Spen Links RNA-Mediated Endogenous Retrovirus Silencing
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RESEARCH ARTICLE Spen links RNA-mediated endogenous retrovirus silencing and X chromosome inactivation Ava C Carter1†, Jin Xu1†, Meagan Y Nakamoto2‡, Yuning Wei1‡, Brian J Zarnegar3, Quanming Shi1, James P Broughton1, Ryan C Ransom4, Ankit Salhotra4, Surya D Nagaraja5, Rui Li1, Diana R Dou1, Kathryn E Yost1, Seung-Woo Cho1, Anil Mistry6, Michael T Longaker4,5, Paul A Khavari3, Robert T Batey2, Deborah S Wuttke2, Howard Y Chang1,3,7* 1Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford University, Stanford, United States; 2Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, United States; 3Department of Dermatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States; 4Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States; 5Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, United States; 6Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, United States; 7Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, United States Abstract The Xist lncRNA mediates X chromosome inactivation (XCI). Here we show that Spen, an Xist-binding repressor protein essential for XCI , binds to ancient retroviral RNA, performing a surveillance role to recruit chromatin silencing machinery to these parasitic loci. Spen loss activates *For correspondence: a subset of endogenous retroviral (ERV) elements in mouse embryonic stem cells, with gain of [email protected] chromatin accessibility, active histone modifications, and ERV RNA transcription. Spen binds †These authors contributed directly to ERV RNAs that show structural similarity to the A-repeat of Xist, a region critical for Xist- equally to this work mediated gene silencing. ERV RNA and Xist A-repeat bind the RRM domains of Spen in a ‡ These authors also contributed competitive manner. Insertion of an ERV into an A-repeat deficient Xist rescues binding of Xist RNA equally to this work to Spen and results in strictly local gene silencing in cis. These results suggest that Xist may coopt Competing interest: See transposable element RNA-protein interactions to repurpose powerful antiviral chromatin silencing page 23 machinery for sex chromosome dosage compensation. Funding: See page 23 Received: 17 December 2019 Accepted: 05 May 2020 Published: 07 May 2020 Introduction Xist is a 17 kb long noncoding RNA that acts through specific interactions between its distinct RNA Reviewing editor: Gene W Yeo, University of California, San domains and nuclear effector proteins. The Xist RNA-associated protein complex was identified in Diego, United States 2015 using both genetic and affinity-based methods, and consists of multiple pleiotropic proteins, many of which are highly conserved throughout evolution and act on chromatin structure and gene Copyright Carter et al. This regulation in myriad systems (Augui et al., 2011; Chu et al., 2015; McHugh et al., 2015; article is distributed under the Minajigi et al., 2015; Monfort et al., 2015; Moindrot et al., 2015). This suggests that Xist evolved terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which the ability to bind these proteins in the eutherian mammals, coopting those which evolved initially to permits unrestricted use and perform other epigenetic functions. Xist evolved in the eutherian clade through exaptation of a com- redistribution provided that the bination of coding genes that were pseudogenized, as well as transposable elements (TEs) that original author and source are inserted into this locus. Xist contains six tandem repeat regions (A-F), all of which show sequence credited. similarity to TEs, suggesting they arose from eutheria-specific TE insertions (Elisaphenko et al., Carter et al. eLife 2020;9:e54508. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.54508 1 of 27 Research article Chromosomes and Gene Expression eLife digest The genetic material inside cells is often packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. In humans, mice and other mammals, a pair of sex chromosomes determines the genetic or chromosomal sex of each individual. Those who inherit two “X” chromosomes are said to be chromosomally female, while chromosomal males have one “X” and one “Y” chromosome. This means females have twice as many copies of genes on the X chromosome as a male does, which turns out to be double the number that the body needs. To solve this problem, mammals have developed a strategy known as dosage compensation. The second X chromosome in females becomes “silent”: its DNA remains unchanged, but none of the genes are active. A long noncoding RNA molecule called Xist is responsible for switching off the extra X genes in female cells. It does this by coating the entirety of the second X chromosome. Normally, RNA molecules transmit the coded instructions in genes to the cellular machinery that manufactures proteins. “Noncoding” RNAs like Xist, however, are RNAs that have taken on different jobs inside the cell. Researchers believe that the ancestral Xist gene may have once encoded a protein but changed over time to produce only a noncoding RNA. Carter, Xu et al. therefore set