Ó American Sociological Association 2018 DOI: 10.1177/0094306118779811 http://cs.sagepub.com

Decolonizing Sociology

RAEWYN CONNELL University of Sydney [email protected]

The idea of decolonizing the curriculum is missionaries, explorers, surveyors, doctors, now under discussion in universities in translators, and more. In time this became pro- many parts of the world. Behind this lies fessionalized, with specific data-collecting expe- the question of decolonizing the knowledge ditions, some of them including great names in economy as a whole, and the disciplines the history of science: Joseph Banks, Alexander and domains within it. von Humboldt, Charles Darwin. The great bot- In this paper I outline what is involved in anistLinnaeusdidn’tgohimselfbutsentouthis decolonizing the discipline of sociology. apostles: one of them was aboard Lieutenant This is not actually a new issue: there is Cook’s Endeavour, sent to make astronomical a whole back-story of social critiques of observations from Tahiti, when the ship empire. We need to access this history as arrived at ‘‘Botany Bay.’’ well as understand how contemporary soci- Information from the colonized world ology is shaped by the global economy of was crucial for the growth of—among other knowledge. fields—botany, linguistics, geography, geolo- Dealing with those matters raises concep- gy, evolutionary biology, astronomy, atmo- tual problems about power and agency, spheric science, oceanography, and of course the agenda of change, and epistemological sociology (Connell 1997; Steinmetz 2013). structure. But this work also leads to practi- The hegemonic modern knowledge system cal questions: how to redesign curricula, is not so much western science as imperial reshape sociology’s workforce, and redistrib- science. ute resources. There is no single blueprint for Empire was challenged from the start by change; but there is enormous scope for the physical resistance of the colonized. invention and experiment, on the small scale Soon intellectual contestation was added. and the large. One of the most remarkable documents in the history of empire is the Nueva Coro´nica of Guama´n Poma, a descendant of the The Question of Empire Andean nobility. It is an illustrated descrip- It is now five hundred years since the over- tion of the social and political order under seas connections of Europe with other parts the Incas, a narrative of conquest, and an of the world took the shape of armed con- extended critique of the violence and quest, permanent colonies, and colonial inequality of colonial society under states—in other words, the structures of Spanish rule—and it was written about empire. Perhaps the decisive moment was 1615. The author was a contemporary of not 1492 but 1505, when the Portuguese Shakespeare.1 sent their seventh armed fleet (armada) into Critique from the perspective of the colo- the Indian Ocean and appointed Francisco nized continued throughout the history of de Almeida the first Viceroy of the Indies. empire. Striking examples include the He was given the job of setting up perma- Islamic anti-imperialism of Sayyid Jamal nent bases, grabbing control of the intercon- ad-Din al-Afghani in the nineteenth century tinental spice trade, and fighting off local (translations in al-Afghani 1968); Chinese rulers. All this he did. The Indians didn’t get rid of the Portuguese until 1961. 1 The dividends of empire were not only spices It was not published in Guama´n Poma’s life- time but survived in manuscript and can be and gold. They also included knowledge, on an seen in an excellent online edition today: increasing scale. Reportsflowedbacktoimperi- http://www.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/ al centers from sailors, soldiers, governors, titlepage/en/text/?open=idp23904

