CASUALISATION OF LABOUR AT ZAMBIA ELECTRICITY SUPPLY CORPORATION IN LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

FORCE MUNGAZI MUGANYU,

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF THE BACHELOR OF ARTS IN PURCHASING ND SUPPLY

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ABSTRACT This persistent use of casual Labor even after they have worked for more than six months is known as Casualisation. Casualisation stems from the word „casual‟ which, broadly, means temporal or occasional. Casualisation has several disadvantages which includes the following; high poverty levels because casual workers receive only what they work for, they do not receive any allowances or bonus like Christmas bonus, de-motivating of employees-that is to say a casual worker will be motivated when he first takes up an appointment but motivation will diminish with time unless he is employed and confirmed as a permanent and Pensionable employee, and tension and confrontations for example when it has been agreed by permanent employees to go on strike, Casual workers will continue to work and this will result in confrontation. However, Casualization has its own advantages which that make companies prefer it. Some of the advantages discovered from the research are; flexibility in operation as most casual workers are engaged verbally and there are no legal bindings involved. Therefore, it is easier to lay them off even without notice. In the face of swings in the demand of goods and services, temporal employment affords firms the flexibility needed to operate efficiently, reduction of financial burden on the company - many companies in their introduction stages prefer casual workers because they lack financial power and administration capacity for various operations required to run a company efficiently and because separation packages, if any, are relatively low, and temporal workers tend to be objective. Because the temporal worker has little experience in the host firm, she brings an objective perspective to the organizations‟ problems and procedures that are sometimes valuable. Also since the temporal worker may have a great deal of experience in other firms, she can sometimes identify solutions to the host organizations‟ problems that were contracted at a different firm. Thus temporal employee can sometimes help employers to benchmark and improve their practices. Finally the research has revealed that Casualisation of labour has been on the increase in Zambian companies including ZESCO because of the many loopholes that exist in the employment laws. However, there are a few enforceable provisions in the labour laws and are ineffectively enforced by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security owing to the few labour inspectors per district. To this end it has been recommended that Government should strengthen the capacity of the Ministry of Labour and Social Security to monitor employment issues across Zambia and ensure compliance with all provisions of the labour laws, notably those that deal with Casualisation of labour.

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DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my husband and my children. It is also dedicated to my employers, who occasionally allowed me to take time off my normal duties and attend to my studies and for the financial support render.

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DECLARATION

I, Force Mungazi Muganyu, declare that I am the sole author of this dissertation, that during the period of registered study with Cavendish University, I have not submitted this work to any other University for an academic award or qualification, nor has any of the material been submitted wholly or partially for any other award. This dissertation is a result of my own research work and where other people‟s work was used, they have been duly acknowledged.

Candidate ...... Sign......

Supervisor ...... Sign…......

vi Table of Contents CASUALISATION OF LABOUR AT ZAMBIA ELECTRICITY SUPPLY CORPORATION IN LUSAKA, ZAMBIA...... 3 DEDICATION ...... 5 DECLARATION ...... 6 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 10 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 11 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...... 12 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ...... 13 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 13 1.6 ASSUMPTIONS ...... 13 1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ...... 14 1.8 CONCLUSION ...... 14 CHAPTER TWO ...... 15 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 15 2.2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF CASUALISATION ...... 16 Marxist theory ...... 16 2.3 DEFINITION OF CASUALISATION OF LABOUR ...... 17 2.4 LEGAL GUIDANCE ON EMPLOYMENT ...... 19 Comment on labour laws...... 19 2.5.0 ETHICAL GUIDANCE ON EMPLOYMENT: ...... 20 2.5.1 CONVENTIONS AND COVENANTS SIGNED BY ZAMBIA...... 21 2.6.0 MORAL GUIDANCE ON EMPLOYMENT ...... 22 Guiding values...... 22 2.7.0 WHAT CAUSES CASUALISATION OF LABOUR GENERALLY? ...... 23 2.8.0 ADVANTAGES OF CASUALISATION TO EMPLOYERS ...... 26 2.8.1 Flexibility in operation ...... 26 2.8.2 Reduction of financial burden on the Company ...... 26 2.8.3 Objectivity of temporal worker ...... 27 2.9.0 DISADVANTAGES OF CASUALISATION TO EMPLOYEES...... 27

vii 2.9.1 The High poverty levels ...... 27 2.9.3 Tensions and confrontations ...... 28 2.10 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR IN ZAMBIA ...... 29 2.11 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR AT PENSIONS ...... 32 2.12 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR IN AFRICA ...... 34 2.13 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR GLOBALLY ...... 35 2.14 THE ZAMBIAN GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON CASUALISATION OF LABOUR 37 2.15 IS CASUALISATION A GOOD PRACTICE? ...... 37 2.16 THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS CHANGE ...... 39 2.17 INDUSTRIAL ISSUES AND UNION MEMBERSHIP ...... 40 2.18 CONCLUSION ...... 41 CHAPTER THREE ...... 42 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 42 3.2.0 SOURCES OF DATA ...... 42 3.2.1 TARGET POPULATION ...... 42 3.2.3.1 SAMPLE SIZE ...... 43 3.2.2 SAMPLING METHODOLOGY ...... 43 3.2.3 THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ...... 43 3.2.3.1 QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ...... 44 3.2.3.2 THE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEM ...... 44 3.2.3.3 PILOT STUDY ...... 44 3.3.0 THE RESEARCH PROCESS ...... 45 3.3.1 ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES ...... 45 3.3.2 COLLECTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES ...... 45 3.3.3 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 46 3.3.4 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ...... 46 3.3.4.1 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ...... 46 3.4.0 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY ...... 47 3.4.1 Time; ...... 47 3.4.2 Cost; ...... 47 3.4.3 Change management; ...... 47

viii 3.4.4 Fear of releasing information; ...... 48 3.4.5 Security or risk factors; ...... 48 3.5.0 ELIMINATION OF BIAS ...... 48 3.6.0 CONCLUSION ...... 48 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 49 A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ...... 50 B: CASUALISATION OF LABOUR ...... 54 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 76 5.2 DISCUSSIONS AND INTERPRETATION ...... 76 CHAPTER SIX ...... 79 6.2 CONCLUSIONS ...... 80 6.3 IMPLICATIONS ...... 81 6.4 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS TO GOVERNMENT AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS ...... 82 7.0 REFERENCE ...... 83 8.0 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR QUESTIONNAIRE...... 88

ix CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are three main types of employment namely; Permanent and Pensionable, Temporary or fixed term for a specified period and Casual employment (all full-time or part-time). However our concern in this study is casual employment. Casualisation stems from the word „casual‟ which, broadly, means temporal or occasional. According to Sichula (2010:VII) of The Post news paper, “it is a form of employment where employees are engaged on short-term basis, as opposed to permanent and Pensionable employment or fixed term contract.” Therefore, this study is an evaluation of Casualisation of labour at Public Service Pensions Fund and others. Casualisation information from other companies is also considered. The study is drawn from Human Resource Management and focuses on human resource welfare. This chapter presents the background to the problem, significance of the study, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, statement of the problem, purpose, research questions, assumptions and scope of the study.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Casualisation of labour in Zambia started in the early 1991‟s when the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) came into power under the leadership of former President Fredrick Titus Jacob Chiluba, went in full force with the privatisation of state owned enterprises which the government viewed as inefficient and a drain on public resources. According to the Institute of Directors of Zambia (2004:2) it is observed that, “Despite the government‟s effort to privatise industries then, the economy has witnessed a number of corporate failures in the many industrial sectors mostly due to mismanagement and corruption resulting from deficiency in the implementation of sound corporate governance principles and practices”. Examples of failed enterprises include Meridian Bank, Zambia Airways, and Agriflora to name but a few. Before liberalisation/privatisation of the economy (1992) Zambia had less casual workers than the situation is. Mweshi (2005) reveals that, “The labour statistics indicate that formal sector employment level was officially calculated at 423,

x 978 in 2002, it was down by 11% on the previous year. Official figures show that 22% is due to the reduction in the public administration following the public sector reform programme”. The International Labor Organization (ILO) Country Report (2005) records that, “privatization/liberalization has brought in new investors in Zambia who are not willing to deal with trade unions. The end result has been Casualization of labor and the use of contract labor”. Casual labor has triggered debate from various angles. It was also an important campaign issue during the 2006 election campaign. This prompted the late President of the Republic of Zambia Mwanawasa (2006) to acknowledge in his October 2, inaugural speech that, “Casualization was a problem that his government intended to deal with, see Inaugural Speech 2006.”

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The problem is the continued casualization of labor. ZESCO has continued to register higher numbers of casual labor especially during the installation of pole line as well as bush clearing exercise every year. Most of the employees stay for over 6 months during the installation of poles as well as clearing. While others who are the majority are engaged in clearing the bush along the pole lines. This problem has brought a lot of discontentment among the casual labor in Zambia and if it continues, many people will continue to be marginalized in the face of well documented labour laws. The study therefore has been undertaken to evaluate the effects of casual labor and its implications in the Zambian market The impact of casual labour on the Zambian labour Market: In a study of Lengwe regardging the rising of casual labour in Zambia at CELTEL as well as ZESCO, it was reported that the figure of casual labour is alarming and many people employed are casual workers. It reported that Casual employment sector had risen from 10.8% of equivalent full time staff (which combined fractional appointment) in 2005 to 15.4% in 2006, with 18.2% of that figure increasing between 2006 and 2007. Casualisation continues to impact negatively on the morale of the Zambian workers. It should be noted that, as these figures are for equivalent full time staff, it underestimates the actual numbers of casual and contractual positions.”

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1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is an evaluation of Casualization of labour at ZESCO. The study focuses on human resource welfare. This study is important because it will benefit the Zambian government, labour market and Pension Board in that the study will bring out problems faced by casual worker, hence the government will come up with a policy regarding Casualisation, and this will increase government revenue which finally will be directed into government developmental projects. The labour market will benefit in that there will be awareness of the employment conditions of service. It will also increase academic knowledge on Casualisation on the side of researchers; hence the study will raise debate and be a springboard for further research.

12 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

General objective

To determine the effects of casualization on labor in Lusaka Zambia

Specific objectives

i. To analyse the impact of Casualisation of Labour on staff welfare at ZESCO in Zambia. ii. To examine the existing labour Policies and Laws regarding Casualisation at ZESCO in Zambia iii. To find out if there are any economical advantages and disadvantages for companies and individuals involved in Casualisation at ZESCO in Zambia? iv. To make recommendations for effective measures on the reduction of Casualisation in ZESCO in Zambia.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

i. What is the impact of Casualisation practice in Zambia on staff welfare?

Does Casualisation of labour increase poverty?

ii. Are there any economical advantages and disadvantages for companies and individuals involved in Casualisation? iii. How favourable are the labour laws on Casualisation to the local employees?

iv. Why do private companies including government continue Casualisation despite a stoppage of it by the Minister of Labour and Social security?

1.6 ASSUMPTIONS

There is a negative impact of Casualisation of labour in Zambia on the staff-welfare. This is emanating from the exploitative nature of employers who do not engage employees on permanent basis and give minimum wages without any allowances enjoyed by permanent staff. 13

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The coverage of this study is focused on the Ministry of labor and social security, Trade Unions, ZESCO, ILO, Construction companies. Its coverage area is mainly Lusaka urban. However, a case of ZESCO is considered. The topic is extracted from Human Resources Management module focusing on the importance of employee retention and social welfare including motivation.

