SEG/SEGF Student Chapter Stewart R. Wallace Funding National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment Field Trip Report

“Ophiolite hosted mineral deposits and sustainability-” April 29th-May 5th 2019

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE:

Stephanos Kilias, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

(e-mail: [email protected])

Ariadne Argyraki, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

(e-mail: [email protected]) 1

ORGANISING COMMITTEE:

Michalis Constantinou, Christos Louca, Evangelos Vourdelis, Panagiota-Elpida Tsekoura, Dimitra Karagiorgaki, Adamantios Serafopoulos, Stylianos Potamousis, Efthimios Vatidis.

PARTICIPANTS:

STUDENTS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND GEOENVIROMENT, NATIONAL AND KAPODISTRIAN UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS ΝKUA), MEMBERS OF THE NKUA SEG STUDENT CHAPTER

Sponsors:

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Contents

Contents______3

Field Participants______5

Introduction and Acknowledgments______7

Geological Background______8

Objectives______. 11

Day 1: 29th of April______12

• Ultramafic members of the Troodos mountain ophiolite sequence ______12

Day 2: 30th of April______13

• Diabase sheeted Dykes of the Troodos ophiolites- Bridge (Pikrovrysi of Merika, Maroullena River) Troodos UNESO Global Geopark______13

• Mine Lake (between Mitsero and ) ______15

• Pillow lavas with chilled margins - Between St Iliofoti and Mitsero______15

• Abandoned Copper Mines of Mitsero ______16

• Kokkinopezoula Mine and Red Lake near the village of Mitsero______17

• Old gypsum quarries (Between and St. Iliofoti) ______18

Day 3: 1th of May______19

• Mines of Skouriotissa______19 Day 4: 2th of May______21

• Botanical garden of Troodos, “A. G. Leventis”______21

• Old mine of Asbestos______21

• Abandoned Kokkinorotsos chromite mine ______22

• Epidotized sheeted dykes - 43th Geosite of Troodos UNESCO Geopark ______24

• Gabbro of the Troodos ophiolite (Caledonia Waterfalls in Platres) ______25

Day 5: 3th of May______26

• Briefing at the Mine and Copper and gold production______26

• Gossan deposits in the mines of Skouriotissa______26

• Gold Production Factory______27

• Fukasa______28 3

• Copper Production Factory______28

• Cyprus Geological Survey Department______30

Day 6: 4th of May______31

References______31

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Field Participants

This field trip was attended by 19 persons (Fig. 1), including the team leaders Professor Stephanos Kilias and Assoc. Professor Ariadne Argyraki, 3 MSc students and 14 BSc students.

Name SEG Member Academic Position E-mail Address

Stephanos Kilias Academic Advisor Professor [email protected]

Ariadne Argyraki Geochemistry and field Advisor Assoc. Professor [email protected]

Christos Louka SEG Student Chapter President BSc Student [email protected]

Stylianos SEG Student Chapter Vice- BSc Student [email protected] Potamousis President

Efthimios Vatidis SEG Student Chapter Secretary BSc Student [email protected]

Michalis SEG Student Chapter Treasurer BSc Student [email protected]

Constantinou om

Adamantios SEG Student Chapter Executive BSc Student [email protected] Serafopoulos Member

Panagiotis Pomonis SEG Student Chapter Member MSc Student [email protected]

Georgia Svorligkou SEG Student Chapter Member MSc Student [email protected]

Aimilios Vazoukis SEG Student Chapter Member MSc Student [email protected]

Antonios Adamou SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected]

Stamatina SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected] Asimakopoulou

Katerina Giovanof SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected]

Konstantinos Grivas SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected]

Dimitra SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected] Karageorgaki

Antonios Laskos SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected]

Dimitrios SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected] Latsinoglou

Panagiota-Elpida SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected] Tsekoura

Evangelos Vourdelis SEG Student Chapter Member BSc Student [email protected]

Table 1. Field participants of National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, SEG Student Chapter

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Figure 1. The team of the NKUA SEG Student Chapter with Mr. G. Constantinou, at the Skouriotissa Mine.

