rapidly rising population and changing lifestyles have a major role in giving rise to this crisis. Intense competition among users like agriculture, industry and domestic sectors, is driving the groundwater table lower and lower (Srivastava, 2003). The quality of groundwater is getting severely affected because of the widespread pollution of surface water. Besides, discharge of untreated waste and leachate from unscientific disposal of solid wastes also contaminates groundwater, thereby reducing the quality of freshwater resources. 1.2 NATIONAL SCENARIO Rainfall is the main source of recharge to groundwater storage. Most of the groundwater development takes place from the dynamic zone of water level fluctuation in the unconfmed aquifers where active recharge takes place. The dynamic groundwater resources of the country have been computed as 433 BCM (billion cubic meters). Keeping 34 BCM for natural discharge, the net annual groundwater availability for the entire country is of the order of 399 BCM. The annual groundwater draft has been computed as 231 BCM, out of which 92% is for irrigation (213 BCM) and 8% for domestic and industrial use (18 BCM). The stage of groundwater development is 58% (Romani et al. 2006; Nandakumaran, 2008; Chatterjee and Purohit, 2009). Currently, total water use (including groundwater) is 634 BCM, of which 83 percent is utilized for irrigation purposes. This means that in addition to the availability of 433 BCM of groundwater, 201 BCM of water in use is from surface resources. The demand for water is projected to grow to 813 BCM by 2010, 1,093 BCM by 2025 and 1,447 BCM by 2050. Groundwater, in particular, will come under even greater pressure in the coming years (http://w\vw.boloii.com). Out of 5723 assessment units (blocks/mandals/talukas/watersheds), 839 are categorized as "Over-Exploited" where the stage of development exceeds annual replenishment. As many as 226 blocks/watersheds are "Critical" where groundwater development has reached a high level of development (Romani et al. 2006). On area basis, status of irrigation potential from groundwater comes to 55% of the utilizable potential. State wise development is highly variable. States of Haryana, Tamilnadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat and western parts of Utter Pradesh, of which the study area is a part, register high status of groundwater development from 60-97%. Non uniform development has created nearly 310 overexploited blocks in different states. The alluvial areas of the country have been one of the most productive areas. There has been a spectacular increase in agricultural production in these areas during the past few decades. This is largely attributed to the expansion of irrigation networks that existed in these regions. Canals in the initial stages, and tubewells immediately thereafter, have played a crucial role in a quantum jump in agriculture production (Prihar et al. 1993). The development of irrigation has been a inixed blessing. While it has helped in increasing the agriculture production, it has also caused water logging in
2 canal command areas and on the other hand overexploitation of groundwater has resulted in declining of water table (Sondhi and Khepar, 2003). About 242 administrative blocks are suffering from problems related to overexploitation of groundwater resources (Alagh, 2003). Groundwater is a major source of drinking water both in rural and urban India. Besides it is an important source for the agricultural and industrial sectors. As on date, groundwater contributes to more than 50% of total irrigated area in the country. Its contribution covering nearly 85% of rural water supply, has been significant in the drinking water sector (Kittu, 2003). The, main problem comes from the uneven distribution of this vital resource and the erratic nature of rainfall, which is the main source of groundwater recharge. For a sustainable management of groundwater, the local conditions are very much relevant and in most of the places, the groundwater balance is tending negative and resulting into continuous decline in water table and making the area over-exploited. The quality of the water equally affects. In the situation of negative or limiting groundwater balance, it is extremely important to estimate all the components of flows very precisely and then employ aquifer modelling for management of groundwater and its prediction. The overall scenario succinctly mentioned above, necessitates precise evaluation of groundwater resources. With this objective, various aspect of water entering into the system can be quantitatively and qualitatively evaluated so that a rational approach may be adopted regarding development and management of groundwater resources of the area. Keeping this in view, the present study has been carried out with very well- defined objectives.
1.3 OBJECTIVES The investigation, the results of which are being presented here, has been carried out with the following objectives. 1. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation and management of groundwater resource in the multi-layered aquifer system 2. Development of groundwater flow model to evaluate water balance and also to infer future prediction of groundwater regime under varied stresses 3. To study the chemistry of groundwater system and evaluate its suitability for drinking and irrigational uses. 4. To evaluate processes involved in altering the initial chemistry of groundwater
1.4 AREA OF STUDY AND METHODOLOGY EMPLOYED The study area lies in the western part of Uttar Pradesh, bounded on the west, by river Yamuna and on the east by river Hindon. The area falls in Survey of India Toposheets no. 53G & 53H on 1:50.000 scale. It lies between latitude 28^47' and
29" 18'N and longitude 77"07'30" and 77"30'E and covers an area of about 1345 km^ (Figure-1.1). Almost all villages are well connected by motarable roads. In order to generate quantitative, qualitative and temporal data base pertaining to hydrogeology. groundwater flow, resource evaluation and hydrogeochemical characteristics of Hindon-Yamuna interfluves. systematic groundwater surveys were carried out supported by laboratory investigations using conventional techniques which have been dealt with in the succeeding chapter.
Figure-Ll: Location Map of the Study Area 1.5 PREVIOUS WORK Detailed hydrogeological investigations in the area were carried out by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and the State Groundv/ater Department. A part of the study area was studied by CGWB under its groundwater exploration programme in upper Yamuna Project (Bhatnagar et al. 1982). Under this programme 9 deep boreholes were drilled to a maximum depth of 450 m bgl at different locations with an objective to study the subsurface geology, disposition of aquifers and their hydraulic characteristics with special reference to quality of formation water. Ahmed (2001) carried out reappraisal hydrogeological survey and identified that out of the six blocks of Baghpat, four blocks namely, Baghpat, Binauli Khekra and Pilana are under overexploited category where the groundwater development has reached more than 85% and remaining two blocks i.e Baraut and Chaprauli are in semi-critical to critical stage where the development is 65 to 85%. Further, few recommendations were made to address the problem of overexploitation. Khan (2004) carried out hydrogeological survey of Baghpat district. Three major groups of aquifers, designated as 1.11 and 111 vsere identified. The deepest level probed, through exploratory drilling, was 450 m bgl. These aquifer groups are separated from one another by poorly permeable to impermeable horizons. Aquifers 1 and II are reported to be under high stress as these are catering to ever increasing requirements for irrigation, domestic and industrial purposes resulting in depletion of water levels in the entire area. Umar et al. (2007) carried out hydrogeochemical survey in Hindon-Yamuna sub-basin in parts of Baghpat district and observed that the groundwater was high in TDS with high sodium, bicarbonate and sulphate. They presented various mechanisms involved in chemical alteration of groundwater. A number of hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical studies have been carried out in area adjoining the present area of study. These have been briefly discussed here. Aquifer modelling studies have been carried out in Krishni-Hindon inter stream region (Gupta el al. 1979) and Daha region (Gupta et al. 1985). They have assessed the stream aquifer interaction as well as conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater in Daha region. Goel (1975) conducted recharge estimation studies using environmental tritium method and showed 22% of rainfall as recharge to aquifers in western Uttar Pradesh. Kumar and Seethapathi (2002) suggested an empirical relationship for estimation of the groundwater recharge from rainfall with reasonable accuracy in Upper Ganga Canal command area which is adjacent to the present study area. The formula states R=0.63(P-15.28f'^ where, R is groundwater recharge from rainfall in monsoon season (inch) and P is mean rainfall in monsoon season (inch). According to Jain (2004). the to.xicity and fate of the water borne metals like Cu, Cd and Zn in bed sediments of river Yamuna, is dependent on its chemical form and therefore quantification of the different forms of metal is more meaningful than the estimation of its total metal concentrations. In another study Jain et al. (2004) have studied zinc metal in bed sediments of river Hindon and concluded that the pollution from industrial and agricultural sources to a great extent is responsible for high concentration of zinc in river water. Umar et al. (2006) carried out hydrgeochemical study of groundwater of Kali - Hindon interfluve region in parts of Muzaffarnagar. They have reported that the quality of groundwater is suitable for irrigational purposes but is rich in sulphate which is not best for human consumption. Further it was concluded that high sulphate in groundwater has been acquired through seepage of effluent from sugar factories. Another hydrochemical study was carried out in parts of Krishni- Yamuna basin of Muzaffarnagr district b> Umar and Ahmed (2007). Based on chemical characteristics, the groundwater have been divided into four groups in which Group I samples are identified by abundance of bicarbonate species of Na and Ca + Mg. Group II samples present mixed characters in containing bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Ca + Mg and alkalis. These groups have acquired their chemistry through sediment-water interaction and dissolution mechanism. Group III samples have high concentration of alkalis which constitute up to 60% of TDS value. Group IV has high concentration of alkalis and CI + SO4. These two groups depict an increasing influence of anthropogenic factors. Umar et al. (2009) carried out a detailed study on hydrochemical characteristics and seasonal variations in groundwater quality of an alluvial aquifer in parts of western Uttar Pradesh and reported high values above the drinking water standard for SO4, NO3 and F in many samples. Further, they have concluded that monsoonal effect on groundwater chemistry is not homogeneous and is related to mixing of groundwater and river aquifers. Umar et al. (2009) also evaluated groundwater vulnerable zones using modified DRASTIC approach of an alluvial aquifer in parts of central Ganga Plain. They classified the area into low, medium, high and very high vulnerable zones. A few studies on groundwater balance using water table fluctuation and tritium method were carried out in parts of Yamuna-Krishni and Kali- Hindon interstream areas by Umar and Ahmed (2009), Ahmed and Umar (2008) and Umar et al. (2008). All these studies have shown negative water balance and all these areas are placed under "'over-exploited" category. This fact is also reflected by continuously falling water levels. Khan (2009) carried out hydrogeological and hydrochemical studies in Krishni - Hindon interstream region and concluded that both quality and quantity of precious groundwater resources are being detrimentally affected. The region is categorized under the overexploited category. Further the plots of silica with TDS and CI suggest that source of chemical species in groundwater is not pre dominantly through the water rock interaction. Ahmed and Umar (2009) carried out groundwater flow modelling of Yamuna- Krishni interstream, a part of central Ganga Plain to simulate the behaviors of groundwater flow system and river-aquifer interaction as well as evaluate the water balance. The zone budget shows a water balance deficit of 73.35 Mcum for the period June 2006 to June 2007. In this study different scenarios were considered to predict aquifer response under varied condition of groundwater abstraction.
1.6 NEED TO CARRY OUT THIS STUDY The present study encompasses six blocks of District Baghpat of Uttar Pradesh State. Blocks are the sub-division of district and function as units for implementing developmental plans of the State and Central Governments. Groundwater development has already reached to a critical stage in some part of the study area and therefore the need was felt to carry out this comprehensive study which may be helpful for planners and managers at both the district and block levels.
7 The high rate ol' groundwater abstraction, application of fertilizers and increasing industrialization and other factors which are indeed prerequisite for the prosperity of the study area are posing several threats to the groundwater regime both qualitatively and quantitatively. The declining groundwater trend would eventually lead to dewatering of shallow saturated zones and thus future groundwater scarcity is inevitable if exploitation continues at the present rate without implementing some remedial measures. The deficit groundwater balance vis-a-vis quality deterioration of groundwater raises serious concern, as groundwater is the major source of irrigation and agriculture in this region. The present study is significant from two points of view. Firstly, the groundwater flow modelling has been carried out incorporating all inflow and outflow components for an efflcient groundwater budget and also to make predictions for future availability under different stress conditions. Secondly, groundwater quality assessment, including the factors responsible for altering the natural quality, is discussed here. This study is capable of facilitating various future groundwater management schemes undertaken in the area at micro- to macro levels.
1.7 THESIS LAY-OUT Present study was started in November, 2005, as a part of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy programme, with a view to carry out detailed hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and groundwater flow modelling of Hindon- Yamuna watershed in parts of western Uttar Pradesh. The three major components of the study are hydrogeological characteristics, groundwater flov/ modelling exercises and hydrogeochemical attributes. Ihe thesis is organized in 10 chapters. What these chapters deal with has been briefly outlined below. • Chapter 1 provides the basic background needed to address the importance of groundwater. Objectives of the present study, previous studies carried out in the area and its neighborhood and the need for carrying out the present study have been discussed. Chapter 2 summarizes techniques of data collection and methodologies adopted pertaining to detailed hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and groundwater flow modelling studies. Chapter 3 deals with the introduction of the study area. It includes its geographic location, climate, occurrence and variability of rainfall, soil types, surface and subsurface geology. It also encompasses prevailing water use and Landuse and Landcover in the study area. Chapter 4 present regional hydrogeological set up of the area and a rather detailed account on various aspects of the hydrogeology of the area. The chapter includes aquifer geometry, its extension and types. Depth to water table, slope and movement of groundwater, long term water level trends are also described. Aquifer parameters determined by various techniques and from previous studies have also been discussed. Chapter 5 examines the groundwater budget within the study area, which may be significant while implementing a groundwater management plan. Efforts were made to carry out groundwater budget, including all possible components of groundwater recharges and discharges applying GEC-97 norms. Chapter 6 deals with groundwater flow modelling and predictions under varying scenarios. Chapter 7 encompasses accounts on physical and chemical properties of groundwater and its classification using conventional techniques. The suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purpose has also been discussed. Chapter 8 discusses chemical characterization and alteration trends of groundwater. Trace elements chemislr) has also been discussed. Chapter 9 deals with data correlation and synthesis. Chapter 10 sums up the entire work carried out and state its significance in better understanding the groundwater regime of Hindon-Yamuna watershed. It also puts forward certain recommendations which may be used for long term water management and planning. 1.8 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK Central Ganga Plain has been examined both qualitatively and quantitatively at regional scale. In most of the hydrogeological studies carried out in Ganga basin for alluvial aquifers, water balance is prepared using norms provided by National bank for agriculture and rural development (NABARD) for evaluation of groundwater resources and thereby deciding its status of utilization (NABARD, 2006). However, these norms are mostly adhoc and are based on a large number of assumptions and many facts are ignored just to simplify the procedure. For example, boundary flows are not considered, hence assuming the system always in steady state. Another important factor of exchange between river and aquifer are not considered while this is quite common feature in Ganga basin. Moreover, the status of utilization can be calculated only for the present case and it is not possible to predict the future. In addition, various parameters for data budgeting are taken uniform ignoring the high spatial variability present under subsurface conditions. Therefore to overcome all these disadvantages and minimizing the error of estimation, the system should be evaluated through aquifer modelling where water balance is established using partial difTerential equation of the groundwater flow and is solved with boundary and initial conditions, in the present work, the groundwater budgeting is attempted through aquifer modelling. The precise account of groundwater budget serves as the backbone of any groundwater management programme. The population increase and consequent emphasis on both agriculture and industries sectors result in not only a proportionate per-capita decrease in the availability of the groundwater resource, but also affects its quality and suitability from the points of view of various modes of consumption. With this background, in addition to discussing the conventional hydrogeological attributes of the area, emphasis has in particular been laid on hydrogeochemical aspects, such as, chemical types of groundwater, temporal and spatial variation in chemical characteristics, chemical alteration trends of groundwater, factors affecting the chemical quality and a relationship between hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry. Again, the idea is to provide some clues to planners and administrators to mitigate the problem of groundwater pollution. The present work can be extended as the sub-basin needs to be monitored for groundwater conditions for some years. The dynamic resource of the sub-basin is
10 being exploited at an alarming rate. The groundwater is being harnessed continuously
to cope up with the rising demands. Moreover, the recharge to the system is
decreasing day by day as groundwater discharge exceeds the recharge, due to deficit
rainfall. The applicability of recommendations and their socio-economical impacts
need to be analysed in the times to come.
Multidisciplinary scientific studies for the evaluation of natural phenomenon
are prone to errors at some stages of assessment and improvements are always
inevitable. The study is almost entirely dependent on a single parameter and that is the
location of the observation points. The observation points (dug wells, hand pumps)
may not always be located at places where they should ideally be from the point of
view of a better or more controlled sampling. This has been taken care of to the best
possible way through a judicious and as far as possible nearly equally spaced
observation points. Shortfalls are inevitable even then.
Improvements are always possible in groundwater budget, at the statistical
level, like number of groundwater draft structures and irrigation water applied may
also carry certain errors. The vertical leakage from one aquifer to the other may be
one cause for errors, in spite of all precautions taken the groundwater budgetary
estimates given here may not be considered final.
it is expected that this study will be useful in developing a better
understanding of hydrological and hydrogeochemical conditions of the area, which in
turn, would be useful for the development of agriculture and thus would help raise the
living standard of the people inhabiting the area.
The present study is not claimed to be complete in all respects and final. It is expected that it would find its utility not only in relation to societal issues but academically too in serving as a framework for a more detailed and technologically enhanced study in future.
II CHAPTER - 2 DATA COLLECTION AND METHODOLOGIES ADOPTED
2.1 INTRODUCTION The present study encompass comprehensive hydrological and
hydrogeochemical studies of the selected area with an intention to make the study
complete in all respects keeping in view the laboratory facilities that could be availed
of and the constraints imposed by the suggested research project. First hand
acquaintance had to be established with the area through literature survey to formulate
strategies for handling the project. This was followed by visits to fields for data
collection with an objective to have the best possible representation of temporal and
spatial variations, as the case may be.
Data acquisition processes and methodologies adopted during the course of the
present study have been discussed here to give a bird's eye view of the studies that
have been carried out.
2.2 METEOROLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHIC DATA
The literature pertaining to the study area was collected and background
information were generated. Survey of India Toposheets no. 53G & 53H of the study
area were used to generate base map for the field survey.
Rainfall data of Baraut and Baghpat Raingauge Stations for the period of
1995-2008 and 1987-2008, respectively, were collected and were subjected to
statistical treatment for determining mean, standard deviation and coefficient of
variation.
Topography of the area has been worked out with the help of Digital Elevation
Model obtained with the help of SRTM data which is available at number of USGS websites (http://www.edc.usgs.gov/products/elevation/dem.html). The coordinates of the study area were overlaid over the SRTM data and the Digital Elevation Model was prepared for the boundary assigned to the software. The perusal of DEM shows that altitude varies from 192 to 256 m above mean sea level.
Land use/land cover (LULC) maps were also prepared. For the preparation of these maps, Landsat Orthorectified Multispectral Imagery for two different time spans
12 was used. The imagery was downloaded for two periods, i.e. 24"' September 1992 and 22'^^^ October 1999. The 1992 image was acquired from the Thematic Mapper (TM) instrument onboard the Landsat 5 satellite, while the 1999 image was acquired from the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) instrument onboard the Landsat 7 satellite. Supervised classification of the landsat imagery was carried out to map the land cover classes for the two periods. A free image processing package - 'MultiSpec' (http://cobweb.ecn.purdue.edu/~biehl/MultiSpec/) was used to process the imagery. For the 1992 image, the band combination - Band 7 (SWIR), Band 4 (NIR), Band 3 (Red) was used, while for the 1999 image the band combination - Band 5 (SWIR), Band 4 (NIR), Band 3 (Red) was used. A change detection analysis in land use/land cover was also attempted for these two time periods. Another set LULC data were calculated with the help of the Statistical Reports of the study area for the years 2001 and 2008 available with the District Administration.
2.3 AQUIFER CHARACTERIZATION METHODOLOGY A network of evenly spaced 74 observation wells were established for water level monitoring (Figure-2.1). Repeat measurements of water level were carried out during pre-and post-monsoon 2006 and 2007, respectively. The location of observation wells were marked with the help of GPS. The altitudes of monitoring wells were worked out from Toposheets and Held surveys. The lithological log of boreholes were collected to prepare hydrogeological cross-sections and fence diagram. Sand percent map has been prepared on the basis of cumulative thickness of granular zones encountered in boreholes at average depth of85mbgl. The aquifer materials were collected from available drilling sites at varying depth for sieve analysis and these samples were mechanically analysed. The equipment required for sieve analysis includes a small hot plate for drying the samples, a set of standard testing sieves and accurate physical balance for weighing the samples. A representative sample, 100 g in weight, was taken in laboratory by coning and quartering, oven dried and exact weight poured into the top sieve and covered with lid. The whole nest was shaken for about 1.5 minutes and material
13 retained in each sieve was accurately weighed and data obtained were statistically analysed. The cumulative weight of the particles passing in each sieve is then plotted as a percent of the total sample weight against grain size diameter in mm. Subsequently, grading curve was plotted on semi-log scale by using Microsoft excel programme. The parameters like effective grain size (dio) and uniformity coefficient (Cu) were determined.
® Pumping Test Site y B Cross Section -' District Boundary
Figure-2.1: Map of the study area, showing locations of monitoring wells, state boreholes, hydrograph stations, section line and rain gauge stations. In order to study the occurrence and movement of groundwater in various physiographic units of the area, depth to water table, water table fluctuation and water table contour maps were prepared by using software Surfer 8. Historical water level data of fourteen permanent monitoring stations were used to prepare hydrographs. The hydrograph shows the long term water level. Significance of observed regression coefficients was also calculated. The monthly rainfall data were collected from Baraut and Baghpat raingauge stations. A graph of monthly rainfall and water level data were prepared to see the impact of rainfall on water table. The isopermeability map of the area was prepared using Logan's approximation method. For this purpose, specific capacity and drawdown data of various wells were collected and utilized for the determination of transmissivity and permeability by Logan's formula. The Hydraulic conductivity (k) of five aquifer materials (sand samples) were determined using constant head Permeameter by applying Darcy's law. The aquifer parameters obtained by pumping test in previous studies were also incorporated.
2.4 MODUSOPERANDI FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCE EVALUATION The Groundwater Estimation Committee-1997 (GEC-97) methodology is being adopted to compute the groundwater resources of the country in volumetric terms. The same methodology with few additions is utilized in the present study. GEC-I997 is based on seasonal estimation of groundwater recharge in an assessment unit through lumped water balance method during monsoon season and empirical norms during non-monsoon season. The time period for groundwater recharge estimation is for a groundwater year (12 calendar months), which commences with the onset of monsoon of one calendar year and culminates just before the monsoon season for the next calendar year. In areas experiencing southwest monsoon, it is between June/July of one calendar year and May/June of the next calendar year (Chatterjee and Purohit, 2009). The GEC'97 recommendations have incorporated number of changes bringing out more clarity in the application and as such the groundwater resources so computed would be nearer to the real field situation (NABARD, 2006). Salient feature of GEC"97 methodology are listed below:
15 1) The method is a lumped approach and therefore relatively simple to use. 2) It is suitable with regard to the data normally available from groundwater level monitoring programmes of State and Central agencies. 3) It is proposed that the total geographical area of the unit for resource evaluation is to be divided in to sub areas, such as, canal command area and non-command areas, hilly regions and saline groundwater areas and resource assessment be made for these sub areas. Variations in geomorphological and hydrogeological characteristics may be considered with in the unit. 4) For alluvial areas specific yield values may be estimated from analysis of pumping tests. However, norms for specific yield values in different hydrogeological regions may still be necessary for use in situation where the above methods are not feasible due to inadequacy of data. 5) Norms for return flow from groundwater and surface water irrigation are revised taking in to account the source of water, type of crop (paddy or non- paddy) and depth of water table. Command area is the area which comes under major or medium surface water irrigation scheme. On the other hand, non-command areas lack any major or medium surface water scheme. The study area falls under command category for the assessment purpose. The groundwater fluctuation method is used for recharge assessment in the monsoon season. The monsoon season is taken from June to October. The Kharif crops (paddy, maize, fodder) are cultivated during this period. The rainfall recharge in non-monsoon season is small component and hence estimated empirically. The non-monsoon season is taken from November to May. The Rabi and Zaid (Wheat, oilseeds, pulses etc.) crops are cultivated during this season. The value of specific yield is taken from pumping test data, irrigation return flow, canal seepage and surface water irrigation is estimated with the help of statistical data, field data and recommended values for seepage etc. by GEC'97. 2.5 GROUNDWATER FLOW MODELLING TECHNIQUES - MODFLOW An attempt has been made to study the groundwater flow system in Hindon- Yamuna watershed using steady and transient state numerical groundwater flow models and to investigate the effects of further groundwater development. Anisotropic and heterogeneous three-dimensional flow of groundwater, assumed to have constant density, may be described by the partial differential equation:
dxl dx] dyl • dy^ dzl " dz_^ ' dl
Where Kxx, Kyy, K^ are components of the hydraulic conductivity tensor,// is potentiometric head. W is source or sink term, Ss is specific storage and / is time. The Unite-difference computer code Visual MODFLOW (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988) numerically approximates this equation, and v^ere used to simulate the groundwater flow in the study area. The initiation of groundwater flow modelling is done with the proper understanding of groundwater flow regime. A detailed study of geology, borehole lithology and water level fluctuations in wells has helped in arriving at the conceptual model of the system. Groundwater level data monitoring were carried out at 74 existing monitoring wells during several field visits in the period from November 2005 to November 2008. Care was taken to obtain static groundwater levels. Geological information including geologic maps and cross sections and well logs were combined with information on hydrogeologic properties to define hydrostratigraphic units for the conceptual model. Apart from rainfall recharge, the irrigation returns and seepage through unlined canals significantly affect the groundwater regime in terms of groundwater recharge. Recharge through groundwater irrigation and surface water irrigation is taken out separately. In the study area, three types of wells are mainly used for abstraction of groundwater. These are state tubewells, governed by State Tubewell Department, with a discharge rate of about 1500 L/min and private electric motor and private diesel engine operated borewells, with discharge rates of 250 L/min and 60 L/min,
17 respectively. The bore well census data were collected from the Statistical Department as well as during several field visits from November 2005 to November 2008. Simulated pumping rates of 500 mVday, 1000 m7day and 1500 mVday were used in the pumping well package.
2.6 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL SAMPLING PROCEDURE The objective of sampling is to collect a portion of material small enough in volume to be transported conveniently and handled in the laboratory while still accurately representing the material being sampled (APHA, 1992). Samples, however, have to be handled in such a way that no significant change in composition occurs before the tests are made. A total number of 190 groundwater samples (Figure-2.2) were collected for physico-chemical analysis in four successive pre-and post-monsoon seasons corresponding to November 2005, .June 2006. November 2006 and June 2007. Except for November, 2006, when 25 samples were collected, 55 samples each were collected during the remaining three seasons The water samples were collected and stored in I liter capacity clean plastic bottles. Before collection of samples, the bottles were properly washed. Prior to collecting the samples, the containers were rinsed by the water to be sampled. The wells were duly pumped before collecting their sample so that the stagnant water, if any, is completely removed from storage within the well assembly. Besides major ions, twenty two groundwater samples were also collected for trace element analysis. The trace element samples were treated with 0.6N HNO3. In addition, 7 surface water samples were collected from the study area. Out of these, 3 were collected from river Yamuna. 3 from river Hindon and one from river Krishni during June 2007. The major ion analyses were carried out in the Geochemical Laboratory, Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. Trace elements analyses were carried out at National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad.
18 LEGEEND
T1 Trace element O Major Ion 2 • Surface water 3 Sugar Factory District Boundary
Figure-2.2: Sampling location map of Hindon - Yamuna watershed
2.7 ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR MAJOR IONS AND TRACE METALS The water samples were analysed as per the standard methods of APHA (1992). Values of pH were measured by a portable digital water analyses kit with electrodes. The instrument was calibrated with buffer solutions having pH values of 4 and 9. Total dissolved solids (TDS) were calculated by summing up the concentrations of all the major cations and anions. The values of electrical conductivity (EC) were measured by portable kit with electrodes in the lab. The concentrations of Ca*. Mg^^ CI, HCO3' and total hardness were determined by volumetric method. Ca"""^ and Mg"^"* were determined by EDTA titration. For HCO3", HCI titration to a methyl orange point was used. Chloride was determined by titration with AgN03 solution. Flame emission photometry has been used for the determination of Na* and K^. In this method water sample is atomized and sprayed into a burner. The intensity of the light emitted by a particular spectral line is measured with the help of a photoelectric cell and a galvanometer. Sulphate was determined by gravimetric method. The trace elements like Al, Cu. Zn, Ni, Fe, Mn, Co, Cr, Se, Cd, B, Ag, .As and Pb were analysed by Inductive Coupled Plasma-Maas Spectrophotometer (ICP-MS). The ICP-MS is the most simple and direct method of chemical analysis. The sample to be analysed is introduced into argon-based high temperature plasma by a nebulizer spray chamber system. The sample stream causes desolvation, vaporization, atomisation and ionisation of target elements. Ions thus generated are extracted from the plasma into a low-pressure region through a sampler and skimmer cones and are allowed to pass through an electrostatic lens system, which extracts positively charged ions. These ions are separated on the basis of their mass-to-charge ratio by quadrupole mass analyser. A detector counts the filtered ions and a computer processes the resulting information. The analytical data in mg/l is given in table 2.1a and 2.1b (November 2005 and June 2006). Equivalents per million (epm) values are also calculated and given in table 2.2a and 2.2b for November 2005 and June 2006, respectively. Results of Chemical analysis of river water samples in mg/l for June 2007 are also given in table 2.3
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The study area lies within the administrative boundaries of this district in the interfluve of Yamuna and Hindon rivers occupying an area within the Yamuna sub-basin of Indo-Gangetic plain. The area falls in the Survey of India Toposheets no. 53G and 53H covering about 1,345 km^ bounded by the latitude 28°47' and 29^18' N and the longitude ifoili)" and 77*^30'' E (Figure-1.1). It is situated between districts Muzaffarnagar in the north and Ghaziabad in the south. Baghpat district is well connected with adjoining towns, such as, Muzaffarnagar. Ghaziabad and Meerut by rail and roads. The economy of Baghpat district is chiefly agrarian. The principal crops of the region are wheat, paddy, sugarcane, pulses, potatoes and maize. The major industries of the district are textiles, yarn, medicine, automobile parts, agricultural implements and sugar industries(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagpat district). The one industry for which the district is known, in particular, is the sugar industry. The availability of numerous sugar mills in the area has resulted in sugarcane cultivation being the dominant agricultural activity. 3.2 CLIMATE AND RAINFALL Baghpat district is a part of sub-tropical Central Ganga Plain. It is characterized by four seasons. The period from the middle of November to the end of February is the winter season. The summer season, which follows, continue up to the mid June. The rainy season spans over the period of mid June to mid October and autumn season extends for about a month from mid October to mid November. The average annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 32.8^C and 14.2°C, respectively. The highest temperature, reaching to 40''C or even more is generally recorded in the months of May and June. The lowest temperature of around SV is recorded in the month of January. 30 Winds are generally light and only a little strong in the summer and monsoon seasons. During October and April, they are mostly westerly or northwesterly. From May, they become easterly and during the southwest monsoon season, they are predominantly easterly or southeasterly. The available annual rainfall data of Baraut and Baghpat Raingauge Stations for the period of 1995-2008 and 1987-2008, respectively, have been statistically analysed (Appendix-llA and Appendix-ilB) and results are given in Table-3.I. The mean annual rainfall recorded at these two stations is 481 and 541 mm, respectively. The area receives approximately 70% of its annual rainfall as a consequence of the southwest monsoon. It is observed that the highest rainfall at Baraut raingauge station is 820 mm in the year 1997 whereas the lowest at 112 mm has been recorded in the year 2000 (Figure-3.1 a). At Baghpat. the highest rainfall of 809 mm was in 1988, while the lowest at 222 mm was recorded in the year 1998 (Figure-3.1 b). Thus the variations shown at both the places are significantly large. Figure-3.1a: Yearly Rainfall at Baraut Raingauge Station (1995 - 2008) Baghpat Raingauge Station 900 800 - 100 0 KoocnoT-cNn^iniDt^coo o T- CM m I- in (0 r- 00 o o O n O o O o o a)C7)cna)cnc7)0)oa)0>0)0>o> o o o C) o o O o o CN r-j CM CM CM CM CM CM CM Years Figure-3.1b: Yearly Rainfall at Baghpat Raingauge Station (1997-2008) Tabie-3.1: Results of Statistical Analysis of Annual Fiainfall Data Baraut Raingauge station Highest Rainfall (1997) 1 820 Lowest Rainfai 1(2000) ( 112 Mean ! 481 Std. Deviation 187 Coefficient of variation 38,94 % Baghpat Raingauge station Highest Rainfall (1988) 809 Lowest RainfalK 1998) 222 Mean ,541 Std. Deviation 172 Coefficient of variation 31.81 % The long-term normals for period 1901 to 1970 indicate that the average annual rainfall at Baghpat was 614 mm, 73 mm less than the 1987 to 2008 average. This shows a conspicuous trend of gradually declining rainfall, which may be attributed to the phenomenon of global wanning, manifested its short-term and long- term influence on global climatic parameters. 32 3.3 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL (DEM) A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital representation of ground surface topography of terrain. It is also widely known as Digital Terrain Model (DTM). The DEM often comprises much of the raw dataset, which may have been acquired through techniques such as photogrammetry, LiDAR, ifSAR and land surveying. A DTM on the other hand is, generally, a filtered version of DEM. A DEM can be represented as a raster (a grid of squares) or as a triangular irregular network. The DTM provides a bare earth model, devoid of landscapes features. A DEM may be useful for landscape modeling, city modeling and visualization application (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ digital elevation model). Digital Elevation Model consists of raster grid of regularly spaced elevation values produced by USGS. A much higher quality DEM from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) is also freely available for most of the globe and represents elevation at a 3 arc-second resolution (around 30 m) (http://edc.usgs.gov/products/elevation/dem.html). The quality of a DEM is a measure of how accurate elevation is at each pixel (absolute accuracy) and how accurately is the morphology presented (relative accuracy). Several factors play an important role for quality of DEM-derived products: Terrain roughness Sampling densit} (elevation data collection method) Grid resolution or pixel size Interpolation algorithm Vertical resolution Terrain analysis algorithms The topography data of the study area is based on SRTM Digital Elevation Model data which is available at the USGS website. The vector polygon boundary file of the study area was used to clip the SRTM DEM to yield elevation data within the boundaries of the study area as shown in figure-3.2. 33 '•y*^ ;'•*?*• y^i v'r '--r Figure-3.2: Digital Elevation Model of Hindon - Yamuna Watershed The DEM shows that altitude varies from 256 tol92 m above mean sea level (m amsl). The area exhibits a gentle slope due south, southwest and southeast where the elevation ranges between 238 m amsl near location Tugana and Kakripur in north, and 214 m amsl in the southwest and southeast at locations Sankraudh and Gauna, respectively. In general, the central track has got higher elevations which gently slope towards the river courses due west and east i.e. towards the river Yamuna and Hindon, respectively. The central part acts as water divide between rivers Yamuna and Hindon. The main Eastern Yamuna Canal is flowing over it from north to south. 34 River courses have the lowest elevation comparing to the adjacent area. The Hindon river has elevation of 240 m ainsi at the point where it enters into the study area and 208 m ams), where it leaves the area at the bottom. The Yamuna river elevation from top to bottom ranges from 232 to 200 m amsl, respectively. The low elevation areas in the vicinity of river Yamuna are characterized by flood plains. In the northeastern part of the study area, track of Krishni river, is clearly visible because of lower elevation than the adjacent area. The Krishni river finally joins the Hindon river at village Lakha Mandap. The drainage of the study area is thus mainly controlled by river Yamuna, its tributary Hindon and sub-tributary river Krishni. All these rivers are perennial and meandering in nature. 