1.8 CONCLUSION

This study is an evaluation of Casualization of labor at ZESCO. The study focuses on human resource welfare. This chapter has discussed the background to the problem, significance of the study, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, statement of the problem, purpose, research questions, assumptions and scope of the study. The next chapter is literature review.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter sets out to present the extensive literature and theoretical framework in the area of Casualisation as written by other authors and researchers. This chapter discusses the theoretical foundation of Casualisation of labour, the definitions of Casualisation of Labour, legal guidance on employment, ethical guidance on employment, moral guidance on employment, what causes Casualisation of labour generally, advantages and disadvantages of Casualisation, Casualisation of Labour in Zambian companies generally and Casualisation of Labour at ZESCO specifically, Casualisation of Labour in Africa, Casualisation of Labour Globally, The topic is further analysed under the following headings; The Zambian Government policies on Casualisation of labour, is Casualisation a good practice, the impact of industrial relations change, and finally industrial issues and union membership.

It compares and contrasts the views of various authors to that of the researcher on Casualisation. The objective of literature review is to lay a theoretic framework for the study. According to White (2000:67), states that, “exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they will meet during the study”. On the other hand Cooper and Schindler (2008:102) explain that, “in literature search…your objective is to accomplish the following: expand your understanding of the management dilemma by looking for ways others have addressed and/or solved problems similar to your management dilemma or management question, gather background information on your topic to refine the research question, identify the information that should be gathered to formulate investigative questions, identify sources for and actual questions that might be used as measurement questions, and identify sources for and actual sample frames (list

15 of potential participants) that might be used in sample design….a review of books as well as articles in journals or professional literature that relate to your management dilemma”.

2.2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF CASUALISATION

A theory can be said to be as an explanation, principal or system of anything. It can also be made up of ideas from our fore-fathers. They form a basis on which the current ideas and decisions maybe based. In the topic at hand, Casualisation can be said to have started around the 1960s in the times of growing capitalism. It is spread worldwide hence needs worldwide efforts in order to eradicate it. Brass (1999) reports that, “Since the end of the 60's world capitalism has been going through a permanent crisis, one of whose most flagrant manifestations has been mass unemployment. There have been successive waves of lay-offs, and a total inability to integrate the new generations of workers into the productive process. To try and mask this enormous unemployment and to seek to avoid its explosive growth, which could expose the bankruptcy of capitalism, the exploiters have used the trick of filling a post using five, ten or even twenty different kinds of temporary contracts. In Spain, in October 2004 alone nearly one and a half million contracts were registered with the Employment Offices, and this despite the fact that the number of unemployed increased by more than 30,000 workers.”

Marxist theory

There are several theories or beliefs about the source of Casualisation. One such theory is by Karl Marx. It is known as the Marxist theory. The theory‟s thrust is on labour power. Labour power is a significant input into the line of production. No machine, for example, can operate without human intervention. Casualisation existed in the beginning because of the capitalists‟ desire to maximize returns from labour power. According to Mandel (1969) Marx defines labour power as follows, "By labour-power or capacity for labour is to be understood the aggregate of those mental and physical capabilities existing in a human being, whom he exercises whenever he produces a use- value of any description." Mandel further explains that, “Labour power is a crucial concept used by Karl Marx in his critique of capitalist political economy. He regarded labour power as the most important of the productive forces of human beings. Labour power can be simply defined

16 as work-capacity, the ability to do work. Labour power exists in any kind of society, but on what terms it is traded or combined with means of production to produce goods and services has historically varied greatly.” Furthermore, Steedman (1982) explains that, “Under capitalism labour- power becomes a commodity – it is sold and bought on the market. A worker tries to sell his or her labour- power to an employer, in exchange for a wage or salary. If successful (the only alternative being unemployment), this exchange involves submitting to the authority of the capitalist for a specific period of time. During that time, the worker does actual labour, producing goods and services. The capitalist can then sell these and obtain surplus value; since the wages paid to the workers are lower than the value of the goods or services they produce for the capitalist. In an effort to maximize on profit Casual workers are employed.”

2.3 DEFINITION OF CASUALISATION OF LABOUR

The researcher decided to tackle the subject of Casualisation of Labour in Zambia because it has been observed, with sadness, that many employers note that the definition of Casual Labour from the Laws of the land has deficiencies. One of the many deficiencies is that the Laws of Zambia stress that, “Casual workers are those who are employed for the continuous period of more than six months and are not confirmed as permanent employees”. The other loophole is that the Act, in its definition, as will be seen below, says that a Casual worker is paid at the end of each day. To forestall this, the employers, Government included, ask the casual workers to rest for a few days before they could continue with the next six months and pay their Casual workers at the end of the month. This, financially and administratively, is to the perpetrators‟ advantage. Therefore, the researcher defines a Casual worker as any member of the company who is employed repeatedly for any period, once or even for the period of less or more than six (6) months, is not confirmed as permanent worker and is denied, expressly or implied, of the general conditions of service enjoyed by permanent employees regardless of when he or she is paid, and the job involved is permanent in nature. There are many employment laws in Zambia which deal with the employment of personnel at various levels, but they (laws) are not observed by employers, because of this Casualisation in Zambia is on the increase by various investors. These investors have defined Casualisation to suit their needs. Others have deliberately extending the period of employment beyond six months but the conditions are as poor as before. Several authors have come up with different definitions for Casualisation but they all agree that it deprives the workers of basic working conditions. The Laws of Zambia do not discuss Casualisation in depth as it is not its pre- occupation. It is more concerned with permanent employment. Nevertheless, Ministry of Justice (1996)

17 in the Employment Act Chapter 268 of 1996 section 28 of the laws of Zambia defines a Casual employee as, “a worker engaged for a period of less than six (6) months and who is paid at the end of each day…requiring written contracts when contract of service is made for a period of or exceeding six months or for a number of working days equivalent to six months or more;”. Henriot (2007:55) explains that, “the expectation is that this category of worker includes, those engaged in piece work, and short term construction work. Casual workers are guaranteed some minimum hourly wage but they would not be eligible for allowances, guaranteed contract workers, examples are, allowance for lunch, travel, and housing. Nor would they ordinarily receive benefits like paid vacation, paid sick leave, funeral assistance, terminal benefits (gratuity). Taxes are taken out, and casual employees can be discharged any time, without warning and without penalty”. The researcher observes that different scholars have defined casual employment differently but providing the same meaning and all bringing out injustices suffered by Casual workers. According to „myfuture‟ on its website, “Casual employment is a job that pays you on an hourly basis. Casual employees generally receive a wage loading instead of working conditions such as paid annual leave and sick leave. The terms „permanent‟ and „casual‟ refer to the employment status (entitlement to conditions) of an individual, not the number of hours they work”. The website further classifies Casual employment to can be, “Regular or irregular. Some casual jobs offer regular working hours with predictable working patterns and regular earnings. Others involve more intermittent work...secondly....Full-time or part-time (less than 35 hours a week)...and lastly...Temporary or seasonal in nature, or longer term”. The researcher observes that the later type is mostly used by companies that tend to disguise that they are not engaged in Casualisation. Casual work may mean something different under different circumstances. For example most modern assignments are using the word projects. Therefore, what is casual work under non-project jobs (on going jobs) may not be so under the project undertaking. What is bad under conventional jobs may not be bad under projects. For example a contract of six months maybe bad practice under conventional jobs while it will be good under a project running for six months. Basso (2003:35) states that, “Casualisation has two main meanings. It is often used loosely in the international literature to refer to the spread of bad conditions of work such as employment insecurity, irregular hours, intermittent employment, low wages and an absence of standard employment benefits. In Zambia, it has a slightly narrower but more solid meaning as defined under the Act above. Because our labour market contains a prominent form of employment that has been given a label of „casual‟, Casualisation in the Zambian literature usually refers to a process whereby more and more of the workforce are employed in these „casual‟ jobs”. O‟Donnell (2004:68), States that, “Casual jobs are commonly understood as jobs that attract an hourly rate of pay but very few of the other rights and benefits, such as the right to notice of termination of employment, the right to severance pay and most forms of paid leave such as annual leave, public holidays, institutional holidays example school holidays, sick leave, and so on, that

18 are normally associated with permanent jobs”. According to the revised Act No. 15 of 1997 of the laws of Zambia Casual employee is re-defined as, “any employee the terms of whose employment provide for his or her payment at the end of each day and who is engaged for a period of not more than six months”.

2.4 LEGAL GUIDANCE ON EMPLOYMENT

Extreme poverty in Zambia has bred a dangerous work environment and culture where many workers are willing to suffer abuse by their employers for fear of losing the little they earn. It is in this desperate climate that labour laws become highly important for the protection of basic human rights and promotion of human dignity. The following overview of the present labour laws in Zambia provides explanation of how employees are currently suffering abuse through both legal and illegal labour practices.

Comment on labour laws

According to the laws of Zambia, the definition of a legal „casual employee‟ remains open to interpretation, but the benefits guaranteed nothing but his or her wage. Excluded from legal protection on minimum wages, job security, allowances or terminal benefits. Furthermore, a casual employee cannot qualify for the PAYE tax exemption rate on income under K600, 000 and must pay income tax on every single Kwacha earned. It is evident that a casual employee is legally guaranteed very little in terms of remuneration for services offered. The labour laws strongly discouraged the hiring of employees on short contracts, but also recognised that certain jobs (i.e. repairs, transport, and so on.) are very temporary in nature and demand short-term employment. Ministry of Justice (1997) amended the Employment Act Chapter 268 (CAP. 268) in 1997 in response to the emergence of a private sector in Zambia, and a „casual employee‟ was re-defined at this time to include all workers engaged for a period less than six months but still paid on a daily basis. The casual employee fills a very important gap in society, but it is the abuse of this type of employee that has become referred to negatively as the Casualisation of labour.

A permanent employee could be a worker on a 1-year or a 25-year contract, a part-time or full-time worker, a worker paid salary or hourly wage, a cleaner or managing director, a unionised or non- unionised employee, a member of the formal sector or someone employed informally. However,

19 unionised employees, government workers and domestic workers are legally excluded from CAP. 276 on minimum wage and belong to a separate category of legal employee. A permanent employee is given significant legal protection through provisions under both CAP. 276 on minimum wages and CAP. 268 on employment.

As observed above, there is great injustice of illegal wages and conditions of service provided to Zambian employees.

2.5.0 ETHICAL GUIDANCE ON EMPLOYMENT:

Casualisation, the fact that it does no give equal pay and other working conditions to Casual employees who equally put in as much contribution to the organisation as permanent employees is unethical, immoral and unjustifiable. Chrissides and Kaler (1993:53) define ethics as, “that which is concerned with clarifying what constitute human welfare and the kind of conduct necessary to promote it….” Immanuel Kant‟s (1991) ethical theory was based on the moral principal that he called the Categorical Imperative that requires everyone to be treated as a free person equal to everyone else. The Categorical Imperative was regarded by Kant as a command that held, no matter what the circumstances. This command is according to him unconditional it states that: act so that you treat humanity whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only”.

Justice is an important moral concept on individual and societal levels. It has a wide range of applications. It is used to evaluate not only the actions of individuals but also social, legal, political, and economic practices and institutions, essentially around issues of the most just distribution of goods such as wealth, income, status, power and control. According to Bradburn (2001: 34) he defined justice, “as a concept that is about the moral proper treatment of people – being fair and giving people what they deserve. Justice then, is a concept involving the fair and moral treatment of all persons”.

20 Therefore, the concept of justice in as far as this topic is concerned is relevant. Boatright (2003:73) said that, “to treat people justly is to give them what they deserve that is a just way of treating human being”. Corporations that have played the game of business like the game of poker have suffered badly. Linden (2008) contributed that, “if business consisted of conscious mis-statements, exaggerations and the concealment of pertinent facts business practice would be inherently unstable. Business can only be stable if the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) has a set of moral standards higher than those that govern the game of poker”. Linden, (2008) further adds that, “unless business adheres to a minimum standard of justice, business practice would be impossible”.