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Introduction and Acknowledgments The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, SEG Student Chapter organized the field trip to Cyprus, April 29th-May 5th 2019, entitled “Ophiolite hosted mineral deposits and sustainability-Cyprus”, as a part of the Student Chapter’s activities, and was in part funded by the Stewart R. Wallace Funding scheme. As field participants, over the course of the field trip we had the chance to observe some of the most unique geological formations in the world and gain a great amount of knowledge over a wide variety of geological fields of study and mining. All the participants are very grateful for the financial support provided by the Society of Economic Geologists.

Also, the participants would like to thank Amalthia Trading Ltd. company and Earthquake Planning and Protection Organization (EPPO) of Greece for their generous sponsorships that helped implement the field trip. In addition, the Youth Board of Cyprus offered lunch and hospitality in the center of . We would also like to thank the Geological Survey Department of Cyprus for their hospitality and briefing on, and their activities, and the geology, tectonic regime and seismicity of Cyprus area. Special thanks go to Mr. G. Constantinou, who was our guide throughout the field trip.

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Geological Background The Troodos ophiolite (Fig. 2) of Cyprus is a rare example of remnant oceanic lithosphere that is currently in the process of emplacement onto continental crust along an active subduction plate boundary, where incipient continental subduction/collision has started only very recently [e.g., Poole et al.,1990]. These make the Troodos ophiolite a unique site to explore ophiolite emplacement mechanisms and be acquainted with the long-lasting bewilderment of how dense oceanic lithosphere is obducted over the continental crust rather than sink into the asthenosphere. Understanding the role of different ophiolite emplacement mechanisms can been masked by accurate determination of the timing of uplift of the ophiolite and its chronologic relation to tectonic events (i.e. oceanic subduction, accretion, continental subduction and collision) that ultimately lead to its emplacement onto continental crust. Despite being at the very early stages of collision with the continental margin of the African plate, represented in this area by the Eratosthenes Seamount, the Troodos ophiolite is already uplifted to approximately 2000m above sea level (asl) and exhumed down to its mantle sequence. Previous studies, suggested that the main Troodos Massif emerged above sea level in the early Miocene and apparently underwent a significant erosion phase during the early Pleistocene [e.g., Poole and Robertson, 1991]. This erosion was inferred to reflect early Pleistocene uplift of the main Troodos Massif, corresponding to the timing of increased subsidence of the Eratosthenes Seamount to the south of the Cyprus subduction trench. It was thus hypothesized that initiation of uplift resulted from underthrusting and collision of the Eratosthenes Sea mount continental crust. However, the uplift pattern observed in the Troodos massif is somewhat different from that expected in subduction-collision tectonic settings. It does not include major subhorizontal deformation structures, i.e. thrusting and stacking, and is characterized by dome-shaped uplift at the central part of the massif, accompanied in places by steep normal faults. This style of uplift and deformation has been attributed to diapiric rise of serpentinized mantle rocks, which are currently exposed at the core of the Troodos massif around Mount Olympus. Several studies have suggested that collision of the Eratosthenes continental crust has triggered enhanced serpentinization of the Troodos mantle rocks [Poole and Robertson, 1991]. However, no specific mechanism was suggested to explain the apparent relation between these two processes. Unusually high δ18O values in the Troodos serpentinites suggest hydration of the Troodos mantle peridotites by 18O-enriched saline surface and groundwater produced by the Messinian salinity crisis, implying that serpentinization-driven diapiric uplift of the main Troodos massif is late Miocene or younger.

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Figure 2. (a) Simplified map showing the main tectonic features in the northeastern Mediterranean area. (b) Simplified geological map of the Troodos massif. Modified after the 1:250,000 scale Geological Map of Cyprus. Abbreviations: CTSC, circum-Troodos sedimentary cover; DST, Dead Sea transform; ESM, Eratosthenes Sea mount; LFC, Limassol Forest complex; KT, Kyrenia terrane; MC, Mamonia complex; and TM, Troodos massif [Poole and Robertson, 1991]