3.4 LAND USE AND LAND COVER The study of land use and land cover patterns is not only one of the important factors for planning and managing activities concerning the use of land surface, but also a very significant parameter in hydrological studies of a given area for evaluating qualitative and quantitative attributes of available water resources. The land cover changes have an important bearing on the water quality of the surface as well as groundwater resources. The Land Cover mapping was carried out for two different periods, 1992 (Figure-3.3 a) and 1999 (Figure-3.3 b) to assess changes in the land cover patterns over the given period. For the preparation of Land Cover Maps, Landsat Orthorectified Mullispectral Imagery for two different dates was used. The imagery is available free of cost from the website vvwvv.landsat.org. The imagery was downloaded for two periods, i.e. 24"' September, 1992 and 22'"* October, 1999. The 1992 image was acquired from the Thematic Mapper (TM) instrument onboard the Landsat-5 Satellite, while the 1999 image was acquired from the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) instrument onboard the Landsat-7 Satellite. The imagery is projected to UTM (zone 43) projection and referenced to the WGS 84 ellipsoid and datum. The pixel size for all bands except the panchromatic and thermal is 28.5 m for both the imageries. For panchromatic the size is 15 m, while for thermal it is 57 m. The absolute positional accuracy is 50 m RMS. Supervised classiUcation of the landsat imagery was carried out to map the land cover classes for the two periods. A free image processing package - 'MultiSpec' 35 (http://cobweb.ecn.purdue.edu/~biehl/MultiSpec/) was used to process the imagery. The maximum likelihood algorithm was used for the classification of image. For the 1992 image, the band combination - Band 7 (SWIR), Band 4 (NIR), Band 3 (Red) was used, while for the 1999 image the band combination - Band 5 (SWIR), Band 4 (NIR), Band 3 (Red) was used. The area for individual Land Cover classes was calculated for the two periods from the Land Cover Maps. LEGEND en AQRICULTURAL LAM •I FOREST •^i WATCT BOOKS ZJ WASTELAND CI SETTUSMBrrS Figure-33a:Land Use and Land Cover Classification of the Hindon - Yamuna Watershed Derived from the Landsat Multispectral Imagery Acquired on 24"" September, 1992 36 I li ASRICULTURAI. LAND FOREST I ^ WATER liOMES • WASTELAND n SETTLEIHEMTS 20 Km Figure-3.3b:Land Use and Land Cover Classification of the Hindon - Yamnna Watershed Derived from the Landsat Multispectral Imagery Acquired on 22"'' October, 1999 Another set of LULC data were acquired from District Statistical Report of Baghpat for the Years 2001 and 2008, which are derived from satellite imageries for the respective years. Data available from the area on landuse classes, such as, water bodies, settlement, wasteland, forest land and agricultural land is given in Table-3.2 and also portrayed in Figure-3.4. 37 A study of the trends in land use and land cover data (Table-3.2, Figure-3.4) observed between 1992 and 2008 reveal: • Marginal decrease in the area under agricultural activities • An encouraging sign in the form of increase in the area under forest cover • Decrease in the area categorized as wasteland • Increase in the area under settlements • Shrinking water bodies 1200 1100 1000 900 D Agricuttural land ~ 800 J. 700 • Forest S 600 O Wasteland r 500 D Watertxxiy £ 400 * 300 n Settlement 200 100 0 n n n n 1992 1999 2001 2008 Years Figure-3.4: Bar graph showing variation in Land Use pattern from 1992 to 2008 The data reveal that the agricultural land is the dominant land use category followed by that for settlements. The agricultural land, though, has marginally decreased from 1106.1 km to 1103.8 km' over a period of about 16 years spanning between 1992 and 2008. It has to be taken as a positive sign that in spite of large scale industrialization in the area not much of agricultural land has been lost. Another positive sign is that there had been a gradual increase in the area under forest cover and about 3 km' of forest has been added in less than two decades. Wasteland has decreased and area occupied by settlements has increased. These changes are related to increase in population by about 11% from 8, 42,318 in 199! to 9,34, 559 in 2001. If the increase in population is assumed at the same rate, the population of Baghpat district must have crossed the million mark may be around 10, 30, 000. 38 1 OD r t« ^ a ^^ •—• •^ or^ o^ u o 1 •— C c C 03 ^ ON •T3« o X}; 1 o C3 00 — iri ^-H ~ O o 00 — 01 o U 3 1- 00 ON NO ON ON 1 IT) :3u O IT) r- ^ <^ — 1—( a c w 3 ou NO rsi 1/-1 O B o NO 03 "2= . > ^ — >ri o > i25 00 Z 1 ^ o ^ c 3 U o •a 4J M- (^ "O •^ c > ^_^ o m NO r^ fN « o 1 J U o iri NO o 1—1 c 1 1 o Tu) c 03 ^% m o 03 ON^ o d d — ON O 00 e "U ON U CS o 3 L. f Q, c > CO OS ON NO « p -i NO •o 1 S^? 15 >N C/! T3 -o C C T3 C I- "C o 1) B m E I/) *-- "« Jj '^ R >" IT) *-» *- if C3 03 3 « 0/) C o o it < iS u. ^ ^ •x o — OJ (^ ^3- n This increase in population must have additional space for settlements resulting in reclamation of wasteland. Moreover, agricultural land utilized in settlements for the additional population may have been partially compensated by converting wasteland to agricultural land. implications of all these aspects of land use and land cover are significant from the point of view of the management of water resources, particularly, groundwater resources. Increase in population, rapid industrialization in the area and pressure on available agricultural land for getting more returns from sugarcane and other crops, all require enhanced utilization of water resources. With shrinking water bodies and erratic and weak monsoons, more and more pressure is being exerted on groundwater resources. 3.5 WATER UTILIZATION PATTERN The area is characterized by excellent and fertile land and three crops are grown annually as a practice. Sugarcane, rice and wheat are the main crops. Groundwater is the major source of irrigation. Out of the total water resources of the Hindon-Yamuna watershed, only 3.82 % is derived from surface water sources and 96.18 % comes from the groundwater. The block-wise water utilization pattern is given in Figure-3.5. Eiastern Yamuna Canal and its distributaries are main source of surface water irrigation. 3.6 SOIL TYPES The Indo-Gangelic Plains are formed b> the periodic deposition of silt brought by rivers abound in alluvial soil. The alluvial tracks of Ganga-Yamuna interfluve have very fertile soil. The study area is characterized broadly by two types of soils, loam and sandy loam (Survey of India, 2003). The area is also marked by the development of ravines and bad land topography at places, particularly along the banks of rivers Yamuna , Hindon and Krishni. The ravenous soils are generally rich in aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe) contents (Khan, 2004). 40 55000H 10000H I I Surface waten (Srouncfwafer SOOOH i^_''Blcck boundary Dliitributaries 1 1 r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 3000(5 35000 Easting in metre Figure-3.5: Block Wise Water Utilization Pattern in the Study Area 3.7 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY The Ganga Plain is an active foreland basin formed as result of the continental collision between the Indian plate and the Asian plate. A fairly detailed account of the sub-surface geology and basement tectonics of the Ganga plain is given by Sastri et al. (1971) and Rao (1973) and depositional model is given by Singh (1996, 2004). The study area forms parts of the Ganga basin, >vhich is one of the physiographic units of India. Geologically the area is underlain by Quaternary alluvium. The Quaternary period is represented by two cycles of sedimentation. The older one, ranging in age from Late to Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene resulted 41 in the deposition of Varanasi Alluvium. The younger one, ranging in age from Late Pleistocene to Holocene is referred to as Newer Alluvium (Kumar, 2005). Major part of the study area is covered by Varanasi Alluvium (Figure-3.6). It consists of a polycyclic sequence of large alluvial fans comprising clastic material brought down by perennial Himalayan rivers. Consequently, considerable lateral and vertical variations are witnessed in size and shape of elastics and sand grains depending upon the provenance and size of the river (Kumar, 2005). The Varanasi Alluvium is inferred to directly overlie quartzites belonging to Delhi Super Group as revealed by some deep exploratory/production wells drilled in v/estern Uttar Pradesh. Delhi quartzites, in turn, may be underlain by Bundelkhand Granitoids (Table-3.3). The Newer Alluvium is restricted to river channels. 5000 10000 15000 MOOO 25000 30000 35000 Easting m melres Figure-3.6: Geological Map of the Study Area (after Kumar, 2005) Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) under its exploratory drilling programme drilled 9 deep boreholes with depth varying between 202 and 450 m with an objective of mapping sub-surface aquifer system. Data available from these 42 exploratory wells are the only source of information on geological attributes of the area. No bed rock was encountered and 3 granular zones were reported. Table-3.3: Probable Geological Succession in the Study Area Quaternary Alternate bed of sand and clay with occasional beds of calcrete. Unconformity- Middle Proterozoic Delhi Super Group Unconformity- Archean to Bundelkhand Granitoids Lower Proterozoic Another borehole, 650 m deep, was drilled 50 km east of the study area at Ganga Nagar in Meerut district. In this well too no bed rock was encountered. However, the temperature of formation water was recorded at 52''C, which suggests circulation of water from fractures in the bed rock underlying the alluvium (Personal communication, CGWB). In addition to drilling data, a map of the Ganga Plain showing sub-surface basement high and thickness of the foreland sediment is published Singh (2004). Baghpat, in this map, lies between contours of 1.0 and 0.5 km (Figure-3.7). ^1 0—Thickness contour line L«ss«r Himalaya Siwalikbelt ONGC borehole S Basetnent high in Ganga Plain I I Rock outcrop in peniniujlar India PERIPtCRALBUUXSE (AIIMr Singh 2004) Figure-3.7: Map of the Ganga Plain Showing Sub-Surface Basement High and Thickness of Foreland Sediments (in km) Based on Studies of Agarwal (1977), Karunakaran and Rao (1979) and Singh (2004) 43 Therefore the probable thickness of alluvium in the study area is likely to be around 1000 m. It may be inferred that the bed rock comprising Delhi quartzites may be underlain by rocks belonging to the Bundelkhand Granitoid Complex. 3.8 SUMMARY The study area is a part of the vast central Ganga Plain which is one of the physiographic units of India. Rivers Yamuna and Hindon form the western and eastern boundaries, respectively. The climate of the study area is sub-tropical with average rainfall of about 500 mm. An analysis of rainfall data from 1901 to 1970 and its comparison with that of the period from 1987 to 2008 give evidence of a decline of 73 mm in average rainfall. This is attributed to the impact of climate change on rainfall. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) exhibits a gentle slope towards south and ground elevation ranges from 192 to 256 m above mean sea level. In a period of 16 years from 1992 to 2008, land use and land cover patterns show changes in the form of decrease in the area under cultivation and wasteland and increase in the forest cover and area occupied by settlements. These changes are related to demographic factors and industrialization. Increase in population, irrigation requirements and coming up of various industries has put up lot of pressure on groundwater resources. This is particularly so as 96.18 % of the requirements are taken care of through groundwater resource. Bed rock has not been encountered in deep exploratory wells drilled to depth of 650 m. Geologically, the area is characterized by a thick pile of about 1000 m of Quaternary alluvium of middle Pleistocene to Holocene age which, in all likelihood, rests unconformably over a basement comprising quartzite of the Delhi Supar Group of Middle Proterozoic age. Delhi quartzites, in turn, may be underlain bv Bundelkhand Granitoids. 44 CHAPTER - 4 AQUIFER PARAMETERS AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS 4.1 CENTRAL GANG A PLAIN Diversified geological formations, lithological variations, tectonic complexities, geomorphological disparities and hydrometeorological dissimilarities result in giving rise to different groundwater provinces in India, which host their own characteristic groundwater regimes (Charlu and Dutt, 1982; Sharma and Kumar. 2004). One among these is the Indo-Gangetic unconsolidated province which forms the greatest repository of groundwater in India .The Ganga basin is the largest groundwater basin of Indo-Gangetic Plain of which Uttar Pradesh forms an important part (Pathak, 1978). it is divisible into four hydrogeological units viz. (i) Bhabar zone (ii) Terai belt (iii) Central Ganga plain (iv) Southern marginal plain. The study area is a part of the Central Ganga plain, the most significant hydrogeological unit, both in terms of the size and the potential. It forms a vast alluvial tract, stretching between the Tarai belt in the north to the left bank of the Yamuna up to Allahabad in the south and further extending eastward to the left bank of the Ganga (Figure-4.1). This unit is characterized by a plain of very low relief and numerous depositional and erosion features and is divisible in to two distinct sub units, the highlands or the composite flood plains and the low-lying areas or the meander flood plain (Dubey and Hussain, 1991). The Central Ganga Plain is made up of well- stratified fine gravel, sand, silt and clay with the percentage of relatively fine elastics gradually increasing eastward. Large scale variations in lateral and vertical attributes are exhibited in sand and clay beds culminating in the building up of hydraulically continuous and regionally extensive aquifer systems. Principal aquifers in Central Ganga Plain have thickness ranging from < 10 m to as much as 300 m or more. Large capacity tube-wells are particularly feasible along meander belts of major river courses. The main water bearing fonnations lie within the depth range of 200 to 300 m with very high discharges (Ahmed. 2008). 45 Varied flow regimes in the Ganga river system and the depositional history of the Quaternary alluvial plain has led to the evolution of the aquifers in the fluvial system which is basically dependent upon the hydrodynamics of the flow regime, geological setting and topography of the terrain. These depositional system are typically represented as (i) Channel deposits (ii) Flood plain deposits, and (iii) Back swamp deposits (Kumar. 2005; Umar, 2006). 82° INDEX ''^^^i^STX^^-;-;-,^?^^^ I-''V'^ LESSER AND CENTRAL HIMALAYAS ^f^^i^XjxJXvXv^X^^'jM^ am SUB HIMALAYAiS (SIWALIK) " V//A INTERMONTANE; VALLEY BHABAR ^y^y-'A TARAI |:: : : il CENTRAL GANGA ALLUVIAL PLAIN MARGINAL ALLUVIAL PLAIN Figure-4.1: Hydrogeological Divisions of Uttar Pradesh (Pathak,1978) 4.2 AQUIFER SYSTEMS Hindon-Yamuna interfiuve, the study area, forms the northwestern part of the Central Ganga Plain and is underlain by a thick pile of unconsolidated alluvial sediments. Systematic hydrogeological investigations have been carried out in the area earlier by Central Groundwater Board and Stale Groundwater Department (Bhatnagar el al. 1982; Ahmed, 2001; Khan, 2004). Their studies have helped in 46 delineating three major groups of aquifers, designated as 1,11 and HI, the deepest level probed being 450 m bgl through exploratory drilling. These three major aquifer groups identified are separated from one another by poorly permeable to impermeable horizons. The first aquifer, evidently extending to a depth of 125 m bgl, is generally thickly bedded, extensive and consists of coarser material as compared to that of underlying aquifers. This aquifer is unconfined in nature to a depth of 30 m bgl and semi-confined thereafter. The second aquifer, confined in nature, lies in the depth range of 130 to 260 m bgl. Cumulative thickness of the granular zone is 40 to 80 m. The third aquifer system occurs in the depth range of 275 to 425 m bgl. Cumulative thickness of the granular zone in this case is 45 to 100 m. This aquifer does not host economically viable high discharging tubewells due to relative abundance of finer sediments (Khan. 2004). The present study is practically confined to the top most or the first group of aquifers which caters to the bulk of the water requirement of the area and has also been studied in details. 4.3 AQUIFER GEOMETRY A number of factors, such as, the changes that a river system undergoes during the course of its evolution, the depositional history of the alluvial plain and the bed rock configuration, tend to control the geometry of aquifers (Khanna, 1992). The fence diagram (Figure-4.2) reveals that the top clay layer is persistent throughout the area, varying in thickness from 2 to 49.5 m bgl. The thickness of this layer is more in the northern part in comparison to central and southern part of the area. It is underlain by a more porous granular zone, which is intervened by discontinuous clay layers in the north. In the central part of the study area, there is alternate disposition of sand and comparatively thin layers of clay. The clay layer is underlain by a thick granular zone in the southern part. By and large aquifers appear to merge with each other and tend to behave as a single-bodied aquifer to a depth of 126 m bgl. 47 77' 25 77 JO LUMB A n / -f ^ v> \ x^^ /ha \BARAUT ' \ ^\ ^ i"tr - t-'V /> ^-^^ H<'^ ) ^. < 1 29- \ ^; 5 < m BAGHPAP PIIAN;^ y < 2B 55 # «»'&<.;J-'.«' 4 RATAUL . 50 !S . LEGEND • & • 2 i *,m ^M^sa D(?pfr T' i^\ene •.^•t,^ CL/'VCOMCREIiOM Figure-4.2: Fence Diagram of the Study Area East-west trending hydrogeological cross sections A-B, C-D, E-F and G-H (Figures-4.3, 4.4. 4.5 and 4.6) liave been drawn. In the nortliern part of the area (Figure-4.3), a single aquifer is inferred to a depth of 105 m. The top clay layer is very thick with thickness varying from 19 m in the west to 51 m in the east. Within this clay layer, there are two sand lenses, one of which extending from well 98 to well 49 is particularly prominent. Underlying this clay bed, enveloping sand lenses, is a 67 m 48 thick granular zone with a number of clay lenses encountered particularly in borehole 106. Further south of section A-B (Figure-4.4), a single layer aquifer is depicted again. The top clay layer is 31 to 43 m thick and is underlain by a potential aquifer which is approximately 41 m thick. Several clay lenses are encountered in this zone too. SAND 125 J CLAY CONCRETION Scale WATER LEVEL Flgure-4.3: Hydrogeological cross section along line A-B 49 230 220 - 210 200 - 190 - S 1 180. 170- 160 - 150- 140 - CLAY SAND 130 Scale CLAY CONCRETION XZ WATER LEVEl 120 -J Figure-4.4: Hydrogeological cross section along line C-D In the central part of the area (Figiire-4.5), evidence of a single tier aquifer continues with the top clay layer varying in thickness from 29 m in the west to 40 m in the east. Two sand lenses occur in the clay layer. The granular zone, underlying the clay layer, is approximately 50 m thick. In the southern part (Figure-4.6), the clay layer has a relatively consistent thickness of 32 to 35 m and envelopes five sand lenses. Underlying the clay bed is a single potential granular zone with a thickness of about 40 m. The granular zone is composed of medium to coarse sand. Calcareous 50 concretions {kankar) are common within tiie clay horizon. Below the granular zone a clay layer has been encountered which extends from well 42 to well 71. CUW CONCREIION 2 WATER LEVEL Scale Figure-4.5: Hydrogeological cross section along line E-F CLAY SAND 6 Km CLAY CONCRETION Scole WATER LEVEL Figure-4.6: Hydrogeological cross section along line G-H 4.4 SAND PERCENT MAP GRAIN SIZE RELATED ASPECTS The sand percent map (Figure-4.7) has been prepared on the basis of cumulative thicicness of granular zones encountered in the boreholes to depth of 85m bgl (Appendix-IV). The area has been divided in to five sand percent zones ranging from <40 to >70 %. The sand percent map shows that the maximum thickness of the granular zone is at Gurana and Bamnauli in the central part. 52 55000- 50000- 5000- 1 1 1 1 1 —I 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.7: Sand percent map of the study area The bulk of the area is characterized by sand percent of >50. The lowest sand percent zone is observed in the northwestern part of the area in the vicinity of river Yamuna. Trend depicted by the sand percent map, in general, corroborates the information available from the fence diagram (Figure-4.2). Relative abundance of sand-sized particles as suggested by the conventional sand percent map and the effectiveness of granular zones identified in the area of study as potential aquifer depend on the size of constituent grains. 53 The procedure of grain size analysis is given in Appendix-V. Effective grain size of samples studied ranges from 0.098 to 0.2 mm indicating it to be fine to very fine with uniformity coefficient values ranging from 1.4 to 2.85 (Table-4.1). Table-4.1: Effective Grain Size and Unifo rmity Coefficient Sand Location Depth Effective Uniformity Typical sand sample (m) grain size coefficient type No. (d.o) (Cu) I Sadikpur 56 .17 1.88 Fine sand 2 Sarurpur 25 .098 2.85 Very Fine sand 3 Harchandpur 66 .2 1.4 Fine sand 4 Sarai 50 .16 1.9 Fine sand 5 Rataui 36 .14 2.57 Very Fine sand 4.5 GROUNDWATER LEVEL VARIATION Groundwater level in an unconfined aquifer is much sensitive to fluctuation. Thus error may introduce because of pumping infiuence in near by area, river stage and also because of groundwater movements. The data collected from observation wells of the study area were used in preparation of depth to water level maps, water table fluctuation maps and water table contour maps. A network of evenly spaced 74 observation wells was established. Repeat measurement of water level was carried out during pre-and post-monsoon periods. Water level data was collected from observation wells with the help of steel tape. 4.5.1 Depth to water level The depths to water level maps are useful in deciphering the area of recharge and discharge. Recharge areas are characterized by deeper water table while shallow water table below the land surface indicates discharge area (Fetter, 1988). The depths to water maps, thus, depict the regional variations of the water level with respect to land surface all over the area. In an unconfined aquifer, the water table is the upper 54 ( f%cc. N«..-.. — \ surface of the zone of saturation where the pressure is atmospheric. It is defined by the level at which water stands in wells penetrating the aquifer, just enough to hold standing water. In pre-monsoon seasons i.e. June 2006 and June 2007, the depth to water level ranges from 8.95 to 27.71 m bgl (Figure-4.8 a) and 8.98 to 29.16 m bgl (Figure-4.8 b), respectively (Appendix-Ill A and III C). A perusal of the maps shows that the deep water table conditions occur in the northeastern part of the area. Relatively shallow water levels are recorded along river Yamuna and Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC). 55000 50000- 45000- 40000- w ^ 35000- c 30000- !c o ^ 25000- 20000- 15000- 10000- 5000- n \ 1 \ 1 r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.8a: Pre-monsoon depth to water level rnap (June 2006) 55 55000- 50000- 45000- 40000- 0) 35000- E c 30000-1 •c o ^ 25000-1 20000- 15000- 10000- 5000- 1 1 i I I 1 r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.8b: Pre-monsoon depth to water level map (June 2007) In post-monsoon seasons i.e. November 2006 (Figure-4.9a) and November 2007 (Figure-4.9b), the depth to water level ranges from 8.62 to 27.34 m bgl and 9.55 to 28.96 m bgl, respectively (Appendix-Ill B and ill D). A general rise of water table is indicated in post-monsoon period of 2006, resulting in noticeable changes in the contour pattern. In the post-monsoon 2007 study the changes observed are relatively trivial. It may be due to the scarcity of rainfall over the area, in general, and heavy withdrawal of groundwater for kharif crops. 56 55000- 50000- 45000- 40000- CO Q) 0) 35000- c 30000- sz tr o •^ 25000- 20000- 15000- 10000- 5000- 1 \ 1 r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.9a: Post-monsoon depth to water level map (November 2006) 57 55000- 50000- 45000 40000 w Q) Q) 35000- E c 30000- !c to: z 25000- 20000- INDEX 15000- (m bgl) 8-10 10-12 12-14 10000- 14-16 16-18 18-20 20-22 5000- 22-24 24-26 26-28 28-30 1 1 \ \ 1 "^ ! 1 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.9b: Post-monsoon depth to water level map (November 2007) 4.5.2 Water table fluctuation Water level fluctuations may be a consequence of various factors, both natural and anthropogenic, and in many cases, more than one mechanism may be operating simultaneously. The overall picture given by the water level fluctuation map for the year 2006 (Figure-4.10 a, Table-4.2) is that the fluctuations do not exceed 1 m. Statistical treatment of the data indicates that 58 wells falls in the first zone with fluctuations within 0 to 0.5 m. The remaining 16 wells fall in the second zone showing level variations of the order or>0.5 m to 58 High fluctuations are also observed in the southwestern part close to river Yamuna associated with relatively shallow depth to water table. Higher fluctuations may, in general, be attributed to the combined effect of rainfall recharge and contribution from river Hindon which has relatively copious flow in post-monsoon season. 55000 50000 45000 40000-j v> "S 35000H c CD 30000- o z 25000- 20000- 15000- 10000- 5000- "T 1 1 r r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.10a: Water level fluctuation map for the year 2006 59 Table-4.2: Statistical analysis of water level fluctuation in 2006 Fluctuation range (m) Numbers of observation well Percentage 0 to 0,5 58 78 0.5 to 1.0 16 22 A very different trend of water level fluctuations has emerged in the year 2007 with 73% of the wells showing negative fluctuation and the remaining 27% showing trends towards positive side (Figure-4.10b, Table-4.3). 55000- 50000 10000 -] 1 1 1 r^—I r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.10b: Water level fluctuation map for the year 2007 60 This reflects very poor monsoonal recharge of aquifer due to scarcity of rains and simultaneous withdrawal of groundwater from shallow aquifers even during monsoon period to irrigate kharif crops. Table-4.3: Statistical analysis of water level fluctuation in 2007 Fluctuation range (m) Numbers of observation well Percentage -1.5to-i.O 3 4 -1.0 to-0.5 4 5 -0.5 to 0 47 64 0 to 0.5 19 26 0.5 to 1.0 1 I 4.6. WATER TABLE CONTOURS AND GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT The water table contour maps are used to decipher the groundwater flow direction, area of recharge and discharge, hydraulic gradient and nature of the river and stream draining the area. In such maps, convex contours and/or convergence of flow lines depict discharge related attributes and divergence of flow lines indicates recharge scenario. In addition, closely spaced contours depict low permeability conditions and relatively steep gradient whereas well spaced contours show an area of high permeability and flat gradient (Todd, 1980; Fetter, 1990). Water level data of wells collected during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon for the year 2006 and 2007 were analyzed and altitude of water level with reference to the mean sea level (msl) was worked out for all the sites. These reduced levels were then used to generate water table contour maps. The earlier study in the area by Khan (2004) had reported the general groundwater flow direction to be northwest to southeast which also corresponds to the general slope of the land surface and natural hydraulic gradient. This study had also reported both the rivers to be effluent in nature. However, the flow direction as inferred now is relatively altered and this seems to be the consequence of over pumping of aquifers and impact of Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC) and its branches. The shape and pattern of water table elevation 61 contours and also groundwater flow direction indicate that the EiYC is flowing over the groundwater divide between the Yamuna and the Hindon rivers. A perusal of pre-monsoon 2006 and 2007 water table contour maps (Figure- 4.11 a and 4.11 b) shows that the elevation of water table ranges from 220 m amsl in the northwest to 200 m amsl in the southwest. From right bank of EYC the flow direction is in north-east to south west. From its left bank the flow is due east and south east with some local diversions. The hydraulic gradient varies between I m/km to 3 m/km. The average gradient is 1.62 m/km. 55000- 50000 45000 40000- w 1 35000- c* 30000- tr o 25000- 20000- 15000- 10000- 5000- 1 1 1 \ 1 ^-\ r 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.1 la: Pre-monsoon water table contour map (June 2006) J I I L 55000- 50000 _l 1 1 1 1 ^ 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.11 b: Pre-monsoon water table contour map (June 2007) The water table contours are by and large closely spaced in eastern part all along the Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC). The gradient here is approximately 3 m/km. The steepness in contour is caused because of over-exploitation of aquifer. In central and central-eastern parts the contours are moderately spaced suggesting comparatively gentle slope of water table and permeable nature of sediments. Two prominent troughs have developed in the eastern part of the EYC close to the Hindon river. These troughs are, in all likelihood, the resultant effect of over- exploitation of aquifer in this track. Water table has evidently declined by 3 to 4 m between 2002 and 2006 in this part. This has also caused a conspicuous change in the hydrological character of river Hindon from eflluenl to iniluent. 63 Two groundwaler mounds have formed in the vicinity of EYC as well. These mounds may be explained as the resultant effect of seepage from EYC. River Yamuna is influent in nature in the northern part and beyond that it is effluent throughout the study area. River Hindon is influent throughout its course, except the patch in its lower reaches in the southern part where it becomes effluent. Post-monsoon water table contour maps for years 2006 (Figure-4..12a) and 2007 (Figure-4.l2b), show trends similar to those of pre-monsoon water table contour maps. However, during post-monsoon 2006 few changes are noted in the contour behavior. These may possibly be the consequence of increase in groundwater storage during this period as a result of healthy monsoon. 55000- 50000- 10000- INDEX i^ Flow Line 5000- S EYC 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.12a: Post-monsoon water table contour map (November 2006) 64 55000 50000- 45000 40000 0) Q) 35000 E c u> 30000- o 2 25000- 20000- 15000- 10000- 5000- 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.I2b: Posf-monsoon water table contour map (November 2007) 4.7 LONG TERM BEHAVIOUR OF WATER LEVELS Water level data provide records of short term changes and long term trends of fluctuations of storage within groundwater reservoirs. The water levels in unconflned aquifers are affected by direct recharge from precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, withdrawal from wells, discharge to and from streams and changes in atmospheric pressure (Walton. 1970). It may be inferred therefore that the water level has a rising and declining trend with respect to time and a function which causes such rises in water level i.e. availability of rainfall. 65 4.7.1 Hydrographs Historical water level data of fourteen permanent hydrograph stations were collected from CGWB. The data were utilized to prepare hydro§,Taph with a view to study their behavior with respect to time and space and their dependence on natural phenomenon. A perusal of hydrographs (Figures-4.13 a, b, c, d, e, f and g), indicates that the water level variation is cyclic and sinusoidal as a function of time and space. For a year, the water level is deepest during the month of June and shallowest during the month of November. In overdeveloped areas a downward trend of water levels may continue for many years because of continual increases in pumping or withdrawals in excess of recharge, or both. (a) 0^ -Daha y = 0.5342x+ 17.641 I 5 Jiwana o 15 f 20 1 25 2 30- S 35 ft c > c c > c c c c S o o 3 3 c 12 -5 11 z -1 3 1- 3 1- > 1- 3 1 1 & 1z z z 3 199 8 199 9 200 0 200 1 200 2 200 3 200 4 200 5 200 6 200 7 200 8 Time (b) 8) 0 -Binaull y = 0 323X+17 481 ri Phusar i ' r 10 I 15 I 25 a 30 t 35 llllllllllil 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Time 66 (c) -Chaprauli y = D 5375X + 6.0852 Bamawa f:10 - s 15- fi 20 Q. > c c > c > c > c > c > c & 3 s 3 3 3 3 3 3 -5 11 ~3 -i 1- 5 -3 -5 1 11 1 z -1 1 199 8 199 9 200 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Time (d) Hisaoda y = 0.4581X + 10.985 01 0-, Baleni i 5 « I 10 a 15 f 25 I 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Time (e) -Mukari y = 0 0883X + 9 1886 Rataul i Z 10 • ^'*'*°'^=^^'''^^^ ' ' ' I * , * •*" 'I ,^^ i 15 a fi 20 c c c c c > c g 3 3 3 3 3 3 -3 1 -3 z 1 z -3 11 1 1 1 - 9 1- 3 -3 1 1z M 199 8 199 9 200 0 200 1 200 2 200 3 200 4 200 5 200 6 200 7 200 8 Time 67 (f) D) 0 -, y = 0 1832X + 9.899 a E I 10 Z t 15 2 5 5 -3 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Time (g) d 0 -I y = 0.1457X+ 10 847 - 10 » 15 H t 20 2 S -3 —3 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 20ID8 Time Figure-4.13a,b,c,d,e,f and g: Long Term Water Level Fluctuation Trend It is seen from the hydrographs that there Is progressive decline in the water level trend within the study area. During last 4 to 5 years, in particular, the decline trend seems obvious and continual. A trend line was fitted on the graphs using t- statistic for testing significance of observed regression coefficient. The values of r- square and r for the given data set show 95% level of confidence;. The average annual decline in the study area is given in Table-4.4. The hydrograph data for study area is given in Appendix-VI. 68 Table-4.4: Average annual decline during (1998 to 2008) in the study area Hydrograph Average annual Decline in station Metre Daha 1.07 Jiwana 0.98 Binauli 0.65 Phusar 1.07 Chaprauli 1.08 Barnawa 0.35 Hisaoda 0.92 Baleni 0.20 Mukari 0.18 Rataul 0.69 Laliyan 0.37 Baraut 0.94 Baghpat 0.29 Fakharpur 0.92 4,7.2 Temporal variations in water table and monthly rainfall The fact that the rainfall is the main source of groundwater recharge necessitates the plotting of rainfall data against water level or changes in groundwater storage. An analysis of data from Baghpat (Figure-4.14 a) and Baraut (Figure-4.14 b), shows that rainfall seems to be a major source groundwater recharge. This is reflected by the rise of the water level at the end of monsoon period. Groundwater recharge is the greatest in monsoon months and the least in pre- monsoon summer and other dry parts of the year. Extended dry periods due to weak monsoon have pronounced adverse effects on water levels. Groundwater storage is considerably reduced during these periods on account of lack of recharge, on the one hand, and excessive pumping to caler to enhanced requirements, on the other. Hydrographs (Figures-4.14 a and b) indicate that the rise of level is clearly affected by the intensity and distribution of rainfall. 69 I Rainfall -Water le\«l 400 25 350 300 I 250 = 200 s .5 150 m 10 5 Q: 100 5 £ 50 iV?-!:S'.2^?c-S = JiljXIJJJu^^:S^^A-S^S;S^Ifl|S||||^^? ^ i ^%i^S§^M^&^S^^S^±^^^S §- ^5^B- m^i^BB^ s2?is- ^£?|-5^ ^s^ii 2002 2003 Years Figure-4.14 a: Temporal Variability of Monthly rainfall and Water Level at Baghpat r F?ainfall (mm) —•— Water le\/el (m) 30 25-5, 20 _ IO 15 Ir 10 o y^^t^i^kiji^^ I = f^0S2^2i^2Siii mmnmmm wrmmmmmmmmmim Years Figure-4.14 b: Temporal Variability of Monthly rainfall and Water Level at Baraut 4.8 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY Hydraulic conductivity (K) of an aquifer is known to depend both upon the fluid properties and properties of transmitting medium. Five aquifer (sand) samples were collected from drilling sites and their permeability was determined using constant head permeameter. Permeability can be obtained by measuring the volume of 70 water (V) percolated through the sample of cross-sectional area (A) and length (L) in given time (t) under a constant head (h) at constant temperature using Darcy's Law: K=VL/Ath The hydraulic conductivity obtained by permeameter ranges from 1.07 to 3.84 m/day, which correspond to typical conductivity value for fine sand (Todd, 1980). These values are an order of magnitude lower than those estimated by pumping tests in the study area by Bhatnagar et al. (1982). The permeability values obtained by permeameter represent the sample from shallow depth. The size of sand tested varies from very fme to fine. Therefore, the values obtained are on the lower side. Moreover, natural set-up is also altered because of compaction of the sand grains in confined environment. The estimated hydraulic conductivity of various aquifer materials is tabulated below in Table-4.5. Table-4.5: Results of Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity (m/day) S.No Location Depth (m) K(m/day) 1 Sadikpur 56 1.07 2 Sarurpur 25 3.84 3 Harchandpur 66 2.65 4 Sarai 50 1.80 5 Rataul 36 2.56 4.9 ISOPERMEABILITY MAP The Logan's (1964) approximation was used to determine the permeability which states that if a well is pumped for such a long period that flow is in steady state, then an appro.ximate estimation of the order of magnitude of the transmissivity can be made using the Theim's formula for a confined aquifer which can be written as r = ins (1) 71 Where, r = Radius of pumped well in m r,nax = Radius of influence in m Sinw = Maximum drawdown in the pumped well in m Logan further stated that the accuracy of the calculation depends only on the accuracy of measurement of Smw (on which well losses may have substantial influence) and on the accuracy of the ratio r„-Jr,,. As rn,ax/r« can not be accurately determined generally, Logan opined that although the variation in rmax and r^ may be substantial, the variation in the logarithm of their ratio is much smaller. Hence, assuming average condition of ratio, he suggested a value of 3.33 for log ratio which may be taken as rough approximation. Substituting the value in the Eqn (1), we get the Logan's formula 1.220 T = —^ (2) where, Smw is the tnaximum drawdown in a pumped well. Accordingly to Kruseman and Rider (1970), Logan's formula in the above form gives erroneous results of the order of 50% or more. Using the discharge and drawdown data of existing boreholes, an isopermeability map was prepared using interpolation technique (Figure-4.15). Four permeability zones were demarcated i.e. (i) 10-20 m/day (ii) 20-30 m/day (iii) 30-40 m/day, and (iv) 40-50 m/day. The major portion of the area is covered by the zone having permeability values of 30-40 m/day. High permeability zone of permeability values of 40-50 m/day was observed in the vicinity of middle and lower reaches of the Hindon river. Low permeability zone is observed in the southeastern part of the area. A correlation has been observed between Logan's estimated permeability and pumping test data of three common locations (Figure-4.16). For other five locations, namely. Kasimpur. Sisana, Kheri Islampur. Ladwari and Pebla Begumpur, the values of K obtained by pumping test data fall within the Logan's permeability zone of 30 to 40 m/day. 72 55000 50000 INDEX Permeability (m/day) 10000 ]i ^° - 50 30-40 20-30 Scale - ^ v^ 10-20 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 3O0OO 35000 Easting in metres Figure-4.15: Logan's Isopermeability map 4.10 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM PUMPING TESTS CONDUCTED BYCGWB Eleven short duration pumping test were conducted at different site in the study area by CGWB. The result show that aquifer parameters like T and K vary between 887 to 2772 m^/day and 12.7 to 40.1 m/day, respectively (Bhatnager et al. 1982; Khan, 2004). The results of pumping test are given in Table-4.6. 73 • Kutana f 1 Safai •g ( i ] ? J * Dhikana E ' 3 0. 10 20 30 40 so Logan's Isopermeabtlity (nVday) Figure-4.16: Correlation between Logan's Estimated Permeability and Pumping Test Data Table-4.6: Result of Short Duration Pump Test Conducted by CGWB s. Location Aquifer Discharge Non- Draw Corrected Kr No. Group (m^/day) pumping down T (m/day) tested water in (m) (m^/day) (mbgl) level 1. Kasimpur 90 3044 10.98 5.82 2668 29.60 2. Kutana 72 6491.68 6.92 8.88 2772 38.50 3. Malakpur 80 - - 1500 19.50 4. Dhikana 67 6818.94 3.14 13.21 1419 21.2 5. Kheri 68 5564.30 4.55 ~ 2727 40.10 Islampur 6. Ladhwari 73 3940.83 6.68 6.92 2387 32.70 7. Sisana 68 3678.98 12.23 4.60 2312 34 8. Sarai 130 2242.08 14.25 4.84 2282 36.62 9. Pebla 72 3678.98 5.65 7.23 2452 34 Begmpur 10. Mondola 67 4994 6.49 5.04 2683 40 11. Mawi Kalan 70 1783.85 12.23 4.40 887 12.7 Pumping tests generally lead to reliable K values. Tlierefore, pumping test data are used in modelling. 74 4.11 SUMMARY As reported by CGWB, three major groups of aquifers, designated as I, II and III, have been identified which are separated from one another by poorly permeable to impermeable horizons. Aquifers 1 and II have better potential and utility compared to aquifer III which consists of finer elastics and is known to have lower yields of relatively poor quality water. The occurrence of a single aquifer to a depth of 126 m bgl is inferred on the fence diagram. The top clay layer is persistent and is underlain by a single granular zone which is often intervened by local clay lenses. Sand percent map is in agreement with the fence diagram. Effective grain size of samples studied ranges from 0.098 to 0.2 mm indicating it to be fine to very fine with uniformity coefficient values ranging from 1.4 to 2.85. In successive pre-monsoon seasons 2006 and 2007, depth to water level shows a variation between 8.95 and 29.16 m, whereas in corresponding po.st-monsoon periods it varied between 8.62 and 28.96m. Deeper water table conditions occur in the northeastern part of the area. Relatively shallow water levels are recorded along river Yamuna and Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC). A general rise of water table is indicated in post-monsoon period of 2006. Changes observed are relatively trivial in post- monsoon period of 2007 as a consequence of a weak monsoon. Water level fluctuations in 2006 were on the positive side to as much as I m. Higher fluctuations are associated with deeper water table conditions in northeastern and central parts, whereas in the southwestern part of the area higher fluctuations occur under shallow water table conditions. During 2007 a significant change is recorded as 73% of the wells show negative fluctuation. This reflects very poor monsoonal recharge of aquifer due to scarcity of rainfalls and simultaneous higher rate of withdrawal of groundwater from shallow aquifers due to enhanced requirement for irrigation purposes. Water table contour maps reveal that from right bank of Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC), the flow direction is northeast to southwest and from its left bank, the flow is due east and south east with some local variations. The canal, therefore, practically acts as a groundwater divide. Two prominent trough have developed in the eastern part of EYC close to the Hindon river, which in all probability are a 75 consequence of over-exploitation of tiie aquifer. Two groundwater mounds developed in the vicinity of canal, on the other hand, are possibly related to seepage from canal. Historical water level data of 14 permanent monitoring wells were analyzed. All hydrographs show declining trend. Average decline on eastern and western sides of EYC are 0.64 and 0.80 m, respectively. The isopermeability map prepared using Logan's (1964) approach shows that the bulk of the area is covered by permeability zone 30 to 40 m/day. Good correlation has been observed between Logan's estimated K and pumping test K values. The pumping test result shows that the aquifer parameters like T and K vary between 887 to 2772 mVday and 12.7 to 40.10 m/day, respectively. 76 CHAPTER - 5 % . _ -- ''>? GROUNDWATER RESOURCE EVALUATION " ''" ''' 5.1 GENERAL Proper management of groundwater resources requires knowledge of the processes of recharge and discharge associated with a groundwater basin (Lubis et al. 2008). The basic objective of groundwater resource evaluation is to estimate the total quantity of groundwater resources available and their future supply potential to predict possible conflicts between supply and demand and to provide a scientific database for rational water resources utilization (Earth Summit, 1992). Groundwater development has played a fundamental role in fuelling agricultural growth in many parts of the developing world (Giordano, 2006). Indiscriminate withdrawal of large quantities of groundwater through pumping for irrigation and domestic uses has threatened not only the sustainability of agriculture development but the availability of the precious resource to our future generations. It has been concluded, therefore, that it is necessary to restrict the exploitation of groundwater to its availability (Marechal et al. 2002). Groundwater resource comprises two components - dynamic resource in the zone of water-table fluctuation which reflects seasonal recharge and discharge of aquifer and static resource below this zone which remains perennially saturated. In India, dynamic groundwater resources are estimated by groundwater resource estimation methodology - 1997 (GEC- 1997). The basic principle followed in this methodology is the estimation of groundwater recharge from rainfall and other sources, including irrigation, water bodies and artificial recharge, determination of present status of groundwater utilization and categorization of assessment units based on level of groundwater utilization and long term water level trend (GEC - 1997, Chatergee and Purohit, 2009) The consumption of groundwater has greatly increased in the study area during a decade or so and is directly proportional to the rise in population, expansion and diversification of agricultural activities and the development of the industrial area. Therefore, quantitative evaluation of groundwater resources of the area is of paramount importance and an essential pre-requisite for its judicious management. 