2.5.1 CONVENTIONS AND COVENANTS SIGNED BY ZAMBIA.

The Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) is signatory to numerous international covenants that contain principles about the rights of all people as human beings. International covenants are the principles that provide internationally accepted „ethical‟ guidance for the formulation of policies within signatory countries. Since the year 1919 the International Labour Organisation (ILO) has formulated international conventions on the rights of workers, and these conventions stand as the International Labour Standards in guidance of work. As of 2002 Zambia is signatory to 39 conventions out of 184 in total, including conventions that call for a minimum wage tied to cost of basic needs and productivity of a worker Convention 26 (C26), legislation to protect the wages of employees in case a company is liquidated (C95), legal protection of workers to severance pay on termination of employment (C158) and the right of workers to organise and operate without intimidation as a union (C87 and C98).

21 2.6.0 MORAL GUIDANCE ON EMPLOYMENT

In addition to ethical guidance on employment offered by the Zambia Government and the International community, the Church also offers a moral perspective on employment. According to the New King James bible copyright by Thomas Nelson (1980) in Mathew chapter 22 verse 39 records that, “And the second…thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself”. If it were so by all no body would want to deprive the other of basic working conditions by employing them as Casual workers. The Church‟s Social Teaching (CST) notes that, “at the heart of the Christian tradition lays the challenging example set by Jesus: one love, special attention to the downtrodden and simplicity of lifestyle. In addition to the teaching directly from the Bible, the CST includes writings of church leaders such as pastors, bishops, etc, on how Christians should live as positive members of society….The understanding of the dignity of work within the CST has evolved alongside changes in society and economy over the past century, and the following are some of the key values that have emerged for the guidance of labour.

Guiding values

Human Dignity: created in the image of God, all human beings possess innate dignity that should be respected and uplifted. A man or woman at work is never just a cog in the wheel, but someone created in God‟s image.

Sanctity of Work: as dignified beings created with unique talents, a human fulfils his or her missions on earth by using these talents to transform the word in a positive way, or in other words, to work as a co-creator with God. Realising the sacredness of work, employees should work with enthusiasm, creativity and love.

Promotion of Common Good: while working to have a positive impact on the world, humans should recognise the equality of all human beings created in the image of God and be sure that actions do not promote the good of the few over the majority. While paying in relation to worker skill and productivity, employers should also avoid extreme disparity in the remuneration of employees.

Option for the Poor: recognising the vulnerability and voicelessness of the poor, special attention ought to be paid to how actions, structures, attitudes, etc, inhibit the poor from using their talents to transform the world positively”.

22 Employers and labour laws should make special provision for the uplifting of all vulnerable employees, including those formally employed, informally employed, self- employed or unemployed.

2.7.0 WHAT CAUSES CASUALISATION OF LABOUR GENERALLY?

The causes of Casualisation of labour are the subject of debate. The researcher can put to one side some of the less plausible suggestions that invoke shifts in employee preferences to have time to them and just work for a few days or hours. But this research is concerned with Casualisation of labour which is determined by the employers. However, Simpson, Dawkins and Madden (1997) agree with De Ruyter (1997) that:

More seriously, it is sometimes asserted that the growth in casual employment may be anchored in structural change favouring industries such as retail and hospitality, in which casual work has traditionally been concentrated. But this explanation fits poorly with the evidence that Casualisation has unfolded in all industry groups, with the fastest rates of growth occurring in industries such as manufacturing, agriculture, electricity companies, where casual work has had relatively little presence in the past. But De Ruyter, (1997) adds that, “tests of the structural change argument through shift-share analysis of Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) data have found that it accounts for very little of the overall growth in casual work.

In most parts of the world, Casualisation has been fuelled by the growing globalisation and privatisation. Foreign investors seek cheap labour. On the other hand unskilled excess labour resulting from privatisation have no choice but to get the available casual work to sustain their living. Furthermore, most of the foreign investors do not allow their employees to form unions at the place of work. According to Wooden (2001: 22-25), in discussing causes of Casualisation state that:

Four principal reasons why casual employment has been growing in recent years apart from structural change according to industry, points to privatization, reduction in unionisation and an increased incidence of casual employment in new workplaces and firms. However, these are merely 23 factors that are associated in statistical analysis with Casualisation; they do not qualify as genuine causes. Nor is the association well specified”. Campbell (2004) agrees that, “factors increasing Casualisation such as structural change, privatization and a decline in union density can be found in several Organizations of Economic Corporations for Development (OECD) nations, but Casualisation in the form found in Australia and Africa is highly distinctive.

Our Zambia legislation has been accused of fuelling Casualisation because of the gaps that are taken advantage of by some investors. These loopholes can be a serious cause of Casualisation. One of the loopholes is that the Act does not provide for stiff punishment on companies practicing Casualisation. These problems are common to countries where Casualisation is on the increase. Campbell and Brosnan (1999: 354-357, 2005) agree with Pocock, Buchanan and Campbell (2004a: 21-23) that:

An explanation that refers to historical agents and that seeks to grasp the peculiarities of the Australian situation has been attempted. This is perhaps the most promising effort so far in the discussion of causes of Casualisation… They suggest that the explanation for Casualisation can be found in the interaction. Between the peculiarities of the labour regulation system in Australia and employer calculations and choices. Labour regulation in Australia has little statutory regulation, but it instead relies on awards to provide minimum labour standards. Awards can be rightly criticized for their slow incorporation of clauses allowing permanent part-time work… But the more decisive weaknesses that nourish Casualisation are to do with what can be called the gaps in award regulation…. The very existence of casual clauses that exempt employers from being obliged to offer standard rights and benefits can be seen as one gap, but also important are the gaps as a result of poor enforcement and limited coverage”. Further, Campbell and Brosnan (2005) add that, “In Australia the patchwork nature of the award system, marked by numerous hidden gaps, and without any underpinning floor of basic rights, was crucial in making casual employment available to employers… Nevertheless, they warn that this only provided opportunities; it did not determine outcomes. The crucial mechanism for changes in the significance of casual employment is employer choices about the structure of employment in their enterprise, primarily based on perceptions of the relative advantages of casual employment.

It may also be argued that economic factors and lack of stead flow of cash in companies may cause the growth of Casualisation. As the world has in recent years changed from the permanent to project

24 work method in order to save time and money. As from the human resource view most management would like to have less commitment with employees as a cost saving measure. This approach also advances the Casualisation approach as a way of employment. The latest study according to Hitchens (2008) reveals that, “one of the reasons for Casualisation of staff in Zambia is the heavy retrenchment and benefits system. It is a disincentive to companies to employ staff directly – it is almost impossible to lay-off poorly performing staff once in service. The retrenchment requirement of 2-3 months (or more) of final salary for each year served are a large long-term liability that many company‟s prefer to avoid.”

Longwe (2008) in her research quotes (Petrauskis, 2005), that:

One possible factor encouraging Casualisation is lack of clarity in the government‟s labour laws concerning legal employee categories. There are three labour categories – casual, temporary (on oral contracts) and fixed duration or open-ended (on written contracts). But these categories cover too many types of employees, including part- timers; those paid hourly, those paid monthly. Confusion about hiring can be used as an excuse for promoting Casualisation….Another factor is the feeling that labour laws make excessive demands to pay terminal benefits to employees. Many employers will plead that they simply can not afford to hire workers on contracts longer than six months because they will have to pay huge pension benefits for example gratuities. But this is only a misconception that all contracted employees are guaranteed large retirement benefits of 3 months basic pay per year of service. In fact, retirement benefits from employers are only due a small portion of the employed –example those who have been contracted and work for at least 10 years before reaching the age of 55, or those who have worked for 25 years with a single employer....A third factor encouraging Casualisation is that loopholes do exist in labour laws, allowing employers to hire casual employees continuously to fill permanent positions. These loopholes are taken advantage of by many employers to minimise investments in their employees and it isn‟t only small resource constrained employers. As anyone following the publicised disputes knows, Casualisation is prominent in the mines, in the industrial sector, in the industrial sector, in the retail sector, in the hotel industry, in the agricultural sector, in church circles, and so on.

The ministry of labour and social security is said to be too short of funds and personnel to adequately monitor employers nationwide. This is confirmed by the remarks made by the minister on 25 Wednesday, January 03, 2007 that, “the enhanced monitoring of the labour policy through random inspections will continue as it is one of the adopted measures to ensure workers‟ welfare was satisfied. The minister said, no employer will be spared of the law if found flouting any of the labour requirements, especially those affecting the workers‟ health and security”.

The deputy minister in the Ministry of labour and social security, Mr. Liato (2007), further said in an interview with the Times news paper in Lusaka that, “The Government realised that the issues affecting the labour sector were not adequately handled in the past hence the need to focus more attention and address most pressing issues affecting the workers. The public should report any employers flouting the labour law through Casualisation, child labour or poor safety conditions to the ministry of labour and social security. So the loopholes are exploited quietly – until a foreign-owned explosive factory blows up and kills more than 50 Zambians, whose names are not even known because they were casual workers hired day after day.”

2.8.0 ADVANTAGES OF CASUALISATION TO EMPLOYERS

Casualisation of labour is driven by its flexibility in operation, reduction of financial burden on the company and the objectivity of the casual worker. Casualisation is being used by most industries in the world today because there are major advantages derived from Casualisation

2.8.1 Flexibility in operation

Most of the casual workers are engaged verbally and there are no legal bindings involved. Therefore, it is easier to lay them off even without notice. In the face of swings in the demand of goods and services, temporal employment affords firms the flexibility needed to operate efficiently. Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart & Wright, (2008) also stresses that, “whereas downsizing has been a popular method for reducing a labour surplus, hiring temporal workers and outsourcing has been the most widespread means of eliminating a labour shortage.”

2.8.2 Reduction of financial burden on the Company

Many companies in their introduction stages lack financial power and administration capacity for various operations required to run a company efficiently and separation packages, if any, are relatively low. Therefore from time to time they will rely on outsourcing some of their activities. An 26 example of such activities is training costs for new employees. Burgess and Baird (2003) agree with Monappa and Saiyadain (1996:18) that, “Use of temporal workers frees the firm from many administrative tasks and financial burdens associated with being the employer of record. Costs such as health care, pension, life insurance, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance are avoided. Small companies that cannot afford their own testing programs often get employees who have been tested by a temporary agency.” However, Burgess and Baird (2003), also emphasize that, “many temporary agencies train employs before sending them to employers which reduces training costs and eases a transition for both the temporary worker and the company”.

2.8.3 Objectivity of temporal worker

It every company‟s desire to grow and growth may come through benchmarking or learning what other companies are doing. Experience is another aspect employers look for in new employees. Casual employees may come in handy in these aspects. According to Foot and Hook (2008) explain that, “Because the temporal worker has little experience in the host firm, she brings an objective perspective to the organizations problems and procedures that are sometimes valuable. Also since the temporal worker may have a great deal of experience in other firms, she can sometimes identify solutions to the host organizations‟ problems that were contracted at a different firm. Thus temporal employee can sometimes help employers to benchmark and improve their practices.”

2.9.0 DISADVANTAGES OF CASUALISATION TO EMPLOYEES

2.9.1 The High poverty levels

In many cases casual workers receive only what they work for they do not receive any allowances or bonus like Christmas bonus. When it is time for such festivals their only source of money is the earned salary. Permanent workers get education allowances for their children to go to better schools but it is not so for the casual worker. These aggravate poverty. According to the employment Act CAP 268, “Casual workers includes, those engaged, for example, in piece work, and short term construction work. Casual workers are guaranteed some minimum hourly wage but they would not be eligible for allowances, guaranteed permanent workers, for examples, allowance for lunch, travel,

27 and housing. Nor would they ordinarily receive benefits like paid vacation, paid sick leave, funeral assistance, terminal benefits (gratuity). Taxes are taken out, and casual employees can be discharged any time, without warning and without penalty.” Casualisation of labour has in the recent past been increasing at an alarming rate.