The Troodos ophiolite complex, located on the island of Cyprus (SE Mediterranean region), is considered as one of the most well-preserved fossil analogs of modern oceanic crust and includes: (1) numerous volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits, within the pillow lava sequences; (2) asbestos deposits, formed through the hydrothermal alteration of ultramafic rocks; (3) podiform and chromite deposits within the mantle rocks. These have been studied for many years by many scientists worldwide. The island has been mined for its copper wealth for more than 5000 years, since the Bronze Age and was probably the first place where the smelting of Cu occurred. Either Cu was named after Cyprus or vice versa. Cyprus consists of three separate tectonic terranes: the Kyrenia terrane, the Mamonia complex and the Troodos ophiolite complex, which includes the Southern Troodos (Arakapas) Transform Fault Zone (STTFZ). Cyprus began to uplift in the Miocene, but did not fully emerge until around 1 Ma into the Pleistocene. The uplift continues to this day due to the underthrusting of continental crust due to the northward subduction of African plate beneath Cyprus [Dilek et. al,1990; Robertson, 1990; Poole and Robertson, 1991; La Groix and Borradaile, 2000]. The Troodos complex oceanic crust was formed during the Cretaceous (90–92 Ma, Turonian) in the Tethys ocean at a spreading center that was affected by a subduction component. The complex lacks a metamorphic sole and it displays ultramafic mantle rocks (lherzolites and harzbugites), gabbroic plutonic rocks, sheeted dykes, lavas and marine sediments, which comprise a complete stratigraphic sequence of oceanic lithosphere, through the Moho to the 9 palaeo-seafloor [Gass, 1968; Mukasa and Ludden, 1987; Pearce and Robinson, 2010; Regelous et al., 2014]. The complex (Fig.3) has been eroded to exhibit a bulls-eye pattern of mantle rocks at its highest peak at Mt. Olympus, in the central massif, surrounded by progressively younger gabbros, sheeted dykes and pillow lavas towards the margins. The Troodos VMS deposits are situated within the extrusive lava unit. Most of the large sulfide deposits are located along the northern flank of the ophiolite associated with three north–south striking rift structures expressed by deep-seated detachment faults representing fossil upflow zones of high temperature hydrothermal fluids. Cyprus massive sulfide deposits are composed of pyrite and, locally, marcasite, with varying contents of chalcopyrite and sphalerite, with rare galena. Also present are pyrrhotite, rutile, gold and silver, with silver showing an association with chalcopyrite. The main secondary minerals observed are copper oxides, chalcocite, covellite, bornite, digenite, vallerite, tenorite, as well as magnetite and hematite [Pantazis, 1979; Oudin et al., 1981; Schiffman and Smith, 1988; Booij et al., 2000; Hannington et al., 2005]. Epidosites occur in these upflow zones and represent base metal-depleted epidote- and quartz- rich rocks formed by hydrothermal alteration of sheeted dikes during hydrothermal fluid ascent. It is assumed that the protolithic sheeted dykes represent the metal source for the overlying sulfide deposits [Schiffman and Smith, 1988; Booij et al., 2000; Jowitt et al. 2007].

Figure 3. Simplified geological map of the Troodos ophiolite complex. Modified after Keith et al. (2016).

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Objectives This fieldtrip was designed to give students an opportunity to:

A. Observe in first-hand the Troodos ophiolite-hosted mineral deposits including the famous Cyprus-type VMS deposits.

B. Visit the main operating Mine of Skouriotissa from which 1,650,000 tons of copper ore have been produced between 1960 and 1974.

C. Acquire knowledge on field evidence for ophiolite sequences as parts of oceanic crust and open-pit metal mining.

D. Stimulate reflection and discussions on the sustainable case of modern Cyprus economy that is based on mining and tourism, activities that go hand-in-hand for the benefit of the local community that enjoys this fruitful and sustainable symbiosis.

E. Gaining knowledge of the tectonic regime and seismicity surrounding Cyprus area.

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Day 1: 29th of April

Ultramafic members of the Troodos mountain ophiolite sequence

Troodos mountain was formed about 92 million years ago (Upper Cretaceous) at the bottom of the Tethys ocean and emerged with the collision of the African lithospheric plate with the Eurasian and the precipitation of the first under the second.

The mountain consists of an ophiolite complex, whose stratigraphy has been preserved almost intact. Over the ophiolite complex there are deposits of marls.