77 An attempt has been made in the present work to calculate various components of the groundwater budget of Hindon-Yamuna watershed culminating in conclusions applicable to groundwater management. 5.2 COMPONENTS OF GROUNDWATER BUDGET Groundwater flows are either inflow or outflows. Inflows are positive and contribute to the recharge of aquifer, whereas outflows correspond to water leaving the aquifer and thus relate to the discharge of aquifer. The quantitative changes because of these two components may be expressed as water balance equation, which is based on law of conservation of matter (Karanth, 1987). The groundwater balance may be expressed in the form of the general equation; /-0 = ±AS (I) in the above equation, the terms input and output are used in the general sense, referring to all components of groundwater balance, which are either input to the unit, i.e. recharge or output from the unit, i.e. groundwater discharge. Various inflow components cumulatively contributing to the value of T are: • Precipitation inflltration to the water table • Recharge from irrigation return flow • Canal seepages • Recharge from surface water irrigation • Groundwater inflow into the area under consideration The outflow components contributing to the value of'0' are: • Artiflcial discharge by pumping • Natural discharge by seepage to streams • Ground water outflow • Evaporation from capillary fringe in areas of shallow water table, and transpiration by phreatophytes and other plants / vegetation. 78 5.3 ESTIMATION OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE The recharge parameters form an important aspect of groundwater resources evaluation. It involves hydrometeorologicai and hydrological process taking place on the surface and also sub-surface lithological characteristics (Baweja and Karanth, 1980). Widely used techniques for estimating groundwater recharge rates can be divided into chemical and physical methods (Allison, 1988; Foster, 1988). The chemical method of groundwater recharge estimation comprises of chemical and isotopic analysis of pore fluids from the saturated and unsaturated zones. The chloride mass balance method with certain conditions and assumptions has been found to provide reasonable estimates of groundwater recharge in semi- arid areas well comparable to those obtained by physical methods (Woods and Sanford, 1995). Tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen is commonly used as a tracer in hydrological studies. The tritium injection method (Zimmermann et al.l967; Munnich, 1968), assumes a piston flow model for movement of water infiltrating the vadose zone. It means that the soil moisture moves downwards in discrete layers. Several studies using tritium tracer were conducted in the alluvial aquifers of Indo-Gangetic Plain of western Uttar Pradesh (Gupta et al.l985; Goel, 1975; Rangarajan, 2006) which have yielded good results. Among the several physical methods available, the water table fluctuation methods is most promising and attractive owing to its accuracy, ease of use and cost effectiveness for assessing groundwater balance in semi-arid areas (Beekman and Xu, 2003). In the present study groundwater recharge is estimated using GEC-I997 methodology. The GEC-1997 recommendations have incorporated number of changes bringing out more clarity in the application and as such the groundwater resources so computed would be more nearer to the real field situation (NABARD, 2006). It is proposed that the geographical area of the unit for resource evaluation is to be divided into sub areas such as command area and non command areas, hilly regions, saline groundwater areas and resource assessment be made for these sub areas. 79 The present study area is categorized as a command area, which comes under major or medium surface water irrigation. The groundwater fluctuation method is used for recharge assessment in the monsoon season. The monsoon season is taken from June to October. The Kharif crops (paddy, maize, fodder) are cultivated during this period. The non-monsoon season is taken from November to May. The Rabi and Zaid (wheat, oilseeds, pulses etc.) crops are cultivated during this season. The value of specific yield is taken from pumping test data. Quantities of irrigation return flow, canal seepage and surface water irrigation are estimated with the help of statistical data, field data and recommended values for seepage by GEC-1997. Administratively, the study area is divided into six Development Blocks, which are small administrative units of a district for carrying out developmental activities at the micro level. The water balance was evaluated individually for each block with a view to make it more relevant to mangers, planners and administrators. The estimation for the Baghpat block is shown below as an illustration. The same methodology is utilized for evaluation of water balance for the other five blocks and results are tabulated in Table-5.9. 5.3.1 Estimation of groundwater recharge for the monsoon season in the command area For command areas, recharge from other sources include recharge due to seepage from canals, return flow from surface water irrigation and groundwater irrigation, storage tanks and ponds and water conservation structures. The recharge from rainfall is given by the equation: Rrf = h X Sy X A + DG - Re- Rgw - Rsw - R.- Rwc (2) where, Rrf = recharge from rainfall Re = recharge due to seepage from canals Rsw= recharge from surface water irrigation Rgw= recharge from groundwater irrigation in the area Rwc= recharge from water conservation structures R, = Recharge from tank and ponds D(i = gross draft in the command area 80 h = rise in ground water level in the command area Sy = specific yield Rrf = 0.22 X 0.10 X 206.23+44.83-10.64-2! .85- i .39 -0-0 Rrf= 4.53+44.83-33.88 R,r= 15.48 MCM Rwc& Rt are not applicable in the present case 5.3.2 Estimation of recharge through rainfall during the non-monsoon season Almost 80-85% of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon period, however, showers occur in the non-monsoon season too, specially in the period of December to March. The non-monsoon rainfall is scanty and low in magnitude but very much of importance for the Rabi crops. Though it imparts feeble effect on groundwater budget but needs consideration. The recharge from rainfall during the non-monsoon season may be estimated based on the rainfall infiltration factor, provided the normal rainfall in the non- monsoon season is greater than 10% of the normal annual rainfall. If the rainfall is less than this threshold value, the recharge due to rainfall in the non-monsoon may be taken as zero (GEC-1997). The non-monsoon rainfall recharge is calculated by applying infiltration factor to the rainfall, i.e. Geographical Area x Non-Monsoonal Rainfall x Infiltration Factor A Study was carried out using tritium tracer on groundwater recharge in alluvial ' deposits of Indo-Gangetic plains of western Uttar Pradesh of which the study area is a part. Based on this estimation 22% of total rainfall is taken as recharge to aquifer (Goel, 1975). Therefore, 0.22 is taken as infiltration factor. The estimates of non- monsoon rainfall recharge are given in Table-5.1. Table-5.1: Non-monsoon rainfall recharge Block Rainfall Infiltration Total area Rainfall recharge (mm) factor (km') (MCM) Baghpat 107.74 0.22 206.23 4.88 81 5.3.3 Recharge through irrigation returns The study area is agricultural dominated and most of the crops grown require 4 to 5 times flood irrigation. Therefore, it is important to account for the water that returns back to the aquifer system. The infiltration factor is dependent upon several factors including soil types and texture, depth to water table, types of crop and method of application of water. It varies widely from 0.15 to 0. 45. Three crops, i.e. Rabi, Kharif and Zaid are taken per year. The seepage factor for Rabi and Zaid are taken as 0.15, whereas for Kharif season it is 0.35. The recharge through irrigation returns are given in Table-5.2. rabie-5.2: Crop wise irrigation return flow Average Irrigation Area wetted water Depth to Crop irrigated depth applied Seepage Seepage water table type (kni^) (m) (MCM) factor (MCM) Rabi 99.94 0.4 39.97 0.15 5.99 >10m Kharif 156.10 0.4 62.44 0.35 21.85 Zaid 10.12 0.4 4.04 0.15 0.60 5.3.4 Recharge through surface water irrigation Recharge also takes place through surface water irrigation. Eastern Yamuna Canal is feeding a number of distributaries and minors. The surface irrigation water applied is taken out by multiplying irrigated area with applied water depth. Seepage factor (0.3 Table-5.3: Recharge through surface water irrigation (MCM) Block Depth Area Average Irrigation Seepage to water irrigated wetted water applied factor Seepage table (km^) depth (m) (MCM)^ (Sf) (MCM) Baghpat >10m zone 11.64 0.4 4.65 0.30 1.39 5.3.5 Recharge through canal seepages The Eastern Yamuna Canal flows through central part of the study area from north to south. It is a feeder canal. Number of distributaries and minors originate from EYC. The seepage from EYC and its branches are produced in Table-5.4. Recharge through percolation from canals depends on the infiltration capacity of the canal sub-surface lithology, extent of wetted perimeter and length of canal (Karanth, 1987). The wetted perimeter and total length of different canals was determined. Data of total numbers of running days were collected from the District Irrigation Department. The equation used for calculation is given below: Canal seepage = length x wetted perimeter x total running days x specific loss Ta blc-5.4: Recharge through canal seepage Type of Total Average Average running Seepage (MCM) canal length of wetted days canal perimtr. Non- Monsoon Non Monsoon (m) (m) Monsoon monsoon [Col. 2 X [Col. 2 X col. 3 X col. col,. 3 X col. 5x20x10"^] 4x20x10'^] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Branches 12000 15.31 180 120 6.61 4.40 Distributs. 42070 6.18 no 78 5.71 4.05 Minors 45140 3.74 85 65 2.87 2.19 5.3.6 Total annual recharge The total annual recharge is obtained as the sum of recharge in the monsoon season and non-monsoon season. Table-5.5 shows the estimates of total annual recharge. Table-5.5: Annual groundwater recharge in the study area Block Rainfall Irrigation Canal Recharge Total recharge returns seepage through recharge (MCM) (MCM) (MCM) surface water (MCM) irrigation (MCM) Baghpal 20.36 28.44 25.83 1.39 76.02 83 5.4 ESTIMATION OF GROUNDWATER DISCHARGES The groundwater discharges from the sub-basin includes draft through pumping, groundwater outflow through seepages, evaporation from water table and transpiration in root zones. 5.4,1 Estimation of groundwater draft as a result of pumping The data of bore wells census from District Statistical Department is used for the number of wells existing in block. Three types of wells were categorized on the basis of their yield (Table-5.6). The state bore wells, governed by State Tubewell Department, have a discharge rate of 1500 L/min. The private (electric) and private (diesel) bore wells have discharge rates of the order of 250 L/min and 60 L/min, respectively. The duration of pumping mainly depends on electric pov^/er supply, bore well maintenance and time (season) of the year. The unit yearly draft for the above groundwater structures has been fixed by GEC 1997. The unit draft for state tubewells, private (electric) and private (diesel) tubewells is 0.2, 0.037 and 0.0075 MCM, respectively. The annual unit draft is used to calculate groundwater draft for different season. During the field visits it was observed that some of the wells are defunct. Therefore, number in each category is reduced by 10% which is used for draft calculation. Tabie-5.6: Borewell census data Area Block State Tubewell Prlvate(Electric) Private (Diesel) Chaprauli 1 2531 1083 Baraut 24 3182 1554 Command Baghpat 19 2527 1400 Area Pilana 54 2537 723 Khekra 38 2140 716 Binauli 106 3584 162 Season-wise draft through pumping for monsoon period (152 days) and non- monsoon period (213 days) is estimated separately and given in Table-5.7. 84 Table-5.7: Groundwater draft through pumping Season State Tube Electric operated Diesel operated Total wells private tube wells private pump sets Draft (MCM) (MCM) (MCM) (MCM) Monsoon Season i.58 38.91 4.34 44.83 Non- monsoon 2.20 54.33 6.02 62.55 Season 5.5 GROUNDWATER BUDGET Using equation 1, given above, and taking the values of I and 0 as computed above, AS value for the Baghpat Bioci< is calculated. AS = 76.02- 107.38 AS = -31.36 MCM. Thus, a deficit balance of 31.36 MCM for the year 2005 is evaluated. 5.6 STAGE OF GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT The stage of groundwater development, in terms of percent, may be estimated using the relationship given below: Stage of Groundwater Development (%) = Gross Groundwater Draft / Annual Groundwater Availability The stage of groundwater development is given in Table-5.8. Table-5.8: Stage of groundwater development (June 2005 to May 2006) Block Gross Net annual Change in Stage of groundwater groundwater groundwater Groundwater draft availabilitv storage, i.e. development (MCM) (MCM) ±AS (%) (MCM) Baghpat 107.38 76.02 -31.36 141 The results of groundwater budget show that change in groundwater storage in Baghpat block is -31.36 MCM. The deficit balance implies that groundwater in study area is excessively pumped. The stage of groundwater development of Baghpat Block is 141%. Thus, the study area is categorized under dark category. 85 Using same methodology water balance for other five blocks was calculated as given in Table-5.9. Tabfe-5.9: Stages of groundwater development (June 2005 - May 2006) Block Gross Net annual Change in Stage of groundwater groundwater groundwater Groundwater draft availability storage, i.e. development (MCM) (MCM) ±AS (%) (MCM) Chaprauli 101.57 95.13 -6.44 106 Baraut 133.67 106.11 - 27.56 125 Pilana 109.69 84.28 -25.41 130 Khekra 91.80 72.48 -19.32 126 Binauli 144.53 101.36 -43.17 142 5.7 GROUNDWATER BALANCE FOR SUBSEQUENT YEARS Using the above methodology groundwater balance is also calculated for the periods from 1'' June 2006 to 31'' May 2007 and 1'' June 2007 to 31'' May 2008. The results are given in Tables-5.10 and 5.11 and depicted in Figure~5.1. A progressively increasing deficit is seen in the three years period. This is simply related to ever increasing trend of withdrawal. Figure-5.1: Trends of groundwater balance for the years 2005 to 2007 86 Table-5.10: Stages of groundwater development (June 2006- May 2007) Blocks Gross Net annual Change in Stage of groundwater groundwater groundwater Groundwater draft availability storage, development (MCM) (MCM) i.e.±AS (%) (MCM) Chaprauli 102.68 73.58 -29.1 139 Baraiit 134.52 101.95 -32.57 131 Baghpat 108.22 79.50 -28.72 136 Pilana 110.54 74.97 -35.57 147 Khekra 92.66 65.79 -26.87 140 Binauli 155.45 93.06 - 62.39 167 Total 704.07 488.85 -215.22 144 1 Table-5.11: Stages of groundwater development (June 2007-May 2008) Blocks Gross Net annual Change in Stage of groundwater groundwater groundwater Groundwater draft availability storage, i.e. development (MCM) (MCM) ±AS (%) (MCM) Chaprauli 102.93 72.14 -30.79 142 Baraiit 134.63 97.95 -36.68 137 Baghpat 108.48 75.72 -32.76 143 Pilana 110.81 73.74 -37.07 150 Khekra 93.12 62.28 - 30.84 149 Binauli 155.09 85.50 - 69.59 181 Total 705.06 467.33 - 237.73 150 5.8 LONG TERM GROUNDWATER FLUCTUATION TREND The stage of groundwater development is considered as the index of balance between groundwater available and utilization. As the stage of development approaches 100%, it indicates that potential for future development is meager. However, the assessment based on the stage of groundwater development has inherent uncertainties. The uncertainties lie with the estimations of groundwater draft and gross groundwater recharge owing to the limitations in the assessment methodology, as well as uncertainties in the data. The long term groundwater level trend of the area must be correlated with the water balance results. The long term water level behavior of the groundwater regime 87 has been studied for six permanent hydrograph stations i.e., Bajjhpat & Fakharpur, Laiyan & Baraut and Chaprauii & Bamawa. A perusal of Figure-5.2a, 5.2b and 5.2c shows long term declining trend in the study area which is in accordance with water balance results. a> 0 y = 01457x + 10.847 ^ 5 o i Z 10 ?15 s s 20 & 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Time Figure-5.2a: Hydrograph showing significant declining trend at Baghpat and Fakharpur xi 0,1832x +9,899 5- 10- 2 15 ^ ?i ^ ^ S > c S ^ g ^ s H % § ^ S ^ g f 8 I 3 -J -5 -1 -5 -3 Z 1 .£ -5 z z -> "> z -> z ^. -> z z -i z 199 8 199 9 K 00 200 1 700 2 K 03 200 4 ?00 5 ','(;0 6 200 7 •A: 08 Time Figure-S.2b: Hydrograph showing significant declining trend at Laliyan and Baraut 88 Ok -Chaprauli y = 0.5375X + 6.0852 J3 Bamawa t1 5 10 15 3 I 20 > > > c c > c > c c > c > c > > o o o 3 o 3 g 3 o 3 o 3 o o 8 1 z 1 -3 1- 3 z -5 -5 -5 z —i Z z 1z z z Z -3 -3 199 8 199 9 200 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Time Figure-5.2c: Hydrograph showing significant declining trend at Cbaprauli and Barnawa 5.9 SUMMARY The groundwater budget estimation was carried out for three year i.e. for June 2005 to May 2006, June 2006 to May 2007 and June 2007 to May 2008. Each set of data includes a post-monsoon and a pre-monsoon period. The block wise groundwater development varies from 106 % to 142 % in year 2005. The stage of groundwater development is maximum in Binauli and minimum in Chaprauli block. However, in all the blocks groundwater development has reached more than 100%, which puts the entire interfluve region in over-exploited category. When all the recharges and discharges of all the blocks are summed up it gives the picture of the entire area. The total recharge to the region for years 2005, 2006 and 2007 are 535.38, 488.85 and 467.33 MCM and total discharges are 688.64, 704.07 and 705.06 MCM, respectively. This leaves a deficit balance of 153.26, 215.22 and 237.73 MCM, respectively. The corresponding stage of groundwater development is worked out at 128%, 144% and 150%, which puts the entire interfluves region into over-exploited category. This is also reflected in continuously falling water level in the region. It is clear that the situation has reached an alarming sitage which is likely to deteriorate further in the coming years. Future deterioration can be expected due to yearly increase of groundwater abstraction and uncontrolled pumping. It is, therefore. 89 clear that strict control on groundwater extraction needs to be introduced in order to manage the groundwater resources in the area. All the techniques used for groundwater budget estimations are subjected to a large amount of uncertainties and error (Simmers, 1988). Quantification of groundwater resources is often critical and no single comprehensive technique is yet identified which is capable of estimating accurate groundwater budget. The uncertainties lie with the estimations of groundwater draft and gross groundwater recharge owing to the limitations in the assessment methodology and also due to uncertainties in the data. Thus effort should be put in to minimize the computational errors. Apart from uncertainty regarding aquifer media like specific yield and rainfall recharge, other factors like tube well census and water requirement for particular crop type also contributes to the uncertainty in groundwater budget. 90 CHAPTER - 6 GROUNDWATER FLOW MODELLING 6.1 INTRODUCTION Groundwater models describe the groundwater flow and transport processes using mathematical equations based on certain simplifying assumptions. These assumptions typically involve the direction of flow, geometry of the aquifer, the heterogeneity or anisotropy of sediments or bedrock within the aquifer, the contaminant transport mechanisms and chemical reactions. Because of the simplifying assumptions embedded in the mathematical equations and the many uncertainties in the values of data required by the model, a model must be viewed as an approximation and not an exact duplication of field conditions. Groundwater models, however, even as approximation, are a useful investigation tool for a number of applications. Modelling plays an extremely important role in the management of hydrologic and groundwater systems (www.angelfire.com/cpkumar). Mathematical models provide a quantitative framework for analysing data from monitoring and assess quantitatively responses of the groundwater systems subjected to external stresses. Over the last four decades there has been a continuous improvement in the development of numerical groundwater models (Mohan, 2001). Due to increasing agricultural requirement the abstraction of groundwater has increased many folds in the study area in last few decades. Overexploitation of groundwater has resulted in declining groundwater levels with detrimental impacts on groundwater resources and agricultural, domestic and industrial uses. The ever increasing demand for groundwater has initiated the need for an effective groundwater management policy. Groundwater modelling is a powerful management tool which can serve multiple purpose such as providing a framework for organizing hydrologic data, quantifying the properties and behaviour of the system and allowing quantitative prediction of the responses of those systems to externally applied stresses (Senthilkumarand Elango, 2004). Numerical modelling employs approximate methods to solve the partial differential equation (PDE), which describe the flow in porous medium. The emphasis is not given on obtaining an exact solution rather a rea.sonable approximate solution is preferred. A computer programme or code solves a set of algebraic equations generated by approximating the partial differential equations that forms the mathematical models. The hydraulic head is obtained from the solution of three dimensional groundwater flow equation through MODFLOW soft ware (McDonald andHarbaugh, 1988). Anisotropic and heterogeneous three-dimensional flov»' of groundwater, assumed to have constant density, may be described by the partial-differentia] equation. d ^ dh d ',. dh' d r. dh dh_ ^n — + — ^>. — + — K„ — -W^S dx " dx dy . dy^ dz -- dz ' dt Where, Kxx. K^y, Kz/ are components of the hydraulic conductivity tensor, h is potentiometric head, W is source or sink term, Ss is specific storage, and t is time. The fmite-difference computer code Visual MODFLOW (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988) nuinerically approximates this equation, and were used to simulate the groundwater flow in the study area. 6.2 MODEL CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT The purpose of building a conceptual model is to simplify the field problem and organize the associated field data so that the system can be analyzed more readily (Anderson and Woessner, 2002). The conceptualization includes synthesis and framing up of data pertaining to geology, hydrogeology, hydrology and meteorology. 6.2.1 Groundwater level data A network of 74 existing wells was selected for water level monitoring. The water level monitoring programme was initiated in November 2005 and continued to November 2008. The monitoring was carried twice a year i.e. November and June. Care was taken to try to obtain static groundwater levels. However errors may have been introduced because practically it was impossible to stop all pumping in an extensively cultivated area where concentration of groundwater abstraction structures is so high. The heads of these wells were used as model input data. 92 6.2.2 Aquifer Geometry Geologic information including geologic maps, cross sections and well logs are combined with information on hydrogeologic properties to define hydrostratigraphic units for the conceptual model (Anderson and VVoessner, 2002). The Lithological data of 24 boreholes were utilized for sketching horizontal and vertical disposition of aquifers and aquitards in the study area to a depth of 126 m bgl (Figure-4.2). The fence diagram reveals that the top clay layer is persistent throughout the area. The thickness of this layer is more in the northern part in comparison to central and southern part of the area, it is underlain by a more porous granular zone, which is intervened by discontinuous clay layers in the north. In the central part of the study area, there is alternate disposition of sand and comparatively thin layers of clay. The clay layer is underlain by a thick granular zone in the southern part. By and large aquifers appear to merge with each other and tend to behave as a single-bodied aquifer to a depth of 126 m bgl. A three layer model was developed. The top sand}' layer contains the water table and is of variable thickness ranging from 14.7 to 54 m. The second layer is more porous sand. It varies in thickness from 23.7 to 64.20 m. The bottom layer is impervious clay, varying in thickness from 3 to 32.7 m. 6.2.3 Aquifer parameters Eleven pumping tests were carried out by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in the study area. The hydraulic conductivity data obtained from these pump test were utilized in the preparation of model. The hydraulic conductivity of first layer was determined by constant head permeameter. The values range between 1.07 to 3,8 m/day and on this basis a value of 3 m/day was assigned to the first layer. The hydraulic conductivity for the second layer was taken from pumping test data and assigned to eight distinct zones using the Thiessen polygon method (Figure-6.1), which involve construction of polygon around the stations. This method is preferred over contouring where data points are sparse. The hydraulic conductivity values for second layer vary between 23.5 and 35.0 m/day. The third layer is impervious clay and it was assigned a hydraulic conductivity value of 1 m/day. Specific yield of 0.10 is applied uniformly to the entire area. 93 iQooa isooa Figure-6.1: Permeability distribution in second layer 6.2.4 Recharge Recharge from rainfall, inrigation return water and canal seepage was estimated using methodology given by the Groundwater Estimation Committee (1997). Site specific recharge data are often used purely as fitting parameters during model calibration (Vami and Usunoff, 1999). Where site sjaecific information is available, an assumed fraction of it is commonly assigned as the recharge boundary condition (Kennett-Smith et al. 1996; Hsu et al. 2007). Such assumptions may be adequate for the long term simulation of the regional groundwater flow system (Jyrkama et al. 2002) as is done in the present case. 94 The total recharge estimated is in accordance with Groundwater Estimation Committee (GEC, 1997) methodology for groundwater resource estimation. Recharge through irrigation returns and seepage through unlined canal is estimated using standard norms recommended by GEC-97. The estimation of recharge parameter was done for monsoon and non monsoon period. The estimated values were then applied to respective grid in the model using recharge boundaries (Figure-6.2). Grid Q Model DoiDaJn Gridines Siteniaps Q transient .786 JMflO JsOflO MdO aeisi Figure-6.2: Map showing grid pattern, recharge zone and boundary conditions 6.2.5 Groundwater Draft through pumping A borewells census from the District Statistical Department was used for the existing wells data. Three types of wells were categorized on the basis of their yield (Figure-6.3). The state tubewells, governed by State Tubewell Department, have a discharge rate of 1500 L/min. Private electric motor and private diesel engine borewells have discharge rates of 250 L/rain and 60 L/min, resp€;ctively. The duration of pumping mainly depends on electric power supply, tubewell maintenance and season of the year. Simulated pumping rates of 500 m^/day, 1000 m^/day and 1500 m^/day were used in the pumping well package. llLli. .• '-T issr- .•.ir*i(»'i ..x^-^rreim.^iiiif'fii- •'.ri;j<-jjjaB*si '^*'ititi>^iii^ ^tf.^. 'E. V*i ilPftf r*- -vXl "•" Tf. v^?.7^-i'raffA-.*i-ife:nj:-:'»«fj«ip!»»si««:-ii '•>; ''•iri^ -.01 • •'•R:';;„•':.A..":«l»iHBr«'^R-'^F^i :'-r, . fisj,;-. ...iiri..iia:iiijir't*pw»':f. u-. .•v=ik«»irasuk:.K««rK;%'.'\;~-?'«Bf'i iii! ,K,-t;«.i>, J.a*niijr»v--niii!i.rtt.' M»;;!;.<'y^:i-,«;ftii9aBi •'->?-«.i«'^'!:r-!!XJiB''irinaPWBBBBrji i luBirKis.^fliiii; i J I ITN T I T/l eea a »Bpiki?i 0 sooQ idoao isdoa 20000 xaaa yooaa 37i06 Figure-6.3: Simulated groundwater pumping locations in the study area 6.2.6 Boundary Conditions Every model requires an appropriate set of boundary conditions to represent the system's relationship with the surrounding area. In an unconfmed aquifer river- aquifer interaction is a sensitive issue and thus be taken with due care. Interaction between an alluvial aquifer system and river will be influenced by the spatial arrangement of hydrofacies at the interface between the river and the underlying aquifer (Woessner, 2000). The modelling studies that include river aquifer interactions have been focused on questions of regional scale water management and conjunctive use (Ontaet al. 1991; Reichard, 1995; Wang et al. 1995). In the present case the western and eastern boundaries representing the Yamuna and Hindon rivers, respectively, were assigned as river boundaries (Figure- 6.2). For these boundaries, river head and river bed bottom elevations were assigned to appropriate grids after carrying out surveys. The river head and bed bottom elevations at the initial and final point of river Yamuna are 220 and 216 m amsl and 209 and 202 m amsl, respectively. For river Hindon the river head and bed bottom elevations at the initial and end points are 212 and 211 m amsl and 207 and 206 m amsl, respectively. River bed conductance varies between 580 to 862 and 256 to 410 m"/day for the Yamuna and Hindon Rivers, respectively. General Head Boundaries (GHB) were assigned at the northern and southern edges of the model. The purpose of using this boundary condition is to avoid unnecessarily extending the model domain outward to meet the element influencing the head in the model (Waterloo hydrolog}' Inc. 2005). Heads were assigned to the General Head Boundaries (GHB) with the help of water table contour map. 6.3 MODEL CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DESIGN Model design and its application is the primitive step to define the nature of problem and the purpose of modelling. The step is linked with formulation of the conceptual model, which again is a prerequisite before the development of a mathematical model. The conceptual model is put into a form suitable for modelling. This step includes design of the grid, selecting time steps, setting boundary and initial condition, preliminary selection of values for the aquifer parameters and hydrologic stresses (Anderson and Woessner, 2002). Following steps are considered in the model conceptualization of Hindon-Yamuna interfluves region. . The Hindon -Yamuna interfluves region is bounded by rivers Yamuna and Hindon from western and eastern sides, respectively. Initial grid size of 1000m x 1000m is chosen in the model (Figure-6.2). 97 II. The simulated three layer model extends up to the maximum depth of 126 m (Figure-6.4a and 6.4b). III. River Yamuna is influent in nature in the northern part and beyond that it is effluent throughout the study area. River Hindoo is influent throughout its course, except the patch in its lower reaches in the southern part where it becomes effluent. IV. Some lateral out flow leaves the study area from southern boundary and some inflow enters across northern boundary. V. Natural recharge from monsoon rainfall and recharge through irrigation return flows forms the main input in to the groundwater system. Eastern Yamuna Canal is the major source of canal seepage; however, distributaries like Khekra. Daula, Mitii, Idrishpur and Bijwara also contribute water to the groundwater system. VI. Recharge values for the command area and seepage values for individual canal has been worked out and assigned to respective grids using recharge boundary package. VII. Lithology of existing deep tube wells was used to construct three sub-surface layers of the groundwater regime. VIII. Hydraulic conductivity for first layer i.e. sandy clay was taken at 3 m/day and assigned uniformly to the entire area. IX. Hydraulic conductivity for second layer was taken from pumping test data. It varies between 19.5 m/day to 41.0 m/day. It was assigned in eight distinct zones using Thiessien polygon method. X. Bottom layer is an aquitard and is assigned permeability of ! m/day uniformly. XI. Pumping rates vary from 60 to 400 L/min. The simulation of the pumping rate is done accordingly and representative pumping of simulated pumping rates like 500 m'^/day, 1000 mVday and 1500 m^/day are used. XII. River boundary condition was applied to the rivers Yamuna and Hindon. Heads are prescribed to all the boundaries. The finite-difference groundwater model Visual MODFLOW 4.1 pro was used for modelling. MODFLOW is a computer program that numerically solves the three- dimensional groundwater flow equation for a porous medium by using a finite difference method (Waterloo Hydrogeologic Inc, 2005). In the fmite difference method (FDM), a continuous medium is replaced by a discrete set of points called nodes and various hydrogeological parameters are assigned to each node. 98 Figure-6.4a: Hydrogeological cross section along row 24 showing three layer system ym VM Figure-6.4b: Hydrogeological cross section along row 41 showing the three layer system 6.4 MODEL CALIBRATION The purpose of model calibration is to establish that the model can reproduce field measured heads and flows. Calibration is carried out by trial and error adjustment of parameters or by using an automated parameter estimation code. In this study trial and error adjustment is used. 6.4.1 Steady State Calibration Steady state conditions are usually taken to be historic conditions that existed in the aquifer before significant development has occurred (i.e., inflow are equal to outflows and there is no change in aquifer storage). In this mcKiel, quasi-steady state 99 calibration comprised the matching of observed heads in tiie aquifer with hydraulic heads simulated by MODFLOW during a period of unusually high recharge. The calibration was made using 74 observation wells monitored during November 2005. The hydraulic conductivity for first and third layer is assumed 3 and 1 m/day and assigned respectively, while the hydraulic conductivity for second layer is taken from pumping test data which ranges from 19.5 to 41.0 m/day. Pumping test values of hydraulic conductivity were used as initial values for the steady state simulation. By trial and error calibration, the conductivity values for zone 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 were reduced from 3 to 25 % while it was increased by 20% for zone 3. Recharge was calculated and assigned to each grid. The recharge from distributaries were reduced by 17 % from original calculated values, during many sequential runs until the match between the observed and simulated water level contours were obtained. Figure-6.5a and 6.5b show observed and computed heads of November 2005. The computed water level of November 2005 (steady state) indicate prevailing trend of groundwater flow in the interfluves region. The computed water level accuracy was judged by comparing the mean error with mean absolute and Root Mean Squared (RMS) error (Anderson and Woessner, 1992). Mean error is 0.164 m. RMS error is the square root of the sum of the square of the differences between calculated and observed heads, divided by the number of observation wells, which in the present simulation is 1.471 m (Figure-6.6). The absolute residual mean is 1.205 m. The absolute residual mean R is similar to the residual mean except that it is a measure of the average absolute residual value defined by the equation: R ^IK The absolute residual mean measures the average magnitude of the residuals, and therefore provides a belter indication of calibration than the residual mean (Waterloo Hydrogeologic Inc, 2005). 100 INDEX ,\'l- m amsl 1^ Flow Line ^1 District Boundary 1 , J 1 ^^^^—J _j 500C 10000 15000 20000 250!iO 30000 35000 Figure-6.5a: Observed heads for November 2005 ^clI'/P 5000 lOOOO 15000 3QuOQ 35QOO 30000 37i0.i Figure-6.5b: Computed heads for November 2005 Calculated vs. Observed Head: Steady stide 1 • Leywfl 95% confidefKe interval 95%rterval 1 oi- S sT"" 6 a ctpo i D % o I r, ° n ° t^ s 199.73 209.73 219.73 Observed Head (m) Num of Data Points 74 Max Residual 3.363 (m) at BAMNAULVA Standard Error of thu Estimate : 0 171 (m) Min. Residual -0.015 (m) at SAfiAI/A Root Mean Squared ; 1,471 (m) Residual Mean 0.164 (m) Normalized RMS . 7.07 ( %) Abs. Residual Mean : 1.206 (m) Correlation CoBfficient: 0.967 Figure-6.6: Calculated versus observed heads (November 2005) 6.4.2 Transient State Calibration It is quite possible that tiie aquifer system may attain steady state conditions at more than one time period as at any time period. If flows get balanced and the water levels do not change over that period, the system remains in the steady state condition. However, in practice and moreover in India where in most cases, over- exploitation is common, it is very difficult to get the aquifer in the steady state condition unless we go much beyond in time in the past which limits the data availability (Ahmed and Umar, 2009). Thus in this case, the aquifer system was taken to be in a near steady state during November 2005. It was chosen to run and calibrate the model under steady state for this period and the calibrated hydraulic conducl;ivity distribution was obtained. Subsequently, the model was calibrated to transient state from November 2005 to November 2008. The time steps in transient simulations run from Novemter 2005 to November 2008 were divided in to 6 time steps. Each year was also divided into two stress periods of 152 days (monsoon period) and 213 days (non-monsoon period), respectively. Recharge boundaries were set using a stress period of 152 and 213 days. The actual amount of recharge was calculated for each year using GEC-1997 102 methodology and assign to each stress period for the year 2005 to 2008. During the transient state calibration, recharge from rainfall was increased by 5%, 7% and 3% for respective years. Initial value of seepage through Eastern Yamuna Canal was increased by 3% and the same value was kept for other years. The recharge from distributaries was retained as originally calculated value. Visual MODFLOW uses boundary conditions imposed by the user to determine the length of each stress period. During first run of transient state model, the hydraulic conductivity of steady state model was retained while in subsequent runs conductivity of zone 2 and 3 were reduced by 16 and 17%. Initially specific yield i.e. 0.10 was assigned for the entire area but during several run it was modified to 0.20, which corresponds to typical specific yield of alluvial area in western Uttar Pradesh. After a number of trial runs, where die input/output stress were varied, computed water levels were matched fairly reasonably to obsen'ed values. The RMS error for the transient state model is 1.391 m (Figure-6.7). The observed pre- and post-monsoon water level for selected observation wells for the period 2005 to 2008 was used for the transient state calibration. A comparison of observed and computed heads at different observation wells are shown in figures 6.8a and 6.8b. Calculated vs. Observed Head: Time -1095 days 198 43 208.43 Observed Head (m) Num. of Dela Potts 43e8 Max. Readuat: 3.8SS (m) at BAMMUU/A Slarannl Efror of the Estimate: 0.021 (m) Mn. Residual: 0 (m) at BAGt«>AT/A Root Mean Squared: 1.331 (m) R«sitlu>IMaan:021(m) Normalized RMS; 6.299 (%) Ate. Residual Mean: 1.096 (m) CxreWonCoettlderl: 0S73 Figure-6.7: Calculated versus observed heads (November 2005 to November 2008) 103 Head vs. Time r. Asara/AfObsetvod) r. ASARAJAICtlaMBi) » Bu(ti()ur/A(Obs»rvUR/A(CalaialocO A F«kh«rpur«k(0ti5erve D' 5 qi. fn E c r* e ®. «r f^ * « » • (N IS' 8 • V X fsi lii *» ^- V r ^ y^ f e A if * i jf. A 1 1 1 1 ' 500 Time [days] Figure-6.8a: Observed and simulated heads at Asara, Budhpur, Fakharpur and Mukari Head vs. Time r Bh^jaut/AtObssrved) r: BHAOALrrm(C . » ^ ? s r S f; d ^ > • * , • L, , ., soo 1000 0 Tme laaysj Figure-6.8b: Observed and simulated lieads at Bhagaut, Khekra and Malakpur 104 6.5 ZONE BUDGET Zone Budget package calculates sub-regional water budgets using the results from MODFLOW simulation. The estimated recharge values were initially used in the recharge boundaries to command and canal tracts. The heads were assigned to river stage by applying the river boundary package. The groundwater budget for steady state is as follows: • Direct recharge to Hindon -Yamuna watershed is 358.0 MCM • Total annual draft through pumping is 393.8 MCM • Sub-surface horizontal inflows and outflows are 3.9 and 20.7 MCM, respectively. • Inflows from rivers Hindon and Yamuna are 30.0 and 24.2 MCM, respectively • Base flows from Hindon and Yamuna are 1.7 and 0.43 MCM, respectively Various components of groundwater balance are given in Table 6.1. Table-6.1: Components of groundwater balance using MODFLOW Input Stress Output Stress (MCM) (MCM) Direct Recharge 358.0 Draft through pumpage 393.8 Sub-surface inflow 3.9 Sub-surface outflow 20.7 Inflow from river Base flow from river Yamuna 30.0 Yamuna 1.7 Inflow from river Base flow from river Hindon 24.2 Hindon 0.43 6.6 MODEL SENSITIVITY Sensitivity analysis is the process to test the effect on the model if one parameter is slightly changed keeping other parameters unchanged (Bihery, 2008). During a sensitivity analysis, calibrated values for hydraulic conductivity, storage parameters, recharge and boundary conditions are systematically changed within the permissible range. The magnitude of change in heads from the calibrated solution is a measure of the sensitivity of the solution to the particular parameters. Sensitivity analysis is typically performed by changing one parameter value at a time (Anderson and Woessner. 2002). 105 The purpose of a sensitivity analysis is to quantify the uncertainty in a calibrated model caused by uncertainty in the estimates of aquifiir parameters, stresses and boundary conditions (Senthilkumar and Elango, 2004). In the present study the sensitivity of hydraulic conductivity and recharge was examined. During the first sensitivity analysis the permeability values were increased by 10% which results in slightly high RMS error of 1.57 m (Figure-6.9a). Calculated vs. Observed Head: Steady stt^ D Layern 95% confidence irtervai 209.73 Ctoserved Heod (m) Nun of D«a PoMs ; 74 Max. Readu* 3.842 (m) at BAIiMAULIM Standard Error 0" the Estme»e-0.181 (m) Mm. ResMuet 0.049 (m) al BUDHSEN/A Root Mean Squared : 1.57 (m) Residual Mean 0.263 (m) Normalied RMS 7.548 (%) Ate Residual Mean :1 312 (m) Correlalion Coettictert: 0.963 Figure-6.9a: Comparison of computed versus observed beads for 10% increase of permeability Second and third runs were made with 20% and 30% increase in the permeability value. This again gave high RMS error i.e. 1.681 m (Figure-6.9b) and 1.79 m, respectively. During the fourth sensitivity analysis, the permeability of zone 3 i.e. 23.5 m/day, which is in the north-western part of the study area, was increased by 10 % and it provided a better match between observed and simulated head with RMS error of 1.469 m (Figure-6.9c). 106 Calculated vs. Observed Head: Steady state f 0 Layer #1 9S% contidence interval 9S%Mervs( 1 ai — ft • ^D S ° .^ipD •0553- TO / 19973 20973 21973 Observed Head (n) NunofMsParts 74 M» R«idu»l: 3.875(m)i Figure-6.9b: Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 20% increase of permeability Calculattd vs. Observed H«ad: Steady state 1 a tayern 9S% conWence Interval 95%iterval 1 E nRcF° a ^ J ° CtPO n % 0 D -, 1§" an ^ S 1 ' ' ' ' I 199.73 20973 219.73 ObservwfHeadCm) Mum of Data Poinls: 74 Max.Residuat 3.404(m)atBAhMAUU/A StandardError 3f theEsttnate: 0.171 (m) MH. Residual 0.001 (m) at SARAUA Root Mean Squared, 1.469 (m) ResiduaiMean.0162(m) NormafaedRMS: 7.06(%) Atis. Residual Mean. 1.2 (m) CorretaBonCoefflciert: 0.967 Figure-6.9c: Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 10% increase of permeability for zone 3 107 Next sensitivity analysis was carried out by changing the calibrated value of recharge parameter. During first and second sensitivity analyses, recharge values were increased by 1% and 5%, which gave increased RMS error of 1.503 m and 2.259 m (Figure-6.10a). During the third sensitivity analysis, recharge values were decreased by 5%, which resulted in increasing the RMS error to 2.47 m (Figure-6.10b). Overall, the results show that model is sensitive to recharge and permeability. Calculated vs. Observed Head: Steady state a L*y«rf1 95% confidence intervaf BgrtJO tP°El atxf a ^,i ii one 199 72 20972 219.72 Otserved Head (m) Nun of Ma Pofts 74 Max Resil1uaf5S96(m)alBAMNAULI/A Standard Error of the Estimate 0168 (m) Mn Residuat -0.044 (m) it OAUUUA Root Mlien Squared : 2.259 (m) RvstdutdMsan: 1.743(10) Normalized RIMS: 10.662 (%) Abs. Residual Mean 1 93(m) a»Tel«ion Coetficten*: 0.969 Figure-6.10a: Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 5% increase of recharge 108 Caiculat«d vs. Observed Head : Steady state 1 D Loyer#1 95% confictence irterval 95%Merval 1 EM oj - n 0 i m Z 0 "^q.