2.9.2 De-motivating of employees

It is obvious that no one is pleased of working for a long time in a temporal position therefore; motivation will diminish with time unless someone is employed as a permanent employee. Casualisation de-motivates employees. According to Cole (2004:36) where he quotes Drucker (1974) that, “Maslow had not recognized that when a want was satisfied, its capacity to motivate was changed. An initially satisfied want that was not sustained could, on the contrary, become counter-productive and act as a disincentive. This is true to the fact that casual employees do sustain their needs as they are on short contracts”. Herzberg‟s study (1959) concentrated on satisfaction at work where it was reviewed that, “in the initial research of some 200 engineers and accountants were asked to recall when they had experienced satisfactory and unsatisfactory feelings about their jobs. Following the interview, Herzberg‟s team came to the conclusion that certain factors tended to lead to job satisfaction, whereas others led to frequently dissatisfaction. The factors giving rise to satisfaction were called motivators. Those giving rise to dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors….The most important motivators or satisfiers to emerge were the following; Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility and Advancement....The most important hygiene factors or dissatisfies were as follows; Company policy and administration, Supervision- technical aspects, Salary, Interpersonal relation-supervision and Working condition.”

2.9.3 Tensions and confrontations

It is natural that in any given society there will be real tension and opposing views especially if the people are of different groupings. The most probable example could be the rich and the poor, permanent workers and Casual workers. For example when it has been agreed by permanent

28 employees to go on strike, Casual workers will continue to work and this will result in confrontation. Noe et al (2008), explains that, “Major tensions and confrontations aspects between casual workers and full time employees do exist....A survey indicates that 33% of the full time employees perceived the temporal workers as a threat to their own job security. This can lead to low levels of co-operation and, in some cases, outright sabotage if not managed properly. The other reason is that some of the casual workers could be better performers when compared to the permanent workers.”

2.10 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR IN ZAMBIA

Casualisation is rampant in many companies in Zambia. The worst culprits have been the foreign investors. The local companies are no exception to this practice of Casualisation. According to Alastair (2008) commented that, “All of the companies, no matter their national ownership, are engaged in Casualisation of the workforce, and particularly in out-sourcing 'development' of new mines - the risky underground digging bit where the grooves of new tunnels fall in on those digging them”. Because Casualisation is rampant in all companies Government is contemplating punishment for perpetrators. Some companies in Lusaka were visited in March 2010. During the visit, the Deputy labour minister Simon Kachimba (2010) warned that: Casualisation of Zambian workers would now be punishable by imprisonment. He said this during a Tripartite Labour Council meeting in the capital Lusaka, where it was revealed that despite employing 1, 224 permanent workers, South African chain- stores Shoprite and Hungry Lion still had over 1, 090 casual workers in their combined 27 outlets. Some of the employees have spent over three years on the job and earn a measly K72, 000 per week…the ministry of labour had engaged Shoprite management from South Africa on the issues of improving their employees‟ welfare in Zambia….As of now we are holding what we call the Tripartite Labour Council, where we are reviewing these conditions. Once these issues are finalised, punishment for those who break the law will be quite stiff. There will be an article where someone will be immediately imprisoned once found guilty of breaking such a law…. Last year, Shoprite workers countrywide went on strike demanding for better pay and better conditions of service. And from TAP Zambia and Butul investments in Lusaka Casualisation has been seen to on the increase. The branch Union Trustee at Butul investments Limited Katema, P. (2010) said that, “workers at the firm were faced with the problem of intimidation from management whenever they spoke out on labour matters.” From the same cite, Labour and Social Security Deputy Minister Mr. Simon Kachimba said that, “Government has 29 sternly warned that it will not tolerate investors promoting Casualisation.” Casualisation has not been spared in the Tourism industry. Especially that most of the investors in this industry are small and do not encourage unionism. According to the Hotel, Catering Association Workers Union of Zambia (HCAWUZ) President Mr. Sitwala (2010) stated that, "Casualisation was noted in Tourism….At this moment, Casualisation in the industry is one of our greatest challenges. We want to ensure that our workers are fully employed this year…his Organisation would this year ensure that all companies which had not unionised their workers did so….The union was also committed to ensuring that Casualisation in the tourism industry came to an end.” Casualisation is also rampant in Chipata, Eastern Province of Zambia. Mostly Farmers are the culprits. The reporter (2010) quoted labour deputy minister Kachimba (2010) as having observed that: Casualisation is one of the main problems in Chipata. And Eastern Province permanent secretary Eularia Syamujaye has said labour leaders are not there to create anarchy but to be the voice of the voiceless. In an interview after carrying out abrupt labour inspections in Chipata, Kachimba who was accompanied by Eastern Province senior labour inspector Kabuba Mfana said that, “investors in Chipata were adhering to most labour laws...for now, quite a number of them investors have not flouted much of labour laws apart from Casualisation, when it comes to protective clothing, I am quite happy because they are really far much better than factories in the urban areas which is very good, but they still got room for them to improve…he urged the investors to consider employing people on full time basis. „We want them to employ people rather than using them as Casuals year in year out. So we want to tell them that even if its agro, you are doing your tobacco seasonal, you are doing your cotton seasonal but there are other sectors within your industry that you can give permanent jobs to your employees,‟ he said. “They can give them say two years contract, so that at least at the end of the day people can be able to benefit and they need again to be represented by a union because if they employers give an excuse of being agro, their workers will never be unionised and this is very unfortunate.” Kachimba toured Chipata Cotton, Cargill Cotton, Zhiyas Contractors, Kwacha Milling and Ally and Sons while in Chipata. He observed that most people working for various investors were not unionised. Kachimba also said the government would soon announce the new minimum wage. And speaking when Kachimba paid a courtesy call at her office, Syamujaye said, “some union leaders do not know what they stand for, you know these people are not there to create anarchy; they need to educate their colleagues on labour matters and to act as a voice. You know some union leaders have taken up the role of being spokespersons by rushing to the media every time there is something,” Syamujaye said. She said the provincial labour office had a lot of challenges especially 30 from the business community. However, Syamujaye said despite being alone, the provincial inspector Mfana was doing a commendable job.

And lastly Casualisation is also in the Mines. The Zambian Labour and Social Security Minister, Austin Liato (2010) publicly criticised some employers that, “using temporary workers to fill traditionally permanent positions is simply a move to evade paying statutory employment benefits to workers. Speaking at the opening ceremony of the Mineworkers Union of Zambia‟s (MUZ) 12th quadrennial conference on 27 April, Mr. Liato said this trend is found not only in the mining industry but other sectors as well...he continued that despite the Government‟s commitment to halt the Casualisation of employment, the situation has not improved. The Government has always led a campaign against Casualisation. This state of affairs can't be allowed to continue and I urge labour leaders to be vigilant. We should not turn permanent jobs to temporary jobs."

There are many Non-Governmental Organisations, (NGO) in Zambia which campaign against Casualisation of Labour. Zambia Institute of Public Policy Analysis is one of such NGOs. ZIPPA continues to carry the torch for independent thinking, with its latest issue on Unemployment. ZIPPA continues to put out challenging and exciting material for readers. In his article titled "Casualisation" Neo Simutanyi (2007) positively asserts that: In a labour surplus economy such as that of Zambia, arguments for high wages and guaranteed benefits and social security for all employees, goes against sound market principles. We need to avoid confusion and misrepresenting the employment problem. Pay and conditions are not the issue. People need employment and a regular income to meet their needs. Working conditions and job security depend on the overall performance of the economy and the ability of the firms to pay. When considering demands to prohibit Casualisation in Zambia we should not ignore the need for labour market flexibility and employment creation....Yes, Casualisation certainly has some advantages in terms of reducing employers labour costs, and I would go on to add a further point not mentioned, Casualisation is useful in reducing the "search costs" of employees themselves as they change between permanent jobs. But none of that warrants the immediate conclusion that "pay and conditions are not the issue" and that these issues should be left to the market.

31 2.11 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR AT PENSIONS

A similar study at done by Lengwe (2012) on one of the government wing other than ZESCO is Public Pensions Fund located in town of Lusaka. A review of the casualization of labor at this institution is just one example of casualization in Zambia. Casualisation of labour has been on the increase at the institution. Some of the casual workers have been at the company longer. Their services have been for six months, less or more but deliberate breaks between the periods have been given. This has been happening because of the weaknesses in the Zambian labour law, for example the law classifies casual workers as those that work for the period of more than six months (continuously) without being confirmed. To forestall this, PSPFB ask the casual workers to rest for a few days before they could continue with the next six months. This, financially and administratively, is to the perpetrators‟ advantage. Therefore, the researcher defines a Casual worker as any member of the company who is employed repeatedly for any period, once or even for the period of less or more than six (6) months, is not confirmed as permanent worker and is denied, expressly or implied, of the general conditions of service enjoyed by permanent employees regardless of when he or she is paid, and the job involved is permanent in nature. Casualisation is practiced at PSPFB. According to the Human Resource Annual report for December 2008 casual workers were engaged as shown in the diagram below;

Table 2.1: Distribution of temporal staff at PSPFB engaged in September 2007

No DEPARTMENT TEMPORARY STAFF Job

1 Operations 14 Clerical Staff 2 Human Resources 1 Drivers 3 Finance 6 Clerical Staff 4 Investment 3 Clerical Staff TOTAL 24

Source: PSPFB Human Resource 2008 Report.

32

Figure 2.1: Distribution of temporal staff at PSPFB engaged in September 2007

Source: PSPFB Human Resource 2008 Report.

And according to PSPF HR manual of 2003 section 1.9, PSPF engages some of its members of staff on short-term contracts as casual workers. The manual is the basic guide as far as employment of workers at the institution is concerned.

33 2.12 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR IN AFRICA

Casualisation of labour is not only a Zambian problem but it is present throughout Africa as well. However all African governments are against it. In Nigeria Casualisation is partly said to be on the increase because of the presence of Private Employment Agencies and the government of Nigeria plans to review the issuance of the recruiters licenses. Ezigbo and Eroke (2010) report in their article titled Casualisation – Government Reads Riot Act to Employers, that; The Federal Government has said it would take stern action against companies and organisations which subject their employees to sub-human conditions of service that amounts to unfair labour practice. Government also said the inauguration of the proposed Committee on new remuneration packages for Federal Government workers will have to wait till the end of the national mourning period. Minister of Labour and Productivity, Chief Emeka Wogu, who handed down the warning on 12th May 2010 during a meeting with State Controllers of Labour in Abuja, also expressed government's determination to bring employment agencies in the country under stringent control and to keep to the terms of their operating licenses. He stressed that, "We will ensure that work conditions are improved and that people do not work in sub-human conditions in the country and this policy will guide the issuance of recruiter's license," The minister said one of the unfair labour practices which government has resolved to eradicate is that of Casualisation, in view of its implications for denial of certain basic workers' rights. Wogu said the ministry has ordered the suspension of the issuance of recruiters‟ license to Private Employment Agencies and has set up a task force to review conditions and guidelines in order to arrive at innovations that will respond adequately to the employment needs of the country. He pledged government's resolve to weed out quacks from the fold."Outsourcing we know is a global phenomenon but under my watch, it shall not be allowed to result in decent work deficiency and violation of our labour laws.