Ophiolite complex (from upper to lower layers):

− Umbras (pelagic sediments with Fe and Mn)

− Pillow lavas/basalts

− Cluster of diorite and diabase veins (sheeted dykes)

− Ultramafic rocks due to the melting of the upper mantle (unpaved gabbros, paved gabbros, peridotites)

− Metamorphic sole

− Mélange

− Carbonites

From all the above, we actually walked through ultramafic and ultrabasic rocks (due to the melting of the upper mantle), i.e. peridotites cross cut by veinlets of serpentinite group minerals (Fig. 4), and wehrlite.

Figure 4. Serpentine group minerals (picrolite) in peridotite. 12

Day 2: 30th of April

Diabase sheeted Dykes of the Troodos ophiolites-Klirou Bridge (Pikrovrysi of Merika, Maroullena River) Troodos UNESO Global Geopark

Coordinates: 34.857548, 33.073031

In this famous area of Klirou Bridge we visited a truly classic geological site in Cyprus, that is one of the Geosites of Troodos UNESCO Geopark. This area hosts one of the most important exposures of the Lower pillow lavas horizon, as well as huge diabase sheeted dykes (Fig. 5). This horizon consists of pillow lavas (Fig. 5) and hyaloclastites (Fig. 6), that are cut by diabase sheeted dykes (dyke swarms).

Pillow lavas (Fig. 5) were formed from the flow of lava at the ocean floor. Hyaloclastites are breccias, which are formed with products of underwater volcanic eruptions. The dykes consisted the supply system of the pillow lavas. The sheeted dykes can be observed because there are veins with different thicknesses and colors, that belong to different generations. Sheeted dykes (Figs 7, 8) appear vesicular textured, due to the release of gases.

Lower pillow lavas Sheeted dykes

Figure 5. Pillow lavas cut by sheeted dykes, at the Klirou Bridge.

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Figure 6. Basalt hyaloclastites

Figures 7, 8. Vesicular texture in diabase due to release of gases. In figure 7 the vesicles are filled with silicate minerals.

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Mitsero Mine Lake (between Mitsero and Agrokipia)

Coordinates: 35.042422, 33.146004

In this area the extent of the ore is 1 Mtn with concentration of copper of 0.5%. Part of the copper deposits reached the Earth’s surface as a result of tectonic activity, where due to erosion the copper minerals were oxidized to secondary copper minerals.

On the left side of the section below (Fig. 9) a rift that raises the lower pillow lava layer almost at the level of the upper lava layer is visible.

Pillow lavas Oxidized ores

Figure 9. Mine lake, with pillow lavas and oxidized ores.

Pillow lavas with chilled margins ---Between St Iliofoti and Mitsero

Coordinates: 35.048657, 33.124334

The upper pillow lavas that are observed in this area have undergone fractional crystallization resulting an enrichment in olivine crystals at their lowest part (Fig. 10). The chilled margins around the pillow lavas are created by abrupt cooling of the volcanic glass which later became calcium carbonate and aluminate. The material of the chilled margins is limburgite, which has similar composition to the one of dunite and lherzolite and is insulating.

Figure 10. Pillow lavas with chilled margins. 15

Abandoned Copper Mines of Mitsero (Fig. 11)

Coordinates: 35.042554, 33.107885

This particular mine was the richest in copper. Initially, it was consisted of 2,5 Mtn ore, although today only one third of it remains. The main minerals are the pyrite and red-colored jasper (Figs. 12, 13, 14).

Figure 11. Lift used for transport of workers in the mines of Mitsero.

Figures 12, 13. Red jasper with pyrite.

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Figure 14. Gypsum.

Kokkinopezoula Mine and Red Lake near the village of Mitsero

Coordinates: 35.037212, 33.116210

The mine is within the base horizon, that is under the lower lava layer. The dykes have olivine basalt and epidote. This is the only mine located under the level of the lower lava layer. Gypsum is formed in contact with lava. The abandoned Kokkinopezoula (and Kokkinoyia) mines, near the village of Mitsero are both part of a UNESCO Geopark. At the Kokkinopezoula mine, abandoned open pit bench workings slope toward a lake with a strange red hue (Fig. 15).

Figure 15. The Kokkinopezoula red (acid) lake and abandoned mine, near Mitsero.