^^ h it ^0Dri? o ' r+ n _ 0 y lej R n TO 0 a r* • D i n 198 42 20842 21842 Otserved Head (m) Num. of De(a Ports 69 Max Residual: -S£39 (ffl) * DHANAURA/A Standard En-iir ol the Eslimale: 0237 (m) Mm RssWual; 0.049 (m) at BUDHPUR/A Root Mean Squared: 2.47 (m) Residual Mean; -1,51 (m) Ntirmalasd RMS: 12.383 (%) Abe ResicMMMn 1 888(m) Correlation Coefficient: 0.943 Figure-6.10b: Comparison of computed versus observed heads for 5% decrease of recharge 6.7 PREDICTIONS AND ASSESSMENT In a prediction simulation, the parameters determined during calibration and verification were used to predict the response of the system to fijture events (Anderson and Woessner, 2002). Faust et al. (1981) suggest that a predictive simulation should not be extended into the future more than twice the period for which calibration data are available. This, however, may not be possible if regulations require longer simulation. Two different prediction scenarios were considered to predict the drawdown for the study area during the period of 2008 to 2018. These jjcenarios are explained below. 6.7.1 Scenario 1: Constant recharge and increase in current withdrawal rate In this scenario, the on going abstraction rate was increased by 20% from 2008 to 2018, over a period of 10 years. This increase is in line with present rate of consumption. It was observed during this prediction run that the area in the northeast and central part was drastically affected and thirteen observation wells gone dry in the 109 decade ending in 2018. The maximum drawdown i.e. > 6 m was observed in north eastern, north-western and south-eastern parts of the study area. The minimum drawdowns were observed along the river Yamuna as well as upper and lower reaches of river Hindon, where the drawdown was < 2 m (Figure-6.1 la). 600Q iQOaa tSOQO 2500Q MOOO 37l0« Drav^downfml^—r t I 1 I 1 1 \ 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.00CI 8.000 Figure-6.11a: Drawdowa aod dry cell in scenario 1 6.7.2 Scenario 2: Reduction of recharge and increase in current withdrawal rate In this scenario, the combined effect of increasing abstraction rate by 20% and reducing recharge by 20% was examined. By reducing the recharge and increasing the abstraction rate, the maximum drawdown compared with scenario 1 was increased. The maximum drawdown of > 7 m have been observed in north-eastern, north western and south-eastern part of the study area (Figure-6.11b).The minimum drawdown <2 m was observed in upper and lower reaches of river Yamuna and Hindon. In this scenario dry cells increased in comparison to scenario 1. Uiy cell b 6000 lO^Oa liOQO 2000Q 25000 30000 37106 Drawdown [m] UK II II 1 I I 1 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 Figure-6.11b: Drawdowa and dry cell in scenario 2 6.8 SUMMARY Visual MODFLOW 4.1 pro is used in this study to simulate the groundwater flow for Hindon - Yamuna interfluves for steady state and transient conditions to forecast the future changes that occurred under different stresses. 11 November 2005 situation is tai mode) calibration. Model calibration for steady state condition shows good agreement between observed and simulated heads. The model was calibrated to transient state from November 2005 to November 2008. A comparison of observed and computed heads at different observation wells shows a good agreement between observed and computed heads. The sensitivity of the model to input parameters was tested by varying only the parameters of interest over a range of values, and monitoring the response of the model by determining the root mean square error of the simulated heads compared to the measured heads. These analyses showed that the model is sensitive to recharge and permeability. The groundwater budget for steady state shows that the direct recharge to the Hindon-Yamuna watershed is 358.0 MCM. The total annual draft through pumpage is 393.8 MCM. The sub-surface horizontal inflows and outflows are 3.9 and 20.7 MCM, respectively. Inflows from rivers Hindon and Yamuna are 30.0 and 24.2 MCM and base flows are 1.7 and 0.43 MCM, respectively. Two prediction scenarios have been considered to predict aquifer responses under varied stress conditions. According to prediction scenario 1, the on going abstraction rate was increased by 20% from 2008 to 2018, over a period of 10 years. This increase is in line with present rate of consumption. It was observed during this prediction run that the area in northeast and central part was drastically affected and thirteen observation wells gone dry in the 2018 time period. The maxiinum drawdown i.e. > 6 m were observed in north-eastern, north-western and south-eastern part of the study area. The minimum drawdowns were observed along the river Yamuna as well as upper and lower reaches of river Hindon where the drawdown was < 2 m. In prediction scenario 2. the combined effect of increasing abstraction rate by 20% and reducing recharge by 20% was examined. The combined impact of both these factors showed a maximum drawdown of > 7 m have been observed in north-eastern, north western and south-eastern part of the study area. The minimum drawdown < 2 m was observed at upper and lower reaches of river Yamuna and Hindon. The extent of dry cells increased in comparison to scenario I. 112 CHAPTER - 7 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER AND ITS CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES FOR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS 7.1 GENERAL In the past, water quality concerns were often neglected or studied only for academic interest because good quality water supplies were abundant and readily available. Water quality in an area is a function of physical and chemical parameters that are greatly influenced by geological formations and anthropogenic activities. Agricultural activities, population growth, rapid industrialization and unplanned urbanization in the Ganga Plain have resulted in various geo-environmental hazards causing deterioration of groundwater quality in many ways. Understanding the quality of groundwater is particularly important as it determines the factors governing the suitability of water for drinking, domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes (Subramani et al. 2005). Groundwater is not pure water because it usually contains dissolved mineral ions. The type and concentration of these dissolved minerals can affect the usefulness of groundwater for various purposes. If certain mineral constituent are present in excessive amounts, some type of treatment may be necessary to either change or remove the dissolved mineral before the water can be used for the intended purposes. Quality of water, therefore, has become one of the important environmental issues. Groundwater is an important source of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial consumption. Quality of groundwater demands as much as its quantity and it is described by its physical, chemical and biological characteristics. These characteristics are interlinked. Quality of groundwater and its suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes is important for its safe and effective use. Several studies have been made on the quality and chemical characteristic of groundwater of Ganga basin(Umar and Ahmed, 2000; William et al. 2001; Ravenscraft et al. 2005; Umar, 2006; Umar et al. 2006; Ahmed, 2008; Saha, 2009; .Saha et al. 2009; Joshi et al. 2009; Ghose et al. 2009; Khan, 2009; Dhakyanika and Kumara, 2010), 7.2 COMPOSITION OF METEORIC WATER The role of the chemistry starts from the time precipitation occurs on the land and hydrologica! cycle sets in. The chemistry of the meteoric water is the starting point for all subsequent chemical alterations that the meteoric vv'ater is subjected to during infiltration and as a result of water - rock interaction and also as a consequence of anthropogenic influences. There is no dearth of literature on chemical attributes of rainwater (Mouli etal. 2005 and numerous sources available on internet). Bicarbonate is the only ionic species of dissolved inorganic carbon present in a significant amount (Freeze and Cherry, 1979), which is derived as a result of dissolution of CO2 from the atmosphere. Bicarbonate ion may have highly variable concentration levels in rainwater depending upon the season, location and duration of the rainfall and values as high as 50 mg/l have been reported. Sulphate may also be present in rainwater. The source of this anion is related to industries spewing sulphur in to the atmosphere as particulate S and gaseous SO2. This leads to increased concentration of H* and SO4"" in rain water, as shown in following reactions: S + 0->S02(g) in 51 rainwater samples collected across the United States (http://www.people.carleton.edu/~bhaileab/EnvironmentalGeology/RainWater.pdf), SO4 values from traces to 5.20 mg/i have been recorded. Other anions reported from rainwater are CI and NO3, with concentration levels of 0.10 to 4.20 and 0.15 to 8.16 mg/l, respectively, in the study carried out in USA(http://wwvv.people.carleton.edu/~bhaileab/EnvironmentalGeology/RainWater.p df). Concentration of CI seems to be directly related to the proximity to marine environment. Nitrate probably is contributed from the atmosphere which contains nitrogen oxides contributed from terrestrial industrial, vehicular and anthropogenic sources. As far as major cations, Na. K. Ca and Mg, are concerned, a study carried out in Dhanbad. Jharkhand, India, by Singh el al. (2007) suggests that concentration levels of cations in rainwater is relatively high in dry months before and after the monsoon period. It is lower during the monsoon. Major anions, SO4, CI, F and NO3, also show similar trends but not as well defined as that for cations. It has been convincingly suggested that terrestrial sources are equally important as marine and anthropogenic sources of cations and anions recorded in rainwater. The study carried out in USA suggests that factors, such as closeness to the coast, contribution of soil dust to atmosphere, industrial emission and burning of wastes are responsible for the observed chemistry of rainwater. The source for Na and CI is unequivocally the salts derived from marine environment. It has been argued that even inland areas, far from the coast, have availability of marine salts depending on type and direction of prevalent winds, which may be incorporated as chemical constituents of rainwater (Mouli et al. 2005). Calcium and Mg concentrations in rainwater are in all likelihood, at least partially, related to soil moisture evaporation. This may also yield some CO2 to the atmosphere, which eventually transforms to HCO3 in precipitation. Soil dust may contribute not only all the major cations, but also anions, to the atmosphere, which may eventually be carried downward as chemical species of rainwater. 7.3 CHANGES IN THE CHEMISTRY OF SHALLOW GROUNDWATER Precipitation and infiltration processes play an important role in determining the chemical characteristics of the groundwater in an unconfined aquifer. The soil zone that supports plant life is one of the most important components in the study of groundwater chemistry. It is in the soil zone that recharge water first enters and comes in contact with inorganic and organic solids and gases and it is here that most significant chemical changes occur. Naturally occurring dissolved organic compounds are typically present in minor or trace quantities in the soil zone. By far the most abundant organic compounds in shallow groundwater are humic and fulvic acids. Important groundwater gases, in addition to carbon dioxide, include oxygen, hydrogen sulfide and methane. Organic carbon in the soil also affects the inorganic chemistry of groundwater because the oxidation of organic matter produces CO2 gas which reacts with water to produce carbonic acid. The presence of carbonic acid imparts acidic character to water and makes it a more aggressive agent of weathering 115 and dissolution. The increase in the level of anionic carbon species enhances ion complexing (Deutch, 1997). O, + Organic Matter -> CC, H2O + CO2 = HfO, HfO. =H' + HCO: While presence of carbonic acid makes groundwater attack silicate and carbonate minerals, thus acquiring major cations, such as, Ca, Mg, Na and K, dissociation of carbonic acid results in the formation of bicarbonate ion. Release of these cations and silica from silicate matrix involves very slow process of water-rock interaction. Groundwater, on the other hand, in the presence of CO2 dissolves carbonates of Ca and Mg (Karanth, 1987): CaCOj + H2O + CO2 = Ca (HC03)2 MgCOa + H2O + CO2 = Mg (HC03)2 Carbonates may also be attacked b) acidic groundwater with sulphuric acid, which may be generated as a result of oxidation of sulphides or due to mixing of industrial effluents. This causes redistribution of carbonate/bicarbonate species in the groundwater: CaC03 + H.SO^ = CaS04 + H2CO3 H2C03 = H'+HC03" HC03" = H' + C03' Agricultural contaminants also cause substantial changes in shallow groundwater geochemistry and liquid - solid interaction controlling environment. These aspects have received some what less attention. The quality of alluvial groundwater in rural areas is sensitive to the contaminants originated from the agricultural chemicals, such as, fertilizers, pesticides (Kelly, 1997; Stigter et al. 1998; Kraft et al. 1999). Chemical fertilizers tend to contribute NO3, SO4, P, Ca, Na, K and CI to groundwater either as a result of direct dissolution or through agricultural return water. While NO3 comes from sources, such as, ammonia or nitrate fertilizer, SO4 and Ca are added as a result of the use of gypsum powder to counter the menace of alkalinity. Potassium and P are necessary ingredients of NPK fertilizer, commonly used in Ganga Plain. Sodium and CI often find their way to groundwater channels as impurities in fertilizers, particularly nitrogen-rich fertilizers. 16 Other sources causing discernible changes in the chemistry of shallow groundwater resources are related to disposal of municipal wastes, including sewage, and discharges from industries. These anthropogenic and industrial sources contribute anions, such as, SO4, CI, NO3 and some hazardous trace metals. Leather, textile and chemicals and fertilizers industries, in particular, play a detrimental role in deteriorating the chemical quality of groundwater. 7.4 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES OF GROUNDWATER The properties of groundwater of the area under study, in terms of fundamental parameters, such as, pH, hardness, total dissolved solids and EC are given below. 7.4.1 Electrical Conducti\ity The electrical conductivity with 400 nmhos/cm at 2.5" C is considered suitable for human consumption (WHO, 1984), while more than 1500 |imhos/cm at 25"C may cause corrosion of iron structures. Electrical conductivity of groundwater in the alluviuim aquifer increases depending on the depth and groundwater flow direction (Celik et al. 2006). On the basis of electrical conductance, groundwater is classified (Table-7.1) as given by Sarma and Narayanaswamy (1981 ): Table -7.1: Classification on the basis of EC EC (^S/cm Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon Class ae25"C) 2005 2006 Low Conductivity <500 60% (33 Samples) 40% (22 Samples) Medium Conductivity 500- 1000 33% (18 Samples) 49% (27 Samples) Class 1 Medium Conductivity 1000-3000 7% (4 Samples) 11% (6Samples) Class 11 High Conductivity >3000 0 0 Class HI In the study area. Electrical Conductivity values ranges between 200- l400|iS/cm during November 2005. The EC values during June 2006 ranges between 300-1500 |aS/cm. The correlation between instrumentally determined EC values and 17 calculated TDS values (correlation coefficient "r" being 0.612) is not very good, as it should be, and this may possibly be due to some instrumental error in EC values. 7.4.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) Values of pH were measured at well sites, which range between 6.8 to 8.6 and 6.2 to 8.4 during post-monsoon 2005 and pre-monsoon 2006, respectively (Table-2.1a and 2.1b). The groundwater thus is mildly acidic to slightly alkaline in nature. From the point of view of human consumption, all the samples may be considered fit, as they are neither acidic nor strongly alkaline. 7.4.3 Hardness In the area of study the hardness value varies from 115 to 743 mg/1. The average value is 309 mg/l. It was found that 28 samples are higher than desirable limit for drinking purposes of >300 mg/1 during November 2005 field survey (Table-7.2). The groundwater, therefore, comes under the category of moderately hard to very hard. During June 2006 field session, hardness ranges between 8-630 mg/1 with an average value of 163 mg/1. Sample no.I, 8, 10, 23, 26, 29, 31 and 32 shows the value above the desirable limit mentioned above. Thus for this time period groundwater falls under soft to very hard category. However, except samples 1 and 4 collected in November, 2005 and sample 29 of June 2006, all the samples analysed are indicated to be with in the permissible limit of drinking water standard (BIS. 1991). Table-7.2: Hardness classification of water Hardness of Water Class Post- monsoon Pre- monsoon CaCOj 2005 2006 (mg/1) 0-75 Soft 0 5% (21 Samples) 75-150 Moderately hard 5% (3 Samples) 45% (5 Samples) 150-300 Hard 44% (24 Samples) 44% (21 Samples) >300 Very hard ; 51% (28 Samples) 6% ( 8 Samples) 7.4.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Total dissolved solids (TDS) have been calculated by summing up all the major cations and anions (Tablc-2.1a and 2.1b) and this is probably the reason that the correlation between TDS and inslrumenlall)' determined EC is not excellent as it usually should be. Lack of correlation between the two may possibly be due to unsystematic instrumental error in determining EC. TDS values for November, 2005 samples range from 667 to 1824 mg/l. Thirty four out of 55 samples have values of >1000 mg/l. the average value for the samples being 1133 mg/l. The TDS values during June 2006 range between 566 to 1952 mg/l with an average value of 1057 mg/l. During this season 25 groundwater samples have TDS value of >I000 mg/l (Table-7.3). Table-7.3: Classification of water based on TDS Category TDS (mg/l) Post- monsoon Pre- monsoon 2005 2006 Fresh water 0- 1,000 38% (21 Samples) 55% (30 Samples) Brackish water 1.000- 10,000 62% (34 Samples) 45% (25 Samples) Saline water 10,000- 100,000 0 0 Brine water > 100,000 0 0 TDS values of <500 mg/l are generall_\ considered to be good. Drinking water becomes significantly unpalatable at TDS value >1000 mg/l. From this point of view, therefore, groundwater in the study area is not really ideal. Distribution of TDS values for post-monsoon period for the year 2005 is shown in Figure-7.1a. Similar plot for the pre-monsoon period of 2006 is given in Figure-7.lb. Two very distinct zones of TDS values of 1200 to > 1600 mg/l are observed in the area in the pre-monsoon 2006 plot (Figure-7.lb). The more prominent of the two zones is located in the northern part, where a relatively large area of TDS content of > 1400 mg/l encompasses three pockets characterized by TDS values of > 1600 mg/l. The western high TDS pocket extends northwestward from Baraut towards the left bank of river Yamuna. The other high TDS zone is located in the southeastern part of the area on the right or western bank of river Hindon east of village Rataul. In the post-monsoon 2005 period (Figure-7. la), the distribution of TDS values is markedly different compared to that in the succeeding pre-monsoon period. In general, higher TDS values are relatively scattered in November, 2005. Evidently TDS values lend to concentrate in the northern half of the study area in the intervening period between the successive monsoons. 55000 45000 40000 \\ "WO 35000 I 30000 20000 10000 5000 0 SKm I I Scale 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 Easting in metres Figure-7.1a: Distribution of TDS in the Study Area in Post-monsoon, 2005 7.5 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER The major ion composition of groundwater was used to classify groundwater into various types based on the dominant cations and anions (Deutsch, 1997). The groundwater of the study has been classified on the basis of Piper's Trilinear and L-L diagrams. 7.5.1 Piper's Trilinear Diagram Hydrogeochemical facies are distinct zones that have cation and anion concentrations describable within defined composition categories. The definition of a composition category is commonly based on subdivisions of the trilinear diagram in 120 55000 50000 Scale 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 3000Ci 35000 Easting in metres Figure-7.1b: Distribution of TDS in the Study Area in Pre-monsoon, 2006 the manner suggested by Back (1961) and Back and Hanshaw (1965). Plotting of post-monsoon samples on Piper's Trilinear Diagram (Figure-7.2a) reveals: • Based on relative abundance of anions, 76% samples are bicarbonate type, 20% are without any dominant anionic signature and the remaining 4% are sulphate type. • On the basis of cationic species 69% of the samples an; rich in alkalis, 27% lack any dominant cationic signature and 4% have relative abundance of Ca and Mg. 121 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Ca CI Cations Facies Anions Facies A Magnesium type E Sulphate type B Calcium type F Biocarbonate type C Sodium or Potassium type G Chloride type D No dominant type H No dominant type Figure-7.2a: Chemical facies identified on Piper's Diagram in groundwater samples collected in November, 2005 In pre-monsoon samples (Figure-7.2b), the observed trend on Piper's Diagram in terms of relative abundance ofcationic and anionic species is as follows: • Bicarbonate is the most abundant anion in 66% of the samples, followed by 29% with no dominant anionic species and 5% with relative abundance of sulphate. • Alkakis dominate over other cations in 85% of the samples and 15% of the remaining samples do not have any dominant cationic signature. 122 *"/50 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Ca CI Cations Facies Anions Facies A Magnesium type E Sulphate type B Calcium type F Biocarbonate type C Sodium or Potassium type G Chloride type D No dominant type H No dominant type Figure-7.2b: Ciiemical facies identified on Piper's Diagram in groundwater samples collected in June, 2006 The majority of the samples, therefore, are "alkali bicarbonate type" with Na having an overwhelming abundance over K. The remaining samples are of "mixed type" with composition varying from mixed alkali bicarbonate type to alkali-CI-S04 type. 123 7.5.2 L-L Diagram The chemical classification of groundwater has been attempted on L-L diagram, given by Langeiier and Ludvvig (1942). Both, post-monsoon - 2005 (Figure- 7.3a) and pre-monsoon - 2006 {Figure-7.3b) samples have been plotted to discern any conspicuous changes in the overall chemical behavior of groundwater during the two major seasons of the year which are marked by distinct variations in parameters, such as, recharge of the system, land use, interaction with surface water bodies and water use, particularly in terms of the quantity withdrawn. The presence of different chemical species has given unique chemical signature to the groundwater. The post- monsoon - 2005 plot (Figure-7.3a) helps in identifying three different chemical types of groundwater. Meteoric signatures in the form of relative abundances of Ca, Mg and HCO3 have been completely obliterated and none of the samples plot in the Ca - Mg - HCO3 field of unaltered meteoric water. Group I samples occupy the central part of the plot and thus exhibit "mi.Ked chemical characteristics" as all the major cations and anions have their noticeable presence. Bulk of the samples belongs to this Group. Barring 5 samples which are peripheral, the remaining samples form a conspicuous cluster occupying the centre of the plot, which encompasses 30 out of 55 samples (54%). Group 1 samples may conveniently be put under the category of "Mixed Type". Group II samples seem to have the same affinity as those of Group I in as far as the relative abundances of cations is concerned. The only discernible difference between the two Groups is that the latter shows relative enrichment of HCO3 at the expense of the other major anions CI and SO4. These samples, based on their chemical characteristics, may be classified as "Mixed Bicarbonate Type". Group II samples may be considered nearest representative of meteoric water. Group III, on the other hand, is identified as a distinct chemical type by virtue of the relative abundance of alkalis with HCO3 having preponderance over other anions CI and SO4. This Group may, therefore, be designated as "Alkali Bicarbonate Type". At the first glance the pre-monsoon scenario - 2006, depicted in Figure-7.3b, does not appear to be significantly different from that of the immediately preceding post- monsoon season (Figurc-7.3a), as the samples plot in the same zone. A closer look, however, reveals that if 4 samples (samples 4. 8, 3 I and35) are excluded, two clusters 124 are observed. The upper cluster corresponds to the Group I, identified above, while the lower one is more akin to Group 111 or Alkali Bicarbonate Type. Na + K 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 100 0 1—r 1 r 100 10 90 20 30 70 . 40 60 6 O CO 50 50 4- u u 60 40 70 30 Ca-Mg^HCO-.type 80 _ [Meteoric Water) 20 90 10 100 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -< Ca^Mg Figure-7.3a: Langelier and Ludwig (L-L) diagram of November, 2005 samples Na-rK 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 "1 r T 1 r TOO 10 90 20 80 30 70 40 60 O O O 50 50 U 60 40 70 30 Ca-Mg-HCOatype 80 _ (Meteoric Water) 20 90 10 100 J L ± J I 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 . •> Ca+Mg rigure-7.3b: Langelier and Ludwig (L-L) diagram of June 2006 samples 125 7.6 SUITABILITY OF GROUNDWATER FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION The quality of water has become one of the important environmental issues of the twenty first century and therefore an understanding of chemical quality of groundwater is essential for determining its usefulness for various purposes, such as, domestic consumption, industrial uses and agricultural purposes. The water which is not suitable for drinking may be good for irrigation and the water unsuitable for irrigation may be quite suitable for industrial purposes (Goel, 1997).Each use of water has its own limits on the degree of pollution it can accept. Every use of water requires a certain minimum quality of water with regard to the presence of dissolved and suspended materials of both chemical and biological nature. The minimum quality of water should ensure no harm to the user. The Word Health Organization (1984), Indian Standard drinking water specification (BIS, 1991) and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) have laid down drinking water standards, which assure, in general, the protection of human health. Accordingly, the concentration of various major and trace elements in the groundwater samples of the study area are compared with the drinking water standards of WHO (1994) and Indian Standard Drinking Water Specification (BIS, 1991) as summarised in Table-7.4. 7.6.1 Drinking Water Quality from the Point of View of Major Ions Total dissolve solids (TDS) of samples from the study area are above the desirable limit of 500 mg/1 in both seasons. All the samples, however, have TDS content lower than the maximum permissible limit of 2000 mg/1. While in 2 samples of November 2005 the SO4' content is more than its maximum permissible limit in drinking water (BIS, 1991), its concentration levels in June 2006 are within the permissible limit. As a matter of fact, SO4 concentration of > 200 mg/1 is not considered good and continuous intake of such water may not be good for human health. As many as 13 post-monsoon and 9 pre-monsoon samples have values exceeding 250 mg/1. The high intake of SO4" may result in gastrointestinal irritation and respiratory problems to the human system (Maiti, 1982; Subba Rao, 1993; Subramanietal. 2005). The concentration of CI ~ in post-monsoon samples collected in 2005 is below the maximum desirable limit. In pre-monsoon season, though, the concentration of CI" 126 in 4 samples is above the highest desirable limit, but way below the maximum permissible limit (BIS. 1991) in drinking water. The fact that about 30% of the samples studied have CI values of > 100 mg/l is significant from the point of view of the water being potable. This is because in association with high Na values (about 50% samples have Na concentration exceeding 200 mg/l) CI may impart bad taste to water(http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wsd/plan_protect_sustain/groundwater/library/groun dfactsheets/pdfs/cl (020715)_fm2.pdf). Only one set of samples collected in June 2007 were analyzed for NO3. The highest recorded value of 78 mg/l is lower than the maximum permissible limit of 100 mg/l for this ion (Table-7.4). it is worthwhile to discuss Na too though this is one of the ions for which desired or permissible limits are not given by BIS or WHO. Data available from net (vvww.vvikipedia.com) based on available literature from Water Stewardship Information Series. U. S. A. Environmental Protection Agency and Minnesota Pollution Control Agency for the period from 1999 to 2008 clearly indicate that high Na values in drinking water are not advisable due to the known role of this element in hypertension, heart diseases and kidney-related problems. Environment Protection Agency of USA, as a matter of fact, recommends a value of 20 mg/l of Na in the ideal drinking water based on the routine requirement of Na by human body and availability of Na through other solid intakes. The Canadian drinking water quality objective for Na is an Aesthetic Objective (AO) of 200 mg/l. The water with a Na value of more than this is not categorized as drinking water meant for continuous consumption. If this standard is taken in to consideration, the situation in the study area is far from being normal. The highest Na values for the post- and pre-monsoon seasons are recorded at 382 and 398 mg/l, respectively and about 45% of the samples have Na concentration of > 200 mg/l. Sodium is accompanied by rather anomalous and unusual concentration of the other alkali ion K in the study area. Values as high as > 100 to 264 mg/l are recorded, and 10 to 12 samples have value of > 30 mg/l. For an element which is known to have concentration levels of < I to 5 mg/l in groundwater, in general, values of even 10 mg/l are high. Although no information are available on maximum permissible limit of K in drinking water, yet the area under study may safely be categorized as the one with abnormal distribution of K values 127 (http://www.islandnet.com/~tiger/Tiger/resouices/guidelines.htiTi). Role of potassium in cellular and electrical functions of human body are well known (http://hkpp.org/general/potassium_healt.htmi). its excess in drinking water, however, is not a cause of major worry as human renal system is well equipped to get rid of surplus K from the body. Calcium and Mg are ions in groundwater which, in general, are not discussed in context of human health. It is, however, imperative to discuss the distribution of these two ions in the area as there are clear indications of calcium deficiency and anomalous Ca/Mg ratio. Calcium values measured in the two sets of samples (November, 2005 and June, 2006) give average values of 43 mg/1 and 19 mg/1, respectively. All the 55 samples collected in 2006 have Ca values less than the prescribed lower limit where as 49 out of 55 samples collected in 2005 have recorded such values. The study area, therefore, is a clear case of calcium deficiency. This is one of the significant outcomes of this study that calls for research in greater detail to understand the manifestation of this chemical attribute of groundwater in field. It is a common knowledge that calcium is an essential element for the growth, upkeep and maintenance of the human skeletal structure and its deficiency may be causing a menace for the human health. Several epidemiological studies (Riggs et al. 1967) suggest that Ca-deHciency in groundwater, particularly when not compensated by oral intake, may be conducive for diseases like osteoporosis and even rickets. The symptoms for the latter are however more pronounced when Cai-deficiency is coupled with deficiency of vitamin D. The average Mg concentration in the two sets of samples remains more or less consistent at 49 mg/1 and 48 mg/1, respectively. The maximum permissible limit of 100 mg/1 (Table-7.4) is exceeded by only three samples each collected during the two seasons. These Mg values of > 100 mg/l in only 5% of the samples do not pose any threat to human health and may only contribute to an increase in hardness and get manifested in the form of some deposits in pipes and pots. Sixteen samples collected in November, 2005 and 14 collected in June, 2006 (about 30% of the samples collected), however, have Mg concentrations lower than the lowest recommended value of 30 mg/l (Table-7.4). Several epidemiological studies have suggested that Mg-deficiency may result in coronary diseases and increases the risk of acute myocardial infraction (AMC). Moreover, Mg when consumed as chloride may cause 128 diarrhea. Magnesium chloride may Und its way to groundwater bodies as herbicides and insecticides (http://grande.nal.usda.gov/ibids/index.php?mode2=detail). 7,6.2 Trace Metals Concentration and Drinking Water Quality Trace metals concentration in groundwater in the study area have been dealt with in Chapter 8. However, it was considered relevant to discuss rather anomalous and apparently hazardous concentration of some of the metais here in this section dealing with the quality of groundwater for drinking purposes. Table-7.4 summarizes the prescribed limits of various trace metals and their observed concentration ranges in the study area. The concentration of Mn, Fe and Se are higher in 2, 4 and 6 samples, respectively. Manganese and Fe concentrations are generally not considered toxic and no adverse symptoms are reported on human health when water having higher concentration of these elements is consumed over long periods. Moreover, values of Fe and Mn reported in the study area are rather restricted and not alarmingly high (www.wikipedia.com). Twenty one out of 22 samples have Cr concentration higher than the permissible limit according to BIS (1991) and this is really very significant information that has come through this study. That Cr is carcinogenic, particularly when present in hexavalent state, is now very well understood by those dealing with medical geology (Sawyer and Mc Carty, 1978). Chromate salts are associated with cancer of the lungs i.e. bronchogenic carcinoma, and also exhibits corrosive action to the skin and mucous membrane (Umar and Ahmad, 2000). The concentrations of Al in all the 22 samples are above the maximum permissible limit of 0.2 mg/l (Tablc-7.4). As a matter of fact, 21 out of 22 samples analyzed have Al concentrations ten limes or even higher than the maximum permissible limit. Fortunately, Al is not considered toxic, in general, if consumed in higher quantities but there is no research to substantiate this argument. There had been suggestions that consumption of Aluminum in appreciably high quantities may be a factor conducive for Alzheimer Disease (AD), but again there is no strong scientific evidence in favor of this argument (www.wikipedia.com). There is probably a strong 129 c o .2 « s o « 1 w t- ra '3 1^ rs © © r^ — 1/7 00 — sC i r^ 00 t- vO © »S O — OS H need to take up this study too on the source and geochemical behavior of this omnipresent metal. Lead values are higher than the permissible limits in 7 samples. These high values are associated with high Fe values but the significance of this association is not understood. It may be speculated that it may relate to the influence of piping used in wells. Most common symptoms of lead poisoning are anemia, severe intestinal pain, paralysis of nerves, loss of appetite and fatigue (Train, 1979). Lead toxicity also causes irreversible mental damage in children. Selenium also needs to be mentioned here. Six samples show concentration higher than the desirable limit, though much less than the maximum permissible limit and therefore it is not alarming at all. it is such an element v/hich causes adverse effects when it is deficient in intake and there is every possibility that some of the samples with values of 0.005 to 0.008 may actually represent its deficiency. Higher concentration of Se may result in decay of hair, nails and teeth and neurological and skin disorders (www. wikipedia.com; Morris et al. 1983). The area is intensively cultivated with the wide use of chemical fertilizers and pesticide. Moreover, house hold wastes, sewage and industrial effluents are the other sources of pollution of surface and subsurface water bodies. 7.7 QUALITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES The suitability of groundwater for irrigation is contingent on the effects of the mineral constituents of water on both the plant and soil. Salt may harm plant growth physically by limiting the uptake of water through modification of osmotic processes, or chemically by metabolic reactions such as those caused by toxic constituents. Effects of salts on soils in causing changes in soil structure, permeability and aeration directly affect plant growth (Todd, 1980). The irrigation water containing a high proportion of sodium will increases the exchange of sodium content of the soil, affecting the soil permeability, and texture making the soil hard to plough and unsuitable for seeding emergence (Triwedy and Goel, 1984; Sujatha and Reddy, 2003). If the percentage of Na"" with respect to Ca""* + Mg"^"" + Na^ is considerably above 50% in irrigation waters, soils containing exchangeable calcium and magnesium take up sodium in exchange for calcium and magnesium causing deflocculation and impairment of the quality and permeability of 131 soils (Karanth,l987). Soil amendments, such as, gypsum or lime may correct the situation. The total dissolved content, measured in terms of" specific electrical conductance gives the salinity hazard of irrigation water. The electrical conductivity is a measure of salinity hazard to crop as it reflects the TDS in the groundwater. Parameters such as Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) were estimated to assess the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. The salt present in the water, besides affecting the growth of plants directly, also affects soil structure permeability and aeration, which indirectly affect plant growth (Mohan et al.2000; Umar et al. 2001). 7.7.1 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) Criterion The interpretation of water quality suitable for the irrigation purposes are given by Richard (1954) in the form of EC versus SAR values. Electrical Conductivity (E.C.) has been treated as inde.x of salinity hazards and sodium adsorption (SAR) as index of sodium hazards. SAR is calculated from the ionic concentration (in meq) of sodium, calcium and magnesium according to following relationship (Karanth, 1987). Ca + Mg The SAR values of the groundwater samples of the area are given in Table- 2.2a and 2.2b. The data has been plotted in (Figure-7.4a and 7.4b) to observe the suitability of water for irrigation purposes. The SAR value ranges from 0.80 to 11.08 with an average value of 4.93 in the samples collected during November 2005 (Table- 2.2a). The analytical data of post-monsoon 2005 plotted (Figjre-7.4a ) on the US salinity diagram (Richards 1954) show that 73% samples fall in C2SI, 11% in C3S1, 7% fall C2S2, 5% fall in C3S2 and 4% in CI SI respectively. Four samples fall in C2S2 and 3 in C3S2, respectively, and except these 7 samples, the remaining samples fall in good to excellent class from the point of view of irrigation. During pre-monsoon 2006 field session, the SAR values range from 1.68 to 16.39 ('fable-2.2b). average value being 6.24. Therefore the possibility of sodium hazard may be high in the area. The analytical data show that 62% of the groundwater 132 samples fall in the field of C2S1 (Figure-7.4b). These medium salinity and low sodium water can be used for irrigation on almost all the types of soils if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Eighteen percent of the samples fall in C3S1 category. These high salinity and low sodium water can not be used on soils with restricted drainage. Even with adequate drainage, special management for salinity control may be required. Water of C2S2 category accounts for 5% of the water samples. These are characterized by medium salinity and medium sodium content and may be used on coarse-textured or organic soil with good permeability. About 15% of water samples plot in C3S2 field. These are high salinity and medium sodium waters requiring good drainage (Karanth, 1987). The quality classification of groundwater is given below in Table-7.5 (USSL, 1954). C ! 24 .9 18-- * I • 'sod ' ' ?50 1000 '15011 22S0 5000 x\- Conduclivlty (micromhos/om al 25 t} Cj On C4 Low Medium High Very High Salinity hazard Figure-7.4a: SAR Vs E.G. (November, 2005) 133 1250 I7sn i X Hk 22 i 20 i c 3\S 2 16- n 14- e E 12i- 10-• 9- 8 .1 • • • •: 3' 2i- 1i —V- 100 250 500 750 fOOO 1500 2250 \ Condudivily (micramhos/cm at 25 C) c,' Ca Cj ' C, \ Low Medium High Very High Salinity hazard Figure-7.4b: SAR Vs E.C. (June, 2006) Table-7.5Wate: rQualit y ClassificatioSalinity nHazar of Irrigatiod E.nC Wate rSA i(afteR rValu USSeL 1954) (Micromhos/cm at25''C) Excellent <250 <10 Good 250-750 10-18 Fair 750- 2250 18-26 Poor >2250 >26 7.7.2 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) Parameter Eaton (1957) suggested that the excess sum of carbonate and bicarbonate in groundwater over the sum of calcium and magnesium also influences the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. This is denoted as residual sodium carbonate (RSC), which is calculated as follows (Raghunath, 1987): 134 RSC = (c Y;: ' + //( Y;: ") - ((V/'" + A'/g * *) where the concentrations are reported in meq/1. Water with RSC below 1.25 is good; 1.25 - 2.5 is marginal or tolerable and above 2.5 is not suitable for irrigation purposes. The classification of irrigation water according to the RSC value is presented in Table-7.6. If RSC > 2.5, irrigation water may cause formation of salt peter (KNO3). The value of residual sodium carbonate have been calculated (Table-2.2a and 2.2b) and compared with above classification. It is inferred that 29% and 24% samples in post-monsoon 2005 and pre-monsoon 2006, respectively, are good quality. The remaining samples fall in doubtful to unsuitable quality in both the seasons. Table-7.6: Quality of Groundwf Iter Based on Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) RSC (meq/l) Quaiit)' Post- Monsoon 2005 Pre- Monsoon 2006 Representative Representative Samples Samples <1.25 Good 16 13 1.25-2.5 Doubtful 7 11 >2.5 Unsuitable i ^2 31 1 7.8 CHEMICAL QUALITY OF RIVER DISCHARGES Seven samples collected from river discharges were analyzed to assess their quality and relationship with the groundwater regime, particularly in terms of any indications for interaction between surface water bodies and groundwater reservoirs (Table-2.3). These samples, collected from rivers Yamuna. Hindon and Krishni, show "mixed" characters and plot outside the field of 'meteoric' or Ca - Mg - HCO3 type water (Figure-7.5). While samples from river Yamuna plot as a cluster, the upstream sample from river Hindon is conspicuously different from the other two samples. Samples from Yamuna are relatively dilute with TDS of < 500 mg/l. This aspect is significant from the point of view that all the 110 groundwater samples collected during November, 2005 and June, 2006 have TDS value of > 500 mg/l, the average value being > 1000 mg/l (Table-7.3). This implies that in its influent part of the course, river Yamuna would tend to dilute the groundwater and when its behavior 135 would be effluent, il would be reflected in higher TDS content in its discharge. The Yamuna samples are relatively uniform in chemical composition in having SO4 and HCO3 as the dominant anions, the former being marginally more abundant. As far as cations are concerned, these samples have Na > Ca > Mg. There is a possibility that water of chemical quality similar to that of river discharge (from the point of view of concentration of major cations and anions), discharging from some of the wells is being used for drinking purpose. Na + K 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 100 10 90 20 .H3 - 80 H2* 30 70 Yl«. 40 Y2 — 60 O U 50 Kl - 50 X • 60 40 HI • 70 30 Ca-Mg-HC03 type 80 - (Meteoric Water) - 20 90 - 10 100 III 1 1 1 1 1 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 •" Co^-Mg Figure-7.5: Langelier and Ludwig (L-L) diagram for June 2007 river samples Samples collected from river hiindon are chemically different. The upstream sample collected from Barnawa has a fDS value of 1035 mg/l, v^hich is dominated by the HCO3 content of > 500 mg/l. Sulphate also shows rich value of 190 mg/l. Among the cations, Na is overwhelmingly abundant compared to Ca, Mg and K. The two downstream samples of Baleni and Gauna, on the other hand, have TDS values of < 500 mg/l, similar to that in Yamuna samples, but have comparatively lower concentration of alkalis and HCO3 (Figure-7.5), and have SO4 as the dominant ion. An exceptionally and rather anomalously high SOj content of 263 mg/l is recorded at Gauna. 