out to find out how exactly this might have happened, and also how Xist might have acquired its ability to switch genes off. Initial experiments used mouse cells grown in the laboratory, in which a protein called Spen was deleted. Spen is known to help Xist silence the X chromosome. In female cells lacking Spen, the second X chromosome remained active. Other chromosomes in male and female cells also had stretches of DNA that became active upon Spen’s removal. These DNA sequences, termed endogenous retroviruses, were remnants of ancestral viral infections. In other words, Spen normally acted as an antiviral defense. Analysis of genetic sequences showed that Spen recognized endogenous retrovirus sequences resembling a key region in Xist, a region which was needed for Xist to work properly. Inserting fragments of endogenous retroviruses into a defective version of Xist lacking this region also partially restored its ability to inactivate genes, suggesting that X chromosome silencing might work by hijacking cellular defenses against viruses. That is, female cells essentially ‘pretend’ there is a viral infection on the second X chromosome by coating it with Xist (which mimics endogenous retroviruses), thus directing Spen to shut it down. This research is an important step towards understanding how female cells carry out dosage compensation in mammals. More broadly, it sheds new light on how ancient viruses may have shaped the evolution of noncoding RNAs in the human genome. 2008). One of these is the A-repeat, which is essential for gene silencing. When this ~500 bp region is deleted, Xist RNA coats the X chromosome, but silencing and reorganization of the X does not fol- low (Wutz et al., 2002; Giorgetti et al., 2016). The A-repeat sequence is thought to derive from the insertion and duplication of an endogenous retrovirus (ERV), a class of TEs present in many cop- ies throughout the genome (Elisaphenko et al., 2008). In general, lncRNAs are not well-conserved compared to protein-coding genes but are enriched for TE content, suggesting they may be able to rapidly evolve functional domains by exapting protein- and nucleic acid-binding activity from entire TEs that colonize their loci (Johnson and Guigo´, 2014; Kelley and Rinn, 2012). Understanding how the Xist RNA sequence was evolutionarily stitched together from these existing building blocks to gain protein-binding potential is of great interest towards understanding dosage compensation and lncRNA-mediated gene regulation genome-wide. Spen (also known as SHARP, MINT) is a ~ 400 kDa Xist RNA binding protein (RBP) that contains four canonical RNA binding domains, as well as a SPOC domain to facilitate protein-protein interac- tions. Spen is a co-repressor that binds to several chromatin remodeling complexes, including his- tone deacetylases (HDACs), and the NuRD complex (McHugh et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2001). Though now recognized for its central role in the eutherian-specific XCI process, Spen is an ancient protein that plays roles in gene repression during development in species including Drosophila and Arabidopsis, in addition to mice and humans (Shi et al., 2001; Yabe et al., 2007; Kuang et al., 2000; Tsuji et al., 2007; Ba¨urle et al., 2007). Spen binds directly to the A-repeat of Xist RNA and Carter et al. eLife 2020;9:e54508. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.54508 2 of 27 Research article Chromosomes and Gene Expression Spen inactivation abrogates silencing of multiple X-linked genes, suggesting that the RNA-protein interaction between the A-repeat and Spen is an early and essential step in XCI (Chu et al., 2015; McHugh et al., 2015; Monfort et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2016). Results To test the effect of Spen loss on gene regulation and chromosome accessibility during XCI and genome-wide during development, we performed ATAC-seq (Buenrostro et al., 2013) in haploid mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) harboring a doxycycline-inducible Xist transgene either in the wild-type (WT) context or with a full deletion of Spen (Spen KO) (Monfort et al., 2015; Figure 1a). Following 48 hr of Xist induction, WT cells demonstrated loss of chromatin accessibility at the major- ity of loci on the X chromosome (Figure 1b–c; Figure 1—figure supplement 1a,b). In two indepen- dent Spen KO mESC clones, we found no X chromosome site that is reproducibly silenced upon Xist induction, suggesting that Spen is absolutely required for gene silencing at the level of chromatin accessibility (Figure 1—figure supplement 1b). This complete failure of XCI, combined with Spen’s direct binding to the A-repeat region (Chu et al., 2015; McHugh et al., 2015; Monfort et al., 2015), confirms that Spen’s recruitment to the inactivating X chromosome is early and essential for XCI (Dossin et al., 2020; Nesterova et al., 2019). Despite recent focus on Spen’s role in XCI, Spen is an ancient protein that is known to act as an important RNA-protein scaffold in developmental processes in many species (Shi et al., 2001; Yabe et al., 2007; Kuang et al., 2000; Tsuji et al., 2007; Ba¨urle et al., 2007).