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Old gypsum quarries (Between Kato Moni and St. Iliofoti)

Coordinates: 35.063662, 33.101242

The Mediterranean salinity crisis during the Messinian, led to the creation of billions of tons of gypsum deposits (Fig. 16) with a maximum length of 12 km and a maximum thickness of 70 m. These deposits today can operate as petroleum traps.

In Cyprus, various types of gypsum are encountered, such as laminated, saccharoidal, botryoidal and recrystallized.

Figure 16A, B. Gypsum deposits.

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Day 3: 1th of May

Mines of Skouriotissa Coordinates of the 1st stop: 35.093347, 32.894014 During the third day of this field trip we visited the mines of Skouriotissa (Fig. 17), from where it was extracted the 80% of Cyprus’ production of copper. The mines of Skouriotissa have reserves of 8 million tones and the concentration of copper in the ores is 8.5%. Before the beginning of the extraction, the ores were buried under limestones that shielded them from erosion. It is worth mentioning that the area of the mines of Skouriotissa is the only mining area where the umbers is right above the ochre, without any intermediate layers between them.

Figure 17. View of the Skouriotissa mines.

Coordinates of the 2nd stop: 35.093977, 32.886860 The ores of Cyprus develop in three forms (Fig. 18): a) massive ores b) ore and amorphous silica and c) stockwork. Stockwork crosscut lower pillow lavas, while upper pillow lavas are unmineralized, so there is no stockwork inside them. The ore was subjected to supergene oxidation, with sulphides like pyrite to transform into oxides, like hematite.

Unmineralized upper pillow lavas Stockwork

Figure 18. Stockwork on the left side and unmineralized upper pillow lavas on the upper and right side of the picture.

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Coordinations of the 3rd stop (Fukasa area): 35.097463, 32.890721 The next stop was at the area of Fukasa, where umbers occur (Fig. 19). The quality of umber, which is an aggregation of amorphous minerals of Fe and Mn that may contain microfossils of bacteria, depends on the percentage of silica that is contained in it. The umbers that contain less silica are of better quality. Umbers are overlain by ochres and bentonites because of the supergene oxidation. The stratigraphy of the upper part of this area from the bottom to the top contains the upper pillow lavas of the ophiolite complex, the ochres, the umbers and the limestones of Upper Miocene.

Ochres

Umbers

Figure 19. Umber deposits in the area of Fukasa, Skouriotissa Mines. On the right side picture, outcrop with brown to black umbers (a product of hydrothermal venting on the sea floor) that are in tectonic contact with bentonitic clays.

Coordinations of the 4th stop: 35.092543, 32.885037 Right outside the mines of Skouriotissa (Fig. 20) we discussed about the history of mining in Cyprus. The export of copper for sale to other areas started in 1780 -1750 BC. In the beginning, copper was not particularly useful, due to its low hardness. This is something that was accomplished later on, when they started making alloys of copper and other metals. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that during the Bronze Age, gold was appearing in massif formations in Cyprus, as proven from the jewels of this era. This consists an indication of great wealth in Cyprus during this period.

Figure 20. Old Skouriotissa mine tailings of the historical export of copper during 1780 -1750 BC.

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Day 4: 2th of May

Botanical garden of Troodos, “A. G. Leventis” (Fig. 21)

Coordinates: 34.930205, 32.916877 During this stop, we watched a film presentation about asbestos and its extraction in Cyprus. The occurrence form of asbestos in Cyprus, is veins of chrysotile inside serpentinized harzburgite. In ancient times, asbestos was being used in the manufacture of fabrics, because of its fibrous form. In modern times, it had also other uses, because of its high temperature resistance, like for example as a construction material for disc brake pads in cars. The rehabilitation of the mine of asbestos started several years after its closure, specifically in 1995. The soil in the area of the mine was not fertile, so during the rehabilitation fertile material, like bentonite, was transferred from the area of Mitsero so the plants could grow there.

Figure 21. The botanical garden of Troodos, named “A. G. Leventis”.

Old mine of Asbestos Coordinates: 34.924164, 32.920871 The formation of asbestos starts during the subduction of the African tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian one, in the area beneath Troodos Mountain. Then, the water which was contained in the rocks was released and caused the serpentinization of harzburgite. This resulted in the reduction of the specific weight and the increase of the volume, which caused the rise of the harburgite on the surface. Asbestos appeared inharzburgite, in chrysotile veins. In the area of the old mine of asbestos (Fig. 22) there was also picrolite (Fig. 23), which can have the composition of chrysotile, lizardite or antigorite.