136 The sample collected from river Krishni serves as an example of the extent to which the quality ofriver discharge could get deteriorated as a result of anthropogenic influences. A TDS value of 2600 mg/l is the net result of anomalously high values of all the ions. This is particularly so for HCOi, SO4, Na and K. 7.9 DISCUSSION One of the evident characteristics of the groundwater of the study area is their relatively high TDS content which is always > 500 mg/l. In the 2005 collection season as many as 62% samples record TDS values of > 1000 mg/l, whereas in the pre- monsoon season of 2006 about 45% samples fall under this category. Taking in to consideration TDS values of > 1200 mg/l. 23 and 10 samples collected in the successive years have recorded such values. Higher values, in general tend to concentrate in the northern half of the area in pre-monsoon period of 2006 (Figures- 7.1a and 7.1b). Based on these rather anomalously high TDS values it may be inferred that the role of water - rock interaction as a mechanism for the acquisition of solutes by groundwater is not substantial and processes, such as. anthropogenic activities, dissolution of some naturally occurring materials or mixing with deep-seated brines may have a more dominant role to play. Another significant feature is that TDS values, in general, show a decrease in the pre-monsoon season of 2006 (55% samples with TDS of <1000 mg/l) compared to values observed in the post-monsoon season of 2005 (38% samples with TDS of < 1000 mg/l). In. other words. TDS decrease in a period of about 6 months. It needs to be noted that during tliis period of November, 2005 to June, 2006 there were hardly any rains which could have accounted for some dilution of groundwater. There were only sparse short duration post-monsoonal showers in the months of January and February, accounting for not even 5% of the annual rainfall of 566 mm (average of recorded values at Baraut and Baghpat stations) for the year 2006. An evaluation of data indicate that with this tendency of decrease in TDS from an average value of 1133 mg/l in 2005 to 1057 mg/l in 2006, there had been a redistribution of chemical species resulting in spatial changes in TDS concomitantly. For example, in November, 2005 high TDS values of > 1400 mg/l were observed at locations 1, 5, 6, 13. 14, 21. 22 and 40. In 2006. such values are recorded at locations 10, 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 41, 45. 48, 49 and 51. What emerges is that high TDS values 137 encompassing locations 1, 5. 6, 13 and 14 in 2005 have apparently shifted northwards defining an even more conspicuous "high" (Figures-7.la and 7.1b). It is difficult to offer a straightforward explanation for this marked change in TDS having both temporal and spatial attributes. An approximation may be arrived at for a mixing model using a mass balance equation to be solved for "x" that stands for the fraction of the post-monsoon 2005 groundwater involved in the mixing. [(CI in 2005 samples) (x)] + [{CI in mixing water) (i-x)] = CI in 2006 samples Taking the average CI values of 85, 29 and 71 mg/l for groundwater samples of 2005, discharges from rivers Yamuna/Hindon and 2006 groundwater samples, respectively, it may be calculated that mixing of post-monsoon 2005 groundwater and river water in a ratio of 75:25 would result in CI content as observed in pre-monsoon period 2006. Taking this model of general dilution of groundwater during the period from November, 2005 to June, 2006 in to consideration would imply an across the board decrease in the concentration levels of all the major ions. This, however, is not the case. While average Na values tend to increase in pre-monsoon period of 2006, Mg does not show any change. Moreover, applicability of this model would also assume that both the rivers are influent during the bulk of their respective courses. It may be inferred therefore that the changes observed in groundwater chemistry over a period of about 6 months from November, 2005 to June, 2006 are due to a combination of factors, such as. mixing/dilution, precipitation/dissolution, irrigation, cation exchange, climatic influences and various anthropogenic factors. These aspects and relative roles of various processes are dealt with in greater details in a subsequent section. Chemistry of river discharges provides some interesting information. Except for a sample from river Krishni and the upstream sample from river Hindon, the remaining 5 samples (3 from Yamuna and 2 from Hindon) have TDS values of < 500 mg/l, less than half of the average TDS values measured in groundwater samples over two sample collection seasons. This implies that the influent drainage would result in diluting the groundwater and effluent behavior of these streams would result in an increase in TDS of river discharge. A scenario akin to the former situation has been discussed above in the context of mass balance approximation. Very high TDS in 138 Krishni (2661 mg/l) may be related to pollution from industrial and household effluents and wastes, but in the upstream sample of Hindon it may be, at least partially, due to the effluent nature of the stream in the limited stretch. This is particularly so as downstream samples of Hindon are dilute and groundwater (sample 41) in the immediate vicinity of Hindon upstream sampling point has a TDS of 1330 to 1542 mg/l. 7.10 SUMMARY Groundwater in the study area has 'Low to Medium (Class I)* electrical conductivity and bulk of the samples are moderately hard to hard. In general, TDS values are high, averaging >1000 mg/l for both the sets of samples, post-monsoon value being higher. There is a clear tendency of redistribution of TDS and higher values concentrate in the northern half of the area in pre-monsoon period of 2006. Based on these rather anomalously high TDS values (as high as > 1800 mg/l and averaging > 1000 mg/l) it may be safely inferred that the role of water - rock interaction as a mechanism for the acquisition of solutes by groundwater is not substantial and processes, such as. anthropogenic activities, dissolution of some naturally occurring materials or mixing with deep-seated ascending brines may have a more dominant role to play. A general decrease in average TDS during a period of about 6 months from November, 2005 to June, 2006, when there were hardly any rains, could imply dilution of groundwater due to interaction with surface water bodies or shallow groundwater. A mass balance equation suggests such dilution to the extent of 25%. A combination of factors, such as, precipitation/dissolution, irrigation, cation exchange, and influences of climatic and various anthropogenic factors, rather than dilution alone, explain the observed chemical changes in a more lucid way. Based on conventional Piper's Trilinear Plot, the samples show an overwhelming abundance of alkalis over Ca and Mg. Presence of all the anions is indicated but HCO3 tends to dominate over SO4 and CI. On L-L Diagram, broadly speaking, three chemical types of groundwater arc identified. These are 'mi.Ked", 'mixed bicarbonate' and 'alkali bicarbonate' types. Chemical signatures of meteoric origin of groundwater are completely obliterated as a 139 result of the acquisition of solutes in varying but substantial concentrations through various natural and anthropogenic processes. The latter two types more or less merge in to one group in pre-monsoon period of 2006. As far as quality of water for drinking purposes is concerned, it is not ideal from the points of view of concentration of both major ions and trace metals. TDS are on higher side. Sulphate concentration, though within the maximum permissible limit, is on higher side, 13 post-monsoon and 9 pre-monsoon samples having values exceeding 250 mg/l. The high intake of SO4" may result in gastrointestinal irritation and respiratory problems to the human system. High Na values in drinking water are not advisable due to the known role of this element in hypertension, heart diseases and kidney-related problems. For the two sets of samples the average Na values are 186 and 208 mg/l, respectively. The highest Na values for the post- and pre-monsoon sea.sons are recorded at 382 and 398 mg/l, respectively and about 45% of the samples have Na concentration of > 200 mg/l. Sodium concentration in groundwater, therefore, is clearly at a perilous level from the point of view of human health. Calcium values measured in the two sets of samples (November, 2005 and June, 2006) give average values of 43 mg/l and 19 mg/l, respectively. All the 55 samples collected in 2006 have Ca values less than the prescribed lower limit where as 49 out of 55 samples collected in 2005 have recorded such values. The study area, therefore, is a clear case of calcium deficiency which may be conducive for diseases like osteoporosis and even rickets, the latter of course when Ca-deficiency is coupled with the deficiency of vitamin D, Chromium is carcinogenic when present in hexavalent state and 21 out of 22 samples have Cr concentration higher than the permissible limit according to BIS (1991). This is really very significant information that has come through this study and needs to be explored in greater details. The concentrahons of Al in all the 22 samples are above the maximum permissible limit of 0.2 mg/l (Table-7.4). As a matter of fact, 21 out of 22 samples analyzed have Al concentrations ten times or even higher than the maximum permissible limit. Although in general Al is not considered toxic but there had been suggestions thai when consumed in higher proportion Al may be conducive for 140 Alzheimer Disease (AD). Distribution of Al, its source and the chemical species it occurs in, are also some of the aspects that need to be taken up in future studies. The SAR value ranges from 0.80 to 11.08 with an average value of 4.93 in the samples collected during November 2005. With the exception of 7 samples (13%), the remaining samples fall in good to excellent class from the point of view of irrigation. During pre-monsoon 2006 period, the SAR values range from 1.68 to 16.39, average value being 6.24. Therefore the possibility of sodium hazard in the area is relatively high. About 20% samples have moderate to high salinity associated with moderate Na values. These samples are not ideal for agricultural activities. It is inferred based on RSC that 29% and 24% samples in post-monsoon 2005 and pre-monsoon 2006, respectively, are of good quality and suitable for irrigation. The remaining samples fall in doubtful to unsuitable quality in both the seasons. SAR and RSC estimates suggest that the area, in general, has tendency for depositing alkalis as NaHCOj. Na (€03)2, Na2S04 and KNO3. Seven samples collected from river discharges were analyzed to assess their quality and relationship with the groundwater regime, particularly in terms of any indications for interaction between surface water bodies and groundwater reservoirs. River Krishni and the upstream sample from river Hindon show conspicuous effect of pollution. The remaining 5 samples from are with TDS of < 500 mg/l. This implies that in influent part of their courses rivers would tend to dilute the groundwater and their effluent behavior would be reflected in higher TDS content in their discharge. CHAPTER - 8 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CHEMICAL ALTERATION OF GROUNDWATER 8.1 GENERAL Groundwater experiences various chemical processes or impacts during its migration from a recharge area to the sampling site or well. The chemical composition of a sample is summation of these processes and impacts which include: 1. Chemistry of the recharge water 2. Evaporation and transpiration 3. Interaction with gases within the unsaturated zone located between the land surface and the water table 4. Chemical reactions between water and solid material within the aquifer or unsaturated zone and 5. Mixing with other water including groundwater, surface water and water influenced by anthropogenic activities When we talk about the chemistry of the recharge water, it includes the sum effect of the chemical composition of the precipitation falling in the area, seepage from surface water bodies, such as, rivers, ponds, lakes, canals, and last but not the least, irrigation. The effect of evapotranspiration, though more conspicuous in arid zones, may be significant in areas such as the one under study which experiences two to three months long spells of temperature in excess of 40 °C. An impact of evaporation observed in many areas (Tedaldi and Loehr, 1992) is in the form of deposition of salts, such as, calcite, halite and sulphates and carbonates of Na. Deposition of these salts, naturally, lower the concentration levels of cations and anions involved in precipitates. One of the most important natural changes in groundwater chemistry occurs in the soil. Soils contain high concentrations of gases, particularly carbon dioxide, which 142 dissolves in the groundwater, creating a weak acid capable of dissolving many silicates minerals. The intake of major and minor cations by groundwater is primarily related to solid-water interaction (Bartarya, 1993; Subba Rao, 2001). The concentrations of the major ions in groundwater and the concentration of the other dissolved species are a function of the availability of the constituents to the system and the solubility of solids that may limit solution concentration (Deutch, 1997). That rocks the groundwater remains in contact with contribute chemical species through dissolution is discernible in the form of a direct relationship between the type of lithology and relative abundances of cations (Faure, 1998). For example, in carbonate rock terrain, groundwater is characterized by the abundance of Ca + Mg over Na + K, whereas this trend is reversed in areas with granitic lithology. In addition to water-rock interaction responsible for mineral dissolution and precipitation, cation exchange is another solid-liquid interaction process. Common aquifer minerals have a net negative electrical charge on their surfaces, which tend to attract positively charged ions, such as, Ca"^"^, ^4g'^'^, K"^ and Na"^ (www.varaphosvn.com). Clay minerals and some oxides are the important minerals participating in cation exchange. Calcium and Na ions are often involved in ion exchange, the former displacing the latter from the surface of clay minerals. Lastly, groundwater chemistry is greatly influenced due to the possible mixing of groundwater from different aquifers and surface water from natural water bodies, irrigation or water discharged as industrial effluents. Changes in chemical characteristics of groundwater in different aquifers over space and time often serve as an important technique in deciphering a geochemical model of the hydroiogical system (Chebotarev, 1955; Hem, 1959; Back and Hanshaw, 1965; Gibbs, 1970; Srinivasamoorthy, 2005; Srinivasamoorthy et al. 2008). 8.2 TEMPORAL VARIATION TRENDS OF MAJOR IONS Data on concentration levels of major ions in November, 2005 and June, 2006 are given in Tables-2.1 a and 2.1 b, which have been dealt with in greater details in this chapter. Data were also collected for the post-monsoon period of 2006 (November) and following pre-monsoon period of 2007 (.lune), which have been used in a general 143 way lor evaluating relatively long term variation trends (Appendix-Vil and Vlll). A summary of chemical trends over 4 collection seasons is presented in Table-8.1. Significant attributes and distribution characteristics of major cationic and anionic species are given below. Table-8.1: Range of concentration of major cations and anions in mg/l* Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon Major Cation 2005 2006 2006 2007 Na 43 to 382 58 to 260 61 to 398 25 to 315 K 4 to 264 5 to 145 0 to 102 3 to 144 Ca II to 149 10 to 58 3 to 48 5 to 50 Mg 2 to 128 24 to 139 8 to 141 11 to 106 Major Anion HCO3 247 to 845 208 to 1079 250 to 780 234 to 793 CI 11 to 227 14 to 291 1 to 369 9 to 236 SO4 8 to 457 50 to 342 43 to 394 23 to 339 NO3 - - - 1 to 78 *ln post-monsoon season of 2006, only 25 samples were collected. Fifty five samples each were collected in the other three collection seasons. Thus the total number of groundwater samples collected and analyzed is 190. • In post-monsoon seasons of 2005 and 2006, the concentration of Na ranges from 43 to 382 mg/l and 58 to 260 mg/l, respectively. In pre-monsoon seasons of years 2006 and 2007 the observed ranges are 61 to 398 mg/l and 25 to 315 mg/l, respectively (Figure-8.la). It needs to be noted that the highest values of 382 and 398 mg/l (Table-8.1) have been recorded in post-monsoon collection. This is rather anomalous as one would logically expect lower values during post-monsoon collections as a result of dilution caused by infiltrating recharge water. The tendency to concentrate high Na values in groundwater of the study area is such that 23 and 26 samples (about 50% of the samples) of November, 2005 and June, 2006, respectively, have concentration levels of > 200 mg/l. Contrary to the observation above of the highest Na values being recorded in post-monsoon seasons of 2005 and 2006, in general, average Na concentration tends to be higher in pre-monsoon 2006 compared to values in post-monsoon 2005 samples, the average values being 208 and 186 mg/l, respectively. This trend of higher Na values in pre-monsoon compared to those of the preceding 144 post-monsoon season is even more conspicuous tor the years 2006 and 2007 (Figure-8.1a). Potassium ranges from 4 to 264 mg/1 and 5 to 145 mg/l in post-monsoon samples whereas in two successive pre-monsoon seasons it ranges from 0 to 102 mg/1 and 3 to 144 mg/1, respectively. As a matter of fact, K values of > 30 mg/1 must be considered anomalously high as K is normally held in silicate mineral phases which are relatively resistant to weathering and water - rock interaction (www.wikipedia.com). As many as a dozen samples frohi the area have such high K values. Average K values for post- and pre-monsoon samples of 2005 and 2006 are, however, 23 and 16 mg/1, respectively. Relatively high K values have the maximum spread in pre-monsoon sample collection in 2007 and temporal attribute of its distribution is analogous to that ofNa(Figure-8.1b). Concentration of Ca ranges from II to 149 mg/1 and 10 to 58 mg/1 in post- monsoon samples and from 3 to 48 mg/1 and 5 to 50 mg/1 in pre-monsoon samples (Figure-8.1c). The maximum spread of relatively high Ca values is observed in post-monsoon 2005 samples averaging 43 mg/1. Concentration of Ca diminishes to an average value of 19 mg/1 in pre-monsoon period (June) of 2006. In the post-monsoon season of 2006, Ca values average at 23 mg/1 and the lowest values are recorded in June 2007 averaging around 15 mg/1. A conspicuous Ca-deficiency is a characteristic geochemical attribute of groundwater in the study area. Magnesium values range from 2 to 128 mg/1 and 24 to 139 mg/1 in post- monsoon periods and from 8 to 141 mg/1 and 11 to 106 mg/1 in pre-monsoon (Figure-8.1d). Average concentration levels during the four sample collection periods, however, remain more or less consistent varying between 46 and 51 mg/1. Distribution characteristics of Mg are, therefore, not analogous to those ofCa. Bicarbonate ranges from 247 to 845 mg/1 and 250 to 780 mg/1 in post- monsoon seasons of years 2005 and 2006, whereas in pre-monsoon seasons it ranges from 208 to 1079 mg/1 and 234 to 793 mg/1 (Figure-8.1e). Average values, however, remain relatively consistent at 500 to 560 mg/1. 145 (a) . 35 i 30 DMo»05 I 25 • JurvOe •S 20 I- DJu(v07 I 10 [IlDn.. n <100 m10O-200 200-300 >300 Sodiam Concsntnlion In mg/l (b) Dfto\^05 •^tjfvoe • fJOV^ D.l«v07 An <20 2040 40«) 60«) >80 Potnafum Conc«nlralion in mg/l (C) 40 , 35 I. 30 125 • l*w« * 20 • ,lur>06 I 15 al4o\^06 §10 Illj[fc D.lurvO? <10 10-20 20^ >30 Calcium Concsntration in mg/l (d) 30 I 25 oKkwOS a • Jtjn-06 f 20 •S 15 e OJun-07 1 10 I s <20 2D-« AMO eMO >80 Magneiium Concentration in mg/l Flgures-8.1a to 8.1d: Temporal variations of major ions (cations) • Chloride, in corresponding sampling periods, ranges fiom 11 to 227 mg/l and 14 to 291 mg/l and 1 to 369 mg/l and 9 to 236 mg/l (Figure- 8.if)- Fifteen to 146 20 samples of the three collections of 55 samples each have anomalous CI values of > 100 mg/1. The highest CI values of 291 and 369 mg/1 have been recorded in the two sets of the samples of 2006. Average values for the first two sets of samples (November, 2005 and June, 2006) are 85 and 71 mg/1, respectively. Post-monsoon 2006 and pre-monsoon 2007 collections are more akin to June 2006 values and no significant quantitative changes are observed in the distribution of Ci. The concentration of SO4 in corresponding seasons ranges from 8 to 457 mg/1 and 50 to 342 mg/1 and from 43 to 394 mg/1 and 23 to 339 mg/1, respectively (Figure-8.2g). Eighteen to 24% of the samples have SO4 concentration exceeding 250 mg/1. The two post-monsoon collections are characterized by anomalous and enigmatically high SO4 values of 394 to 457 mg/1 (Table-8.1). Average SO4 values, however, range between 170 and 193 mg/1. Concentration of NO3 in samples collected in June, 2007 ranges from 1 to 78 mg/1 (Figure-8.2h). (e) 45 435 i 30 • JurvOe •8 ^ e 20 DNovOe i 15 aJun-07 §10 r-mr^ MB - <300 300600 600-900 >900 Bicarimnate Concsntralion In mg/l • Nov05 • Jun-06 ONovOe aJurvO? JDJ ILCD. J <50 50-100 100-150 150-200 >200 CMoilde Concentration in mg/1 147 (g) 30 • Xrv06 DNcwOe D Jun-07 z 5 niL. <100 100-200 200-300 >300 Su^ate Concentration in mg/l (h) 45 •5. 35 i 30 £ 25 Is • Jun-O? 1 10 2 5 • C3 0 u _ • <20 2(M0 40*0 >60 NHrat* Concantration in mg^l Figures-8.1e to 8.1h: Temporal variations of major ions (anions) 8.3 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF AQUEOUS IONIC SPECIES A number of X - Y plots have been attempted in order to assess relative abundances of major cationic and anionic species present in jp"oundwater in the area of study. The purpose of these plots is to decipher geochemical signatures of various processes the groundwater has been through for the acquisition of its chemical species £uid understand mutual affinities of various cations and anions present. Major anions in groundwater, HCO3 and CI, have been plotted in Figure-8.2. The plot shows overwhelming abundance of HCO3, as indicated in the preceding chapter (Figures-7.2a, 7.2b, 7.3a and 7.3b), while dealing with the classification of groundwater. Bicarbonate is indicated to be far more abundant than CI in both post- and pre-monsoon seasons and except 3 samples i.e. 14, 24, and 48, collected in June 2006, all the samples plot above the equal concentration (1:1) line. The inference that may be drawn here is that chemical species involving HCO3, such as, bicarbonates of Ca, Mg, Na and K are likely to be far more abundant than chlorides of these cationic species. 148 Relative abundance of CI and SO4 is depicted in Figure-8.3. Twelve samples of November, 2005 collection (4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24, 48 and 54) and 13 samples of June, 2006 collection (1, 4, 14, 15, 21, 24, 29, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42 and 51) plot below the equal concentration (1:1) line suggesting relative dominance of CI. The remaining samples (>75%) have S04>CI. Obviously, the three samples having OHCO3 (Figure-8.2) are included in the two populations given above of OSO4 (Figure-8.3). The abundance of SO4 over CI, which too has anomalously high concentration in groundwater in the study area, is rather enigmatic. Samples characterized by high values of SO4 (22 samples out of 110 collected during the two seasons having concentration of >250 mg/l, the highest value being 457 mg/l) do not occur in specific zones and are also not temporally consistent. These samples fall on either sides of the EYC. close to and away from the surface drainage in different parts of the area. Moreover, during the two sampling seasons different samples have recorded anomalously high SO4 values (>250 mg/l). This tends to suggest that a complex interaction of natural factors, such as, climatic influence, direction of groundwater flow and influent/effluent behavior of rivers and anthropogenic impacts have been responsible for the observed distribution of SO4 and CI. As seen on Piper's diagram (Figures-7.2a and 7.2b) and L - L plots (Figures- 7.3a and 7.3b), alkalis are relatively more abundant than Ca + Mg among the major cations (Figure-8.4). June 2006 samples show marginally higher concentration of Na + K compared to that in post-monsoon samples of 2005. This is inferred by the fact that compared to 23 samples with Na values of >200 mg/l (highest value being 382 mg/l) in November 2005, there are 26 such samples in June 2006 with the highest value being 398 mg/l. There seems to be a relative temporal consistency in the distribution of high Na values. Out of the above two sets of 23 and 26 samples, 16 are common implying relative uniformity of processes responsible for acquisition of Na by groundwater in the period intervening monsoons of 2005 and 2006. There are some geographical attributes of the distribution of high Na values too as they tend to concentrate in the northeastern part of the area. Another noteworthy point emerging from this plot is that except for the 7 samples (3, 6, 8, 10, 31, 32 and 51), the remaining 88% of the samples, collected in 149 16 Nov 05 - June 06 Nov 2005 AAA June 2006 12 8 8 I 8 12 16 CI Figure- 8.2: Relationship between HCO3 and CI 12 Nov 05 - June 06 Nov 2005 A /. A June 2006 O CO 12 CI Figure- 8.3: Relationship between CI and SO4 150 Nov 05-June 06 20 Nov 2005 AAA June 2006 16 — .\ 12 + (0 z 8 12 16 20 Ca+Mg Figure- 8.4: Relationship betM'een alkalis and Ca + Mg June 2006 plot above equal concentration line. In comparison, 17 samples from the collection of November 2005 have relative abundance of Ca + Mg over alkalis. 8.4 SIGNATURES OF IONIC SPECIES IN GROUNDWATER As far as the geochemical characteristic of groundwater from the point of view anionic species is concerned, it is clearly a scenario of the abundance of HCO3, so much so that when plotted against the molar concentration of CI + SO 4 (Figure - 8.5), 73% of the samples plot above the 1:1 line implying preponderance of HCO3 over CI and SO4 in both the seasons. While HCO3 may logically prefer to complex with Ca and Mg as implied in the occurrence of Ca-Mg-HCOs type shallow groundwater in inland areas not significantly affected by anthropogenic influences (Karanth, 1987; Mouli et al. 2005), CI may prefer to complex with alkalis, particularly, Na. As far as SO4 species are concerned, they may, in all likelihood, be sulphates of Ca and Na. To start with the natural bonding affinity between Ca + Mg and HCO3 needs to be evaluated (Figure - 8.6). What emerges is that > 80% of the samples have excess 151 of HCO3 i.e. there is left over HCO3 after forming possible complexes with Ca and Mg available in the system. This, in turn, implies that HCO3 left after forming Ca and Mg species would be available for tying up with other cations, such as, Na and K. Less than 20% samples falling above the equivalent concentration line (Figure - 8.6) have left over Ca and Mg after the formation their bicarbonate species. This Ca and Mg, in all likelihood, may be incorporated in complexes, such as, sulphates and chlorides, the former probably being more abundant. Therefore, species like Na- HCO3 and Ca-Mg-S04, in addition to more common ones, such as, Ca-HC03 and Mg-HC03, may be present in the groundwater of the study area. With a view to assess bonding affinities of alkalis and CI, their equivalent concentrations have been plotted against one another (Figure-8.7). It is seen that all the samples plot above the equal concentration line. In general, pre-monsoon 2006 samples seem to show marginal enrichment of alkalis. As CI would normally prefer to be associated with alkalis, rather than Ca and Mg. it may be inferred that CI has been consumed in forming alkali chlorides. This implies that there would be no CI available after the formation of Na-CI and K-Cl complexes to get incorporated in compounds of Ca and Mg, as had been suggested earlier as a possibility. Significantly, HC03-enriched samples with HCO3 concentration of >5 meq/l (Figure - 8.2) give evidence of having relative abundance of alkalis (Figure - 8.7), which may be available for bonding with anions other than CI. Occurrence of Na- HCO3 as one of the dominant aqueous species is a distinct possibility. Relative abundance of SO4 in groundwater of the area necessitates evaluation of its afflnit) for alkalis (Figure - 8.8). Almost all the samples plot below the equal concentration line. In general, 2005 post-monsoon samples tend to plot closer to 1:1 line. Normally SO4 would prefer to be associated with Ca and alkalis. The area is characterized by relative deficiency of Ca as discussed earlier in a preceding section (Figure - 8.1c). If any Ca would be left after consumption in bicarbonate complex, it may be available for the formation of Ca-S04 ionic species. However, in view of the relative preponderance of both alkalis and SO4, there may be substantial presence of Na-S04 as an aqueous species. This implies that bulk of SO4 would be incorporated in alkali sulphates. 152 20 Nov 05 - June 06 Nov 2005 AAA June 2006 16 12 — O O I 8 -^ 0 — 8 12 16 20 CI+SO^ Figure- 8.5: Relative abundance of CI + SO4 and HCO3 Nov 05 - June 06 16 Nov 2005 AAA June 2006 12 1flj S o 0 —^ 8 12 16 HCO. Figure- 8.6: Bicarbonate Vs Ca + Mg plot 153 Nov 05 - June 06 20 — Nov 2005 AAA June 2006 16 12 - • • , • N" +m Z 4 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 CI Figure- 8.7:AlkaIis Vs CI plot 20 Nov 05 - June 06 Nov 2005 AAA June 2006 16 -i 12 , N" 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 Na+K Figure- 8.8: Relationship between alkalis and SO4 154 8.5 CHEMICAL ALTERATION OF METEORIC WATER The area under study manifests rather abnormal chemical signatures and acquisition of ionic species by groundwater seems to be controlled substantially by rather unregulated processes, which may only be those related to anthropogenic activities. This, apparently, is depicted by L-L diagrams on which samples tend to plot in cluster rather than in a ordered trend (Figures - 7.3a and 7.3b). It has already been mentioned in the previous chapter that the fact that groundwater is characterized by very high TDS values, averaging > 1000 mg/l, clearly indicates that water-rock interaction has a relatively insignificant role in the acquisition of chemical species. The result is that it is difficult to decipher the composition of unaltered meteoric water and chemistry of groundwater is so much loaded with the influence of surface and near-surface phenomenon that the effect of water-rock interaction is greatly obliterated. An attempt has been made to work out chemical composition of shallow groundwater (Table - 8.2) to evaluate relative influence of various processes through which groundwater has acquired its observed chemical characteristics. Chemical composition of rainwater has been worked out from a number of sources including internet. Data given on river Yamuna are average values of 3 samples analyzed (Figure - 7.5). The chemical composition of the hypothetical "'shallow groundwater" has been deduced from that of river Yamuna taking it to be relatively less contaminated representative of the local meteoric water and assuming CI and HCO3 to be constant. Sulphate value of 12 mg/l has been assigned to the shallow groundwater based on the lowest measured values of 8 and 15 mg/l (samples 15 and 37 of November. 2005). Concentration levels of cations have been calculated assuming the occurrence of ionic complexes Na-CI, Ca-SOa, Ca-HCO.-) and Mg-HCOi. Two samples, 8 and 31 of pre-monsoon 2006 collection need to be taken in to consideration while deciphering the role of different processes in chemical alteration of meteoric water. These samples (Table - 8.2) plot away from the main cluster on L - L diagram (Figure - 7.3b) and seem to have the closest affinity to the meteoric water. Data reported in Table - 8.2 have been plotted in L - L diagram (Figure - 8.9). Average rainwater (RW), shallow groundwater (SG) and sample 8 plot within the field of "meteoric water" with Ca-lV1g-HC03 signature. Samples 8 and SG show enrichment of alkalis and CI -f SO4 compared to RW. Sample 31 is enriched in 155 alkalis, CI and SO4 even further. Enrichment in ionic species in these 3 samples, compared to the chemistry of RW, may be attributed to liquid-solid phase contact. Sample from river Yamuna (RY) falls away from the main trend clearly depicting the influence of contaminations from surface sources. The shallow groundwater, composition of which has been conceived through permutation of the chemistry of river Yamuna, as discussed above, does not exist in the area. None of the 110 samples collected during the period from November, 2005 to June, 2006 has TDS value of < 566 mg/1 (the lowest TDS reported in sample 32 in June, 2006). The deduced shallow ground water in comparison has a TDS of 244 mg/l. When compared to the discharge from river Yamuna, the difference is in the concentrations of alkalis and SO4 and the simplest explanation for this observation is that none of the groundwater samples has remained unaffected from chemical degradation due to descent of surface pollutants (as seen in river Yamuna) to deeper levels. The argument given above is supported by the fact that CI, considered to be a conservative ion, not getting involved in chemical reactions, is present in concentration levels similar to that in shallow groundwater (Table - 8.2), in spite of having TDS values exceeding 800 mg/l (samples 7. 9, 17 and 18 of November, 2005 and 9, 13 and 33 of June, 2006). It needs to be pointed out here that a number of other samples have even lower CI values associated with high TDS. This, however, is due to the fact that the value of CI in the "hypothetical' shallow groundwater is not a measured one but assigned equal to that of the river Yamuna and there is every possibility that CI value in the river may be as low as 20 mg/l. The effect of liquid-solid phase interaction may now be assessed with the help of samples 8 and 31 of June, 2006 collection, which still preserve the chemical signatures of meteoric water, in spite of chemical alteration and contamination from surface sources. These two samples seem to contain same aqueous ionic species though their relative abundances are different. Ionic species in these samples calculated using standard techniques (Umar et al. 2006) are given in Table 8.3. Compared to the chemical composition of the shallow groundwater, there had been conspicuous addition of HCO3, SO4 and Na. Calcium and Mg have been added too but only in relatively small amounts. 156 Table-8.2: Chemistry of iinaltere d and altered meteoric water TDS/Ions Rainwater* River** Shallow^^ Sam pie "^ Sample* Average mg/I Yamuna Groundwater 8 31 Composition Groundwater TDS 93 429 244 648 649 1095 HCO3 45 130 130 364 325 525 CI 15 35 35 26 45 78 SO4 8 139 12 126 119 182 Na 9 76 23 61 88 197 K 0 9 0 0 0 20 Ca 13 26 26 26 35 31 Mg 3 13 13 45 37 49 Deduced from Karanth (1987), Bartarya (1993) and www.google.co.in Average of three samples analyzed Worked out from composition of river Yamuna assuming conservation of HCO3, CI, Ca, Mg Samples collected in June, 2006 Na+K 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 100 10 90 20 - 80 30 70 •RY 40 60 O O CO U 50 50 + X u 60 7<>*^^CZ>-GW 40 SG 70 RW. ^ 30 Ca-Mg-HCOjtYpe 80 - (Meteoric Water) 20 90 10 100 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 — Ca+Mg Figure-8.9: Chemical alteration of meteoric water - a conceptual approach (RW- rainwater, RY- river Yamuna, SG- shallow groundwater, GW- average groundwater and samples 8 and 31 collected in June, 2006 157 Table-8.3: Aqueous ionic species Ionic Species in mg/i Sample 8 Sample 31 Na-Cl 43 75 Mg - HCO3 274 225 Ca - HCO3 105 142 Na - HCO3 77 47 Na - SO4 71 141 Excess SO4" 78 23 Relative Abundance Mg-HC03>Ca-HC03> Mg-HC03>Ca-HC03= Na-HC03=Na-S04> Na-S04>Na-Cl> Na-Cl Na-HC03 Interestingly, in both tlie samples there is indication of the presence of surplus sulphate ion left after getting incorporated in complex with Na. Very high concentrations of Na and SO4 (Table - 8.2) and suggested occurrence of chloride, bicarbonate and sulphate complexes of Na (Table - 8.3) rule out a quantitatively significant role of liquid - solid phase interaction in imparting the observed chemical characteristics to these samples. There is no way a SO4 value of about 120 mg/1 be acquired through water-rock interaction in a inland basin, such as, Ganga Plain, with bed rock lying below 1000 m and geology of the area precluding the occurrence of sulphates or sulphides in the alluvial cover and underlying Delhi Quartzite in any noteworthy amount. The only way some sulphate could have entered due to a natural process is through decomposition of organic matter (with 0.1% S). Other sources of SO4 may be fertilizers or other anthropogenic impacts related to industries in the area. Sodium values of 61 to 88 mg/l are too high for a normal groundwater system and probably a small fraction of these could have been acquired through water-rock interaction and cation exchange. As samples were collected in the month of June when ambient temperature is above 40 ^C, evaporation might have played some role too. This, however, would affect all the ions and enrichment would be directly proportional to the fraction evaporated. Another possibility of Na addition, and also that of HCO3, could be dissolution of Na-rich encrustations (reh) from the surface and its descent to groundwater levels by infiltrating water. Bulk of the HCO3, may, however, be assumed to have been acquired in the soil zone due to dissolution of CO2 and its transformation to HCO3 as a result of dissociation of H:C03. Dissolution of calcium carbonate nodules reported in the area froin within clay beds could also 158 have contributed HCO3 to groundwater. Sodium, in addition to sources mentioned above, could also iiave been added to the system through various other anthropogenic activities. Ideally, Ca and Mg might have been contributed through dissolution of carbonate lenses and nodules. Some Mg could have been added as a consequence of cation exchange in smectite-rich zones within clay beds (Tedaldi and Loehr, 1992). All these aspects and some of the enigmas of the chemical characteristics of groundwater in the study area have been discussed in a later section. 8.6 DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF TRACE METALS Trace elements in groundwater are defined as chemical elements dissolved in water in minute quantities, always or almost always, in concentration less than one mg/l (USGS, 1993). Although present in small proportion but their desirable intake is necessary for proper functioning of human body. The excess or deficiency both may pose health hazard. The occurrence and mobility of trace metals in groundwater environments is strongly influenced by adsorption process which occurs because of the presence of clay minerals, organic matters and the other crystalline and amorphous substances that make up the porous media. Geochemical processes can control and perhaps limit contaminant concentrations in the various phases, thereby, directly impacting exposure levels. The equilibrium/disequilibrium exists between a dissolved metal in groundwater and adsorption site may also enhance metal mobility (Deutsch, 1997). Some metals present in trace concentration are important for physiological functions of living tissue and regulate many biochemical processes. The same metals, however, at increased concentration may have severe toxicological effects on human being (Chapman, 1992). At the same time the deficiency of trace elements are also harmful. Domestic and industrial waste-water and agricultural activities are also responsible for the higher concentration of heavy metals in the groundwater. Trace metals can be toxic and even lethal to humans even at relatively low concentrations because of their tendency to accumulate in the body (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998). A set of 14 trace metals comprising Al, Cr. Mn, Fe, Ni. Co, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd, B, Ag and Pb were analysed in 22 groundwater samples collected from the study 159 area (Table - 8.4). A brief description on concentration levels and chemical behavior of these 14 trace metals is given below: Aluminium (Al): The maximum permissible limit of Al in the absence of aluminum source is 0.2 mg/l (BIS, 1991). Aluminum values in the study area range from 0.371 to 3.712 mg/l, and all the samples have values higher than the permissible limit. The spatial distribution indicates more than one source, which may be geogenic, as well as those related to industries. Chromium (Cr): Hexavalent chromium (Cr ^'^) is highly toxic and in higher concentration is found to be carcinogenic (Goel, 1997; Sawyer and Mccarty, 1978). Trivalent chromium rarely occurs in drinking water. Chromium concentrations in the study area range from 0.013 to 0.115 mg/l. Twenty one out of 22 samples analyzed record Cr concentration higher than the permissible limit of 0.05 mg/l. Manganese (Mn): Manganese is one of the more abundant metals in the earth's crust and usually occurs together with Fe. Dissolved Mn concentrations in ground and surface waters, poor in oxygen, can reach several mg/l. On exposure to oxygen, Mn can form insoluble oxides that may result in undesirable deposits and color problems in distribution systems (APHA, 1992). The concentration of Mn ranges from 0.024 to 0.56 mg/l as against the maximum permissible BIS limit of 0.5 mg/l. Two out of 22 samples, at Rataul and Daha, have Mn concentration of 0.51 to 0.56 mg/l, which is marginally higher than the permissible limit. Iron (Fe): Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the earth's crust. It is found in natural fresh waters at levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/l (WHO, 1994). Iron may also be present in drinking water as a result of the use of iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during water distribution. Iron is an essential element in human nutrition. Iron in potable water should not exceed the range 0.3-1.0 mg/l (BIS, 1991).Iron concentration in the study area ranges between 0.362 and 1.573 mg/l. Four out of 22 samples have Fe concentration of > 1.0 mg/l, the highest value being for the sample from Kutana. Nickel (Ni): The high concentration of Ni as both soluble and sparingly soluble compounds, are now considered to be a human carcinogen when related to pulmonary exposure (WHO, 1993). The recommended limit of nickel in the drinking water standard is 0.1 to 0.3 mg/l (BIS, 1991). The concentration of Ni in the study area from 0.018 to 0.127 mg/l is, therefore, within the safe limit. 160 Cobalt (Co): Cobalt is required for the manufacture of red blood cells and in preventing anemia. An excessively high intake of cobalt may damage the heart muscles, and may cause an over-production of red blood cells or damage to the thyroid gland (www. anyvitamins.com).The concentration of cobalt in the study area ranges from 0.0006 to 0.017 mg/1. Copper (Cu): Copper is an essential element in human metabolism and is considered to be non-toxic up to 0.05 mg/I concentration level (BIS, 1991; WHO, 1993). Acute gastric irritation may be observed in some individuals at concentrations in drinking water above 3 mg/I. The greatest danger of toxicity arises when children consume acidic beverages that have been in contact with copper container. In the study area Cu values range between 0.11 to 0.428 mg/1 and thus all samples are well with in the maximum permissible limit of 1.5 mg/1. Zinc (Zn): Zinc is an essential and beneficial element in human as well as plant metabolism (Pawar and Nikhumbh. 1999). Zinc deficiency leads to dwarfism, dermatitis and loss in taste. Zinc concentration in groundwater samples ranges between 0.11 to 3.995 mg/1 which is within the maximum permissible limit. Some samples with values of 1.5 mg/1 may be considered to have safe but some what higher values. Arsenic (As): Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the earth's crust and it is toxic in nature. It is introduced into groundwater from industrial effluents, atmospheric deposition, geological sources and also from pesticides which are widely used in the study area. The excess arsenic damages the skin, causes circulatory system problems and results in an increased risk of cancer. The desirable level of As is 0.05 mg/I according to BIS, 1991. The concentration of As in the study area ranges from 0.001 to 0.006 mg/I. which is well with in the permissible limit. Selenium (Se): Selenium is a non-metallic element that has some geochemical properties similar to sulfur. Selenium can exist in the +VI, +IV and -II oxidation states and occurs in appreciable concentration in shale, coal, uranium ores and in some soil (Lewis, 1976; Freeze & Cherry, 1979). The differences between sufficiency and toxicity of Se for organism is rather narrow (Alloway, 1990; Bujdos et al. 2004). Selenium concentration in the study area ranges from 0.003 to 0.018 mg/I. The desirable limit of 0.01 mg/I is exceeded in 6 samples. 