34

2.13 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR GLOBALLY

Casualisation of labour is not only in Zambia and Africa as whole but it is also found worldwide as it has been spoken against at various meetings in Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Fiji, Pakistan, India, Sweden, Australia and New Zealand. Globalization has been one of the causes of the spread of Casualisation of labour. Multinational and global companies opening up branches in different countries would prefer to reduce on production costs through reduced labour costs by employing casual workers. According to Chalmers & Kalb (2001) and Watson (2004) “Labour restructuring can take different forms in different countries. One prominent aspect in Australia in the last two decades has been a process of Casualisation, in the sense of an increase in the proportion of employees classified as 'casual'”. Additionally, O'Donnell (2004) aptly notes that, “definitions of casual employment are often a site of confusion and controversy, marked by tensions between vernacular, regulatory and contractual meanings…the everyday understanding in Australia, whereby 'casual' work is seen as a form of employment in which the worker does not have access to certain rights and benefits, including paid annual leave, paid sick leave, paid public holidays, notice of dismissal and redundancy pay. In this perspective, casual work is to be understood first of all as employment with few rights and benefits… This understanding is in turn efficiently reproduced in the labour force statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), which uses a category of employees without entitlements to paid annual leave and without entitlements to paid sick leave.” According to Harbridge and Walsh, (2002) “Casualisation has unfolded vigorously over the past 20 years, and casual workers now account for around one in every four employees (or one in every five workers) in the United States of America. Because casual workers lack many of the standard rights and benefits that have been developed over the decades as part of the mainstream system of social protection, the growth in their numbers is rightly a source of concern. An evaluation of Casualisation is clearly needed, in order to help in guiding appropriate policy responses, from both trade unions and governments.” According to Scholliers (2007) Official statistics confirm that, “the substantial size of the casual workforce in Australia who were 'casual employees' or 'employees without leave entitlements' in their main job numbered over two and a quarter million (2,239,900) in August 2003, and they represented 27.6 percent of all employees (or around 23.6 percent of the total employed labour force). (1) Most important, the official statistics also point to a trajectory of strong growth or Casualisation. Thus the 35 number has risen from 850,000 persons or 15.8 percent of all employees in 1984. The rate of growth was most powerful in the 1980s and early 1990s, but it has slowed down in the period of employment growth since the mid-1990s, just keeping ahead of the expansion in other forms of employment.” Casualisation of labour also exists in New Zealand. Fine, B. (2009) reports that, “On 16 September 2009 members of the IUF-affiliated New Zealand Dairy Workers Union (NZDWU) working for Open Country Cheese (OCC), part of New Zealand‟s second- largest dairy exporter and owned by the Talley Group, took legal strike action over the company‟s insistence in destroying job security and working conditions by planned Casualisation of the workforce. In response to the attempts by the NZDWU to secure what are utterly fair and reasonable demands, OCC has gone into over- drive in an attempt to bully and discredit the union and its members.” Standing and Guy (2009) reports that, “Casualisation of labour in Agriculture & Plantations, Food, Drinks & Tobacco, Global Commodities, Human Rights, IUF Affiliates, Outsourcing & Casualisation, Trade Union Rights and Transnational Companies. The statement against Casualisation of labour was adopted by trade unions representing food workers from Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Fiji, Pakistan, India and Sweden at the IUF-Asia/Pacific Food & Beverages Sector Meeting, held on 15 October 2009, in Bangkok, Thailand.”

36 2.14 THE ZAMBIAN GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON CASUALISATION OF LABOUR

In Zambia all labour matters including legislation fall under the Ministry of Labour and Social Security. Therefore, many times Trade Unions have complained to the Ministry and its‟ officials on Labour issues and Casualisation, which has been growing day by day. The new investors are guilty of Casualisation and the Zambian Government has not done enough to stop Casualisation of labour. This behaviour by Government and its‟ Ministry of Labour and Social Security have come under serious attacks by Trade Unions. Mwanawasa (2008) in his labour Day message reminded Mr Liato and Federation of Free Trade Unions (FFTUZ) president Joyce Nonde that, “There have been cries from the labour movement in Zambia that workers have been given a raw deal for their services rendered. Besides low salaries, one important issue which has been a source of contention of late is Casualisation of labour, especially in the post-privatization era.” Although this phenomenon is relatively new in the labour sector, the practice has been enhanced by an increase in the number of foreign investors coming to invest in Zambia and employ Zambian workers. Because of high unemployment levels and as a mere cost saving measure, most of these foreign investors have opted to employ some of their Zambian workers on casual basis, a situation which has displeased Government. Government has time and again voiced out its concerns over the many foreign owned factories and companies employing their Zambian workers on casual basis. This prompted Government announce that companies engaging in Casualisation will be punished. According to Kachimba (2010) in his warning, “Casualisation of Zambian workers would now be punishable by imprisonment.”

2.15 IS CASUALISATION A GOOD PRACTICE?

In the international literature, casual jobs, either in the narrow sense or in the broader sense of jobs without rights and benefits, are widely seen as symptoms of an earlier, raw phase of capitalist development, which has been superseded by the evolution of co- operative employment relations and industrial citizenship. A return of casual work and Casualisation is therefore, viewed with great concern because of the economical advantages to the companies and depriving the casual worker. On the other hand Casualisation and casual work could be viewed as a good practice by employees who really do not want to be tied to one job but would rather have free time to do their private jobs

37 especially in companies where flex-time is exercised. Additionally individuals who have initially retired from fulltime work may desire to do some part-time work. Hence casual work will be viewed as a good practice. In Zambia, the government in its Labour laws does not allow Casualisation of any kind. Casual workers can only be employed for project related tasks. All jobs which are permanent in nature are to be carried out on permanent basis. This may not be the case in other countries. According to Campbell (2001) he reports that, “Australia stands out in cross-national comparison, because of the preservation into the modern era of large numbers of „casual‟ jobs. Partly as a result, they tend to be more blasé about the dangers of Casualisation. Nevertheless-apart from some commentators who contend that the casual loading establishes an exact equivalence between casual and permanent status-most commentators agree that casual work and its spread are bad for the workforce. It is accepted that workers involved in casual jobs suffer a substantial deficit in their rights and benefits, compared with employees in standard „permanent‟ jobs. The precise way in which the formal deficit works out in practice of course varies, depending on aspects such as the kindness of the supervisor. In favourable circumstance`s, the casual worker may even be able to acquire a high degree of flexibility to suit his or her needs. However, it is clear that casual workers in general are far more vulnerable to practices such as summary dismissal, variation in hours and schedules, arbitrary treatment and underpayment. In addition, they are vulnerable to deficits in aspects such as skill formation and promotion. Such deficits may not have much effect in short- term, but the consequences are likely to be worse when employees are stuck in casual jobs for long periods of time.” Additionally, Hall (2000, 2004) agree with Pocock (2003) that, “Casualisation is seen as a bad practice not only because it draws more workers into the net of casual work, but also because it exerts downward pressure on the wages and conditions even of those employees that continue to be viewed as „permanent‟. Both cases are often identified at workplace level with processes such as outsourcing and labour hire, which threaten the direct or indirect replacement of permanent workers by casual workers. In both cases, the bad consequences for individual employees readily extend out to bad effects on families and communities.”

However Burgess and Campbell (1998) argue that, “Casual jobs are not of course the only source of problems in the labour markets. They are not the only source of what can be called „precariousness‟. Any analysis of the health of labour markets needs to look at all forms of employment, including self-employed workers, fixed-term employees, permanent part-time employees and even the core group of permanent full-time employees. Nevertheless Borland, Gregory and Sheehan (2001) and

38 Pocock (2003) note that, “it is widely recognized that casual workers are a particularly vulnerable group.”

2.16 THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS CHANGE

It is the researcher‟s view that Governments have greater powers in every country to fight Casualisation. They control all the activities using Government machinery, judiciary included especially in African countries. Pocock, Buchanan and Campbell (2004a), (2004b) state that, “fighting the bad effects of Casualisation is a central challenge for governments of all persuasion. This is all the more true, if we accept that the labour regulation system has helped to nourish casual employment. As part of a more general challenge of modernisation, governments urgently need to adapt and improve this system. In particular they need to move towards a more comprehensive floor of minimum labour standards, which can remove or at least narrow some of the existing gaps in the system”.

Mr. Liato, current Minister of Labour and social security, was quoted in the Times of Zambia, April 28, 2010 as having said that:

There was a habit by some employer to engage temporary workers in the jobs which required permanent employees simply because they wanted to evade paying statutory benefits to the workers saying the unions should expose such employers. He further said that, “The Government has always led a campaign against Casualisation. This state of affairs cannot be allowed to continue and urge labour leaders to be vigilant. We should not turn permanent jobs into temporal jobs.” The Government recently said there was need to review labour legislation in order to address the various social injustices and labour matters that arise due to increased foreign direct investments in the country. The Labour and Social Security Minister Austin Liato said during the 2010 tripartite consultative Labour Council Meeting that most work places still experienced ill-treatment of workers. The Minister also said the Government was also aware of some isolated cases where some investors were mistreating employees.

In the Times of Zambia, of Saturday 1st May 2010 Mr. Liato said that: There was need to deal with the long standing amendments of the Employment Act, Cap 268 and other various pieces of labour legislation in effect to make the lives of the Zambian worker easier. The Minister further said, “The task before them during this meeting, therefore, was to consider and agree on the proposed 39 amendments to the Employment Act Cap 268, the Statutory Instrument for shop workers and general orders and the Workers Compensation Act. He said the reason for reviewing the Act was to promote economic work through decent work agenda so that employees see the benefits of working. Meanwhile, International Labour Organisation (ILO) country representative Gerry Finnegan said there was need to scale up the efforts aimed at creating jobs for women, young people and those with disabilities.

Campbell and Burgess (2001) in Australia reports that:

The Howard government has not created Casualisation. But it can be sharply criticized for its failure to act to solve the problems. In particular, it has failed to modernize the creaky labour regulation system. Some of its initiatives, starting with the Workplace Relations Act, have been carried out under the banner of „workplace reform‟ and „flexibility‟. They do not; however, seem to bear any relationship to modernization. Far from contributing to a solution to Casualisation, these initiatives served to open up more opportunities for casual work to be deployed at individual workplaces. In effect they have helped to widen each of the crucial gaps in the system- loosening award restrictions, enhancing employer power and contributing to changes in employer perceptions. As well as its „workplace reforms‟, the federal government has also pushed through several sets of poorly- designed „welfare reforms‟, with more proposed, which have further contributed to propping up low wage, casual labour markets by pushing in large numbers of welfare recipients.

2.17 INDUSTRIAL ISSUES AND UNION MEMBERSHIP

The majority of casual workers obtain casual jobs via informal mechanisms; either by word of mouth or through personal recommendations. In many cases, its being in the right spot at the right time; there are few formal processes for the advertising of positions. Linked to this is a perception of favouritism or nepotism within departments. According to Owen (2001) “Several casual workers surveyed stated there was a perception of not „what you know but who you know‟ in their areas. This means that, regardless of what you know unless you know someone, you cannot be considered for anything at all. This is often viewed as deliberate approach by management; the process of advertising and appointing is time consuming, and department heads may be tempted to make casual appointments as it saves „red tape‟, staff costs and time. It also gives the department flexibility should the arrangement not work out or circumstances change – the person is simply not reappointed. 40 Casual workers are not represented by Unions therefore this makes them more vulnerable to Managements‟ abrupt decisions of hiring and firing when industrial conditions.”

2.18 CONCLUSION

There proceeding chapter evaluates what the gurus and industrial observers comment on the subject of Casualisation in general. However the conclusion of the researcher is that it is obvious from the evidence above that this issue of casual employment is going to be a major factor in the future direction of the sector overall. Casual employment affects not only the individual, in terms of entitlements, job security, training and development opportunities, but the wider industry as well. However, given the stance by Government that it also has casual workers and the seeming consent by managers in quasi-government companies to this, it is the researcher‟s conclusion that effects of Casualisation will be adverse if the advocacy bodies (Unions) in the labour sector are not forceful. The next chapter gives the methodology of the study. The chapter gives a detailed explanation as to how the research was conducted and offers justification for the methods used. Such is important to provide validity and reliability to the findings and recommendations of the research.

