Shakespeare, William (1564-1616). Engraving by William Holl. January 02, 1754. Credit: PHAS

26 The Pharos/Spring 2016 Shakespeare’s An insight into politics, religion, and the King’s Touch

‘Tis called the Evil. A most miraculous work in this good king; Which often, since my here remain in England, I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven, Himself best knows. But strangely visited people, All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye, The mere despair of surgery, he cures, Hanging a golden stamp about their necks, Put on with holy prayers. And ‘tis spoken To the succeeding royalty he leaves The healing benediction. With this strange virtue He hath a heavenly gift of prophecy, And sundry blessings hang about his throne That speak him full of grace. —Macbeth, Act IV, Scene III1pp134–35

Fleta Netter Bray The author (AΩA, University of Miami, 2016) is a mem- God’s agent on Earth, thus affirming his or her Divine Right ber of the Class of 2016 at University of Miami Miller to rule.5p582 The concept of Divine Right would continue to School of Medicine. This essay won first place in the be significant throughout the reign of James I.6p306 2015 Helen H. Glaser Student Essay Competition. In 1533, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) broke with the papacy in Rome and founded the Church of England so he year is 1606, and has writ- that he could marry his pregnant mistress, Anne Boleyn, ten Macbeth, which warns against excessive ambi- in hopes of securing a male heir.2pp17–18 Over the ensu- Ttions to power. Through Macbeth, Shakespeare ing years, a zealous and often bloody tug-of-war between shows that he is a savvy interpreter of the political, reli- Protestant and Catholic denominations and their royal gious, and even medical sentiments of the time. representatives plagued England. Between Henry VIII and This passage from Macbeth alludes to the concept of James I, three of Henry’s children held the throne, includ- a divine political order and describes the centuries-old ing Edward VI (1537–1553), the Catholic Queen “Bloody” English practice of the “King’s Touch,” a ceremonial lay- Mary I (1516–1558), and the Protestant Queen ing on of hands through which English monarchs offered (1533–1603).3pXXI benediction and healing of the “evil” disease scrofula. The Before Elizabeth I died in 1603, she refused to name an King’s Touch provided evidence that the monarch served as heir. The Scottish King James VI was the heir by the usual

The Pharos/Spring 2016 27 Reviews and reflections

of tuberculosis and may be complicated by ulceration, draining sinuses, or abscess formation.8pp911–12 The disease is curable and typically responds to treatment with a multi- drug regimen of rifampicin, isoniazid, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide.7p559 Prior to the twentieth century, scrofula followed its natural course, which involved a painstakingly slow but eventual recovery, or, rarely, worsening disease and death. This condition lent itself to the miraculous, as spontaneous remission could easily give the illusion of the individual having been cured.9p20 Through the King’s Touch, the royal personage laid claim to a hereditary and exclusive ability to cure the disease, professing divine power and authority over the common people.5p582 The origins of Divine Right can be traced back to the time of Charlemagne (circa 742–814). Charlemagne, re- ferred to by some as the father of Europe,10p8 equally used warfare10p103 and religious conversion10p309 to achieve his vision of a unified Christian kingdom spanning most of present-day Western Europe.10p1 When Charlemagne was a boy, Pope Stephen II (died 757) anointed his father, Pippin III (714–768), King of the Franks, and Charlemagne was 10p292 London Queen Mary I touching the neck of a boy for anointed heir to the new dynasty. From that time, the the King's evil (scrofula). Watercolor by M.S. Lapthorn, Christian God was the explicit source of royal authority 1911, after a watercolour, 16th century. Wellcome Library in Europe.10p295 On December 25, 800, Pope Leo III (died Catalogue. 816) crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans, creat- ing an alliance that would strengthen the position of both Charlemagne and the Christian church.10p115 By the late rules of primogeniture, and though foreign-born, he had 800s, Charlemagne’s empire had dissolved, but he had support across the religious spectrum with his Protestant succeeded in establishing Christianity in Western Europe. upbringing and Catholic mother.3pp5–6 James thus became From the ninth century onward, kings of England and King James I of all Great Britain (1566–1625).3pp113,242 France were anointed with holy oil, then crowned.9p38 James I ascended the throne in a time of political and As Christianity became accepted within the regions of religious tensions. A year after his coronation, a group of present-day England and France, the historical precedent Catholic revolutionaries attempted to blow up the English that governments ruled through the will of God became House of Lords in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.4pp54–56,88 well established. In the Bible, Jesus, in addition to healing Guy Fawkes attempted to assassinate James, his family, and sin, also performed miraculous acts of physical healing. On all of Parliament. seven of these occasions, he healed by touch.11p107 In Mark William Shakespeare (1564–1616) quite surely, and 2:17, Jesus stated, “It is not the healthy who need a doc- rather shrewdly, wrote Macbeth with James I in mind. The tor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but tragic play serves as an allegory to illustrate that greedy at- sinners.”12p1543 The Bible states that after Jesus’ death and tempts to imbalance the natural order of power would be resurrection, he returned to the eleven apostles and told met with a gruesome fate. them, “Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved . . . . Today, scrofula is better known as tuberculous cervi- And these signs will accompany those who believe. . . they cal lymphadenitis, which presents as a slowly progressive will place their hands on sick people, and they will get well” swelling of a single group of cervical lymph nodes. It is (Mark 16:16–18).12p1573 caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Which European monarch first instituted the King’s other nontuberculous mycobacteria.7pp556–57 Lymphadenitis Touch is unclear. Some scholars contend that Robert the is one of the most frequent extrapulmonary manifestations Pious (circa 970–1031), King of France, was the first to