161 Cadmium (Cd): Cadmium is one of the most toxic metals to man and animal (Friberg et al. 1974). it is released to the environment in wastewater and its sources may be fertilizers and local air pollution. Cadmium is known to cause kidney diseases (Itokawa et al. 1974; Colucci et al. 1975), "itai-itai" disease (Kobayashi, 1970) and is probably carcinogenic too. It effects cardio vascular system and may cause gastro intestinal upset, renal dysfunction, hypertension, growth inhibition, genetic defects and testicular tumors. Cadmium in the study area ranges between 0.000 to 0.005 mg/1, well below the permissible limit of 0.01 mg/l. Boron (B): Boron compounds are released into water from industrial and domestic effluents. It is usually present in drinking water in concentrations of mg/l, but some higher levels have been found as a result of naturally occurring boron (WHO, 1984). Long-term exposure of humans to boron compounds leads to mild gastrointestinal irritation. In the study area its concentration ranges from 0.083 to 0.549 mg/l as against the maximum permissible value of 5 mg/l. Silver (Ag): Concentration of silver in groundwater from the study area varies between 0.0003 to 0.111 mg/l. Twenty one out of 22 samples have values less than the maximum permissible limit of 0.05 mg/l. Silver is derived from agricultural (impurity in fertilizers) and lithological sources (Pawar and Nikumbh, 1999). Lead (Pb): Lead concentration in natural waters increases mainly through anthropogenic activities (Goel, 1997). The possible sources of lead in groundwater are mainly diesel fuel consumed extensively in farm lands, discarded batteries, paint and leaded gasoline. Lead is also used in .some pesticides such as lead arsenate. Lead concentration in drinking water is permissible up to 0.05 mg/l according to BIS (1991). The Pb concentration in the study area ranges between 0.023 and 0.412 mg/l and out of 22 samples analyzed, 7 have recorded concentration levels higher than the permissible. Interestingly, high Pb concentrations are associated with high values of Fe, Al, Cr and Se. 162 in CO CJ> CO ro CM CM ro CD 00 CD CD en lO n CM CO ro CM CM CM CO 00 ro ro 0 O) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q. 0 0 0 0 0 CO 0 0 CO CM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CJ) ^— CD CO CO CM X— \— CD CM CM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 s 0 0 0 0 q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 < 0 0 0 0 0 q q 0 d d d d d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d CD d 0 d d d d CO CO CO CO 00 m CM in rg CM CD CD CM •<1- CM CO CD CD 00 O) CM X— m 0 O) CO X— r- CQ T— CO CM CM CO 0 CM Cvl CM eg CO in in d T— 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CO CO O) CO CO CM CM X— CO Cvl in CO CD eg m _j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _l 0 0 0 0 •D 0 0 Q 0 0 0 q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 q 0 00 0 q 0 q q q q q CD q d d d d d d d d d d d d d d * d d d d d 00 00 CD CD CM CO CD 00 CO ro O) T^— in CD in m 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CO 10 T— T— CO Cvl ro Cvl CM eg 1— X— (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 < 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CD in CD 00 CD • CN ^3• CM CD CM CD CD O) CO 00 ro ro O) 00 CO CO CO 3 cn CD 0 CO CD m CO Cvl CM ro ro CO CD CD CNJ 0 0 0 0 r- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 M3 CD 1^ •<1- CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CvJ ro CM T— rg ro eg eg eg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^— 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d T— CO ro CJ) 1^ CO CO CD CD T- ro in CO CO 00 C\l 00 in CO CD -si- 00 m m in co CD in 00 0 0 0 0 0 q 0 0 0 z CM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CO CM in CD in 00 ro CM CvJ CO eg CM in CM CM CM CM 0 CD 0 CD CM in CO CD q in CO in CO in u. CM 5 CD m in CD m CD m ro co CO 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T— 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 CM CO CM in CM CD in in C\l CD O) CO CD ro m O) CO CD cn n 0 00 in in in CD CO m eg CD CD CO CD ro 0 t— m 0 0 0 0 ro 0 10 0 0 0 0 d eg ro 0 0 0 0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 in CM CM CM CM CO 00 in ro ro rg ro CD O) eg in ro CD CD CO CD CD CO CO O) 0 CO m in in in CD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CO 00 1^ ID O) CO CM CM CO 00 eg in CO CO CM CO 0 CO CD CD O) ID O) CD eg n < 0 m 0 ro 0 0 q 0 CD 04 m T— T— q CO eg _o rsi CM CM CM CM CM CM ro CM rg CM eg d eg 0 (D 3 'S CL n I- -o c c ro k. D c ro ro "5 0 164 The effect of water-rock interaction seems to be very limited and is depicted by the composition of the shallow groundwater (Table - 8.2). This simulated composition has Ca-HC03>Mg-HC03>Na-Cl>Ca-S04, calculated concentrations of these aqueous ionic species being 87, 82, 58 and 17 mg/l, respectively, totaling to a TDS content of 244 mg/1. Bicarbonate could have been derived from CO2 trapped in the soil zone, sulphate from decaying organic matter, Na and CI as a result of dissolution in groundwater while descending through the soil zone and Ca and Mg through reactions involving clays and/or carbonates. The possibilities that some Na and HCO3 could have been contributed to the system through dissolution of saline encrustations or part of Na may have been extracted from clays and part of HCO3 could have come tlirough dissolution of existing carbonate also exist. These chemical signatures of water-rock interaction, however, are overwhelmingly masked by profound and rather illegible signatures of various other processes and an attempt is being put in here to decipher these at least in qualitative terms. The area is characterized by rather anomalous concentration of major ions, particularly, SO4, CI, Na and K. In successive sampling periods in 2005 and 2006, concentration of SO4 exceeds 250 mg/l in 13 and 9 samples, respectively. Chloride values of > 100 mg/l are recorded in 18 and 15 samples. Alkalis are particularly abundant and Na values of > 200 mg/l are measured in 23 and 26 samples in the corresponding periods of November, 2005 and June, 2006. Potassium values of >30 mg/l occur in 12 and 10 samples, respectively. Such a high concentration of ions, particularly SO4 and K (highest recorded values for these ions being 457 mg/l and 264 mg/l, respectively), clearly indicates that the bulk of these ions could have been acquired as a result of anthropogenic influences, rather than through some natural process. If these ions could enter the groundwater system as a result of anthropogenic activities, so could others. As far as the source of Na is concerned (http://w\vw.cnv.gov.be.ca/vvsd/plan protect sustain/uroundwater/library/ground_fact_sh eets/pdfs/na (020715)_fin2.pdf), it may be water-rock interaction, cation exchange, salt deposits, saline water aquifers, salt water intrusion, infiltration of surface water contaminated by .salt, irrigation and precipitation leaching through Na-rich soil and 165 sewage and industrial effluents. Water-rock interaction, as has been mentioned above, may only have a trivial role in the acquisition of Na values averaging around 200 mg/1 in samples collected during November, 2005 and June, 2006. Cation exchange may, however, have a role. Common minerals in clay rich zones have a negative electrical charge on their surfaces which tend to attract positively charged ions or cations, such as, Ca, Mg, Na and K. Clay minerals, for example, illite and smectite, Fe and Mn oxides and organic matter rich zones particularly participate in cation exchange. Ion exchange is common when groundwater flows through a clay bearing aquifer. Calcium and Na are often involved in ion exchange (Tedaldi and Loehr, 1992; Tyagi, 2003), the former replacing the latter. This exchange results in Ca depletion and proportionate enricliment of Na in groundwater. There is no way to infer that such a cation exchange has occurred in the study area affecting the concentration levels of Na and Ca. Its role, nevertheless, can not be ruled out. Moreover, in pre-monsoon period of 2006 when the average Na concentration shows an increase, a trend of depleting Ca values may suggest the possibility of cation exchange. Sources of Na. such as, dissolution of salt deposits, intrusion of salt water and infiltration of surface water charged with NaCl may be ruled out in view of the geological and geographical attributes of the area. Other sources, for example, mixing from saline aquifer, irrigation and precipitation leaching Na rich soil and mixing of sewage and industrial effluents, may have some but not specific role in determining Na concentration in the groundwater. Saline aquifers are known from Haryana (Thussu, 2006), an adjoining state. However, as the groundwater in the study area have relative dominance of HCO3 over CI + SO4 (Figure - 8.5) and overwhelming molar abundance of Na over CI (Figure - 8.7), such a possibility may be ruled out. Leaching of Na-rich soils by infiltrating water is a convenient and possible process explaining not only addition of Na but also HCO3. Saline soils cover about 21 km" or 1.6% of the area and their water soluble components, such as, Na2C03, NaCl and Na2S04, may have been taken in solution and transported to sampled groundwater levels. The possibility of addition of Na from sewage and industrial wastes is always there and this aspect would be dealt with in a later section. 166 Potassium is clearly of anthropogenic origin as no natural process could explain K concentration as high as 90 to 264 mg/1 in samples 22, 25 and 45. Potassium, when held in silicate structure is metastable to stable and is not taken in solution easily. Its addition to some extent may occur due to cation exchange but definitely not to such level. Such high K values (22 out of 110 samples with concentration of >30mg/l), averaging 16 (June, 2006) to 23 mg/1 (November, 2005). may have manifested as a result of partial or deficient fixation in the soil (Tedaldi and Loehr, 1992; Tyagi, 2003) of potassium applied in the form of fertilizers. Calcium and Mg may have been derived through dissolution of carbonate nodules which have been reported in clay beds and lenses occurring within the pile of sands defining the granular zone in the study area. Solubility of carbonates is inversely proportional to temperature at constant partial pressure of CO2 (https://info.ngwa.org/GWOL/pdf/910155202.PDF). This implies that during peak summer when temperature is > 40 ''C in the study area solubility of carbonates would decrease and they would tend to precipitate. Their dissolution, by the same token, is expected during the winter months. This mechanism also provides a possibility to explain higher Ca values (averaging 43 mg/1) in November. 2005 and lower values (averaging 19 mg/1) in June, 2006. Magnesium, however, does not show a trend parallel to that of Ca and its concentration level remains more or less consistent. It may be speculated that Mg has its source in clay minerals rather than carbonates. Calcium, in addition, may also be added as sulphate fertilizer often applied in the area. Calcium may also come from industries, particularly sugar factories. These aspects are discussed in greater details in the chapter dealing with the synthesis of the data. High SO4 and CI values may be related to anthropogenic acfivities without any ambiguity. Sodium along with CI may be added to the system through sewage pollution and leachate percolation (Umar and Ahmed, 2007). In addition CI may find its way to the groundwater system from industrial effluents. Sulphate is a major component of waste and effluents generated by sugar factories (Umar et al. 2006) and in a number of sugarcane growing areas has been observed as a major component of groundwater 167 (Chen et al. 2007). Excess SO4 has been reported in some samples which as an evidence in favor of the argument that the bulk of this anion is of anthropogenic origin. As far as the most abundant anion HCO3 is concerned, its source lies in dissolution of carbonate minerals and infiltration of water in zone rich in reh soil. However, the fact that some samples give evidence of excess HCO3 suggests its discharge in industrial effluents too which eventually finds it way to shallow groundwater levels. 8.8 SUMMARY One of the major objectives of the present study is to evaluate and determine the possible factors controlling variations in groundwater chemistry and to decipher changes that have occurred in the groundwater quality during the period of the study. Unique chemical characteristics of groundwater are the outcome of several natural and anthropogenic processes. The groundwater regime is affected profoundly and the meteoric signatures have been completely obliterated. There is anomalously high concentration of major ions, particularly, Na. K, SO4 and CI. A relative deficiency of Ca is observed, which is particularly severe in the pre-monsoon period. Sodium values exceeding 200 mg/1 are measured in 49 out of 110 samples collected in November, 2005 and June, 2006. There is temporal consistency in the distribution of high Na values, particularly, in the northeastern part of the area. Sodium, due to its relative preponderance, seems to be involved in all the possible ionic species, such as, Na-Cl, Na-HCOj and Na-SO^. Sodium could have been derived from a number of sources, natural as well as anthropogenic. Natural processes are water-rock interaction and cation exchange in clay zones. Bulk of it, however, may have been acquired as a result of infiltration of water in zones of reh soil and from sewage and industrial waste. Sugar and related industries may also be a contributor. Potassium values of >30 mg/l occur in 22 samples. Distribution of Na and K does not seem to be interrelated implying different sources for the two alkali metals. The 168 source of this ion is mainly fertilizers. Some anomalously high values suggest partial fixation of K in soils and its retention in the groundwater. Distribution of Ca and Mg does not exhibit any analogy spatially or temporally, implying their mutual independence as far as their respective sources are concerned. An enigma is rather drastic depletion in concentration of Ca in the pre-monsoon season of 2006. This may partly be explained as a result of precipitation of carbonate and resultant decrease in Ca and HCO3 concentration levels in groundwater. Cation exchange seems to be in operation too and this is corroborated by an observed marginal enrichment in Na values. Magnesium has not been involved in precipitation of carbonates and therefore its concentration levels, acquired probably through interaction in clay rich zones, have been retained. Both Ca and Mg may be in\olved in respective bicarbonate complexes. Calcium, in addition, also gets incorporated in Ca-S04. There is no evidence of the occurrence ionic species, such as, Ca-Cl and Mg-Cl in any of the samples. Bicarbonate does not exhibit drastic change in its concentration levels in the two periods of sampling. Most of it has been acquired through water-solid phase interaction and dissolution of CO2 in percolating groundwater. Its distribution, both spatially and temporally, however, is prone to changes on account of precipitation and dissolution of carbonates in different seasons. As surplus HCO3 is recorded in some samples, it may be speculated that source for this anion also lies in some anthropogenic activities. Relative preponderance of HCO3 permits not only the formation of bicarbonate complexes of Ca and Mg but also of Na. Even K may be involved in such complexes particularly in samples characterized by its abundance. In successive sampling periods in 2005 and 2006, concentration of SO4 exceeds 250 mg/l in a total number of 22 samples. Values as high as 342 to 457 mg/l in 4 samples and >30% samples with concentration exceeding 200 mg/l clearly indicate that addition of this anion to the groundwater system is through anthropogenic activities and the biggest culprit in this regard is the booming sugar industry in the area. Chloride values, though averaging 85 and 71 mg/l in the two successive sampling seasons, are at times as high as 227 to 369 mg/l. Values not more than 20 to 30 mg/l may 169 be attributed to natural causes and therefore the bulk of the chloride content of groundwater too is related to human activities. Faulty sewage disposal and industrial effluents are probably the main source of this ion. As far as ionic species are concerned, Ca gets involved in bicarbonate and sulphate species, the fonner being far more abundant. Magnesium forms only bicarbonate complex and there is no evidence of its involvement in chloride and sulphate species. Relative paucity of Ca and consumption of all CI in the formation of alkali chloride complexes precludes formation of Ca-Cl complex. Alkalis, in addition to chloride species are also incorporated in bicarbonate and sulphate complexes. This is particularly true for Na, Thus the species likely to occur in the groundwater in the study area are Ca- HCO3, MgTlCOj, Ca-SO^, Na-Cl, Na-SO^. Na-HCOs, K-CI and some other possible species of K depending on its abundance. Both Na and K may also occur as nitrates though in insignificant amount. Trace elements study in 22 samples shows anomalously high concentration levels for Al and Cr. Relatively high values are also reported for Mn, Fe and Pb. High values of Pb and Fe are often associated and this may be because of the pipes used in wells. High Cr values may be related to industrial influence. The cause of high Al values in all the 22 samples is not known at this stage. 170 CHAPTER - 9 DATA CORRELATION AND SYNTHESIS 9.1 SIGNIFICANT OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY The present study has helped in arriving at some significant findings which are being Hsted out here succinctly to tie them up together with a view to present a consolidated picture. • The study area is a part of the vast central Ganga Plain, delimited in the east and the west by Hindon and Yamuna rivers, respectively. Climatic changes are influencing the area and based on the analysis of the data for more than 100 years, there is a trend of declining rainfall, particularly, during the last two decades. These two decades have been marked by large scale demography related changes and massive industrialization. More than 96% of the water requirements are now taken care of through groundwater resource. • Depth to bed rock is about 1000 m and the shallowest of the three major aquifer zones extends to a depth of 126 m bgl. The other two aquifers occur in the depth range of 130 to 260 m and 275 to 425 m, respectively. A fourth aquifer in the depth range of 625 to 675 m is reported in the area east of river Hindon. • The top clay layer overlying the first aquifer is persistent but there are clay lenses at deeper level too. Calcareous nodules occur within clay beds. Depth to water table varies from 8.62 m to 29.16 m, deeper water table conditions being in the northeastern part. • Water level fluctuations in 2006 were on the positive side but in 2007 about 73% of the wells showed negative fluctuation due to poor monsoonal recharge and higher rate of withdrawal due to enhanced requirement for irrigation puirposes. • The Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC) acts as a water divide and the flow of groundwater is, in general, towards east on its left bank and towards west on the right bank. On the eastern bank, westerly flow is also inferred on the right bank of river Hindon defining a major trough which is obviously related to over-exploitation. Seepages from canal are manifested as groundwater mounds. !7! Total recharge in the area of study in a period of 3 years averages 497 MCM and the average total discharge for the same period is 700 MCM, leaving a deficit balance of 203 MCM. The average stage of groundwater development is 141%. The steady state simulation employing MODFLOW 4.1 gives the following values. The direct recharge to the Hindon-Yamuna watershed is 358.0 MCM. The total annual draft through pumping is 393.8 MCM. The sub-surface horizontal inflows and outflows are 3.9 and 20.7 MCM, respectively. Inflows from rivers Hindon and Yamuna are 30.0 and 24.2 MCM, where as base flows are 1.7 and 0.43 MCM, respectively. Based on rather anomalously high TDS values (as high as > 1800 mg/1 and averaging > 1000 mg/1) it may be safely inferred that the role of water - rock interaction as a mechanism for the acquisition of solutes by groundwater is not substantial and processes, such as, anthropogenic activities, dissolution of some naturally occurring materials or mixing with deep-seated ascending brines may have a more dominant role to play. There is neither temporal nor spatial consistency in the distribution of TDS values. Chemical signatures of meteoric origin of groundwater are completely obliterated as a result of the acquisition of solutes in varying but substantial concentrations through various natural and anthropogenic processes. There are clear indications that Na, K, CI and SO4 have been added to the system mainly through anthropogenic activities. Sodium could have been derived as a result of water-rock interaction and cation exchange but the bulk of it, however, may have been acquired as a result of infiltration of water in zones of reh soil and from sewage and industrial waste. Sugar and related industries may also be a contributor. Potassium comes mainly from fertilizers and its anomalously high values suggest partial fixation of K in soils and its retention in the groundwater. There is drastic depletion in concentration of Ca in the pre-monsoon season of 2006. This may be explained as a result of precipitation of carbonate and cation exchange. 172 • Bicarbonate has been acquired through water-solid phase interaction and dissolution of CO2 in percolating groundwater. Its distribution, both spatially and temporally, is prone to changes due to precipitation and dissolution of carbonates in different seasons. As surplus HCO3 is recorded in some samples, it may be speculated that source for this anion also lies in some anthropogenic activities. • Sulphate values as high as 342 to 457 mg/1 in 4 samples and >30% samples with concentration exceeding 200 mg/1 clearly indicate that addition of this anion to the groundwater system is through anthropogenic activities and the biggest culprit in this regard is the booming sugar industry in the area. • Chloride values, though averaging 85 and 71 mg/1 in the two successive sampling seasons, are at times as high as 227 to 369 mg/1 and bulk of it is related to human activities. • Ionic species likely to occur in the groundwater in the study area are Ca-HCOs, Mg- HCO3, Ca-S04, Na-Cl, Na-S04, Na-HCOj and K-Cl. • Anomalously high concentration levels for Al and Cr and relatively high values are reported for Mn, Fe and Pb. High values of Pb and Fe are often associated and this may be because of the pipes used in wells. High Cr values may be related to industrial influence. The cause of high Al values in all the 22 samples is not known at this stage. 9.2 ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL SPECIES While trying to collate the data and work out various factors controlling the distribution of chemical constituents, it was considered imperative to have an idea about the zone-wise distribution of major cations and anions. The area has been divided in to northeastern, northwestern, central and southern zones for comparing the broad chemical similarities and dissimilarities (Table-9.1). Significant features that emerge from this comparison are: • Compared to other zones there is relative preponderance of Na in the Northeastern Zone, which at least partially may be the manifestation of cation exchange, as has 173 been discussed earlier. There is consistency in the distribution of pre- and post- monsoon values of HCO3 and SO4. Table - 9.1: Zone-wise distribution of major cations and anions (mg/l)* ZONES Northeastern Northwestern Central Zone Southern Zone Zone Zone WELLS 9 to 12,41 to 36 to 38 and 51 1 to 8, 13 to 18, 19 to 29, 33 and 50 and 55 to 54 (7 wells) 30 to 32, 34, 35 (13 wells) (15 wells) 39 and 40 (20 wells) Na 2005 mg/l 217 138 205 145 Na 2006 mg/l 262 171 180 211 Ca 2005 mg/l 43 20 47 48 Ca 2006 mg/l 14 22 22 22 HCO3 2005 mg/l 562 460 621 500 HCO3 2006 mg/l 576 443 457 507 SO4 2005 mg/l 176 124 225 156 SO4 2006 mg/l 198 232 160 166 * 2005 and 2006 refer to posl-monsoon and pre-nionsoon samples collected in November, 2005 and June, 2006, respectively The Northwestern Zone is characterized by the lowest Ca values in the post- monsoon period of 2005. In fact, when data from individual wells are compared, Ca shows consistency and its average values for the two sets of samples vary between 20 and 22 mg/l. As a possible corollary to this. HCO3 values are also lowest and consistent in this zone. As a matter of fact when compared to the Northeastern Zone, all the major ions in the Nortliwestern Zone, with the exception of Ca and SO4 in pre-monsoon season, show depletion. This is probably a chemical evidence that seepage from EYC is more to the west than east. Another significant feature of this zone is that it shows large scale addition of SO4 from an average value of 124 mg/l (November, 2005) to an average value of 232 mg/l (June, 2006). This addition of SO4 and also of Ca may be related to anthropogenic factors, mainly related to sugar industry, as discussed in a later section. 74 • The Central Zone shows most conspicuous changes. Contrary to the trend in other zones. Na in pre-monsoon collection of 2006 is lower than that in the post- monsoon, 2005. The same is true for HCO3 and SO4. Both the anions show considerable decrease in their concentration level in pre-monsoon period. The observed chemical trends in this zone may possibly be a consequence of clusters of industries at Baghpat in the west and Sarai in the east. • Substantial enrichment is noticed in the concentration of Na in the pre-monsoon period (June, 2006) in the Southern Zone. On the other hand, post-monsoon Na value is relatively low, similar to the corresponding value in the Northwestern Zone. Calcium values are relatively high. 9.3 INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Two geological features, the upper most persistent clay layer and occurrences of calcareous nodules in clay beds and lenses within the granular zone, particularly in the southern part, are significant from the point of view of observed chemical attributes of groundwater. Clay layer is thickest in the northern part of the area and in the northeastern part it attains the maximum recorded thickness of 51 m (Figures-4.2 and 4.3). The presence of clay horizon may be considered conducive from the point of view of cation exchange, which is capable of modifying concentration levels of Na and Ca as indicated in the equation (Tedaldi and Loehr, 1992) given below: Ca"^^ + 2 Na (exchanged) = 2 Na^ + Ca (exchanged) The equilibrium for the equation given above is far to the right as long as there is appreciable Na"" on the exchange sites of clay. The removal of Ca"^"^ from solution by exchange with Na"" may cause the groundwater to become or remain under-saturated with respect to other calcium facies, such as, calcite and gypsum. It is not the clay itself but its constituents, such as, clay minerals (illite, smectite) and its associated humus content and oxides of iron which control the Cation Exchanging Capacity (CEC) on clay mineral surfaces. The northeastern part of the area, therefore, by 75 virtue of having a considerable thickness of clay, presents an ideal scenario for cation exchange involving Na and Ca, resulting in relative enrichment of the former and depletion of the latter, in the groundwater. There is some indication for this process in the Northeastern Zone (Table-9.1) in the pre-monsoon period. The highest recorded Na value of 262 mg/1 seems to have some contribution from groundwater-clay interaction. It needs to be pointed out here that the contribution of this process in acquisition of Na ions by groundwater may, however, be relatively insignificant. Such suggested trends of Na enrichment in groundwater as a result of cation exchange are not uniform and consistent. This entire process and resultant distribution of Na and Ca in soil and groundwater depends on the equation [(Caeiay) / (NacaOJ - K [(Ca'") / (Na");] where (Caday) and (Nadav) refer to "activities" of Ca and Na, respectively, on clay exchange sites and (Ca"") and (Na") refer to the "activities" of Ca and Na in groundwater in equilibrium with clay surface. Equilibrium constant of the equation is denoted by K. Values of (Caday) and (Naday) for various clay minerals are available from standard tables dealing with thermodynamic properties of minerals and values of (Ca"") and (Na") are related to their respective concentrations in groundwater. If Na" is high, (Ca"") / (Na")^ would have a lower value and the value of K would be large. Under such circumstance, Na" may replace Ca"" and/or Mg"" on clay exchange sites in order to maintain equality on the two sides of equation given above. Role of thick clay bed in being conducive for cation exchange in the northeastern part of the area can not be ruled out but what seems to be a distinct possibility is that trends may be changing with time, seasons and site-specific parameters (Tyagi, 2003). Irrigation with sodic water would lead to an increase in Exchangeable Sodium Percent (ESP) in soils. In the early stages of sodic irrigation in regions characterized by relative abundance of clay fraction in the soil, such as, the Northeastern Zone in the study area, large amounts of divalent cations are released from the exchange sites. In the monsoonal season the irrigation is by far more dilute rainwater. This regularly alternating irrigation 76 by sodic water in the dry season and rainwater during monsoon may induce cycles of precipitation and dissolution of salts and resultant increase and decrease in concentration levels of Na and Ca. The presence of kankar, carbonate concretions and nodules is the other factor which may have a bearing on Ca and HCO^ values in the groundwater. Solubility of CaCO} is inversely proportional to temperature at constant partial pressure of CO2 (Boughton and McCoy, 2006), This implies that at high temperature solubility of CaCOj will decrease and carbonate will precipitate under near surface conditions causing depletion in Ca and HCO3 values in the groundwater. Winter months, with temperature going down to 5 to 10 V, may. by virtue of this relationship, be conducive for dissolution of pre-existing carbonates thus increasing the concentration levels of Ca and HCO3 values in the groundwater. Carbonate deposition and dissolution is an omnipresent phenomenon in groundwater systems (Boughton and McCoy. 2006) and observed large variations in Ca values in November, 2005 as compared to those of June, 2006 in the study area may at least partially be related to this alternating dissolution and precipitation of carbonates during successive winter and summer seasons, respectively. 9.4 HYDROLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND WATER CHEMISTRY Various hydrological parameters that may influence the distribution of major cations and anions are permeability related factors, contribution from surface water bodies, groundwater (low regime and the possibility of mixing of groundwater from different aquifers. Permeability attains signillcance when acquisition of solutes is mainly as a result of water-rock interaction, particularly, in terrains dominated by hard rock. This definitely is not the case here. The isopermeability map (FMgure-4.15) shows that the major portion of the area is covered by the zone having permeability values of 30-40 m/day. Higher and lower permeability is inferred in small patches particularly in the vicinity of river courses. Chemical data do not suggest any obvious relationship with this inferred permeability map. ,11 Based on zonal distribution of iiydraulic conductivity (Figure-6.1), it appears that broadly speaking the northern part, comprising Baghpat, Baraut, Rithaura and area to the northeast of Krishni river, has relatively lower permeability with hydraulic conductivity values averaging 26 m/day. The rest of the area has an average K value of 35 m/day suggesting better permeability conditions. There is some vague relationship between this permeability zonation and distribution of chemical species. The northern, less permeable, part is characterized by relative abundance of Na and its marked enrichment during pre-monsoon period. Presence of thick and persistent clay beds in this part, which have facilitated cation exchange resulting in release of Na to groundwater from clay exchange sites, may have rendered lower overall permeability to this part. There is difference in temporal distribution of SO4 too in the northern and southern parts but its relationship with permeability related conditions is not clear. Surface water - groundwater interaction is capable of resuUing in discernible changes in groundwater chemistry due to influent behavior of rivers and seepage from canals. Khan (2004) reported the two rivers to be effluent in nature. The flow direction as inferred now is relatively altered and this seems to be the consequence of overexploitation of the resource and impact of Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC) which acts as the groundwater divide in the area. River Yamuna, as inferred in the present study, is influent in nature in the northern part and beyond that it is effluent throughout the study area. River Hindon is influent throughout its course, except the patch in its lower reaches in the southern part where it evidently becomes effluent. Except for a sample from river Krishni and the upstream sample from river Hindon, which are clearly affected by surface pollution, the remaining 3 samples from Yamuna and 2 samples from Hindon, have TDS values of < 500 mg/1. Groundwater has TDS generally exceeding 800 mg/l, averaging 1000 mg/1 (Chapter-7). Therefore an influent drainage would result in diluting the groundwater. The effluent behavior of surface drainage, on the other hand, would result in an increase in TDS of river discharge which may only be picked up through very clo.sely spaced sampling of streams. 178 There is some chemical evidence for the effluent nature of river Yamuna in the bulk of its run in the study area, except in the northern part. Taking CI as the conservative ion. the fraction of groundwater input in the discharge of Yamuna between sites 2Y and 3Y (Table - 2.3. Figure - 2.2) may be calculated. Taking CI at site 2Y at 31 mg/1 and average CI value of 78 mg/l in the groundwater (Table-8.2). it may be calculated that for an observed CI value of 40 mg/1 at site 3Y, groundwater and Yamuna water (2Y) have to be mixed in a ratio of 0.20:0.80. In other words, between sites 2Y and 3Y, north and south of Baghpat, respectively, the Yamuna discharge has about 20% contribution from groundwater outflows. The chemical evidence using CI or TDS is, however, not unequivocal for Yamuna being effluent, as inferred from hydrological characteristics (Chapter-4). Very high TDS value of 2661 mg/1 in the only sample collected from river Krishni (Table-2.3) may be related to pollution from industrial and household effluents and wastes, but in the upstream sample of Mindon it may be, at least partially, due to the effluent nature of the stream in the limited stretch. This speculation is supported by the occurrence of groundwater (sample 41) with TDS of 1330 to 1542 mg/1, in the immediate vicinity of Hindon sampling point. Downstream samples of Hindon are dilute and this does not seem to be consistent with Hindon being influent except in the extreme southern part as downstream samples would have retained high TDS recorded in its upper reaches. A possibility that may be considered is that at sampling site IH (Barnawa), where TDS value is 1035 mg/i, the collected sample has pollutants/contaminants in colloidal state. Downstream samples. 2H and 3H, seem to be relatively far more dilute due to settling down of colloidal matter in the stream bed. That EYC acts as an N-S groundwater divide may now be evaluated in the light of chemical data. Chemical differences across the canal in Northeastern and Northwestern Zones (Table-9.r) have already been discussed above. It seems the same relationship continues along the length of the canal. When broad chemical characteristics of 17 wells located to the west of EYC are compared with tho.se of the 38 wells located to the east of it. this is clearly seen that western wells haxe lower TDS. Na and CI values. This is akin to the situation discussed abo\e and implies that bulk of about 150 IMCM (per annum) ,79 water entering the groundwater system as canal seepage, affects the western part more than the eastern. This water with a TDS of about 400 mg/1 would cause dilution. Mass balance equation shows that this mixing of groundwater and canal seepage has to be in a ratio of 0.95:0.05. In situations when inland groundwater occurrences are characterized by very high TDS values a possibility that needs to be considered is of the occurrence of deep aquifers of saline water and their mixing with shallow groundwater. Such saline water bodies are reported from parts of Mathura and Agra districts of Uttar Pradesh in the Yamuna Plain and Gurgaon, Sohna and some other districts of Haryana (Central Ground Water Board Website). Indications of the existence of a saline groundwater body are also reported from the adjoining area of Ganganagar in district Meerut, 54 km east of Baghpat, across river Hindon. The groundwater encountered in the deepest exploratory well drilled by CGWB in an aquifer in the depth range of 625 to 675 m has Na and CI values of 1150 and 1980 mg/1, respectively (Khan, 2004). Sodium and CI concentrations are almost in equimolar proportion implying the existence of Na-C! as the major ionic species. This saline water body may be extending to the area of study, however, its contribution to the shallow groundw'ater may be ruled out in the light of chemical evidence of relative paucity of Na-Cl as a major ionic species. 9.5 CLOSED BOX APPROXIMATION OF CHEMICAL CHANGES An attempt may be made to evaluate the effect of recharge and discharge on the chemistry of groundwater in the area. Average recharge and draft values for the years 2005, 2006 and 2007 (Chapter-5) may be taken and a closed box model may be developed to get a broad view of resultant signatures on the chemistry of groundwater. The average recharge for the period of study is 497 MCM. It has three components, monsoon and non-monsoonal precipitation, input through irrigation and canal seepage; in a ratio of 0.35:0.35:0.30, respectively. Assigning TDS values of 93, 1095 and 429 mg/1 and CI values of 15, 78 and 35 mg/1 to the three components (Table-8.2), respectively, and assuming 20% concentration of TDS and CI on account of evaporation of the water 180 being used for irrigation, it may be calculated that the cumulative recharge to the groundwater system would have TDS value of 610 mg/1 and CI value of 50 mg/1. A closed box may now be conceived assuming it to have 10,000 MCM of groundwater with CI and TDS values of 78 and 1095 mg/1. Chemical effects of recharge at the rate 497 MCM per annum and discharge at the rate of 700 MCM per annum may now be simulated. It is seen that he effect of recharge and discharge at the given rates would be progressive dilution of groundwater and depletion in the quantity of groundwater in the box. For example, at the end of 5"' year the box has 8985 MCM (depleted by 1015 MCM) groundwater with CI and TDS values of 72 and 985 mg/1, respectively. In other words, groundwater is depleted in TDS by 110 mg/1. The implication of this model is that recharge tends to ameliorate the concentration levels of solutes in the groundwater but additions of chemical species through uncontrolled anthropogenic processes keep on deteriorating the quality. As the things stand now the box becomes an open box or a closed box which keeps on changing its initial chemical parameters. 9.6 INFILTRATION THROUGH SALINE SOIL Saline soil constitutes about 21 km of the study area of more than 1345 km". It consists of white encrustations which are more or less superficial and consist predominantly of Na2C03. Anomalously high Na values in groundwater suggest that these saline soils may also be one of the sources of Na as well as HCO3. These saline encrustations may be dissolved in rainwater or irrigation water and then carried downward in solution to become part of the groundwater in the area. Taking a very conservative estimate of only I mm thick layer of saline patches being available for dissolution, it may be calculated that the mass of Na2C03 dissolved would be 47,000 tons. For this calculation specific gravity value has been taken at 2.25 g/cm , which is for monohydrated sodium carbonate. Taking the governing equation, as given below and molar quantities of other reactants in proportion of 47.000 tons of Na2C03, it may be calculated that 20400 tons of Na and 54080 tons of bicarbonate ions would be released to the groundwater. 2 Na2C03 + 2 H2O + 2 CO2 = 4 Na' + 4 HCO3" Dissolution of saline encrustations would be most effective during the monsoon season therefore its effect on shallow groundwater chemistry is likely to be witnessed late in the post-monsoon period. Saline patches are likely to reappear as a result of capillary action during peak summer months. The possibility that Na enrichment observed in pre-monsoon 2006 samples is, at least partially, on account of dissolution of saline soil can not be ruled out. This process may also account for addition of CI and SO.t to the groundwater as saline soils, in addition to Na2C03, also have Na2S04 and NaCI in traces. 9.7 INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS The source of K, which in a number of samples has concentration levels of 30 to 264 mg/1, is in all likelihood in NPK fertilizers used particularly before the sowing season of wheat and to some extent during the early stage of sugarcane cultivation. According to the information available from the District Statistical Report, the amount of N, P and K used in fertilizers during the year 2007 was 276 x 10', 79 x 10' and 13 x 10^ kg, respectively. As the area under cultivation is about 1100 km or 11 xlO^ hectares, it may be calculated that per hectare application of K is only about 12 kg, which is not much and under normal circumstances is likely to get fixed and held by soils in the area. Anomalous values of K. particularly, in samples 22 (264 mg/1) and 25 (203 mg/1) collected in November. 2005 suggest lack of their fixation. It has been suggested by Simonis (1981) that the highest K - fixation occurs in soils with higher clay content. By increasing the clay content from <10% lo >20% the amount of K that could be fixed increases about three fold. May be it is a coincidence that samples 22 and 25 are from the southern part of the area collected from close to the eastern bank of EYC. The southern part has a 32 to 35 m thickness of clay only (Figures-4.2 ^nd 4.6). That these high values of K are related to lack oi' fixation is also suggested by the fact that these two samples give K values of 102 and 4 mg/1 in the pre-monsoon period of 2006 implying partial and 182 complete fixation, respectively. The example of these two samples (samples 22 and 25) probably gives an idea about the upper limit of the time involved in the transport of chemical signatures. 9.8 ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY Possible impacts of fertilizer application and irrigation have been discussed above. These non-point source human activities seem to influence the chemistry of shallow groundwater in a limited but discernible way. The role of point-source impacts, for example, land fills, underground septic/sewage disposa,! pits, sewage lines and effluents from various industries (Figure-9.1) has, evidently, a much larger role in determining the chemical quality of shallow groundwater. Landfills and garbage dumps may be responsible for generating CO2 as a result of the decomposition of organic matter, which may find its way to the groundwater level in solution with infiltrating water. Samples of such groundwater may be characterized by excess HCO3, over and above that consumed with various ionic species. Such waste and refuse dumps occur in urban areas and by the side of river discharges. This is suggested by the occurrence of samples with high HCO3 content (5, 6, 12 and 17 of post-monsoon 2005) in the vicinity of townships of Baraut and Sarai and at river banks (samples 21, 22, 41 and 49 of pre-monsoon 2006). As discussed in a later section, HCO3 may also be contributed from industrial sources, particularly, sugar and textile units. Another significant point-source anthropogenic pollution is through septic/sewage disposal pits and leakages from sewage lines. It is very well established now that under such a scenario Na, CI and NO3 may be directly added to groundwater. It is difficult to segregate the effect of this possible source of pollution on Na and CI concentrations which are already anomalously high. Nitrate values of > 50 mg/1 in some samples may as well be related to application of fertilizers rather than contamination by sewage discharges. 183 LEGEND •}• Soap ^ Khadi cloth A Handloom cloth D Yarn • Cotton 0 Gur "K Sugar Medicine m Shoes V Iron goods • Antimony Figure-9.1: Industries in the study area The role of the most significant of point-sources of pollution, i.e. industrial effluents may now be evaluated. The study area is considerably industrialized owing to its proximity to big markets and consumption centers at Delhi, Meerut, Muzzaffarnagar and parts of Haryana state. Major industrial centers are at Ramala, Malakpur, Baraut, Sarai, Baghpat, Chaprauli and Khekra. which have soap, textile, sugar, gur, medicines, shoes, iron goods and antimony industries (Figure-9.1). Textile-related industries consist of Khadi, handloom, yarn and cotton cloth manufacturing units. Ramala sugar factory 184 and medicines, gur and iron goods industries at Baraut are located in the nortlieastern part of the area. Malakpur sugar factory and ctton and gur industries at Chaprauh are located in the northwestern part. In the central part, soap, khadi yarn and gur units are located at Sarai on the eastern side of EYC. whereas located on its western side are sugar, gur, khadi and leather industries. In the southern part, the industrial center at Khekra has gur, handloom and antimony industries (Figure-9.1). To evaluate the effects of above mentioned industries on the chemistry of groundwater, it is important to understand succinctly the chemical constituents of the wastes and effluents generated by these industries. 