41 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This study is an evaluation of Casualisation of labour at ZESCO. The study focuses on human resource welfare and its drawn from Human Resource Management module. This chapter gives a detailed explanation as to how the research was conducted and offers justification for the methods used. Therefore, the chapter provides the systematic outline of the research enterprise covering research design, instruments for data collection, target population, sample size, sampling techniques, data collection and analysis.

3.2.0 SOURCES OF DATA

The researcher used both secondary and primary data. Secondary data was collected from text books, files, internet, journals, reports, websites and other documents. Further data was collected by reading wildly what other people and authors had written on the subject under study. On the other hand primary data was obtained through the questionnaire. Further information was collected by researcher observation and participation as he is one of the employees at ZESCO. Data were also collected from relevant documents at ZESCO. The questionnaire was hand distributed to different respondents and collected later.

3.2.1 TARGET POPULATION

The target population of this research study was 200, and was drawn from the six organisational groupings; namely ZESCO, Ministry of Labour and Social Security, Trade Unions in Lusaka, Pensions fund, ILO and some construction companies. The distribution of questionnaires was done as follows; ZESCO-80, Ministry of Labour and Social Security-25, Trade Unions 25, Pensions-20, ILO-20, and other construction companies-30. The 80 questionnaires were distributed at ZESCO as

42 follows, 10 managers, 10 supervisors, 20 Casual workers, and 40 unionised employees. Therefore the distribution was stratified, purposive and yet randomly done. From other organisations distribution of questionnaires was randomly done as the researcher had no control on who to give the questionnaire.

3.2.3.1 SAMPLE SIZE

The sample size of this study was 50. This sample was chosen for the purpose of testing the suitability of the questionnaire for the final study. The 40 questionnaires were distributed randomly at ZESCO and 10 MLSS. Cooper and Schindler (2008:385) suggest that, “the greater the dispersion or variance within the population, the larger the sample must be to provide estimation precision”.

3.2.2 SAMPLING METHODOLOGY

The research used stratified, simple random and purposive sampling method. Stratified sampling was used at ZESCO, while in other organisations simple random and purposive sampling was used. Additionally random sampling was used so as to avoid bias. Cooper and Schindler (2008:395,397), explain that, “with a non-subjective approach like probability sampling, the probability of selecting a given population elements is unknown”. Therefore all the members of staff of ZESCO and other organisations had an equal chance of being selected.

3.2.3 THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The researcher used a questionnaire for all the sections. The questionnaire contained closed-ended questions. Closed-ended questions are those questions which are restrictive in nature and generally require a brief and limited response. The researcher chose a questionnaire because it allows the respondent to answer the questions at their convenient time especially those respondents who have busy schedules. Further a questionnaire allowed data to be collected from a large number of people.

43

3.2.3.1 QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

The first part of the questionnaire was prepared with factual questions. According to Nachmias and Nachmias (1982:208) “factual questions are designed to elicit objective information from the respondents regarding their background, their environment, their habits, and the like. The most common type of a factual question is the background question, which is asked mainly to provide information by which respondents can be classified, such as sex, age, marital status, education, or income…they are easy to construct”. The basic thrust in the method of data collection utilized closed-ended questions. Churchill and Iacobucci (2002:270), emphasis that, “a questionnaire in which the questions are fixed and closed-ended analysis becomes easy because responses are not varied.” It must be noted however that the nature of the study required the study of some internal documents. This mode of collecting data was dependent on the relevance of the documentation to the study. Additionally researcher observation was also used in data collection.

3.2.3.2 THE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEM

The items constituting the questionnaire were mainly derived from the literature studied. A copy of the questionnaire is in appendix one attached below.

3.2.3.3 PILOT STUDY

It is a common a practice that before the full research is done, a pilot study is done. Like in any other good research, the author of this study carried out a detailed pilot study to ensure that the quality of the questionnaire carried out in the main study were water tight and where necessary refinements were done accordingly. Cooper and Schindler (2000) said that, “a pilot test was conducted to detect weaknesses in design and instrumentation in order to provide proxy data for selection of a sample. And pre-testing was done on a small scale to test the suitability of the research instrument”. This was important to help in assessing the initial reactions of the respondents to the questionnaire. Fowler (2002:112) further argues that “a particular important function of pre-test is to test the 44 usability of the instrument, both the questions and the layout, from the interviewers‟ perspective”. The researcher distributed 40 questionnaires to ZESCO and 10 to MLSS to pre-test the research instruments. The response was that the questionnaire questions were of high quality and addressed the real issues affecting Casual workers.

3.3.0 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The required data were collected using closed and researcher observation due to time constraint. Therefore open-ended questions were avoided. According to Eastery- Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (2002), in reporting Burghees‟ 1982 research stated that, “the importance of closed-ended questions is the time it saves the researcher”. Another data gathering technique that was employed is the participant observation method as the researcher is a member of staff. Additionally, data were also collected from relevant documents at ZESCO. The use of multi-methods was aimed at increasing the validity and reliability of the study. In their book Ghauri and Gronhaug (2002:181), record that, “triangulation can improve the accuracy of judgments and thereby results, by collecting data through different methods or even collecting different kinds of data on the subject matter of the study.

3.3.1 ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES

The administration of the questionnaire took one form which is self- administered. This implied that respondents answered the questionnaire by themselves without being interviewed. The time constraint under which the study was carried out and the busy schedule of some respondents necessitated this type of the questionnaire.

3.3.2 COLLECTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES

The collection of the questionnaires was varied. All were self- administered questionnaires and therefore the respondents had the freedom to either deliver them to the researcher or wait for the researcher. But most of the questionnaires were collected by the researcher and his assistants. This was so especially for those respondents from other companies apart from ZESCO.

45

3.3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

There are two types of data namely quantitative and qualitative. The researcher used quantitative because it is easy to present data in table form and various graphs, and qualitative helped the research to express the collected data using simple explanations. Excel was used to analyse data by the researcher because of its effectiveness. This Computerized spreadsheet was used in generating frequencies, charts, and percentages. The impact of this approach according to Saunders et al. (2003:392) is that, “one would be in a position to commence data collection with well-defined research questions and objectives, and a clear framework and propositions, derived from the theory that is used”. This fits well with the case study approach adopted for the study.

3.3.4 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

The study incorporated a multiple methodology approach in relation to data gathering techniques in order to increase its reliability and validity. Additionally, the questionnaire was pilot tested in order to establish content and face validity. The study followed the research process in order to ensure that it was scientifically sound and valid.

3.3.4.1 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

Information gathering and confidentiality

- Throughout the research, all respondents were assured that all information collected would be confidential and would be used for academic purposes only. And the researcher explained the benefits of the study, and participant rights and protections.

- Persons below the age of 18 were not be allowed to participate

- Disclosure of respondents‟ identity was withheld and informed consent was sought before collecting data from them.

- Truthfulness was upheld during the whole process of research study.

46 - Debriefing some Participants – Debriefing, according to Cooper and Schindler (2008) , involves several activities following the collection of data:

 Explanation of any deception.

 Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study and lastly.

 Post study sharing of results.

All these were adhered to by the researcher.

3.4.0 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Any undertaking where one needs to involve other people will always involve limitations. Even where you are the only one involved there will always be one or two limitations. The more the parties to the research the more the limitations are likely to be encountered. Our research is no exception to this. There were a number of limitations which included:-

3.4.1 Time;

Time was limitation as the research study was an academic exercise requiring to be submitted within a specified time frame

3.4.2 Cost;

The cost of data collection, analysis, interpretation and documentation of data was a greater cost. This also included transportation costs during data collection and stationery costs. The researcher also employed assistant researchers who helped with the distribution and collection of questionnaires. This was done at a cost.

3.4.3 Change management;

People resist change for the sake of protecting their interests. Change management is a problem in everyday life, and respondents found it difficult to divulge information unless they were authorized by management. Some managers could not even entertain the distribution of the questionnaires upon reading the research topic claiming that that they were not involved in Casualization. 47 3.4.4 Fear of releasing information;

Government institutions are highly risk areas that are protected from all forms of property rights, and any information or data meant for either academic or public consumption should be authorized by the Ministry headquarters in the name of the President. In most cases, a written consent was required and this took a lot of time. Some Managers responsible for Labour in all the companies visited were not willing to be involved and rather asked other staff to do it.

3.4.5 Security or risk factors;

ZESCO is a security risk area as it deals with power supply, and any information available in the institution is strictly confidential. Workers are under Oath and should not release information anyhow

3.5.0 ELIMINATION OF BIAS

The main areas where bias could occur in a case study setting include: - during interviews, recording data, and analysis of documents and the wording of questions. Therefore interviews were avoided by the researcher as personal contact with respondents during interviews could result in bias. Self administered questionnaires were used. The analysis of documents/data and the wording of questions were carefully done as in 3.3.3 above. According to Esterberg (2002:86), states that, “personal revelations on the part of the interviewer are said to produce bias, because interviewees will tend to give responses that they think the interviewer wants to hear. The interviewer could also influence responses by the questioning approach which may seek to lead the interviewee. This could be achieved by the use of body expressions such as gestures.” These were all avoided.

3.6.0 CONCLUSION

The research methodology set the platform upon which data was collected and analysed in order to investigate the research topic. The chapter highlights the fact that data was collected from ZESCO and other institutions using a multiple methodology approach as dictated by the case study strategy that was employed. It further spells out the measures that were taken in order to ensure the validity and reliability of the study.

48 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This study is an evaluation of Casualisation of labour at ZESCO. The study focuses on human resource welfare and it is drawn from Human Resource Management.

The chapter discusses presentation and analysis of demographic information, presentation and analysis of findings about Casualisation of labour. The following objectives guided the study;

To analyse the impact of Casualisation of Labour on staff welfare in Zambia.

To examine the existing labour Policies and Laws regarding Casualisation

To find out if there are any economical advantages and disadvantages for companies and individuals involved in Casualisation?

To make recommendations for effective measures on the reduction of Casualisation ZESCO.

The table below shows the distribution of questionnaires to respondents from whom data was collected. Returned questionnaires are also indicated.

49 Table 4.1a: Distribution of questionnaires to respondents from whom data was collected.

NUMBER OF NUMBER OF RETURN VARIABLE QUESTIONNAIRES QUESTIONNAIRES RATE (%) DISTRIBUTED RETURNED ZESCO 80 78 97.5 MIN. OF LABOUR 25 23 92 TRADE UNIONS 25 24 96 PENSIONS 20 18 90 ILO 20 17 85 OTHER COMPANIES 30 25 83.3 TOTAL 200 185 92.5 Source: Field survey (August 2020)

Out of 200 questionnaires distributed 185 were returned, representing a return rate of 92.5%.

A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

The data under section A was obtained through a self-administered questionnaire. This section covers findings from the factual questions/demographic information which formed section A of the questionnaire.

The researcher used both frequency tables and pie charts (figures) for data presentation throughout chapter four for easy understanding by all would be readers. Cooper and Schindler (2008:447) emphasise that, “the same data should be presented using the tables, pie charts and/or bar charts. The values and percentages are more readily understood in this graphic format and visualisation of the media placements and their relative sizes is improved.”

50 The presentation and data analysis are given below:

Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents according to gender

Type of response Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 138 75

Female 47 25

Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020.

Figure 4.1: Distribution of respondents according to gender

According to Table and Figure 4.1 above, 75% of the respondents were male and 25% were female.

51 Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents according to age.

Age range Frequency Percentage (%) Below 25 yrs 18 10 25 to 35 yrs 68 37 36 to 45 yrs 81 44 46 to 55 yrs 15 8 Over 55 yrs 3 1 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.2: Distribution of respondents according to age.

Table 4.2 above, illustrates that the prominent age group among the respondents was 36 to 45 years representing 44% followed by 26 to 35 years which had 37%, respondents below 25 years recorded 10%, 46 to 55 years were 8% and finally the least were those over 55 years which surprisingly was only 1%.