28 The Pharos/Spring 2016 scraping away and clamping the flesh overlying it, and re- moving any attached nodes. The procedure could take days if bleeding was heavy.14p98 Those with scrofula often fared better with the King’s Touch of the English and French monarchs than the practices of medieval physicians. Early recipients of the royal benediction fared well, with care taken to pro- vide food, shelter, and rest until cured.5p581 Despite these early successes, the practice was retired until Henry II of England (1133–1189) reinstituted the benedictions with great fervor.5pp581–82 He claimed that his healing acumen was given to him from on his moth- er’s side. Further, he was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204), the former wife of the French King Louis VII (1120–1180), who had practiced the King’s Touch. Over the next several centuries, the English and French monarchies continued to evolve the practice of the King’s Touch. Henry II instituted the gift of a holy medallion to those with scrofula, and Henry VII (1457–1509) innovated the pomp of a ceremony and the gift of an , called a “touch-piece.” 5p582 Even with the religious schism of the Reformation, the healing rite continued in England; however, the practice was never instituted in Scotland. Edward VI performed the act despite his inclinations to rid the state of Catholic Charles II touching a patient for the king's evil (scrofula) customs,9p166 and both Mary I and Elizabeth I instituted surrounded by courtiers, clergy and general public. Engraving by R. White. the Queen’s Touch. Wellcome Library Catalogue Upon his ascension to the English throne, James I faced a difficult decision mired in centuries of tradi- tion, religion, and politics: continue a practice he de- cure scrofulous patients with his touch,5p581 but others spised, a tradition steeped in Catholic sacrilege, idolatry, suggest the practice originated in England with Edward the and superstition; or break an ancient custom that the Confessor (circa 1003–1066).13p73 Regardless of the origi- c ommon people embraced as lending divine authority to nator, it is clear that medieval medicine was often more his throne.5p583,9p191 James I was devoutly religious, and in deadly than the disease itself. Treatments ranged from the year 1611 would authorize the English translation of the continued practice of the Greek four humours, in which Bible, known as the King James Version. He believed that imbalances of black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood God sanctioned his rule.9p199 were corrected through practices such as induced bleeding It is impossible to discern whether Shakespeare believed or vomiting,14p17 to injurious behavior, such as the use of a in the healing powers of the King’s Touch, but several pas- hot iron to cure a headache.14p127 sages in Macbeth may be subtle jabs from a skeptic. Also, Many physicians at the time believed that scrofula re- the scene of the drunken porter, in Act II, Scene III, may be sulted from gluttony and a careless diet. Therefore, the first a reproach to James I for his excessive drinking habits,15p153 step toward curing it was a restrictive diet and avoidance and the general aristocratic excess of Macbeth might reflect of “all things that fill the head with fumes,” such as garlic upon James’ exorbitant spending habits.3p138 and onions, strong wine, shouting, worry, and anger.14pp96–97 James I continued to practice the King’s Touch, despite Medicinal treatment consisted of a plaster of lily root, un- expressing great distaste for it. The ritual sprang from deep ripe figs, bean flour, and nettle seed. Attempts were made Catholic traditions, but the King did not believe that he, or to rupture the lesions with the help of blister beetles.14p97 any other king, had the power to cure scrofula—only God Surgery consisted of an incision of the scrofulous node, could perform such .16p166 Despite his concerns