9.8.1 Soap Manufacturing l^he soap manufacturing unit employs the process of saponification of fats and oils. Fats and oils are heated with alkalis as a result of which soap is formed and water is released. Both NaOH and KOH are used, the former for hard soaps and the latter for soft soaps (liquid soaps and shaving creams). The water generated as a result of heating of triglyceride or fatty acids with alkalis is charged with Na and/or K and is discharged as an effluent (www.wikipedia.com). Soap manufacturing units are centered around Sarai. Samples 3, 4, 5 and 6 are from the area around and the highest Na value of 382 mg/1 in the post-monsoon season 2005 is recorded in one of these samples. It is difficult to say that this anomalous Na concentration may be related to soap industry because lower values are recorded in these samples in pre-monsoon 2006 period. The possibility of periodic discharge of efllucnts may. however, be not ruled out. May be that the effluents are discharged during the monsoon period for better dissipation and they show their effect on groundwater chemistry in post-monsoon period. The observation that K values are relatively low, however, is consistent with the fact that only hard soaps are manufactured in the area. 9.8.2 Textiles Related Industries Textiles industry has been condemned as being one of the world's worst offenders in terms of pollution of both surface water bodies and groundwater. It require as many as 185 2000 chemicals, both organic and inorganic, to act as dyes in different stages and as transfer agents (www.wikipedia.com). Most well known pollutant from Textile industry is CI which has its application for bleaching. Formaldehyde (HCHO), an organic compound, is another major component of discharge from this industry, which on decomposition could give rise to HCO3 through the process involving dissolution of CO2 released during its decomposition (www.oecotextiles.com). Release of Ca (a constituent of bleaching compounds), Mg (component of dyes and transfer agent) and CI (bleach) to surface and groundwater bodies have been related to textile industry by Geetha et al. (2008). With this background, it may be speculated that Ca, Mg, CI and HCO3, may have been derived partially from khadi, handllom and cotton cloth and yam industries located at Chaprauii, Baghpat and Khekra on the western and Sarai on the eastern side of EYC. Chloride is a necessary component of textile-related chemicals. Moreover, it is likely to remain in solution, once entered, by virtue of its conservative chemical characters. It may therefore be used to trace the effect of textile industries on groundwater chemistry. There is clear indication of relative abundance of CI in the vicinity of Sarai which has khadi and yarn industries. Four samples (3. 4, 5 and 6) from this area have high CI values averaging 130 to 140 mg/l in both pre-and post monsoon samples, the highest value of 207 mg/l reported from Sarai itself Baghpat, with khadi manufacturing unit, records 220 mg/l CI in November, 2005. There is a mutual contradiction in distribution of CI values at Sarai and Baghpat though. While the former records a lower value of 68 mg/l in November, 2005, the value in June, 2006 swells to 207 mg/l; the reverse is true for the latter, which records the high value in November, 2005 (post-monsoon period). The reason for this anomaly is not well understood and may probably have to do with hydrological parameters and/or differences in chemicals used in khadi and yarn units. That CI values at Sarai and Baghpat are related to Khadi and yarn industries is also suggested by the fact that relatively low CI values are recorded at Khekra, where raw (unfinished and not chemically dyed and treated) handloom cloth is woven. It may be speculated, therefore, that textile industries have contributed CI and may be some HCO3 and Mg too. Magnesium is being mentioned here as it has relatively 186 high and more or less consistent values in the study area and its entry in to groundwater systems has been recorded in some other areas of textile industries (Geetha et al. 2008). 9.8.3. Sugar and Gur Industries More than 50% of the total land available for agricultural purposes is under sugarcane cultivation and consequently sugar factories and gur manufacturing units constitute the most thriving industrial activity in the area. Major sugar industries are located at Ramala, east of EYC in the northeastern part and Malkapur and Baghpat, west of EYC. There are numerous gur making units in the area of which the major ones are centered around Chaprauli, Baraut, Sarai and Khekra (Figure-9.1). That SO4 is of anthropogenic origin is clearly indicated by its abnormally high average values of 175 to 188 mg/1 (the highest values being 457 and 394 mg/1, respectively, in the two sampling seasons). Such high values could neither be expected as a result of water-rock interaction nor oxidation of sulphides. Dissolution of some sulphate mineral is ruled out in the light of available geological and subsurface information. Under such a situation it is logical to infer that the bulk of SO4 is of anthropogenic origin and as seen in the later section it's most potential source is sugar and gur industry. Sulphur is used in elemental or compound form in sugar industries (Umar et al. 2006), which on oxidation gives rise to SO4. More or less the same process with some variations is employed in the sugar industry. Sugarcane juice is heated with CO2 and milk of lime [Ca (0H)2] to boiling point. Carbon dioxide travels through the juice and forms CaCOs which collects non-sugar debris consisting of fats, gums and waxes from the juice and segregates these from the juice. Another effect of mixing [Ca (0H)2] is that the pH is adjusted at about 7 to prevent the formation of glucose and fructose. In the next stage SO2 generated from S or some of its compounds is bubbled through the juice before evaporation so as to bleach color fonning impurities to nearly colorless. Further refining needs mixing of phosphoric acid (H1PO4) and [Ca (0H)2] to form calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate further entraps some impurities and then floats to top to be separated. It is very relevant to note here that some producers add sodium hydrogen sulphate during the final stage of boiling. This releases SO2 in to the juice and lightens the color of the 187 final product (www.wikipedia.com). In most of the gur manufacturing units this process is in vogue to make the gur look very light colored. Thus the separates from the juice during various stages of the evaporation of juice consist of sulphates of Na and Ca, phosphate of Ca and some CaCOa and [Ca (0H)2]. These separates, floats and slag, as per the requirements of Pollution Control Authorities, are required to be treated for their harmful contents in Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) and then discharged. Contrary to this the practice in vogue is that all the discarded material from sugar industry is disposed off in the open field taking it to have manure value. Agriculture return water and infiltrating rainwater carries water soluble components from this disposed off waste to groundwater causing addition of Na, Ca, P, SO4 and CO3/HCO3. Data available on a sugar mill's untreated effluents in Bhadravathi Taluk in the state of Karnataka (Shivappa et al. 2007) gives an idea about the potential of these discharges for polluting groundwater resources. The effluents have, on an average, a TDS value of 2516 mg/1. Calcium, Mg and Na values are 364. 151 and 254 mg/1, respectively, and SO4 concentration averages at 540 mg/1. In the light of the discussion above, there is hardly any doubt that the bulk of SO4 in groundwater in the stud) area has its origin in sugar and gur industries. Sodium also is derived from this industry, mainly from gur manufacturing units, which use Na-H- SO4 for getting rid of impurities from the juice and making the finished product look light colored. Baraut, where many gur and raw sugar making units are clustered, has Na and SO4 contents of 398 and 394 mg/1, respectively, as recorded in June, 2006. High values of these ions are also recorded at Baghpat and Sarai. At Mawai Kalan (sample 5), just east of Sarai, Na and SO4 contents of 382 and 305 mg/1, respectively, in November, 2005. This is not only an indication of Na and SO4 added to the system from gur manufacturing units but also of transport of chemical signatures in the direction of groundwater movement. There is an anomaly and that is in respect of distribution of Ca. In the light of the discussion above, sugar industry should have contributed Ca to groundwater. However, it does not appear to be so and the groundwater in the area is, in general, Ca-deficient. Distribution of Ca in the area is some what enigmatic. For example, sample 41 at 188 Barnawa has Ca value of 101 mg/1 in November, 2005, which declines to 6 mg/I in June, 2006. It seems that two factors have fecilitated the dissipation of Na more than Ca. First, the prevalent use of Na hydrogen sulphate in sugar technology in the area than calcium compounds and its use in gur units have resulted in the observed pattern. Secondly, relative dispersion of Na and Ca may depend on relative solubility of their compounds present in factory wastes. The effects of sugar and gur industries on groundv/ater chemistry are more pronounced in pre-monsoon samples than those of the post-monsoon period. This is because sugarcane crushing season starts in October and November and the peak of the industry is in the months of January and February. The effects are transmitted to groundwater in three to six months time. 9.8.4 Miscellaneous Industries Medicines, iron goods, shoes and some antimony-based industries are also based in the area, the first two being at Baraut on the left bank of EYC. Not much information is available on the kinds of medicines made and chemicals used at Baraut. Iron goods industry here is practically confined to the manufacturing of wheel rims for automobiles. The groundwater collected from Baraut (sample 12) has some peculiarities, such as, very high TDS value of > 1300 to >1800 mg/1 and the highest values for Na and SO4 of 398 and 394 mg/1, respectively in the samples collected in June, 2006. Concentration of CI and Mg is also abnormally high for the same lot of samples at 318 and 88 mg/1, respectively. Sodium and SO4 may be speculated to be related partially to pharmaceuticals due to common use of Na and S in medicines (www.wikipedia.com). Chloride and Mg may have derived from iron goods manufacturing, the former being part of the acid (HCl) cleaning of metals (removing oxide coats), and the latter involved in making alloy and chemical treatment. On the other hand, abundance of both Mg and CI in nearly equimolar proportions suggests use of MgCl2 in some of the industries in the area. Chemical signature of the abundance of Na and SO4 in Baraut sample extends eastward to samples 11, 10 and 9 and this is consistent with the inferred easterly flow of groundwater. 189 Leather treatment and shoe manufacturing units normally use NaCl and dilute H2SO4 for various processes from treatment of raw leather to its finishing (District Statistical Report of Unnao, 2003). Chloride values as high as 213 to 805 mg/1 and very high SO4 values are reported in the leather-belt of Kanpur and Unnao districts of Uttar Pradesh (http://cgwb.gov.in/nr/hydro/dist30.pdf). High CI and SO4 values at Baghpat may therefore suggest some influence of the local leather industry. District Statistical Report records the existence of stibnite-based industry at Khekra details of which are not available. Whatever may be the case, stibnite (SbaSi) may yield SO4 ions on oxidation. 9.9 TRACE METALS Leather works and dying units are known to contribute Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr and Mn. Textiles industry, similarly, may contribute Cu, Pb, Cr and As. The area is characterized by the presence of Cr and Al in quantities far above the permissible limits of these metals in groundwater. Chromium may be getting in to the system from textile-related industries in the area. As far as Al is concerned, its source is rather enigmatic. 9.10 EXTENT OF VERTICAL INFLUENCE OF POLLUTION It has been established unequivocally that groundwater in the top aquifer is severely affected by deterioration of the chemical quality and this is mainly the consequence of anthropogenic influences rather than natural processes. The aspect that needs to be looked in to is that how far these effects of quality degradation on account of pollution have been transported vertically to the underlying aquifers. This study has remained more or less confined to the first aquifer which extends to 126 m bgl. The data, however, are available on the quality of groundwater in deeper aquifers encountered in exploratory wells drilled by Central Ground Water Board (Khan, 2004). Available data is reproduced in Table-9.2. Average chemical composition of the shallow groundwater (aquifer I) and that of wells tapping the shallow aquifer at Daha (location 44) and Barnawa (location 41) is also given. Deeper exploratory wells drilled at 190 these two locations have encountered aquifers II (130 to 260 m) and III (275 to 425 m), respectively. Groundwater in aquifers II and III is of pristine quality and it is very encouraging to note that aquifer II has not yet been affected by the deterioration in the chemical quality as witnessed in the top aquifer. This is in spite of the fact that the northeastern part of the area, where Daha is located, is relatively more polluted because of the contribution from the highly polluted river Krishni and the sugar factory at Ramala. Thus, the influence of pollution does not seem to have descended to the underlying aquifer at least in the northeastern part of the area. Difference in the chemistry of shallow groundwater at Daha is so very distinct from that of the aquifer II (Table-9.2) that it practically demonstrates the extent to which pollution has affected aquifer I. Chemistry of aquifers II and 111 demonstrates acquisition of solutes through water-rock interaction. In comparison, chemistry of samples 44 and 41 from Daha and Barnawa, respectively, shows the influence of pollution superimposed over the chemical signatures imparted by water-rock interaction. Table-- 9.2: Chemical Data on Deeper Aquifers Major Average Average Aquifer II Average Aquifer III Aquifer Ions Shallow Daha Daha Barnawa Barnawa IV (mg/1) Aquifer* Sample (Near 44)^ Sample (Near 41)^ Ganga- 44* 41* nagar HCO3 523 450 183 700 256 189 CI 78 85 18 140 21 1980 SO4 182 130 50 170 38 8 Na 197 210 83 320 120 1150 K 20 8 1 22 1 44 Ca 31 17 4 55 8 16 Mg 49 42 11 34 5 19 * Average value for post- and pre-monsoon collections in 2005 and 2006 ^ Khan (2004) Aquifer IV (625 to 675 m) has been intersected outside the study area just east of river Hindoo. It has preponderance of Na-CI, which together account for >3000 mg/1 of the total dissolved solids. There is clear evidence of the occurrence of a saline water body 191 in the area. It is not clear at this stage whether the saHne water body itself has been intersected or the groundwater encountered is a mixture of two deep groundwater bodies of contrasting chemical compositions, one being dilute like that in aquifer III and the other being a brine like liquid. In the latter scenario the saline water may be more like brine which has been encountered at Mubarakpur and Nuh in Haryana and is used for salt extraction (official website of CGWB). It is also not clear whether aquifer IV extends westwards in the study area or not and there is no evidence for either of the two situations. Logically, in view of similar geological and hydrological conditions, aquifer IV should underlie the area of study. 9.11 POSSIBLE TIME SCALE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES It needs to be understood as to how much time is involved in getting the chemical changes registered. There are two ways this problem could be addressed to. One way is by monitoring the chemical changes and the other by estimating the velocity of the movement of groundwater. If changes imparted by pollution related factors are taken in to consideration, which are of prime importance from the point of view of solute acquisition in the study area, they would depend on two parameters, depth to water table and vertical permeability. First the pollution effects are to be transmitted to the groundwater level then transported laterally in prevailing groundwater movement direction. Chemical evidence for time involved in pollution-related changes getting registered are there but these are confusing and often in mutual contradiction. As a matter of fact, it is to be expected so as pollution is a uncontrolled process difficult to be quantified. Some speculations based on the chemical data are; • Sample 25 records K value of 203 mg/1 in November, 2005. As fertilizer is applied in October prior to sowing of wheat an implication may be that within a period of a month the effects could be registered on groundwater chemistry. • The same sample records a K value of 4 mg/1 six months later. This may point to the upper time limit of fixation of K. 192 • The peak of the sugarcane industry is in the months of January and February. The pollution effects caused by it are transmitted to groundwater in three to six months time to get registered in pre-monsoon samples. • Baraut, where many gur and raw sugar making units are clustered, has Na and SO4 contents of 398 and 394 mg/1, respectively, as recorded in June, 2006. High values of these ions are also recorded at Baghpat and Sarai. • Using CI values for post-monsoon 2005 and pre-monsoon 2006 samples, such as, 3, 5, 12, 25, 40 and 41, it may be estimated that in the 6 months period nearly total flushing takes place in some parts of the area and one composition gives way to the other. An attempt is made here to estimate the velocity of groundwater movement in the area using Darcy's law. For the average gradient of the area of .00162 m/m, porosity values of 0.30 and 0.35 and hydraulic conductivity values of 20 and 25 nrVday. the velocity of the lateral movement of groundwater comes to 9.2 to 11.6 m/day or about 10 m/day. This implies that groundwater would cover a distance of 1 km in 3 to 4 months time. This gives an approximate idea about the time involved in lateral transport of pollution and is more or less of the same order as speculated from chemical data. 9.12 CONCEPTUAL MODEL A conceptual model of the study area is presented in Figure-9.2. It shows the four aquifers that have been encountered. The system between rivers Yamuna and Hindon receives a recharge of 350 MCM per annum. This recharge consists of contributions from dissolution of saline soils, fertilizers and \arious pollutants and contaminants. There are evidence that soap, textile-related, sugar, gur and other industries contribute Na, Ca, CI, HCO3 and SO4 to the groundwater. 193 Soap - Na Textiles - CI. HCO3, Mg Solution of Industrial Gur-Na, SO4 saline soils and Waste andl^ Sugar-Na,S04 effects of garbage H/lisc. - Na, CI, SO4 fertilizer dumps and trace metals Hindon River TDS-1095mg/l Na - 197mg/) CI - 78 mg/l SO -182 mg/l IDS - 350 mg/l Na- 83 mg/l Cl- 18 mg/l SO4 - 50 mg/l TDS -450 mg/l Na- 120 mg/l 01- 21 mg/l so - 38 mg/l Speculated Extension of Aquifer IV A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Weathered and Transition Zone. . A A A A the scale Figure-9.2: Conceptual hydrogeochemical model of the study area In addition a further 150 MCM is added to the groundwater system as a result of seepages from the Eastern Yamuna Canal. There is chemical evidence that the bulk of this canal seepage goes to the west. Yamuna shows, in general, effluent behavior, for 194 which there is chemical evidence too in the form of CI mass balance. Chemical evidence shows that Hindon is effluent in its northern part, beyond that it is influent. Groundwater moves in the top aquifer at an average velocity of 10 m/day. The movement is westward west of EYC and, in general, eastward on the eastern side of EYC. There are some variations in groundwater movement direction in the eastern side particularly along the right bank of river Hindon. EYC acts as a nearly perfect groundwater divide. The effects of pollution are propagated from one place to other in non-uniform way and there are indications that within a period of 3 to 6 months one chemical quality of groundwater is taken over by the other. The chemistry of shallow groundwater does not follow any defined trend and wells with contrasting chemical characters occur side by side or the same well shows markedly different chemistries in post- and pre-monsoon seasons. Such characteristics suggest relative lack of lateral hydraulic continuity in the shallow aquifer. This, in turn, results in precluding the stirring of groundwater. This is what is reflected in the form of each well having its own short term chemical characteristics and hardly any signatures which could be considered valid over a long period of time. Chemistry of aquifers 11 and 111 is consistent with the water-rock interaction being the most abundant mechanism for the acquisition of solutes. Water from aquifer II may be ascending to aquifer I bringing about dilution which is chemically indistinguishable. The other way round may also be happening but the chemical composition of aquifer II (TDS = 350 mg/1 and CI = 18 mg/1) indicates that if at all aquifer I is in hydraulic continuity with the underlying aquifer 11, it is only on a trivial scale. TDS in aquifer III is about 450 mg/1. 100 mg/1 higher than that of aquifer II, which reflects enhanced water- rock interaction. These two aquifers may be in vertical hydraulic continuity of one another. Aquifer IV has been identified just to the east of the study area across river Hindon. In all likelihood, this aquifer may be extending westward towards river Yamuna. Chemical characteristics of this aquifer are unique in being saline. It is not clear whether the observed salinity is in situ or it is the effect of mixing of water from two aquifers of contrasting chemical characteristics. Water in this aquifer is at a temperature of 52 C, 195 which is consistent with the normal thermal gradient of 30^'C/km over the ambient temperature of 25 to 30 C. The groundwater system in the area bounded by rivers Yamuna and Hindon is under tremendous stress as against a recharge of about 500 MCM per annum the discharge is about 700 MCM. h is to be conserved at all cost and attempts should be made to ameliorate its chemical degradation because aquifers II and III have been inferred to have relatively low yielding potentials. 9.13 INFERENCES Some inferences, arrived at after synthesizing the data, are listed below: • Chemical data show no obvious relationship with inferred relative permeability. Similarly, there are no chemical expression of inferred groundwater troughs and mounds. • Regularly alternating irrigation by sodic water in the dry season and rainwater during monsoon may induce cycles of precipitation and dissolution of salts and resultant increase and decrease in concentration levels of Na and Ca. Some of the high Na values particularly in the northeastern part are due to cation exchange as a result groundwater-clay interaction. Acquisition of Na ions by this process, however, is relatively insignificant. • Observed large variations in Ca may at least partially be related to alternating dissolution and precipitation of carbonates during successive winter and summer seasons. • There is chemical evidence indicating that the bulk of about 150 MCM (per annum) water entering the groundwater system as canal seepage, affects the western part more than the eastern. Mass balance equation shows that this mixing of groundwater and canal seepage has to be in a ratio of 0.95:0.05. • The saline water body encountered at a depth of > 600 m in the area to the east of Hindon may extend to the area of study but could not be contributing to the shallow aquifer as suggested by the paucity oi"Na-Cl in samples from the area. 196 The closed box model suggests that recharge tends to ameliorate the concentration levels of solutes in the groundwater but additions of chemical species through uncontrolled anthropogenic processes keep on deteriorating the quality. It may be calculated that even if 1 mm of saline soil layer is dissolved in infiltrating water, 47,000 tons of Na2C03 would be dissolved which would yield 20400 tons of Na and 54080 tons of bicarbonate ions to the groundwater. So. saline source could serve as a periodical/seasonal source of Na and HCO3 in the groundwater. On the other hand, per hectare application of K is only about 12 kg, which is not much and under normal circumstances is likely to get fixed and held by soils in the area. Infiltration of K, applied as fertili2:er, to groundwater level probably takes about a month. It could get fixed up/equilibrate at the most in 6 months. Textile industries have contributed CI and may be some HCO3 and Mg. Bicarbonate could also come as a result of the dissolution of CO2 generated due to the decay of organic matter in garbage dumps. Discards and separates from sugar and gur industries consist of sulphates of Na and Ca, phosphate of Ca and some CaCOs and [Ca (0H)2]. There is hardly any doubt that the bulk of SO4 and Na in groundwater in the study area have their origin in sugar and gur industries. This is because of the use of Na-H-S04 for getting rid of impurities and to bleach the final product. Prevalent use of Na-H- SO4 compared to calcium compounds and relative dispersion of Na and Ca depending on relative solubility of their compounds has resulted in the observed trend of lesser addition of the latter to the groundwater as a pollutant. The effects of sugar and gur industries on groundwater chemistry are transmitted in three to six months time. Chromium may be getting in to the system from textile-related industries in the area. As far as Al is concerned, its source is rather enigmafic. Groundwater in aquifers II and 111 is of pristine quality and it is very encouraging to note that aquifer II has not yet been affected by the deterioration in the chemical quality as witnessed in the lop aquifer. 197 Aquifer IV comprising saline water may or may not extend to the study area. Logically, in view of geological and hydrological conditions, it should underiie the area of study. The velocity of the lateral movement of groundwater comes to 9.2 to 11.6 m/day or about 10 m/day. This implies that groundwater would cover a distance of 1 km in 3 to 4 months time. This gives an approximate idea of the time involved in lateral transport of pollution and is more or less of the same order as speculated from chemical data. 198 CHAPTER-10 INFERENCES AND SUGGESTIONS 10.1 MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STUDY This hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical study in Bagiipat district of Uttar Pradesh in the area delimited by rivers Yamuna and Hindon in the west and east, respectively, has helped arrive at a list of inferences. Of these some short listed ones, which may be considered significant from various points of view, have been mentioned below: • A finding of the study, which is probably most significant from the societal point of view and of grave concern for the overall health of the populace, is that the chemical quality of groundwater is not ideal for drinking purpose. Not even a single sample collected from 55 wells in the study area of > 1300 km" may be considered perfect, in all respects, for human consumption. This deterioration in quality is as a result of both major ions and trace metals. TDS values are always > 500 mg/1, averaging > 1000 mg/1. Sulphate concentration, though within the maximum permissible limit, exceeds 250 mg/1 in many samples, which may cause gastrointestinal irritation and respiratory problems to the human system. High Na values, averaging around 200 mg/1, are not advisable due to the known role of this element in hypertension, heart diseases and kidney-related problems. On the other hand, low to very low concentration levels of Ca make the groundwater calcium-deficient, a situation which may cause bone- related diseases. As far as trace metals are concerned, the dangerous metal Cr is above the desired limit in all the samples analyzed. Aluminum too is present in quantities above the maximum permissible limit. » The groundwater budget estimation was carried out for three years (1^ June 2005 to 3r' May 2008). In all the blocks groundwater development has exceeded 100%, which puts the region in over-exploited category. Total recharge during three successive years of monitoring is estimated at 535, 489 and 467 MCM, respectively. 199 Corresponding total discharge estimates are 688, 704 and 705 MCM. Thus deficit balance of 153, 215 and 237 MCM, respectively, is worked out. The stage of groundwater development for the three years period is worked out at 128%, 144% and 150%, respectively. Thus the entire study area comes under over-exploited category. This is also reflected in continuously falling water level in the region. It is clear that the situation has reached an alarming stage which is likely to deteriorate further in the coming years. Future deterioration can be expected due to ever increasing yearly increase of groundwater abstraction and uncontrolled pumping. In the absence of any immediate remedial measures the shallow aquifer may cease to yield in the next decade. Unique chemical characteristics of groundwater are the outcome of several natural and anthropogenic processes. The groundwater regime is detrimentally affected profoundly both in qualitative and quantitative terms. Signatures of the meteoric origin of groundwater have been completely obliterated. There is anomalously high concentration of major ions, particularly, Na, K, SO^ and Ci which is associated with relative deficiency of Ca. Acquisition of chemical species in the groundwater is the result of a combination of processes, such as. water-rock interaction, cation exchange, dissolution of surface saline encrustations, dissolution and precipitation of carbonates, application of fertilizers, influent and effluent behavior of surface discharges and descent of household and industrial wastes to groundwater level. The role of water- rock interaction is trivial and it is very difficult to identify the role of various processes in solute acquisition in quantitative terms. As far as industrial pollutants are concerned, sugar, gur and textile industries are particularly v/orth mentioning. Contribution of soap industry is in the form of addition of Na to the groundwater system. Textile industries have contributed CI and may be some HCO3 and Mg. Discards and separates from sugar and gur industries consist of sulphates of Na and Ca, phosphate of Ca and some CaC03 and [Ca (0H)2]. There is hardly any doubt that the bulk of SO4 and Na in groundwater in the study area have their origin in sugar and 200 gur industries. This is because of the use of Na-H-S04 for getting rid of impurities and to bleach the final product. Prevalent use of Na-H-SO^ compared to calcium compounds and relative dispersion of Na and Ca depending on relative solubility of their compounds has resulted in the observed trend of lesser addition of the latter to the groundwater as a pollutant. The effects of sugar and gur industries on groundwater chemistry are transmitted in three to six months time. Trace metals, such as, Zn, Cr, Cu and Mn have been contributed by textile and iron goods industries. The chemistry of shallow groundwater does not follow any defined trend and wells with contrasting chemical characters occur side by side or the same well shows markedly different chemistries in post- and pre-monsoon seasons. Such temporal and spatial characteristics tend to suggest relative lack of latera! hydraulic continuity in the shallow aquifer. This, in turn, results in precluding the stirring of groundwater. This is what is reflected in the form of each well having its own short term chemical characterisfics and hardly any signatures which could be considered valid over a long period of time. Chemistry of aquifers II and 111, which have been encountered in the northeastern part of the area, is consistent with the water-rock interaction being the most abundant mechanism for the acquisition of solutes. It is an encouraging sign that the highly polluted aquifer I has not yet started affecting the pristine chemical quality of aquifer II. This, in turn, indicates that the impervious barrier between the two aquifers is very affective in precluding the vertical hydrological continuity. The populace may have to resort to tapping aquifer II in future. The good news is that the quality of groundwater hosted by it is excellent. There is a bad news too. According to CGWB assessments, yields from aquifer II may not be as high as in aquifer 1. Yields from aquifer III are inferred to be even lower. The velocity of the lateral movement of groundwater comes to 9.2 to 11.6 m/day or about 10 m/day. This implies that groundwater would cover a distance of 1 km in 3 to 201 4 months time. This gives an approximate idea of the time involved in lateral transport of pollution and is more or less of the same order as speculated from chemical data. 10.2 OTHER OBSERVATIONS AND INFERENCES Some other observations and inferences that could be arrived at based on this study are given below: • Geologically, the area is characterized by about 1000 m thick Quaternary alluvium resting over the rocks of Delhi Super Group. The bed rock has not been encountered in wells as deep as 650 m. The study area, a part of the vast central Ganga Plain is delimited in the east and the west by Hindon and Yamuna rivers, respectively. The average annual rainfall in the area is about 500 mm and there is an indication of a decline in rainfall by about 70 mm during the last two decades as compared to the data available for the period from 1901 to 1970. This may possibly be a manifestation of climatic changes. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) exhibits a gentle slope towards south and ground elevation ranges from 192 to 256 m above mean sea level. Land use and land cover patterns show changes in response to demographic factors and industrialization in the form of decrease in the area under cultivation and wasteland and increase in the forest cover and area occupied by settlements in a period of 16 years from 1992 to 2008. Increase in population, irrigation requirements and coming up of various industries has put up lot of pressure on groundwater resources. This is particularly so as 96.18 % of the requirements are taken care of through groundwater resource. » Three major groups of aquifers have been identified separated from one another by poorly permeable to impermeable horizons. Aquifers I and 11 have better potential and utility than aquifer III which consists of finer elastics giving low yields. Even deeper, aquifer IV has been intersected in the area to the east of river Hindon. Aquifer 1. to which the present study is practically confmed, continues to a depth of 126 m bgl 202 with a persistent clay layer on top and intervened by local ckiy lenses. Sand percent map is in agreement with the fence diagram. Effective grain size of samples studied ranges from 0.098 to 0.2 mm indicating it to be fine to very fine with uniformity coefficient values ranging from 1.4 to 2.85. In successive pre-monsoon seasons 2006 and 2007, depth to water level shows a variation between 8.95 and 29.16 m, whereas in corresponding post-monsoon periods, it varied between 8.62 and 28.96m. Deeper water table conditions occur in the northeastern part of the area. Relatively shallow water levels are recorded along river Yamuna and Eastern Yamuna Canal (EYC). A general rise of water table is indicated in post-monsoon period of 2006. Changes observed are relatively trivial in post- monsoon period of 2007 as a consequence of a weak monsoon. Water level fluctuations in 2006 were on the positive side to as much as 1 m. High fluctuations are associated with deeper water table conditions in northeastern and central parts, whereas in the southwestern part of the area higher fluctuations occur under shallow water table conditions. In the year 2007, however, a significant change is recorded and 73% of the wells show negative fluctuation. This reflects very poor monsoonal recharge of aquifer due to scarcity of rainfalls and simultaneous higher rate of withdrawal of groundwater from shallow aquifers due to enhanced requirement for irrigation purposes. The flow of groundwater is, in general, towards east on the left bank of EYC and towards west on its right bank. Local variations in groundwater flow lines occur on either sides of EYC, particularly, on the eastern or the left bank, where some westerly flow is inferred on the right bank of river Hindon. Convergence of opposing flow lines defines a major trough which is obviously related to over-exploitation. Seepages from canal, on the other hand, are manifested as groundwater mounds. It is really noteworthy that EYC serves as a perfect surface manifestation of the groundwater divide in the region delimited by river Yamuna in the west and Hindon in the east as 203 it was planned to be. There are no chemical expressions of inferred groundwater troughs and mounds. • Historical water level data of 14 permanent monitoring wells show declining trend. Average annual decline in water level on eastern and western sides of EYC are 0.64 and 0.80 m, respectively. The isopermeability map shows that the bulk of the area is covered by permeability zone 30 to 40 m/day. Good correlation has been observed between Logan's estimated K and pumping test K values. The pumping test result shows that the aquifer parameters like T and K vary between 887 to 2772 m^/day and 12.7 to 40.10 m/day, respectively. These values of K, however, are an order of magnitude higher than the K values determined in laboratory. MODFLOW 4.1 has been used to simulate the steady state groundwater regime of the area to forecast the future changes that may occur under different stresses. A three layer model was prepared to take into account presence of alternate layers of sand and clay. The time period of November 2005 is taken as initial condition for steady state model calibration, which shows good agreement between observed and simulated heads with a Root Mean Square (RMS) error of 1.471 m. Two prediction scenarios have been considered to predict aquifer responses under varied stress conditions. According to prediction scenario 1, the on going abstraction rate was increased by 20% from 2008 to 2018. over a period of 10 years. This increase is in line with present rate of consumption. It was observed during this prediction run that the area in northeast and central part was drastically affected and thirteen observation wells gone dry in the 2018 time period. The maximum drawdown i.e. > 6 m were observed in north-eastern, north-western and south-eastern part of the study area. The minimum drawdowns were observed along the river Yamuna as well as upper and lower reaches of river Hindon where the drawdown was < 2 m. In prediction scenario 2, the combined effect of increasing abstraction rate by 204 20% and reducing recharge by 20% was examined. The combined impact of both these factors showed a maximum drawdown of > 7 m have been observed in north eastern, north-western and south-eastern part of the study area. The minimum drawdown < 2 m was observed at upper and lower reaches of river Yamuna and Hindon. The extent of dry cells increased in comparison to scenario 1. Groundwater in the study area has 'Low to Medium (Class I)' electrical conductivity and bulk, of the samples are moderately hard to hard. TDS values are high, averaging > 1000 mg/1 for both the sets of samples, post-monsoon value being higher. There is a clear tendency of redistribution of TDS and higher values concentrate in the northern half of the area in pre-monsoon period of 2006. Anomalously high TDS values, as high as > 1800 mg/l and averaging > 1000 mg/l. suggest that the role of water - rock interaction as a mechanism for the acquisition of solute is not substantial and processes, such as, anthropogenic activities, dissolution of some naturally occurring materials or mixing with deep-seated ascending brines may have a more dominant role to play. A general decrease in average TDS during a period of about 6 months from November, 2005 to June, 2006, when there were hardly any rains, could imply dilution of groundwater due to interaction with surface v/ater bodies or shallow groundwater. A mass balance equation suggests such dilution to the extent of 25%. A combination of factors, such as, precipitation/dissolution, irrigation, cation exchange, and influences of climatic and various anthropogenic factors, rather than dilution alone, explain the observed chemical changes in a more lucid way. On Piper's Trilinear Plot, overwhelming abundance of alkalis over Ca and Mg and presence of all the anions is indicated. On L-L Diagram 3 chemical types of groundwater, 'mixed', 'mixed bicarbonate' and 'alkali bicarbonate' types, are identified. Chemical signatures of meteoric origin of groundwater are completely obliterated as a result of the acquisition of solutes in varying but substantial concentrations through various natural and anthropogenic processes 205 • The SAR value ranges from 0.80 to 11.08 with an average value of 4.93 in the samples collected during November 2005. With the exception of 7 samples (13%), the remaining samples fall in good to excellent class from the point of view of irrigation. During pre-monsoon 2006 period, the SAR values range from 1.68 to 16.39, average value being 6.24. Therefore the possibility of sodium hazard in the area is relatively high. About 20% samples have moderate to high salinity associated with moderate Na values. These samples are not ideal for agricultural activities. RSC estimates, on the other hand, indicate that 29% and 24% samples in post-monsoon 2005 and pre-monsoon 2006, respectively, are of good quality and suitable for irrigation. The remaining samples fall in doubtful to unsuitable quality in both the seasons. SAR and RSC estimates suggest that the area, in general, has tendency for depositing alkalis as NaHCO.-,, Na (C03)7. Na2S0^ and KNO3. • River Krishni and the upstream sample from river Hindon show conspicuous effect of pollution. The remaining 5 samples are with TDS of < 500 nng/1. This implies that in influent part of their courses rivers would tend to dilute the groundwater and their effluent behavior would be reflected in higher TDS content in their discharge. * Sodium values exceeding 200 mg/1 are measured in 49 out of 110 samples collected in November, 2005 and June, 2006. There is temporal consistency in the distribution of high Na values, particularly, in the northeastern part of the area. Sodium, due to its relative preponderance, seems to be involved in all the possible ionic species, such as, Na-Cl, Na-HC03 and Na-SO^. Sodium could have been derived from a number of sources, natural as well as anthropogenic. Natural processes are water-rock interaction and cation exchange in clay zones. It may also have been acquired as a result of infiltration of water in zones of reh soil and from sewage and industrial waste. Sugar and related industries also contribute Na to the system in significant proportions. High Na values in drinking water are not advisable due to the known role of this element in hypertension, heart diseases and kidney-related problems. For the two sets of samples the average Na values are 186 and 208 mg/l, respectively. 