52

Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to level of education.

Level of education Frequency Percentage (%) Primary 6 3 Secondary 12 7 Certificate 47 25 Diploma 87 47 Degree 33 18 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to level of education.

Table 4.3 above shows that the distribution of respondents according to level of education was 47% diploma holders. This was the largest group followed by those who had certificates represented by 25% of the respondents, 18% were degree holders, 7% with secondary school education and the least were those with primary education which accounted for 3%.

53 B: CASUALISATION OF LABOUR

Table 4.4: Distribution of respondents according to type of institution worked for.

Type of institution Frequency Percentage (%) Government 38 21 Quasi-Government 78 42 NGO 21 11 Private 48 26 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.4: Distribution of respondents according to type of institution worked for.

According to Table 4.4 above the majority of the respondents worked for the Quasi-Government and accounted for 42%, 26% were from private sector, 21% were Government workers and the least worked for Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) which represented 11%.

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Table 4.5: Distribution of respondents according to their understanding of Casualisation.

Type of response Frequency Percentage (%) Yes 176 95 No 9 5 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.5: Distribution of respondents according to their understanding of Casualisation.

Drawing from the Table 4.5 above, an overwhelming 95% of the respondents understand the term Casualisation and there were 5% who answered “No”.

55

Table 4.6: Distribution of respondents according to “conditions of employment”

Percentage Terms of employment Frequency (%) Permanent Pensionable conditions 66 36 Temporal conditions 39 21 Contract 77 41 No answer 3 2 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.6: Distribution of respondents according to “conditions of employment”

According to Table 4.6 and the statement “what conditions of employment are you on?” 42% of the respondents indicated “contract”, 36% belonged to “permanent and pensionable conditions”, 21% revealed that they were on “temporal conditions” and 2% of the respondents remained silent on the matter.

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Table 4.7: Distribution of respondents according to Organisation level most casualised

Positions/level in Organisation Frequency Percentage (%) Messenger 45 24 Clerical officer 116 63 Middle management 15 8 Senior management 0 0 Top management 0 0 Did not answer 9 5 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.7: Distribution of respondents according to Organisation level most casualised

From Table 4.7 and Figure 4.7 above it is clear that the majority 63% of the respondents were casual workers as clerical officers, 24% messengers, 8% middle management, 5% of the respondents choose to remain silent on the matter.

57 Table 4.8: opinion on spelling out offences in labour law on Casualisation

Response Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 41 22 Strongly agree 129 70 Disagree 12 6 Strongly disagree 3 2 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.8: opinion on spelling out offences in labour law on Casualisation

According to the Table 4.8 and Figure 4.8 above the respondents unanimously 70% supported the idea of spelling out offences in labour law on Casualisation, choosing strongly agreed, 22% agreed. However only 6% disagreed and 2% strongly disagreed.

58 Table 4.9: opinion on if MLSS is ineffective on Casualisation control

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 68 37 Strongly agree 72 39 Disagree 15 8 Strongly disagree 30 16 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.9: opinion on if MLSS is ineffective on Casualisation control

Inferring to Table 4.9 above 39% of the respondents strongly agreed that MLSS is ineffective in matters of Casualisation control, 37% agreed, 16% strongly disagree and only 8% disagree.

59 Table 4.10: Opinion on whether casual workers are satisfied with their rewards

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 3 2 Strongly agree 6 3 Disagree 71 38 Strongly disagree 102 55 Did not answer 3 2 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.10: Opinion on whether casual workers are satisfied with their rewards

On the statement that casual workers are satisfied with their rewards, it is evident from Table 4.10 that 55% of the respondents did not favour it and strongly disagreed, 38% merely disagreed, 3% strongly agreed, 2% agreed and did not bother to attempt the question.

60 Table 4.11: Opinion on whether casual employment is preferred by companies because there are few or no terminal benefits paid

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 68 37 Strongly agree 87 47 Disagree 12 6 Strongly disagree 18 10 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.11: Opinion on whether casual employment is preferred by companies because there are few or no terminal benefits paid

The Table 4.11 and the Figure 4.11 above illustrate that 47% of the respondents strongly agreed that casual employment is preferred by companies because there are few or no terminal benefits paid, 37% of the respondents also responded in the affirmative by choosing agree, 10% were in opposition by supporting strongly disagree and 6% simply disagreed.

61 Table 4.12: Respondents‟ distribution of opinion on whether Casualisation contribute to companies‟ profitability

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Positively high 120 65 Negatively high 12 6 Considerable 44 24 Nothing 9 5 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.12: Respondents‟ distribution of opinion on whether Casualisation contribute to companies‟ profitability

Deducing from Table 4.12 above, 65% of the respondents are of the opinion that Casualisation contribute to companies‟ profitability positively high, 24% responded that casual workers‟ contribution to companies‟ profitability is considerable, 6% stated that it is negatively high and 5% said casual workers contribute nothing to companies‟ profitability.

62 Table 4.13: Distribution of respondents on the opinion that companies reduce tax burden by engaging casual workers

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 84 45 Strongly agree 68 37 Disagree 15 8 Strongly disagree 18 10 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.13: Distribution of respondents on the opinion that companies reduce tax burden by engaging casual workers

Table 4.13 above illustrates that 82% of the respondents supported the opinion that companies reduce tax burden by engaging casual workers with 45% of those agreeing and the rest strongly agreeing. Out of 18% respondents who answered in the negative, 10% strongly disagreed and 8% disagreed.

63 Table 4.14: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether Casualisation of labour breeds poverty

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 47 26 Strongly agree 102 55 Disagree 30 16 Strongly disagree 6 3 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.14: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether Casualisation of labour breeds poverty

According to the findings in Table 4.14 above, 55% of the respondents strongly agree to the notion that Casualisation of labour breeds poverty, 26% agreed, 16% disagreed and 3% chose to disagree strongly.

64 Table 4.15: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether casual workers‟ conditions of service motivate them to continue working

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 6 3 Strongly agree 6 3 Disagree 56 30 Strongly disagree 117 63 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.15: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether casual workers‟ conditions of service motivate them to continue working

The results Table 4.15 above reveal that 63% strongly disagreed to suggestions that casual workers‟ conditions of service motivate them to continue working, 31% disagreed, 3% answered both agree and strongly agree.

65 Table 4.16: Respondents‟ distribution of opinion on whether Casual workers are as productive as permanent workers

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 84 45 Strongly agree 80 43 Disagree 3 2 Strongly disagree 18 10 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2018

Figure 4.16: Respondents‟ distribution of opinion on whether Casual workers are as productive as permanent workers

Table 4.16 shows that, there was an overwhelming response for suggestions that Casual workers are as productive as permanent workers with 45% agreeing and 43% strongly agreeing, 10% strongly disagreed and a negligible 2% merely disagreed.

66 Table 4.17: Distribution of respondents‟ rating

of the impact of Casualisation on individuals‟ lives

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Good 0 0 Marginal 53 29 Miserable 120 65 Not sure 12 6 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.17: Distribution of respondents‟ rating of the impact of Casualisation on individuals‟ lives

From Table 4.17 above the revelation is that, the majority 65% of the respondents rated the impact of Casualisation on individuals‟ lives as miserable, 29% marginal, and 6% were not sure.

67 Table 4.18: Distribution of respondents‟ views on the relationship between casual workers and permanent employees

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Poor 101 55 Fair 60 32 Good 9 5 Very good 3 2 Not sure 9 5 Did not answer 3 2 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.18: Distribution of respondents‟ views on the relationship between casual workers and permanent employees

From Table 4.18 above 55% of the respondents confirm that the relationship between casual workers and others on permanent employees is poor, 32% thought the relationship was fair, 5% each „good‟ and „not sure‟ and 4% shared equally between „very good‟ and those who did not answer.

68 Table 4.19: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether persistent unemployment has caused Casualisation

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 65 35 Strongly agree 102 55 Disagree 12 7 Strongly disagree 6 3 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.19: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether persistent unemployment has caused Casualisation

Table 4.19 illustrates that persistent unemployment has contributed immensely to Casualisation of labour, 55% of the respondents strongly agreed, 35% agreed, 7% disagreed and 3% strongly disagreed.

69 Table 4.20: Distribution of respondents‟ views on the leading cause of Casualisation

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Poverty 9 5 Lapses in labour laws 81 44 Lack of jobs/employment 62 34 Corruption in employment methods 33 18 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.20: Distribution of respondents‟ views on the leading cause of Casualisation

Drawing from the findings in Table 4.20 above 44% of the respondents supported lapse in labour laws as the leading cause of Casualisation, 33% choose lack of employment, and 18% reveal corruption in employment methods, while 5% indicated poverty.

70 Table 4.21: Distribution of respondents‟ desire for MLSS to introduce punitive measures to employers practicing Casualisation

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 47 25 Strongly agree 108 58 Disagree 21 11 Strongly disagree 9 5 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.21: Distribution of respondents‟ desire for MLSS to introduce punitive measures to employers practicing Casualisation

Deducing from Table 4.21 above 58% of the respondents indicated strongly agree to the statement that MLSS should introduce punitive measures to employers practicing Casualisation, 26% agreed with the statement, 11% disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed.

71 Table 4.22: Distribution of respondents‟ views on whether lack of alternative jobs force people to take up Casual jobs

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 65 35 Strongly agree 111 60 Disagree 3 2 Strongly disagree 6 3 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.22: Distribution of respondents‟ views on whether lack of alternative jobs force people to take up Casual jobs

According to the Table 4.22 above 60% of the respondents strongly agreed that lack of alternative jobs force people to take up Casual jobs, 35% agreed, 3% strongly disagreed, and 2% merely „disagreed‟.

72 Figure 4.23: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether there are more advantages than disadvantages of being employed as a casual worker

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 18 10 Strongly agree 18 10 Disagree 47 25 Strongly disagree 102 55 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.23: Distribution of respondents‟ opinion on whether there are more advantages than disadvantages of being employed as a casual worker

Drawing from the Table 4.23 above, 55% of the respondents strongly disagreed to the opinion that there are more advantages than disadvantages of being employed as a casual worker, 25% disagreed, and 20% responded in the affirmative with 10% answering agree and the other 10% strongly agree.

73 Table 4.24: Respondents‟ position on MLSS on increasing labour inspectors per province

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 53 28.6 Strongly agree 117 63.2 Disagree 9 4.9 Strongly disagree 3 1.6 Did not answer 3 1.6 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020 Figure 4.24: Respondents‟ position on MLSS on increasing labour inspectors per province

From Table 4.24 above 63.2% of the respondents strongly agreed that Ministry of Labour and Social Security should increase labour inspectors per province, 28.6% agreed, 4.9% disagreed, 1.6% strongly disagreed and a further 1.6% respondents choose not to say anything on the matter.

74 Table 4.25: Respondents‟ position on the suggestion that MLSS introduce orientation for new employers on Labour Laws including Casualisation

Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Agree 56 31 Strongly agree 117 63 Disagree 6 3 Strongly disagree 0 0 Did not answer 6 3 Total 185 100 Source: Field survey – 2020

Figure 4.25: Respondents‟ position on the suggestion that MLSS introduce orientation for new employers on Labour Laws including Casualisation

According to the Table 4.25 above, 63% of the respondents strongly agreed that MLSS should introduce orientation for new employers on Labour Laws including Casualisation, 31% agreed, while those who disagreed and those that did not answer had 3% each.