The Pharos/Spring 2016 29 interpretation exists is a true testament to Shakespeare’s genius—not only as a literary master, but as a critical ana- lyst of his time.

References . Shakespeare W. Macbeth. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press; . . Rex R. Henry VIII and the . New York: St. Martin’s Press; . . de Lisle L. After Elizabeth: The Rise of James of Scotland and the Struggle for the Throne of England. New York: Ballan- tine Books; . . Haynes A. The Gunpowder Plot: Faith in Rebellion. Great Britain: Sutton Publishing; . About Fleta Netter Bray . Currelly CT. The King’s Evil and the Royal Touch. Can Med Assoc J  May;  (): –. Originally from Melbourne Beach, Florida, I . Lamont W. Godly Rule: Politics and Religion, -. graduated from the University of Florida in 2011 London: Macmillan St. Martin’s Press; . with a degree in microbiology. I am now in my . Fontanilla JM, Barnes A, von Reyn CF. Current fourth year of medical school at the University of Diagnosis and Management of Peripheral Tuberculous Miami Miller School of Medicine. I live in Miami Lymphadenitis. Clin Infect Dis ;  (): –. with my husband, Eric, and our beautiful son, . Dandapat MC, Mishra BM, Dash SP, Kar PK. Peripheral Nathan. lymph node tuberculosis: a review of  cases. Br J Surg  Aug;  (): –. . Bloch M. The Royal Touch. New York: Dorset Press; . over the idolatry of gold medallions and touch-pieces, he . McKitterick R. Charlemagne: The Formation of a recognized their importance for the promotion of alle- European Identity. United Kingdom: Cambridge University giance to the English monarchy. He altered the ritual to ex- Press; . clude as many papist elements as possible, and changed the . Wilkinson J. The Bible and Healing: A Medical medallion’s motto to “A DOMINO FACTUM EST ISTVD” and Theological Commentary. Edinburgh: The Handsel (This was the Lord’s doing).16p167 Press; . The practice continued and reached its peak in England . The Holy Bible, New International Version. Grand with Charles II (1630–1685), who had touched one hundred Rapids (MI): Zondervan; . thousand individuals by the end of his twenty-five-year . Mortimer R. Edward the Confessor: The Man and the reign.9p212 Charles’ healing was so popular that he sched- Legend. Woodbridge (UK): The Boydell Press; . uled healing sessions by proclamation, and required that . Demaitre L. Medieval Medicine: The Art of Healing, those seeking a cure procure a certificate testifying that the from Head to Toe. Santa Barbara (CA): Praeger; . individual had not sought the King’s Touch previously.17 . Fawkner HW. Deconstructing Macbeth: The The last English monarch to carry out the practice was Hyperontological View. Cranbury (NJ): Associated University Queen Anne (1665–1714).9p220 The King’s Touch ended en- Presses; . tirely with of France (1757–1836), who issued the . Deng S. Healing angels and “golden blood:” Money last touch in 1825.9p228 and Mystical kingship in Macbeth. In: Moschovakis N., edi- Monarchs who practiced the King’s Touch enjoyed tor Macbeth New Critical Essays. New York: Routledge; : enormous strengthening of their positions that came with –. divine sanction of their power. While James I ultimately . Charles II. At the Court at Whitehall the Ninth of continued the practice, we may never know if Shakespeare January . Early English Books Online. London: Assigns of espoused support of the monarch as divine ruler, or subtly John Bill Deceased: and by Henry Hills, and Thomas Printers mocked the concept of Divine Right. That such a wide to the Kings most Excellent Majesty. Newcomb; .

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