206 Sodium concentration in groundwater, therefore, is clearly at a perilous level from the point of view of human health. Potassium values of >30 mg/1 occur in 22 samples. Distribution of Na and K does not seem to be interrelated implying different sources for the two alkali metals. The source of this ion is mainly fertilizers. Some anomalously high values suggest partial fixation of K in soils and its retention in the groundwater. Distribution of Ca and Mg does not exhibit any analogy spatially or temporally, implying their mutual independence as far as their respective sources are concerned. An enigma is rather drastic depletion in concentration of Ca in the pre-monsoon season of 2006. This may partly be explained as a result of precipitation of carbonate and resultant decrease in Ca and HCO3 concentration levels in groundwater. Cation exchange seems to be in operation too and this is corroborated by an observed marginal enrichment in Na values. Magnesium has not been involved in precipitation of carbonates and therefore its concentration levels, acquired probably through interaction in clay rich zones and also probably as a result of anthropogenic influences, have been retained. Both Ca and Mg may be involved in respective bicarbonate complexes. Calcium, in addition, also gets incorfjorated in Ca-S04. There is no evidence of the occurrence ionic species, such as, Ca-Cl and Mg-Cl in any of the samples. Calcium values measured in the two sets of samples (November, 2005 and June, 2006) give average values of 43 mg/1 and 19 mg/1, respectively. All the 55 samples collected in 2006 have Ca values less than the prescribed lower limit where as 49 out of 55 samples collected in 2005 have recorded such values. The study area, therefore, is a clear case of calcium deficiency which may be conducive for diseases like osteoporosis and even rickets, the latter of course when Ca-deficiency is coupled with the deficiency of vitamin D. 207 Bicarbonate does not exhibit drastic change in its concentration levels in the two periods of sampling. Most of it has been acquired through water-solid phase interaction and dissolution of CO2 in percolating groundwater. Its distribution, both spatially and temporally, however, is prone to changes on account of precipitation and dissolution of carbonates in different seasons. As surplus HCO3 is recorded in some samples, it may be speculated that source for this anion also lies in some anthropogenic activities. Possible sources may be garbage dumps and textile and sugar industries. Relative preponderance of HCO3 permits not only the formation of bicarbonate complexes of Ca and Mg but also of Na. Even K may be involved in such complexes particularly in samples characterized by its abundance. In successive sampling periods in 2005 and 2006, concentration of SO4 exceeds 250 mg/1 in a total number of 22 samples. Values as high as 342 to 457 mg/1 in 4 samples and >30% samples with concentration exceeding 200 mg/1 clearly indicate that addition of this anion to the groundwater system is through anthropogenic activities and the biggest culprits in this regard are booming sugar and Gur industries in the area. Chloride values, though averaging 85 and 71 mg/1 in the two successive sampling seasons, are at times as high as 227 to 369 mg/1. Values not more than 20 to 30 mg/1 may be attributed to natural causes and therefore the bulk of the chloride content of groundwater too is related to human activities. Faulty sewage disposal and industrial effluents, particularly, of textile industries, are probably the main source of this ion. As far as ionic species are concerned, Ca gets involved in bicarbonate and sulphate species, the former being far more abundant. Magnesium forms only bicarbonate complex and there is no evidence of its involvement in chloride and sulphate species. Relative paucity of Ca and consumption of all CI in the formation of alkali chloride complexes precludes formation of Ca-Cl complex. Alkalis, in addition to chloride species are also incorporated in bicarbonate and sulphate complexes. This is 208 particularly true for Na. Thus the species likely to occur in the groundwater in the study area are Ca-HCOj, Mg-HC03, Ca-S04, Na-Cl, Na-SO.4, Na-HCOj, K-Cl and some other possible species of K depending on its abundance. Both Na and K may also occur as nitrates though in insignificant amount. Trace elements study in 22 samples shows anomalously high concentration levels for Al and Cr. Relatively high values are also reported for Mn, Fe and Pb. High values of Pb and Fe are often associated and this may be because of the pipes used in wells. High Cr values may be related to industrial influence. The cause of high Al values in all the 22 samples is not known at this stage. Chromium is carcinogenic when present in hexavalent state and 21 out of 22 samples have Cr concentration higher than the permissible limit according to BIS (1991). This is really very significant information that has come through this study and needs to be explored in greater details. The concentrations of Al in all the 22 samples are above the maximum permissible limit of 0.2 mg/1 (Table-7.4). As a matter of fact, 21 out of 22 samples analyzed have Al concentrations ten times or even higher than the maximum permissible limit. Although in general Al is not considered toxic but there had been suggestions that when consumed in higher proportion Al may be conducive for Alzheimer Disease (AD). Distribution of Al, its source and the chemical species it occurs in, are also some of the aspects that need to be taken up in future studies. Aquifer IV has been identified just to the east of the study area across river Hindon. In all likelihood, this aquifer may be extending westward towards river Yamuna. Chemical characteristics of this aquifer are unique in being highly saline, Na-Cl content being >3000 mg/l. 209 Regularly alternating irrigation by sodic water in the dry season and rainwater during monsoon may induce cycles of precipitation and dissolution of salts and resultant increase and decrease in concentration levels of Na and Ca. Some of the high Na values particularly in the northeastern part are due to cation exchange as a result groundwater-clay interaction. Acquisition of Na ions by this process, however, is relatively insignificant. There is chemical evidence indicating that the bulk of about 150 MCM (per annum) water entering the groundwater system as canal seepage, affects the western part more than the eastern. Mass balance equation shows that this mixing of groundwater and canal seepage has to be in a ratio of 0.95:0.05. The closed box model suggests that recharge tends to ameliorate the concentration levels of solutes in the groundwater but additions of chemical species through uncontrolled anthropogenic processes keep on deteriorating the quality. • Saline soils could serve as a periodical/seasonal source of Na and HCO3 in the groundwater. Dissolution of even 1 mm of saline soil cover could take 47, 000 tons of NaiCOs in solution. On the other hand, per hectare application of K is only about 12 kg, which is not much and under normal circumstances is likely to get fixed and held by soils in the area. Infiltration of K, applied as fertilizer, to groundwater level probably takes about a month. It could get fixed up/equilibrate at the most in 6 months. 10.3 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Keeping in view the societal implications of any study on a groundwater system on its quantitative and qualitative deterioration, it is considered imperative here to offer some suggestions and recommendation which may prove useful in future to planners and managers. These are listed below: 210 1. It is very important that sites are identified for artificial recharge of the system. This could be done after first identifying the natural recharge zone of the system and for this systematic stable isotope and tracer studies need to be conducted. Water pumped from river Yamuna having relatively low TDS of < 500 mg/1 may be used for recharging the first aquifer. 2. Rainwater harvesting needs to be promoted vigorously. The area on an average receives 500 mm of annual rainfall. This implies that a pond of 100 m x 100 m dimension could receive 5000 ni'' of rainwater. One such reservoir in every 100 km^ is quite feasible, which could cumulatively hold 50000 to 60000 m^ of rainwater. These reservoirs could be dug under various National Rural Employment Guarantee schemes. This stored water may be used not only for drinking purposes but also for blending with the irrigation water so that the resultant TDS of input water could be kept low. One way of starting water harvesting program straightaway is that pits and depressions formed in the vicinity of numerous brick kilns may be fruitfully utilized. 3. In view of the declining water level, which is consequent to excessive withdrawal from the shallow aquifer, it is suggested that further exploitation of groundwater from the shallow aquifer should be restricted. Stress of some exploitation may be put to the second aquifer. To start with, this should be done as a test case and its effects should be vigorously monitored. It would be ideal if aquifer II is harnessed at a limited scale only for fulfilling the requirements of the drinking water only. It would tantamount to wastage if water of pristine quality available from aquifer II is used for irrigation or industrial purposes. This is particularly so as in the study area all indications are of unregulated ever increasing trend of water consumption and it has been suggested that aquifer III is not dependable in terms of yields. 4. A strict groundwater legislation using the scientific studies, such as, the present one should be brought in to regulate harnessing of groundwater resources. No additional well should be permitted in the area before the need for the same is certified by the Groundwater Authority or district authorities. Private operators should be strictly denied access to aquifer II. 21 5. Binauli Block is highly over-exploited and canal network are relatively less in this block. It is recommended that the canal network is developed in this block too at par with that in other blocks. 6. It is suggested that seminars and poster presentations in the local languages of the region be arranged for educating the public of urban and rural areas for judicious use of groundwater. The awareness of farmers towards the groundwater recharge can prove as a milestone in managing the groundwater resources. Mass communication programs may also be launched using the modem communication means for educating the people about water conservation and efficient utilization of water. It is recommended that all panchayats and similar institutions should be asked to put up boards within their complexes giving information about the imminent danger of running out of the precious groundwater resource. Schools may also play a significant role in this regard. 7. Development of agriculture is a must for improving the socio-economic conditions of the people. This development, however, at times comes at a heavy price in the form of the deterioration in the quality of both groundwater and soil. This is what has happened in this area. Not only in this area but in all the other areas which are being overexploited for their groundwater resource, it is the need of the time that the nature of the soil and the chemistry of the groundwater have to be viewed together as two sides of the same coin. This would help in evolving the best and area specific treatment for successful amelioration of these soils and improvement in the quality of groundwater. For this specific purpose it is important that all such blocks which are classified under heavily exploited should be given under the charge of a team comprising a hydrogeologist and/or hydrogeochemist and a soil scientist to work out the area specific strategy. This is what is under practice in some states of USA. 8. It is recommended that the urban landfill, garbage dumps and effluent channels should either have concrete floor. Alternatively, sheets of impervious film may be used to prevent leaching of pollutants in the water. It is further recommended that 212 garbage dumping sites should not be located in the major recharge zone of the system (which could be identified using stable isotopes and tracer techniques). 9. Townships, such as, Baraut and Baghpat should have Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) so that the water is discharged in to drains after getting rid of its major contaminants. The possibility also needs to be explored to make use of this water for irrigation and in some of the industries in the area. 10. All the major industries in the area discharging effluents should be mandatorily instructed to have Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP). Pollution Control Board should regularly monitor these ETP's for their functioning and effectiveness. The practice, in general, is to have these devices in the name sake only as a procedural formality. 11. Sugar factories and gur manufacturing units spread their solid wastes in open fields thinking it to act as manure. These wastes consist of Na. Ca and SO4 mainly. This practice should be immediately discontinued. 12. The area needs to be studied in greater details from environmental and medical geological points of view. Three major problems that need to be addressed to are alarmingly high concentration levels of Cr and Al (observed in all the samples studied) and relative deficiency of Ca. Effects of very high concentration of Na and SO4 also need to be studied in the populace. 13. There is dire need to stop wastage of water. Domestic wastage could be reduced drastically if water supply hours are in night. Consumers should be encouraged to make underground tanks (which ma} be subsidized by the Government), which may get filled up on their own during supply hours. 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User's Manual, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. 225 W.H.O. (1984) Guide Lines for drinl 226 http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wsd/plan_protect_sustain/groundvvater/library/ground_fact _sheets/pdfs/na(020715)_ rin2.pdf http://www.boloji.com www.angelfire.com/cpkumar www. anyvitamins.com www.google.co.in www.landsat.org www.yaraphosyn.com www.oecotexti les.com www.vvikipedia.com 227 APPENDIX I Location of monitoring wells and their coordinates S.No. Location Latitudes Longitudes X y 1 Sarurpur 29"01'53.3" 77" 14' 5.6" 10311 28349 2 Ninaha 29" or 16.5" 77" 11'25.6" 7026 28809 3 Sujra 29"00' 49.2" 77" 16'41.16" 14486 26986 4 Sarai 28" 59'2.1" 77" 23'46.1" 26290 24081 5 Budhseni 29" 59' 59.7" 77" 25' 50.5" 29909 25084 6 Mawi Kalan 29" or 16.2" 77" 26' 28.6" 31301 27897 7 Ramnagar 29" or 21.5" 77" 22'55.92" 25121 27970 8 Kamala 29"02'36.3" 77" 24' 18.5" 27292 30273 9 Fazalpur 29" 03'30.8" 77" 22'56.3" 25288 32138 10 Binauli 29" 05'37.7" 77" 23'59.1" 27960 35904 11 Jiwana 29" 06' 2.5" 77" 21'40.9" 23617 35634 12 Bazidpur 29" 06'5.1" 77" 18'21.2" 17716 36158 13 Baraut 29" 05'55.8" 77" 15'12.6" 13818 36450 14 Puthi 29" 03' 40.2" 77" 20'16.3" 21223 32262 15 Dhanaura 29" 02'17.6" 77" 20' 04" 20555 29222 16 Budhera 29" or 37.4" 77" 18'53.3" 18328 28271 17 Bilochpura 29" 59' 59.7" 77"20'17.8" 21112 25954 18 Hilwari 29" 03'30.1" 77" 17'52.1" 16268 32557 19 Pilana 28" 56'08.7" 77" 22'20.1" 23784 18737 20 Mukari 28" 53' 55.68" 77" 24' 56.2" 28573 15119 21 Dhakauli 28" 53' 59.6" 77" 22'08.7" 23729 14738 22 Chamrawal 28" 52' 49.8" 77" 23' 24" 25343 11579 23 Rataul 28" 49'58.1" 77" 20'44.7" 21390 6859 24 Gauna 28" 50'01.6" 77" 22' 48" 25343 7186 25 Bhagaut 28" 48'28 3" 77" 21'37.3" 22671 3870 26 Baragaon 28" 52'31.6" 77" 20'09.1" 20333 10748 27 Khekra 28" 51'54.2" 77" 17'09.8" 15210 10368 28 Fakharpur 28" 50'35.1" 77" 17'52.1" 16769 7491 29 Sankraudh 28" 51'54.1" 77" 15'15.8" 10533 10100 30 Katha 28" 53' 55.4" 77" 14'18.4" 11257 14491 31 Baleni 28" 57'19.4" 77" 27'11.6" 32025 20235 32 Hisaoda 28" 58' 10.6" 77" 22'01.8" 23395 22286 33 Daula 28" 57'43.5" 77" 19'32" 20277 21112 34 Khatta 28" 55'01.7" 77" 19'21" 19831 16044 35 Tatiri 28" 57' 03.6" 77" 16'20.4" 13707 20342 36 Harchandpur 28" 55'31.5" 77" 16'42.3" 14709 16565 37 Kutana 29" 06'14.8" 77"09'38.r' 3295 36649 38 Dhikana 29" 04' 53.9" 77" 13' 12.2" 9364 34322 39 Barauli 29"04'13.7" 77" 14' 54.3" 12148 33301 40 Goripur 28" 59'15" 77" 13'18.7" 9810 24014 41 Baghpat 28" 56' 42.5" 77" 13'16.2" 8807 19229 42 Barnawa 29" 06'55.1" 77" 25'36.8" 29965 38039 43 Rahatna 29" 07' 52.8" 77" 23' 23" 26290 39682 44 Shahjahanpur 29" 09'4.4" 77"24'48.9" 28406 42436 45 Phusar 29" 09' 55" 77" 23'05" 25566 43909 46 Doghat 29" 11*41.1" 77" 21'44.3" ' 24508 47066 47 Daha 29" 11'54.3" 77" 24'46.3" j 28350 47449 S.No. 1 Location Latitudes Longitudes X y 48 Garhi banjaro 29" 11'16.4" 77" 27'36.7" 32581 45410 49 Dhanaura Tikri 29" 13'16.1" 77" 27'5.4" 32247 49241 50 Nirpura 29" 14'27 96" 77" 24'44.8" 27515 50831 51 Tikri 29" 14'31.2" 77" 21'40,9" 23061 50844 52 M. Nangai 29" 11'01.3" 77" 19'59.9" 20555 45331 53 Bamnauli 29" 08'44.7" 77" 20'41 16" 22003 41328 54 Bijraul 29" 07'41.7" 77" 18'20.6" 18607 39422 55 Hasanpur 29" 09' 55" 77" 17'52.1" 16546 43596 56 Barwafa 29" 09'4.9" 77" 14'48.9" 12649 43100 57 Malakpur 29" 07' 4.9" 77" 12'26.9" 9921 38207 58 Sadikpur 29" 08'44.7" 77" 13" 16.2" 8585 41478 59 Mandi 29" 09'31.7" 77" 09' 4.2" 3128 43183 60 Chandanheri 29" 10'30.1" 77" 11'24.8" 7694 45198 61 Chaprauli 29" 12'27.7" 77" 10'42.7" 5578 48865 62 Rithaura 29" 12'16.7" 77" 12'26.9" 8752 48630 63 Kurdi 29" 14' 34.3" 77" 09'30.1" 3963 51911 64 Tanda 29" 16'24.8" 77" 08'51.6" 3073 55630 65 Bodha 29" 16'56.1" 77" 09'41.8" 4520 56809 66 Tugana 29" 15'48.4" 77" 11'24.4" 7415 54379 67 Lumb 29" 15'35.5" 77" 13'24.2" 10088 54259 68 Hewa 29" 14'28.8" 77" 12'14.8" 8251 51842 69 kirthal 29" 14'48.5" 77"14'46" 11925 52057 70 Sonthi 29" 12'52.8" 77" 14' 37.9" 12092 49241 71 Ramaia 29" 13'34.7" 77" 16'8" 14542 50191 72 Kakripur 29" 15'13.8" 77" 16'39.6" 14876 53570 73 Asara 29"14'35.9" 77" 18'20.7" 18440 52884 74 Budhpur 29" 13'01" 77" 17'39.9" 17716 48943 APPENDIX II (A) Statistical analysis of Rainfall data at Baraut Raingauge Station Rainfall Average Deaparture Cummulative S.No. Year (X) (Y) (X/Y)-l Departure X-Y (X-Y)^ 1 1995 634.3 480.8 0.32 0.32 153,5 23562,25 2 1996 587.4 480.8 0.22 0.54 106.6 11363.56 3 1997 820 480.8 0.71 1.25 339.2 115056.6 4 1998 545.95 480.8 0.14 1.39 65,15 4244,523 5 1999 435.5 480.8 -0.09 1.3 -45,3 2052.09 6 2000 111.6 480.8 -0.77 0.53 -369,2 136308.6 7 2001 182.9 480.8 -0.62 -0.09 -297.9 88744.41 8 2002 264.7 480.8 -0.45 -0.54 -216.1 46699,21 9 2003 623 480.8 0.30 -0.24 142.2 20220.84 10 2004 477.88 480.8 -0.01 -0.25 -2.92 8.5264 11 2005 508.89 480.8 0.06 -0.19 28.09 789.0481 12 2006 648.36 480.8 0.35 0.16 167.56 28076.35 13 2007 371 480.8 -0.23 -0,07 -109.8 12056.04 14 2008 519.06 480.8 0.08 -0.01 38.26 1463.828 APPENDIX II (B) Statistical analysis of Rainfall data at Baghpat Raingauge Station Rainfall Average Deaparture Cummulative S.No. Year (X) (Y) (X/Y)-l Departure X-Y (X-Y)^ 1 1987 288.77 540,93 -0.47 -0.47 -252,16 63584,67 2 1988 809.3 540.93 0.50 0.03 268,37 72022.46 3 1989 389.4 540.93 -0.28 -0.25 -151.53 22961.34 4 1990 712.74 540.93 0,32 0.07 171.81 29518.68 5 1991 509.06 540.93 -0.06 0.01 -31,87 1015.70 6 1992 42024 540.93 -0.22 -0.21 -120.69 14566,08 7 1993 803.52 540.93 0.49 0,28 262,59 68953.51 8 1994 628.48 540.93 0.16 0,44 87,55 7665.00 9 1995 666.66 540.93 0.23 0,67 125,73 15808.03 10 1996 267.36 540.93 -0.51 0.16 -273.57 74840.54 11 1997 304.9 540.93 -0.44 -0.28 -236.03 55710.16 12 1998 222.3 540.93 -0.59 -0,87 -318.63 101525.08 13 1999 462.05 540.93 -0.15 -1,02 -78.88 6222,05 14 2000 651 540.93 0.20 -0.82 110.07 12115,40 15 2001 650 540.93 0.20 -0,62 109.07 11896,26 16 2002 423.8 540.93 -0,22 -0,84 -117.13 13719,44 17 2003 757 540.93 0.40 -0.44 216.07 46686,24 18 2004 551.2 540.93 0.02 -0.42 10,27 105,47 19 2005 59297 540.93 0.10 -0,32 52,04 2708,16 20 2006 484.9 540.93 -0.10 -0.42 -56,03 3139.36 21 2007 624.11 540.93 0.15 -0.27 83.18 6918.91 22 2008 680.8 540.93 0.26 -0.01 139,87 19563,62 1 APPENDIX III (A) Water level data of monitoring wells (June 2006) S.No. Location X y RL HMP WL BGL AMSL 1 Sarurpur 10311 28349 224.46 1.00 11,85 1085 212,61 2 Ninaha 7026 28809 218.00 0 41 9.36 895 208,64 3 Sujra 14486 26986 227.00 0.85 11.24 10.39 215,76 4 Sarai 26290 24081 225.00 0.20 22.75 22.55 202,25 5 Budhseni 29909 25084 225.10 0.50 22.18 21.68 202,92 6 Mawi Kalan 31301 27897 223.00 0.54 17.28 16.74 205.72 7 Ramnagar 25121 27970 226.00 0.87 24.66 23.79 201.34 8 Kamala 27292 30273 22600 0,50 26.29 25.79 199.71 9 Fazalpur 25288 32138 229.00 0.90 25.09 24.19 203.91 10 Binauli 27960 35904 228.68 0,65 23.87 23.22 204.81 11 Jiwana 23617 35634 228.53 0.65 24.19 23.54 204.34 12 Bazidpur 17716 36158 230.00 0.50 16,47 15.97 213.53 13 Baraut 13818 36450 230.00 0.40 12,41 12,01 217.59 14 Puthi 21223 32262 226,00 0,52 17,32 16,80 208.68 15 Dhanaura 20555 29222 226.00 0,81 15,83 15,02 210.17 16 Budhera 18328 28271 225.00 0,70 13,50 12,80 211.50 17 Bilochpura 21112 25954 225.00 0.52 20,06 19,54 204.94 18 Hilwari 16268 32557 227.00 0.50 11.55 11,05 215.45 19 Pilana 23784 18737 222.24 1,00 18.90 17,90 203.34 20 Mukari 28573 15119 221.00 0.53 15.06 14,53 205.94 21 Dhakauli 23729 14738 222.36 0.35 15.68 15,33 206,68 22 Chamrawal 25343 11579 212.00 0.28 11.29 11,01 200,71 23 Rataul 21390 6859 221.00 0.20 15.82 15,62 205,18 24 Gauna 25343 7186 214.00 0.61 12.60 11,99 201,40 25 Bhagaut 22671 3870 222.00 0.45 17.40 16,95 204,60 26 Baragaon 20333 10748 220.61 0.38 13,39 13,01 207,22 27 Khekra 15210 10368 221.16 0.50 18.18 17,58 202,98 28 Fakharpur 16769 7491 220.00 0.38 17.55 17,17 202.45 29 Sankraudh 10533 10100 213.20 0.61 13,58 12,97 199,62 30 Katha 11257 14491 216.87 0.71 11,66 10,95 205,21 31 Baleni 32025 20235 217.27 0.40 12,40 12,00 204,87 32 Hisaoda 23395 22286 223.56 0.90 19,85 18,95 203,71 33 Daula 20277 21112 223.56 0.20 12,62 12,42 210,94 " 34 Khatta 19831 16044 224.86 0.60 11.94 11,34 212,92 35 Tatiri 13707 20342 225.00 0.65 13.13 12,48 211,87 36 Harchandpur 14709 16565 222.90 0.51 1442 13,91 208,48 37 Kutana 3295 36649 225.00 0.65 1461 13,96 210,39 38 Dhikana 9364 34322 227.00 1.05 12.65 11,60 214,35 39 Barauli 12148 33301 228.00 0.65 9.64 8,99 218,36 40 Goripur 9810 24014 222.90 0.41 14,22 13,81 208,68 41 Baghpat 8807 19229 225.15 0.50 13.74 13,24 211,41 42 Barnawa 29965 38039 222.84 0.49 13.25 12,76 209,59 43 Rahatna 26290 39682 227.00 0,25 2298 22,73 204,02 IV S.No. Location X y RL HMP WL BGL AMSL 44 Shahjahanpur 28406 42436 230.00 0.60 23.61 23.01 206.39 45 Phusar 25566 43909 232,00 0.64 28.35 27.71 203.65 46 Doghat 24508 47066 231,00 0.60 27.10 26.50 203.90 47 Daha 28350 47449 232.66 0.20 25.78 25.58 206.88 48 Garhi banjaro 32581 45410 231.00 0.62 15.31 14.69 215.69 49 Dhanaura Tikri 32247 49241 234.00 0.50 22.86 22.36 211.14 50 Nirpura 27515 50831 236.00 0.75 27.78 27.03 208,22 51 Tikri 23061 50844 230.00 1.20 25.62 24.42 204.38 52 M.Nangai 20555 45331 229.00 0.60 14.77 14.17 214.23 53 Bamnauli 22003 41328 221.07 0.62 18.72 18.10 202.35 54 Bijraul 18607 39422 230.00 0.84 16.26 15.42 213.74 55 Hasanpur 16546 43596 230,00 0.90 14.60 13.70 215.40 56 Barwafa 12649 43100 233.00 0.62 16,27 15,65 216.73 57 Malakpur 9921 38207 231.00 0.80 15.64 14.84 215.36 58 Sadikpur 8585 41478 231,00 0.38 18,09 17.71 212.91 59 Mandi 3128 43183 230,00 0.60 13.13 12.53 216,87 60 Ctiandanheri 7694 45198 234,00 0,84 19.90 19.06 214.10 61 Chaprauli 5578 48865 231,00 0.00 15.98 15.98 215.02 62 Rithaura 8752 48630 234,00 0,20 19,53 19.33 214.47 63 Kurdi 3963 51911 227,00 0,40 10,07 9.67 216.93 64 Tanda 3073 55630 231,00 0,80 12.36 11.56 218.64 65 Bodha 4520 56809 233,00 0.90 13.90 13.00 219.10 66 Tugana 7415 54379 236.00 0.90 18.43 17.53 217.57 67 Lumb 10088 54259 236,00 0.60 15.95 15.35 220.05 68 Hewa 8251 51842 234,00 0.80 18.55 17.75 215.45 69 kirthai 11925 52057 232,00 0.35 15.25 14.90 216.75 70 Sonthi 12092 49241 232,00 0.25 13.94 13.69 218.06 71 Ramala 14542 50191 233,00 0.20 13.54 13.34 219.46 72 Kakripur 14876 53570 236.00 0.30 15.36 15.06 220.64 73 Asara 18440 52884 233.00 0.75 14.05 13.30 218.95 74 Budhpur j 17716 48943 230.00 0.40 14.55 14.15 215.45 APPENDIX III(B) Water ievel data of monitoring wells (November 2006) S.No. Location X ^^1 RL HMP WL ^ BGL AMSL 1 Sarurpur 10311 28349 224,46 1.00 11.51 10.51 212.95 2 Ninaha 7026 28809 218.00 0.41 9.08 8.67 208.92 3 Sujra 14486 26986 227.00 0.85 10.68 9.83 216.32 4 Sarai 26290 24081 225.00 0.20 22.42 22.22 202.58 5 Budhseni 29909 25084 225.10 0.50 21.55 21.05 203.55 6 Mawi Kalan 31301 27897 223.00 0.54 17.08 16.54 205.92 7 Ramnagar 25121 27970 226.00 0.87 24.16 23.29 201.84 8 Kama la 27292 30273 226.00 0.50 25.97 25.47 200.03 9 Fazalpur 25288 32138 229.00 0.90 24.69 23.79 204.31 10 Binauli 27960 35904 228.68 0.65 22.96 22.31 205.72 11 Jiwana 23617 35634 228.53 0.65 24.04 23.39 204.49 12 Bazidpur 17716 36158 230.00 0.50 16.09 1559 213.91 13 Baraut 13818 36450 230.00 0.40 11.75 11 35 218.25 14 Puthi 21223 32262 226.00 0.52 16.97 16.45 209.03 15 Dhanaura 20555 29222 226.00 0.81 15.3 14.49 210.70 16 Budhera 18328 28271 225.00 0.70 12.54 11.84 212.46 17 Bilochpura 21112 25954 225.00 0.52 19.72 19.2 205.28 18 Hilwari 16268 32557 227.00 0.50 11.4 10.9 215.60 19 Pilana 23784 18737 222.24 1.00 18.36 17.36 203.88 20 Mukari 28573 15119 221.00 0.53 14.94 14.41 206.06 21 Dhakauli 23729 14738 222.36 0.35 15.38 15.03 206.98 22 Chamrawal 25343 11579 212.00 0.28 10.95 10.67 201.05 23 Rataul 21390 6859 221.00 0.20 15.35 15.15 ^ 205.65 24 Gauna 25343 7186 214.00 0.61 12.04 11.43 201.96 25 Bhagaut 22671 3870 222.00 0.45 17.12 16.67 204.88 26 Baragaon 20333 10748 220.61 0.38 13.19 12.81 207.42 27 Khekra 15210 10368 221.16 0.50 17.99 17.49 203.17 28 Fakharpur 16769 7491 220.00 0.38 17.02 16.64 202.98 29 Sankraudh 10533 10100 213.20 0.61 12.96 12.35 200.24 30 Katha 11257 14491 216.87 0.71 11.37 10.66 205.50 31 Baleni 32025 20235 217.27 0.40 12.2 11.8 205.07 32 Hisaoda 23395 22286 223.56 0.90 19.68 18.78 203.88 33 Daula 20277 21112 223.56 0.20 12.4 12.2 211.16 34 Khatta 19831 16044 224.86 060 11.72 11.12 213.14 35 Tatiri 13707 20342 225.00 0.65 12.85 12.2 212.15 36 Harchandpur 14709 16565 222.90 0.51 14.03 13.52 208.87 37 Kutana 3295 36649 225.00 0.65 14.34 13.69 210.66 38 Dhikana 9364 34322 227.00 1.05 12.47 11.42 214.53 39 Barauli 12148 33301 228.00 0.65 9.27 8.62 218.73 40 Goripur 9810 24014 222.90 0.41 14.03 13.62 208.87 41 Baghpat 8807 19229 225.15 0.50 13.52 13.02 211.63 42 Barnawa 29965 38039 222.84 0.49 12,77 12.28 210.07 43 Rahatna 26290 39682 227.00 0.25 23,33 22.08 203.67 VI S.No. Location X y RL HMP WL BGL AMSL 44 Shahjahanpur 28406 42436 230.00 0.60 23.1 22.5 206.90 45 Phusar 25566 43909 232.00 0.64 27.98 27.34 204.02 46 Dog hat 24508 47066 231.00 0.60 26.43 25.83 204,57 47 Daha 28350 47449 232.66 0.20 25,22 25.02 207.44 48 Garhi banjaro 32581 45410 231.00 0.62 14.84 14.22 216,16 49 Dhanaura Tikri 32247 49241 234.00 0.50 22.3 21.8 211.70 50 Nirpura 27515 50831 236.00 0.75 27.25 26.5 208.75 51 Tikri 23061 50844 230.00 1,20 25.2 24 204.80 52 M. Nangai 20555 45331 229.00 0.60 14.3 13.7 214.70 53 Bamnauli 22003 41328 221.07 0.62 18.5 17.88 202.57 54 Bijraul 18607 39422 230.00 0.84 15.95 15,11 214.05 55 Hasanpur 16546 43596 230,00 0.90 14.18 13,28 215.82 56 Barw'afa 12649 43100 233.00 0.62 16.11 15.49 216.89 57 Malakpur 9921 38207 231.00 0.80 15.43 14,63 215.57 58 Sadikpur 8585 41478 231.00 0.38 17.83 17,45 213,17 59 Mandi 3128 43183 230.00 0.60 12,89 12,29 217.11 60 Chandanheri 7694 45198 234.00 0.84 19.8 18,96 214.20 61 Chaprauli 5578 48865 231.00 0.00 15.77 15.77 215.23 62 Rithaura 8752 48630 234.00 0.20 19.44 19.24 214.56 63 Kurdi 3963 51911 227.00 0.40 9.8 9.4 217.20 64 Tanda 3073 55630 231.00 0.80 12.05 11.25 218.95 65 Bodha 4520 56809 233.00 0.90 13.72 12.82 219.28 66 Tugana 7415 54379 236.00 0.90 18.3 17.4 217.70 67 Lumb 10088 54259 236.00 0.60 15.73 15.13 220.27 68 Hewa 8251 51842 234.00 0.80 18.43 17.63 215.57 69 kirthal 11925 52057 232.00 0.35 15.08 14.73 216.92 70 Sonthii 12092 49241 232.00 0.25 13.73 13.48 218.27 71 Ramala 14542 50191 233.00 0.20 13.31 13.11 219.69 72 Kakripur 14876 53570 236.00 0.30 15.05 14.75 220.95 73 Asara 18440 52884 233.00 0.75 13.67 12.92 219.33 74 Budhpur 17716 48943 230.00 0.40 14.08 13.68 215.92 VI1 APPENDIX III(C) Water level data of monitoring wells (June 2007) S.No. Location X y RL HMP WL BGL AMSL 1 Sarurpur 10311 28349 224.46 1.00 12.10 11.10 212.36 2 Ninaha 7026 28809 218.00 0 41 9.89 9.48 208.11 3 Sujra 14486 26986 227.00 0.85 11.60 10.75 215.40 4 Sarai 26290 24081 225.00 0.20 22.94 22.74 202.06 5 Budhseni 29909 25084 225.10 0.50 22.54 22.04 202.56 6 Mawi Kalan 31301 27897 223.00 0.54 17.71 17.17 205.29 7 Ramnagar 25121 27970 226.00 0.87 24.91 24.04 201.09 8 Kamala 27292 30273 226.00 0.50 26.48 25.98 199.52 9 Fazalpur 25288 32138 229.00 0.90 25.33 24.43 203.67 10 Binauli 27960 35904 228.68 0.65 24.99 24.34 203.69 11 Jiwana 23617 35634 228.53 0.65 25.37 24.72 203.16 12 Bazidpur 17716 36158 230.00 0.50 17.40 16.90 212,60 13 Baraut 13818 36450 230 00 0.40 13.15 12.75 216.85 14 Puthi 21223 32262 226.00 0.52 17.70 17.18 208.30 15 Dhanaura 20555 29222 226.00 0.81 16.10 15.29 209.90 16 Budhera 18328 28271 225.00 0.70 13.73 13.03 211,27 17 Bilochpura 21112 25954 225.00 0.52 20.10 19.58 204.90 18 Hilwari 16268 32557 227.00 0.50 12.98 12.48 214.02 19 Pilana 23784 18737 222.24 1.00 19.64 18.64 202.60 20 Mukari 28573 15119 221 00 0.53 15.25 14.72 205.75 21 Dhakauli 23729 14738 222,36 0.35 15.79 15.44 206.57 22 Chamrawal 25343 11579 212.00 0.28 11.36 11.08 200.64 23 Rataul 21390 6859 221.00 0.20 16.05 15,85 204,95 24 Gauna 25343 7186 214.00 0.61 12.75 12.14 201,25 25 Bhagaut 22671 3870 222.00 0.45 17.49 17,04 204.51 26 Baragaon 20333 10748 220.61 0.38 13.56 13.18 207.05 27 Khekra 15210 10368 221.16 0.50 18.45 17.95 202.71 28 Fakharpur 16769 7491 220.00 0.38 17.66 17.28 202.34 29 Sankraudh 10533 10100 213.20 0.61 13.78 13.17 199,42 30 Katha 11257 14491 216.87 0.71 11.86 11.15 205,01 31 Baleni 32025 20235 217.27 0.40 12.58 12.18 204.69 32 Hisaoda 23395 22286 223.56 0.90 20.96 20.06 202,60 33 Daula 20277 21112 223.56 0.20 14.23 14.03 209.33 34 Khatta 19831 16044 224.86 0.60 12.74 12.14 212.12 35 Tatiri 13707 20342 225.00 0.65 13.97 13,32 211,03 36 Harchandpur 14709 16565 222.90 0.51 14.83 14,32 208,07 37 Kutana 3295 36649 225.00 0.65 15.05 14.40 209.95 38 Dhikana 9364 34322 227.00 1.05 13,40 12,35 213.60 39 Barauli 12148 33301 228.00 0.65 9.63 8,98 218.37 40 Goripur 9810 24014 222.90 0.41 14.56 14,15 208.34 41 Baghpat 8807 19229 225.15 0.50 14.03 13,53 211.12 42 Barnawa 29965 38039 222.84 0.49 13.45 12.96 209.39 43 Rahatna 26290 39682 227,00 0.25 23.58 23,33 203.42 Vlll S.No. Location X y RL HMP WL BGL AMSL 44 Shahjahanpur 28406 42436 230.00 0.60 25.16 24.56 204.84 45 Phusar 25566 43909 232.00 0,64 29.80 29.16 202.20 46 Doghat 24508 47066 231.00 0.60 28.10 27.50 202.90 47 Daha 28350 47449 232.66 0.20 27.83 27,63 204.83 48 Garhi banjaro 32581 45410 231.00 0.62 16,05 15.43 214.95 49 Dhanaura Tikri 32247 49241 234.00 0.50 24.15 23.65 209.85 50 Nirpura 27515 50831 236.00 0.75 29,07 28.32 206.93 51 Tikri 23061 50844 230.00 1.20 26,95 25,75 203.05 52 M. Nangai 20555 45331 229.00 0.60 15,44 14,84 213.56 53 Bamnauli 22003 41328 221.07 0.62 19,26 18,64 201.81 54 Bijraul 18607 39422 230.00 0.84 16.25 15,41 213.75 55 Hasanpur 16546 43596 230.00 0.90 14,71 13,81 215.29 56 Barwafa 12649 43100 233.00 0.62 16,55 15.93 216,45 57 Malakpur 9921 38207 231.00 0.80 15,58 14,78 215,42 58 Sadikpur 8585 41478 231.00 0.38 18,31 17,93 212,69 59 IVIandi 3128 43183 230.00 0.60 13,70 13,10 216,30 60 Chandanheri 7694 45198 234.00 0.84 20,72 19,88 213,28 61 Chaprauli 5578 48865 231.00 0.00 16,76 16,76 214,24 62 Rithaura 8752 48630 234.00 0.20 20,07 19,87 213,93 63 Kurdi 3963 51911 227.00 0.40 10,55 10,15 216,45 64 Tanda 3073 55630 231.00 0.80 12,56 11,76 218.44 65 Bodha 4520 56809 233.00 0.90 14,36 13,46 218,64 66 Tugana 7415 54379 236.00 0.90 19,29 18.39 216,71 67 Lumb 10088 54259 236.00 0.60 1 16,71 16.11 219.29 68 Hewa 8251 51842 234.00 0.80 18,74 17.94 215.26 69 kirthal 11925 52057 232.00 0.35 15,49 15.14 216.51 70 Sonthi 12092 49241 232.00 0.25 14,14 13.89 217.86 71 Ramala 14542 50191 233.00 0.20 14,02 13.82 218,98 72 Kakripur 14876 53570 236.00 0.30 15.42 15.12 220,58 73 Asara 18440 52884 233.00 0.75 14,04 13.29 218,96 74 Budhpur 17716 48943 230.00 0.40 14.54 14.14 215,45 IX APPENDIX IIl(D) Water level data of monitoring wells (November 2007) S.No. Location X y RL HMP WL B(5L AMSL 1 Sarurpur 10311 28349 22446 1 00 12.72 11 72 211.74 '2 Ninaha 7026 28809 218.00 041 10.17 9.76 207.83 * 3 Sujra 14486 26986 227.00 0.85 11.42 10.57 215.58 ! 4 Sarai 26290 24081 225.00 0.20 23.51 23.31 201.49 1 5 Budhseni 29909 25084 225.10 0.50 22.95 22.45 202.15 ': 6 Mawi Kalan 31301 27897 223.00 054 18.10 17.56 204.90 : 7 Ramnagar 25121 27970 226.00 0.87 25.11 24.24 200.89 ; 8 Kamala 27292 30273 226.00 0.50 26.77 26.27 199.23 : 9 Fazalpur 25288 32138 229.00 0.90 25.47 24.57 203.53 : 10 Binauli 27960 35904 228.68 0.65 25.42 24.77 203.26 i I"" Jiwana 23617 35634 228.53 0.65 26.60 25.95 201.93 ' 12 Bazidpur 17716 36158 230.00 0.50 17.71 17.21 212.29 ' 13 Baraut 13818 36450 230.00 0.40 13.00 12.60 217.00 14 Puthi 21223 32262 226.00 0.52 17.95 17.43 208.05 15 Dhanaura 20555 29222 226.00 0.81 16.25 15.44 209.75 16 Budhera 18328 28271 225.00 0.70 14.18 13.48 210.82 ' 17 Bilochpura 21112 25954 225.00 0.52 20.31 19.79 204.69 ' 18 Hilwari 16268 32557 227.00 0.50 13.12 12.62 213.88 • 19 Pilana 23784 18737 222.24 1.00 19.82 18.82 202.42 20 Mukari 28573 15119 221.00 0.53 15.51 14.98 205.49 21 Dhakauli 23729 14738 222.36 0.35 16.04 15.69 206.32 * 22 Chamrawal 25343 11579 212.00 0.28 11.81 11.53 200.19 ! 23 Rataul 21390 6859 221.00 0.20 16.10 15.90 204.90 24 Gauna 25343 7186 214.00 0.61 13.03 12.42 200.97 ' 25 Bhagaut 22671 3870 222.00 0.45 17.65 17.20 204.35 26 Baragaon 20333 10748 220.61 0.38 13.95 13.57 206.66 27 Khekra 15210 10368 221.16 0.50 18.92 18.42 202.24 28 Fakharpur 16769 7491 220.00 0.38 18.26 17.88 201.74 29 Sankraudh 10533 10100 213.20 0.61 14.17 13.56 199.03 30 Katha 11257 14491 216.87 0.71 12.91 12.20 203.96 31 Baleni 32025 20235 217.27 0.40 13.60 13.20 203.67 32 Hisaoda 23395 22286 223.56 0.90 21.45 20.55 202.11 33 Daula 20277 21112 223.56 0.20 13.58 13.38 209.98 34 Khatta 19831 16044 224.86 0.60 13.09 12.49 211.77 35 Tatiri 13707 20342 225.00 0.65 14.36 13.71 210.64 36 Harchandpur 14709 16565 222.90 0.51 15.14 14.63 207.76 37 Kutana 3295 36649 225.00 0.65 15.47 14.82 209.53 38 Dhikana 9364 34322 227.00 1.05 13.72 12.67 213.28 39 Barauli 12148 33301 228.00 0.65 10.20 9.55 217.80 40 Goripur 9810 24014 222.90 0.41 14.92 14.51 207.98 41 Baghpat 8807 19229 225.15 0.50 14.42 13.92 210.73 42 Barnawa 29965 38039 222.84 0.49 12.78 12.29 210.06 43 Rahatna 26290 39682 227.00 0.25 23.40 23.15 203.60 S.No. Location "x y RL H MP WL BGL AMSL 44 Shahjahanpur 28406 42436 230.00 0.60 25.03 24.43 204.97 45 Phusar 25566 43909 232.00 0.64 29.60 28.96 202.40 46 Doghat 24508 47066 231.00 0.60 28.02 27.42 20298 47 Daha 28350 47449 232.66 0.20 28.11 27.91 204.55 48 Garhi banjaro 32581 45410 231.00 0.62 15.93 15.31 215.07 49 Dhanaura Tikri 32247 49241 234.00 0.50 24.40 23.90 209.60 50 Nirpura 27515 50831 236.00 0.75 29.14 28.39 206.86 51 Tikri 23061 50844 230.00 1.20 27.09 25.89 202.91 52 M. Nangai 20555 45331 229.00 0.60 15.32 14.72 213.68 53 Bamnauli 22003 41328 221.07 0.62 19.12 18.50 201.95 54 Bijraui 18607 39422 230.00 0.84 16.44 15.60 213.56 55 Hasanpur 16546 43596 230.00 0.90 15.20 14,30 214.80 56 Barwafa 12649 43100 233.00 0.62 16.32 15.70 216.68 57 Malakpur 9921 38207 231.00 0.80 15.40 14.60 215.60 58 Sadikpur 8585 41478 231.00 0.38 17.99 17.61 213.01 59 Mandi 3128 43183 230.00 0.60 13.30 12.70 215.70 60 Chandanheri 7694 45198 234 00 0.84 20.79 19.95 213.21 61 Chaprauli 5578 48865 231.00 0.00 16.84 16.84 214.16 62 Rithaura 8752 48630 234.00 0.20 20.40 20.20 213.60 63 Kurdi 3963 51911 227.00 0.40 10.45 10.05 216.55 64 Tanda 3073 55630 231.00 0.80 12.65 11.85 218.35 65 Bodha 4520 56809 233.00 0.90 14.48 13.58 218.52 66 Tugana 7415 54379 236.00 0.90 19.45 18.55 216.55 67 Lumb 10088 54259 236.00 0.60 17.00 16.40 219.00 68 Hewa 8251 51842 234.00 0.80 19.10 18.30 214.90 69 kirthal 11925 52057 232.00 0.35 15.59 15.24 216.41 70 Sonthi 12092 49241 232.00 0.25 14.25 14.00 217.75 71 Ramala 14542 50191 233.00 0.20 13.80 13.60 219.20 72 Kakripur 14876 53570 236.00 0.30 15.25 14.95 220.75 73 Asara 18440 52884 233.00 0.75 13.90 13.15 219.10 74 Budhpur 17716 48943 1 230.00 | 0.40 14.35 1 13.95 215.65 XI APPENDIX IV Lithological Logs of Boreholes drilled by the State Tubewell Department S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS WELL NO. 102YG LOCATION: LUMB L Surface clay 0-3.0 3.0 2. Clay & Kankar 3.0-6.0 3.0 3. Hard clay & Kankar 6.0-27.0 21.0 4. Clay Kankar caving 27.0-42.0 15.0 5. Hard clay 42.0-45.9 3.9 6. Sand 45.9-71.4 25.5 7. Clay 71.4-73.5 2.1 8. Medium sand 73.5-78.0 4.5 9. Hard clay with Kankar 78.0-84.0 6.0 WELL NO. 99YG LOCATION: KAKRIPUR 1 Surface clay 0- 3.0 3.0 2. Hard clay with Kankar 3.0- 12 9.0 3. Fine sand with clay 12.0-18.0 6.0 4. Hard clay with Kankar 18.0-39.0 21.0 5. Fine sand 39.0-42.0 3.0 6. Medium sand 42.0-48.0 6.0 7. Hard clay 48.0-51.0 3.0 8. Medium sand 51.0-69.9 18.9 9. Hard clay 69.9-75.9 6.0 10. Medium sand 75.9-81.0 5.1 11. Hard clay with Kankar 81.0-87.0 6.0 WELLN0.23DG LOCATION: TIKRI 1. Clay & kankar 0-9 9 2. Fine sand 9- 18 9 3. Clay & kankar 18-33 15 4. Fine sand 33- 39 6 5. Clay & kankar 39- 42 3 6. Medium to fine sand 42- 72 30 7. Clay & kankar 7?- 75 3 \u S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 8. Medium to Jine sand 75- 87.9 12.9 9. Clay and sand 87.9- 90 2.1 10. Clay&kankar 90- 94.2 4.2 WELLN0.16DG LOCATION: NIRPURA 1. Clay & kankar 0-12 12 2. Fine sand 12-21 9 3. Clay&kankar 21-30 9 4. Fine sand 30-33 3 5. Clay & kankar 33-36 3 7. Fine sand 36-39 3 8. Clay & kankar 39-42 3 9. Fine sand 42-45 3 o 10. Clay&kankar 45-48 J 11. Medium to line sand 48-87 39 12. Clay&kankar 87-90 3 WELL N0.45 LG LOCATION: RANCHER 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay and Kankar 3-27 24 3. Fine sand 27-33 6 4. Clay & Kankar 33-36 J 5. Medium sand 36- 82.2 46.2 6. Clay & Kankar 82.2-85.2 3 WELL N0.68 YG LOCATION: BARNAWA 1. Surface clay 0-2.4 2.4 2. Fine sand 2.4-4.5 2.1 3. Clay 4.5-9 4.5 4. Fine to medium sand 9-13.5 4.5 5. Clay & kankar 13.5-39 25.5 6. Medium sand 39- 63.6 24.6 7. Clay 63.6-67.8 4.2 8. Medium sand 67.8-78 10.2 xni S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 9. Clay & Kankar 78-81 3 10. Medium sand 81-90 9 11. Clay 90-99 9 WELLNO.106YG LOCATION: BADERKHA 1. Clay & Kankar 0- 16.25 16.5 2. Fine sand 16.5-24 7.5 3. Hard clay & Kankar 24-42 18 4. Medium sand 42-48 6 5. Clay 48-49.5 1.5 6. Medium sand 49.5- 70.5 21 7. Hard clay & Kankar 70.5- 79.2 8.7 8. Medium sand 79.2- 84.3 5.1 9. Hard clay & Kankar 84.3-99 14.7 WELL NO. 98YG LOCATION: CHANDANHERI 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2 Clay vvilh kankar 3- 10.5 7.5 Fine sand 10.5-18 7.5 4 Clay with kankar 18-30 12 5 Fine sand with clay 30-48 18 6 Medium sand 48-66 18 7 Clay 66- 69.6 3.6 8 Medium sand 69.6-81 11.4 9 Hard clay with kankar 81-87 6 WELLNO. 38YG LOCATION: KUTANA 1. Clay 0-6 6 2. Fine sand 6- 18 12 3. Clay 18-27 9 4. Fine sand 27- 30 '1 5. Clay 30-33 3 6. Medium sand 33- 63 30 7. Clay 63-72 9 8. Medium sand 72- 79.5 7.5 XIV S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 9. ("lay 79.5- 85.5 6 WF.LLNO. 37 YG LOCATION: JAFARPUR 1 Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-30 27 3. Medium sand 30-63 33 4. Clay & kankar 63-72 9 5. Medium sand 72- 79.2 7.2 6. Clay & kankar 79.2- 84 4.8 WKLL NO. 35 YG LOCATION: SADIKPUR 1. Clay 0- 12 12 2. Fine to medium sand 12-18 6 3. Clay & kankar 18-21 3 4. Medium sand 21-27 6 5. Clay & kankar 27-30 3 6. Medium sand 30-75 45 7. Clay & kankar 75-81 6 WELL N0.34 YG LOCATION: BARAUT 1. Clay 0-27 27 2. Fine sand 27-31 4 3. Clay & kankar 31-39 8 4. Medium sand 39-66 27 5. Clay 66-70 4 6. fine to medium sand 70-85 15 7. Clay 85-89 4 WELL NO. 58 YG LOCATION: BUDHERA 1. Surface clay 0-3.05 3.05 2. Clay & kankar 3.05- 12.20 9.15 3. Fine to medium sand 12.2-33.53 21.33 XV S.NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 4. Clay&kankar 33.53-42.67 9.14 5. Medium sand 42.67-76.2 33.53 6. Clay 76.2-88.30 6.10 WELL N0.46 YG LOCATION: BIHARIPUR 1. Clay 0- 12 12 2. Medium sand 12-18 6 3. Clay & kankar 18-27 9 4. Fine to medium sand 27-72 45 5. Clay & kankar 72-78 6 WELLNO.120LG LOCATION: BAGHPAT 1. Surface clay 0-6 6 2. Clay & kankar 6-33 27 3. Fine sand 33-39 6 4. Clay 39-42 3 5. Medium sand 42-75 33 6. Clay 75-81.3 6.3 WELL N0.48 LG LOCATION: SANKRAUDH 1. Sandy clay 0-3.6 3.6 2. Medium sand 3.6- 7.8 4.2 3. Clay & kankar 7.8-26.4 18.6 4. Fine to medium sand 26.4-28.8 2.4 5. Clay & kankar 28.8-31.8 3 6. Medium sand 31.8-45.9 14.1 7. Clay & kankar 45.9- 50.4 4.5 8. Medium to coarse sand 50.4- 60 9.6 9. Clay & kankar 60- 65.4 5.4 WELL N0.42 LG LOCATION: LALIYAN 1. Clay 0-12 12 2. Sandy clay 12- 15 3 3. Hard ckiy 15-24 9 XVI S. NO. LITHOI.OCiY DEPTH THICKNESS 4. Sandy clay & kankar 24-27 3 5. Medium sand 27-33 6 6. Clay & kankar 33- 36 3 7. Fine to medium sand 36- 72.6 36.6 8. Clay & kankar 72.6-81 8.4 WELL NO. 25 LG LOCATION: PILANA 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-36 33 3. Medium sand 36-75 39 5. Clay & kankar 75- 82.2 7.2 WELL N0.23 YG LOCATION: BASI 1 Surface clay 0-2.25 2.25. 2. Fine sand 2.25-23.85 21.6 3. Clay & kankar 23.85-25.65 1.8 4. Fine to medium sand 25.65-29.5 3.85 5. Clay & kankar 29.5- 34.2 4.7 6. Medium sand 34.2- 49 14.8 7. Clay & kankar 49- 54.25 5.25 8. Medium to coarse sand 54.25-65.5 11.25 9. Clay & kankar 65.5-71.2 5.7 WELL N0.68 YG LOCATION: RATAUL 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-21 18 3. Medium Sand 21-69.6 48.6 4. Clay & kankar 69.6- 75 5.4 WELL NO. 40 YG LOCATION: FA2ALPUR 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-12 6 3. Fine sand 12-15 3 4. Clay & kankar 15-24 9 xvu S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 5. Fine to medium sand 24- 59.4 35.4 6. Clay & kankar 59.4- 62.7 3.3 7. Fine to medium sand 62.7-77.1 14.4 8. Clay & kankar 77.1-84 6.9 WELLNO.IOLG LOCATION: MAWI KALAN 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay 3-19.8 15.8 3. Clay & kankar 19.8-43.5 23.7 4. Fine to medium sand & kankar 43.5-67.5 24 5. Clay 67.5- 70.5 3 6. Medium sand & kankar 70.5- 76.5 6 7. Clay & kankar 76.5-81 4.5 8. Medium sand & kankar 81-90.3 9.3 WELL N0.27 YG LOCATION: MUKARI 1 Clay 0- 12.6 12.6 2. Fine sand 12.6- 18.6 6 3. Clay 18.6-40.5 21.9 4. Medium sand 40.5-58.2 17.7 5. Clay 58.2-64.5 6.3 6. Medium sand 64.5- 75 10.5 7. Clay 75-85 10 WELL NO. 49 LOCATION: GANGNOLl 1. Clay & kankar 0-9.15 9.15 2. Fine sand 9.15- 18.30 9.15 3. Clay & kankar 18.30-27.43 9.13 4. Fine to medium sand 27.43- 64 36.57 5. Clay & kankar 64-73 9 6. Medium sand & pebbles 73- 79.80 6.8 7. Clay 79.8-82.30 2.5 xvin S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS WELL NO. 3DG LOCATION TAVELAGARHl \. Clay 0- 18 18 2. Fine sand 18-23.4 5.4 3. Clay 23.4-41.4 18 4. Kankar 41.4-44.4 3 5 Clay 44.4- 57 12.6 6. Fine to medium sand 57-91.2 34.2 7. Clay 91.2-99 7.8 WELL NO. 39YG LOCATION: DHIKANA 1 Clay 0-9 9 2 Fine to medium sand 9- 12 3 3 Clay & kankar 12-15 3 4. Fine sand 15- 18 3 5. Clay & kankar 18-30 12 6. Medium sand 30-72 42 7. Clay 72-81 9 WELL N0.44 YG LOCATION: HILWARI 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-30 27 3. Coarse sand 30-45 15 4. Clay & kankar 45- 48 3 5. Medium sand 48-78 30 6. Clay & kankar 78-81 3 WELL NO. 41 YG LOCATION: BIJWARA 1 Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-9 6 3. Fine sand 9-15 6 4. Clay & kankar 15-34.5 19.5 5. Medium sand 34.5-55.2 20.7 6. Clay & kankar 55.2-56.1 0.9 XIX S.NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 7. Fine to medium sand 56.1-76.5 20.4 8. Clay & kankar 76.5- 84 7.5 WELL NO. 52 LOCATION: GALETHA 1 Clay 0-9.15 9.15 2. Clay & kankar 9.15-32.2 23.15 3. Hard clay 32.2- 46.3 14 4. Fine to medium sand 46.3- 56.4 9.8 5. Striky clay 56.4- 60.9 4.5 6. Hard clay & kankar 60.9- 64.9 4 7. Hard clay 64.9- 67.7 2.8 8. Fine to medium sand 67.7-84.1 16.4 9. Hard clay 84.1-92.6 8.5 10. Fine to medium sand 92.6- 101.8 9.2 11. Clay 101.8- 102.8 1 WELL NO. 50 LG LOCATION: TATIRl 1. Surface clay 0-6 6 2. Clay & Kankar 6-12 6 3. Fine sand 12- 18 6 4. Clay & kankar 18-30 12 5. Medium sand 30-72 42 6. Hard clay 42-96 24 WELL NO. 32LG LOCATION: DAULA 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Clay & kankar 3-31.5 28.5 3. Medium sand 31.5-72 40.5 4. Clay & kankar 72-78 6 WELL NO. 122LG LOCATION; BALENI Surface clay 0- 3 \.\ S. NO. LITHOLOGY DEPTH THICKNESS 2. Fine sand 3-6 3 3. Clay & kankar 6- 12 6 4. Clay 12-27 15 5. Clay & kankar 27-39 12 6. Medium sand 39-81 42 7. Clay 81-85.2 4.2 WELLN0.71LG LOCATION: KHEKRA 1. Surface clay 0-3 3 2. Hard clay 3-24 21 3. Clay & kankar 24-30 6 4. Medium sand 30-33 3 5. Clay & kankar 33-40.8 7.8 6. Medium sand 40.8-79.5 38.7 7. Clay & kankar 79.5-88.2 8.7 WELLN0.77YG LOCATION: BARAGAON 1. Surface clav 0-3 3 2. Fine sand 3-6 3 3. Clay & kankar 6-21 15 4. Medium sand 21-30 9 5. Clay & kankar 30-33 3 6. Medium sand 33-71.4 38.4 7. Clay & kankar 71.4-78 6.6 XXI APPENDIX V Results of Grain Size analysis of aquifer material Location: Sadikpur Depth: 56 meter Size Weight Weight Cumulative Cumulative Mesh No (mm) retained in retained in weight % weight % gram % retained passing 20 .84 6.36 3.18 3.18 96.82 25 .71 2.38 1.19 4.37 95.63 35 .41 30.08 15.04 19.41 80.59 45 .35 2 1 20.41 79.59 60 .25 109.01 55.51 74.92 25.08 80 ,177 33.96 16.98 91.9 8.1 120 .125 7.66 3.83 95.73 4.27 170 .08 j 2,92 1.46 97.19 2.81 PAN — 5.62 i 2.81 100 1 0.0 Location: Sarurpur Depth: 25 meter Size Weight Weight Cumulative Cumulative Mesh No (mm) retained in retained in weight % weight % gram % retained passing 20 .84 30.8 15.4 15.4 84.6 25 .71 4.32 2.16 17.56 82.44 35 .41 18.51 9.26 26.82 73.18 45 .35 5.42 2.71 29.53 70.47 60 .25 47.53 23.76 53.29 46.71 80 .177 55,98 27.99 81.28 18.72 120 .125 7.77 3.86 85.14 14.86 170 .08 22.19 11.1 96.24 3.76 PAN — 7.47 3.74 99.98 0.02 Location: Harchandpur Depth: 66 meter Size Weight Weight Cumulative Cumulative 1 Mesh No (mm) retained in retained in weight % weight % gram % retained passing 20 .84 9,36 4,68 4,68 95.32 25 .71 0 0 4.68 95.32 35 .41 21,45 10,72 15.4 84.6 45 .35 10.31 5,15 20.55 79.45 60 .25 93,72 46,86 67.41 32,59 80 .177 43,89 21,95 89.36 10,64 120 .125 10,75 5,37 94.73 5.27 170 ,08 3,67 1,84 96.57 3.43 PAN — 6,83 3.41 99.98 .02 xxu Location: Sarai Depth: 50 meter Size Weight Weight Cumulative Cumulative Mesh No (mm) retained in retained in weight % weight % gram % retained passing 20 0,84 15.98 7.99 7.99 92.01 25 0.71 2,05 1.025 9.015 90.985 35 0.41 28.33 14.165 23.18 76.82 45 0.35 0 0 23.18 76.82 60 0.25 86.04 43.02 66.2 33.8 80 0.177 39.94 19.97 86.17 13.83 120 0.125 14.04 7.02 93.19 6.81 170 0.08 3.94 1.97 95.16 4.84 PAN 0 9.68 4.84 100 0 Location: Rataul Depth: 36 meter Size Weight Weight Cumulative Cumulative Mesh No (mm) retained in Retained in weight % weight % gram % retained passing 20 .84 8.5 4,25 4.25 95.75 25 ,71 2.39 1,19 5.44 94.56 35 ,41 48.09 24,05 29.49 70.51 45 ,35 12.01 6 35.49 64.51 60 ,25 66.25 33,12 68.61 31.39 80 ,177 36.32 18,16 86.77 13.23 120 ,125 14.75 7,37 94.14 5.86 170 .08 5,08 2,54 96.68 3.32 PAN — 6,6 3,3 99.98 .02 XXlll J in 00 in "^ tM '^l^ j CD in rv -^ CD OD ^n ir^ ^ ^ ^ (D f^ CT) '^ og Kf '(DO in in CO r- ^D r" ^ ? !;r -- ^ ;:: 00 - !;r OT CD i CD OT CN< CO' CO m' ^3 «O CD .« T— -> TO — XrCNJin^CO^OOOTK.ir'l^CMcn'^CNJCOrNjCDOO C£)^T-co^"r^^rsjfi.'^CDCD^ 4i^ CDCD--CDCDCD(O'>*-'-'<-CDCO00CX3CNJ|.£2SSf;: c iCDtooocooocNCDt-r^CDcocDin'^"-!'^"-!*^ OQ CO cN -^ CM -^ CO in •^' CD N- r^' t^ 00 r^ 03 f^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 3 a T-T-v-^Tt-T-T-CD if-, T-CDCDCDrM'<- V. cDh-cMr-~inin-^o ^'. 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