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Figure 22. Old asbestos mine infrastructure.

Figure 23. Picrolite

Abandoned Kokkinorotsos chromite mine (Figs. 24, 25) Coordinates: 34.974827, 32.885737

Chromite is an oxide mineral belonging to the spinel group and its chemical formula is FeCr2O4. The crystals of chromite in this area usually appear with fractures that are filled with olivine (Fig. 26). The chromium which is contained in the chromite is Cr3+, which can be oxidized to Cr6+, affecting plant roots.

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Figure 24. Old abandoned chromite mines of Kokkinorotsos.

Figure 25. Chromite

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Figure 26. Chromite in slightly oxidized dunite (olivine)

Epidotized sheeted dykes ---43th Geosite of Troodos UNESCO Geopark Coordinates: 35.002547, 32.789975 The epidotized sheeted dykes (Fig. 27) constitute the fluid feeding system for the pillow lavas. The principal minerals of the epidosites are quartz, epidote, titanite, chlorite and ilmenite. Epidosites are created from parent rocks with composition from diabase to andesite, that are subjected to hydrothermal alteration. It is believed that the release of base metals during hydrothermal alteration from the sheeted dike complex of the Troodos ophiolite, constitute the source of these elements in ore- forming hydrothermal fluids, which ultimately form the Troodos VMS deposits.

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Figure 27. Epidotized sheeted dykes.

Gabbro of the Troodos ophiolite (Caledonia Waterfalls in Platres) Coordinates: 34.895848, 32.868451 During our hiking at the pathway of the Caledonia Waterfalls in Platres (Fig. 29), we observed huge gabbro outcrops of the Troodos ophiolite in Cyprus.

Figure 28. Olivinic gabbro of the Troodos ophiolite. 25

Figure 29. Caledonia Waterfalls with NKUA SEG student chapter team.

Day 5: 3th of May

Briefing at the Skouriotissa Mine and Copper and gold production

At the beginning of the 5th day of this field trip, we were invited to attend a presentation by the Hellenic Copper Mines Ltd. CEO, Mr. about the quality, quantity and modification of the Skouriotissa mines and the ore beneficiation. The mine contains 7 types of ores of which 5 are exploitable. The ores contain sulphides and oxides of Cu, Fe and Zn. The gossan deposit at this time contains about 0.5 ppm/tn Au, also > 80% silica which acts as a lattice for the collection of heavy Au and Al metals. We were introduced to the process of hydrometallurgy (Leaching–Solvent Extraction-Electrowinning) to produce pure copper cathodes, thus multiplying the added value of the mineral resources being mined.

Gossan deposits in the mines of Skouriotissa

Coordinates: 35.089347, 32.899261

Gold is being extracted from the gossan, while copper is being extracted from VMS. In the stage of heap leaching, the bacteria disintegrate pyrite and copper forms CuSO4. In this stage it is necessary to use sulfuric acid, which is used to maintain a low pH because the bacteria used live in acidic environments. In this area we saw volcanogenic massive sulphides with crystals of sulpide minerals (Fig. 30, 31, 32).

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Figures 30, 31. Volcanogenic massive sulphides, Skouriotissa mine

Figure 32. Sulphide minerals in red jasper.

Gold Production Factory (Fig. 33)

Coordinates: 35.096256, 32.896623

In the gold production factory, we learned the procedure of extracting gold from the oxidized ore. In the heap leaching, where the ore stays for about 30 days, gold creates a complex with CN. Then, the AuCN with the effect of carbon is splitting in AuC and CN (AuCN + C → AuC + CN).

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Figure 33. Gold Production Factory in Skouriotissa Mines

Fukasa

Coordinates: 35.098202, 32.889121

In this area the contact between gossan and lava can be observed. We also observed some minerals that have a quite different appearance when they alterate, such as hematite, which originally has black color, but when it is subjected to alteration, it gains a red color. Other minerals that were also observed in the area were goethite and ilmenite.