75 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSIONS AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a synthesis of the theoretical framework of the first three chapters and the findings and data analysis of the previous chapter. This section discusses data findings

5.2 DISCUSSIONS AND INTERPRETATION

The study has revealed that according to gender distribution of the respondents there were more male than female participants. Out of all the respondents 75% were male and only 25% were female as per Table 4.1. The questionnaire distribution was random, therefore, it could safely be concluded that companies still employ more men than women. It was also revealed, according to Table 4.2, that the majority of the working class are aged between 25 and 45 years. Further Table 4.3 shows that, most of the respondents are sufficiently qualified, 47% had diploma and 25% have certificate. 18% boast degree, 7% had gone up to secondary school and only 3% were primary school leavers and yet the majority of the workers are either on temporal conditions or contract. This means that qualification does not necessarily imply the type of conditions one can be employed on. The researcher‟s first objective of the study was to find out and analyse the impact Casualisation of labour had on staff welfare in selected public and private sectors and others. Casual workers are not satisfied with their rewards as exhibited in Table 4.10, therefore, they are forced to work extra hard to earn something meaningful to avoid poverty as shown in Table 4.14. According to Ministry of Justice (1996) in the Zambian employment Act Chapter 268 Subsection 3 of Section 48, “casual workers are only guaranteed some minimum hourly wage and no other allowances are paid.” Conditions of service have nothing to do with casual workers‟ continuation in such employment as per Table 4.15. However, the major push for individuals to engage in such employment is luck of alternative jobs, lapses in labour laws and corruption in employment

76 methods as depicted in Tables 4.20 and 4.22. The impact of Casualisation of labour on individuals‟ lives is miserable as show in Table 4.17 and matters are made worse in that the relationship between casual workers and permanent employees is poor as can be seen from Table 4.18. Noe et al (2008) allude to this fact that, “there is often tension between a firm‟s temporary employees and its‟ full-time employees.” Casual workers are perceived to be a threat to permanent workers‟ jobs. According to Table 4.16 casual workers are as productive as permanent workers but the two are not treated, in terms of reward for their input, equally. Boatright (2003:73) suggests that, “to treat people justly is to give them what they deserve that is a just way of treating human beings.” The researcher‟s findings have shown that because casual, temporal or contract workers do not have any other conditions of work, they have resorted to spending a lot of company time in serving “personal clients” for personal gains, the repercussion of this activity has constantly pushed the fund into the bracket of corrupt institutions in Zambia. As can be seen from

Table 2.1 the PSPFB had more than fifteen casual employees in 2007 in operations department alone. It can be deduced from the foregoing that the company had a lot of work which could necessitate employing at least half of the casuals on permanent conditions; lack of funds cannot be given as an excuse because all these casuals plus those from other departments did not offer their services for free.

The second objective of the study was an examination of the existing labour policies and laws regarding Casualisation. It has been found out that the existing labour laws and Government have not stamped their authority in controlling Casualisation as shown by the majority of the respondents in Table 4.9. The leading cause of Casualisation has been revealed, from the study, as lapses in labours laws, unemployment and corruption in employment methods. According to Petrauskis (2005) the possible factor encouraging Casualisation is, “the lack of clarity in the government‟s labour laws.” Government has not helped matters as it is the maker and custodian of the law. As if that responsibility is not enough it is also involved in Casualisation as depicted in Table 4.4. Government should create more jobs by itself and coming up with policies which would attract new investors in the country who in turn would provide permanent jobs. As seen in Table 4.22, lack of alternative jobs force people to take up casual jobs. Table 4.19 also shows that persistent unemployment causes Casualisation. Therefore, it can be safely be interpreted that the labour laws need serious attention to address the loopholes that exist such as non punishment of 77 perpetrators and no taxing of savings which arise from using casual workers.

The third objective was to find out if there were any economical advantages and disadvantages to both companies and individuals involved in Casualisation. It has been found that companies have more economical advantages in this casual worker-employer relationship. Table 4.11 shows that casual workers are preferred to permanent workers because there are few or no terminal benefits paid to the former. More precisely, Table 4.12 reveals that Casualisation of labour contributes positively high to companies‟ profitability. It has been discovered from Table 4.13, that reduced tax burden by engaging casual workers on jobs which are permanent in nature also entice companies to involve themselves in Casualisation of labour. According to Henriot (2009:65), “casual workers are only paid for the man hours contributed, implying that companies gain, for example, by not paying casual workers during public holidays.” Further Table 4.16 highlights that Casual workers are as productive as permanent workers, meaning that companies make a saving by not paying casual workers as much as they pay permanent workers. Table 4.23 concludes the assertion that the casual worker is the most disadvantaged in the casual worker- permanent worker- employer relationship. The research has proved that there are more economical advantages to the companies in employing casual workers.

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CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This study is an evaluation of Casualisation of labour in selected public and private sector and specifically at ZESCO. The study focused on human resource welfare and is drawn from Human Resource Management. The following objectives guided the study; to analyse the impact of Casualisation of labour on staff welfare in Zambia, to examine the existing labour policies and laws regarding Casualisation, to find out if there are any economical advantages and disadvantages for companies and individuals involved in Casualisation, to make recommendations for effective measures on the reduction of Casualisation in public and private sector in particular ZESCO. This chapter provides an overview of the prominent issues that the study has sought to achieve. It starts with the conclusions, specific recommendations to ZESCO, and concludes with the general recommendations to government and other stakeholders.

79 6.2 CONCLUSIONS

i. Casualization of labor has negative impact on staff welfare in public and private sector in particular at ZESCO. ii. lack of alternative permanent jobs has forced individuals to take up casual work as a source of income iii. Casualization of labor has been on the increase because of the many loopholes that exist in the employment laws. iv. The enforceable provisions in the labor laws are ineffectively done by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security owing to the few labor inspectors per district.

v. Casualization has both negative and positive sides, for both workers and employers as both the employer and employee continue to be in the relationship reciprocally. vi. Most companies draw economic advantages from the casual worker-employer relationship as it is not easy for public and private sector in particular ZESCO to do away with Casualization of labor completely.

80 6.3 IMPLICATIONS

Casual workers earn little income from their service but they continue in employment and sustain some of their daily needs, this implies that some citizens who can not get permanent jobs survive through casual employment. However, the long term implications of Casualisation of labour are that casual workers have no pension to sustain themselves after they have stopped work.

Normally, it is the duty of government to provide employment for its citizens. However, it is practically impossible for government to employ everyone. This implies that other citizens can be employed by the private sector. Government does not have total control of the operations of individual companies hence Casualisation, as this research has proved, has economical advantages to companies which fuel the scourge.

There has been so much unemployment in the country especially after privatisation of most public owned companies. This has pushed most unskilled labour into destitution hence are willing to take up any job regardless of its terms. Therefore, the implication of lack of alternative jobs is that people will be forced into Casualisation of labour. It has been proved through this research that companies maximise profit by employing some of its members of staff on temporal conditions. Every company‟s objective is to make profit hence Casualisation of labour will almost be inevitable.

The research according to Table 4.9 it has been revealed that the Ministry of Labour and Social Security is ineffective in matters of Casualisation control. This has proved to be a fertile ground for breeding of Casualisation of labour.

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6.4 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS TO GOVERNMENT AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS

The researcher has discovered from the findings some weaknesses in the application of labour law particularly on Casualisation by various employers including Government. Therefore, the researcher is making general recommendations and specific ones that may improve or reduce Casualisation.

Government should come up with a minimum wage bill that will allow both the employers and the employees to survive economically.

Government should create more jobs by coming up with policies which would encourage new investors to come in the country to provide permanent jobs to lessen Casualisation of labour.

There should be a guarantee that former casual workers newly hired on short-term contracts receive all the appropriate benefits as specified in the Employment Act for each period they are hired to be enforced by the MLSS.

Educate the employers, employees, employer groups, employee groups and the public at large on the obligations of employers and rights / duties of each employee category in regard to wages and conditions of employment

End the Casualisation of labour in Zambia, by closing the loophole in The Employment Act (CAP. 268) that allows the re-hiring of a casual worker or multiple casual workers on short-term contracts to fill position that is continuous in nature.

Establish a legal obligation for employers to pay gratuity benefits for a minimum 2 months pay per year of service to any employee whose employment is terminated through either redundancy or through expiration of a contract before legal retirement at age 55 or after 25 years of service or any retirement age as maybe determined by law from time to time.

Government should strengthen the capacity of the Ministry of Labour and Social

82 Security to monitor employment issues across Zambia and ensure compliance with all provisions of the labour laws, notably those that deal with Casualisation of labour.

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8.0 CASUALISATION OF LABOUR QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Introduction and Declaration

Dear respondent,

Force Muganyu is student with Cavendish University – Zambia. He is conducting a research on Casualization of Labor in Zambia, in particular, the case of ZESCO. The research is being carried out in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of Business Administration Degree by Cavendish University Zambia.

The responses and comments which you will provide will be strictly used for academic purposes only and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. And filled out questionnaires shall remain the property of the researcher and Cavendish University.

For all the sections please tick in the box against your preferred answer.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

1 State your gender (sex) by ticking in the appropriate box below? Female

Male

2 Please indicate your age category by ticking the appropriate box below?

1. Under 25 years 2. Between 25 to 35 years

88 3. Between 36 to 45 years 4. Between 46 to 55years 5. Over 55years

3 Could you kindly indicate the level of education attained in the appropriate box below? Primary

Secondary

Certificate

Diploma

Degree

89 SECTION B: CASUALISATION INFORMATION

4 What kind of institution do you work for? Government

Quasi-Government

Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO)

Private

5 Do you understand the term Casualisation? No

Yes

6 What conditions of employment are you on? Permanent pensionable conditions

Temporal conditions (casual)

Contract

7 Casualisation refers to jobs which normally are supposed to be permanent but Casual workers are deliberately employed to do them, in your opinion, at what level in your organisation structure is Casualisation more pronounced? Messengers

Clerical

Middle management

Senior management

Top management

90 8 The employment Act Chapter 268 spells out conditions of service for engagement of workers, but companies continue to engage themselves in Casualisation, do you think that the Labour laws need to be revised, to spell out offences on Casualisation in Zambia? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

9 Inspite of several pronouncements by Government against Casualisation, the trend is on the increase, in your opinion, is the Ministry of Labor and Social Security ineffective in matters of Casualisation control? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

10 Inspite of lack of security Casualisation has been on the increase, in your opinion, are casual workers satisfied with their rewards? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

91 11 In your opinion, is Casual employment preferred by companies because there are few or no terminal benefits paid? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

12 In your opinion, does Casualisation contribute to companies‟ profitability? Positively high

Negatively high

Considerable

Nothing

13 Do companies reduce tax burden by engaging Casual workers on jobs which are supposed to be permanent, what is your opinion? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

14 Casual workers are only paid for the man hours worked, in your opinion, does Casualisation breed poverty? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

92

15 Do Casual workers‟ conditions of service motivate them to continue working, what is your position? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

16 Most companies continually engage Casual workers at times the same individuals, in your opinion, are Casual workers as productive as permanent workers? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

17 How do you rate the impact of Casualisation on individual‟s lives? Good

Marginal

Miserable

Not Sure

93 18 What is the relationship between casual workers and others on permanent employees? Poor

Fair

Good

Very good

Not sure

19 In your opinion, has Casualisation been caused by persistence unemployment in the country? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

20 Which one of the following do you think is the leading cause of Casualisation? Poverty

Lapses in Labour laws

Lack of jobs/employment

Corruption in employment methods

94 21 Casualisation is generally assumed to be wrong, in your opinion, should the Ministry of Labour and Social Security introduce punitive measures to employers practicing Casualisation? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

22 Lack of alternative jobs force people to take up Casual jobs, what is your position? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

23 Are there more advantages than disadvantages of being employed as a casual worker? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

24 The Ministry of Labour and security occasionally carry out inspections on companies for conditions of work, should the Ministry of Labour and Social Security increase labour inspectors per province? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

95 25 Should the Ministry of Labour and Social Security introduce orientation for new employers on Labour Laws including Casualisation? Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Thank You

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