Copper Production Factory

Coordinates: 35.084615, 32.895406

At the copper production factory, we had the opportunity to observe the procedure which is followed for the extraction of copper from the ore. As mentioned earlier, in the beginning there is stage of heap leaching (Fig. 34), with bacteria that disintegrate pyrite and copper forms CuSO4. After this stage, the infiltration of the pregnant solution (Fig. 35, 36, 37) and the electrolysis process (Fig. 38) take place. During the infiltration, kerosene and other organic compounds are being used in order to bind the copper. The electrolysis process follows the infiltration of the pregnant solution of copper sulfate. It is a part of the hydrometallurgy and it is used as the final stage of the extraction of copper. In this process, there are cells in which the electrolyte enters with the copper sulphate solution which it has filtered through the organic phase. In these cells some plates consisted of steel are being put. Due to the continuous current flow into the electrolyte solution, Cu2+ is being reducted in Cu0, which is being absorbed from the steel plates. When each one of the steel plates has absorbed enough copper, the plates exit the cells and copper is being remover from them in sheets.

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Fig. 34. Heap Leaching area

Figure 35. SX-EW plant (Solvent Extraction-Electrowinning plant) - The pregnant solution of copper sulfate

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Figures 36, 37. SX-EW plant (Solvent Extraction-Electrowinning plant) - The infiltration of the pregnant solution, using kerosene and other organic compounds.

Figure 38. Electrowinning plant- tank house, and Copper Cathodes – Final product.

Cyprus Geological Survey Department

After our visit in the mines of Skouriotissa was completed, we visited the Cyprus Geological Survey Department, which is located in Nicosia. There, we were welcomed by the president of the department Costas Constantinos and by Jordan Dimitriadis, who informed us about the activities of the department, its history and its objects of interest. Then, we attended a lecture on the tectonic regime around the Cypriot land, as well as the seismicity of the area. 30

Day 6: 4th of May

The last day of our trip was purely of a tourist interest. We spend our time in the capital city of Cyprus, which is Nicosia. We visited the Nicosia Archaeological Museum, where we saw the historical wealth of Cyprus in the Neolithic and Bronze ages, as well as its mineral wealth, from the jewels that they created in those years. After the museum, we visited the university of Cyprus and then, we enjoyed a meal from the Cypriot cuisine, which was an offer from the Youth Organization of Cyprus.

References

Everything that is written about our field trip at Cyprus and what we saw and learned there comes from the notes that we kept during the trip. Also, the photos that accompany the description of each stop are from our private collection. Therefore, the following references concern only the section of this report that is about the Geological Background of Cyprus.

− Booij, E., Bettison-Varga, L., Farthing, D. and Staudigel, H. (2000). Pb-isotope systematics of a fossil hydrothermal system from the Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus: Evidence for a polyphased alteration history. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 64(20), pp.3559-3569.

− Dilek, Y., Thy, P., Moores, E. and Ramsden, T. (1990). Tectonic evolution of the Troodos Ophiolite within the Tethyan Framework. Tectonics, 9(4), pp.811-823

− GASS, I. (1968). Is the Troodos Massif of Cyprus a Fragment of Mesozoic Ocean Floor?. Nature, 220(5162), pp.39-42.

− Hannington, Mark D., de Ronde, Cornell D. J. and Petersen, Sven (2005) Sea-floor tectonics and submarine hydrothermal systems Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume. Society of Economic Geologists, Littelton, Colorado, USA, pp. 111-141

− Jowitt, Simon M.; Jenkin, Garwen R.T.; Coogan, Laurence A,; Naden, Jon; Chenery, Simon R.N.. 2007 Epidosites of the Troodos Ophiolite: A direct link between alteration of dykes and release of base metals into ore-forming hydrothermal systems? In: Digging deeper: proceedings of the ninth biennial meeting of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits. Dublin, Ireland, Irish Association for Economic Geology, 1037-1040

− Keith, M., Haase, K., Klemd, R., Krumm, S. and Strauss, H. (2016). Systematic variations of trace element and sulfur isotope compositions in pyrite with stratigraphic depth in the Skouriotissa volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposit, Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus. Chemical Geology, 423, pp.7-18.

− Lagroix, F. and Borradaile, G. (2000). Tectonics of the circum-Troodos sedimentary cover of Cyprus, from rock magnetic and structural observations. Journal of Structural Geology, 22(4), pp.453-469.

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