399 Contemporary Sociology 47, 4 400 Featured Essay perspectives on western empire in the early in a postcolonial direction has gained trac- twentieth century, such as the nationalism tion and has begun to look like a collective of Sun Zhongshan (Yat-sen) (1927) and the undertaking. socialist feminism of He-Yin Zhen (transla- I see this as the significance—beyond their tions in Liu et al. 2013); and the powerful specific arguments—of four collections that analysis of settler colonialism in southern appeared almost simultaneously in 2010: Africa by Solomon Tshekisho Plaatje, Julia Reuter and Paula-Irene Villa’s Postkolo- published as Native Life in South Africa in niale Soziologie; Encarnacio´n Gutie´rrez 1916. Rodrı´guez, Manuela Boatca˘, and Se´rgio We are today more familiar with the post- Costa’s Decolonizing European Sociology; 1950 texts known as ‘‘postcolonial’’ theory Sujata Patel’s ISA Handbook of Diverse Socio- or critique in the humanities. One of its logical Traditions; and Michael Burawoy, best-known documents, Frantz Fanon’s The Mau-kuei Chang, and Michelle Fei-yu Wretched of the Earth, grew immediately out Hsieh’s Facing an Unequal World: Challenges of the military struggle for independence in for a Global Sociology. Algeria. Edward Said’s cultural critique in They are reinforced by individually writ- Orientalism was less directly based on anti- ten but wide-ranging texts such as Syed colonial struggle, but Said had grown up Farid Alatas’s Alternative Discourses in Asian under British colonial rule in Palestine and Social Science (2006), Gurminder Bhambra’s Egypt and knew the story. Rethinking Modernity: Postcolonialism and the There was a continuing social critique of Sociological Imagination (2007), Wiebke Keim’s empire, colonial life, and postcolonial Vermessene Disziplin (2008), Julian Go’s Post- dependence. In the 1930s the young Jomo colonial Thought and Social Theory (2016), Kenyatta managed the amazing feat of and my Southern Theory (Connell 2007). turning Malinowskian ethnography into a cri- This movement has already moved tique of colonization, in Facing Mount Kenya; beyond initial statements. It has led to cri- Gilberto Freyre published the first version of tique and reformulation at a conceptual level his famous account of slave society in colo- (e.g., Rosa 2014; Bhambra 2014) and detailed nial Brazil, Casa-Grande e Senzala; and C. L. reexamination of the history of sociology’s R. James published his dramatic history of entanglements with empire (Steinmetz slave revolution in colonial Haiti, The Black 2013). It has also led to new perspectives in Jacobins. specific fields of sociology and allied disci- In the 1950s, the young Samir Amin plines, including criminology (Carrington, launched the rethinking of political economy Hogg, and Sozzo 2016), the sociology of edu- that eventually was published as Accumula- cation (Epstein and Morrell 2012), the sociol- tion on a World Scale; and the not-so-young ogy of disability (Meekosha 2011), the sociol- Rau´ l Prebisch launched the CEPAL analysis ogy of gender (Connell 2015), urban studies of Latin American economies that trans- (Robinson 2006; Watson 2009), and more. formed development studies and develop- ing state strategies. In the 1960s, Ali Shariati launched his synthesis of Shiite theology Reasons for Action and critical sociology in scathing critiques Sociology is part of the global economy of of neocolonial society, and Syed Hussein knowledge that grew out of the imperial traf- Alatas launched his sociological critique of fic in knowledge. In a process most clearly colonialist culture, postcolonial stagnation, formulated by the philosopher Paulin Houn- and intellectual dependence. These are just tondji (1997), empire generated a structural some high points. division of intellectual labor between periph- There is, then, a big back-story to the ery and metropole. This division is still deep- renewal of interest in postcolonial perspec- ly embedded in modern knowledge forma- tives among social scientists; we have a lega- tion. The colonized world was, first and fore- cy. It is only recently, however, that an agen- most, a source of data. Here raw material of da of transforming the discipline of sociology very diverse kinds was collected, often

Contemporary Sociology 47, 4 Featured Essay 401 with the aid of indigenous knowledge main institutional base is a set of elite univer- workers, for shipment to the metropole. sities in the United States with PhD The metropole, or imperial center, aggre- programs and equivalent elite universities gated data from different parts of the colo- and institutes in western and northern nized world in libraries, scientific societies, Europe. All the top-rated journals are edited universities, museums, botanic gardens, here, most of the research funding is concen- and research institutes—a process now auto- trated here, the hegemonic curriculum is mated in databanks. This milieu in the formed and practiced here, overseas scholars metropole became the site of the theoretical travel to study or visit here, and the PhD moment in knowledge production. Research graduates from these institutions are strate- methods were formalized and routinized; gically placed to shape sociology in the next and specialized workforces were created generation. for producing and circulating knowledge, In mainstream theory (including method- forming the modern collective intellectual ology), there is little sense of being the prod- worker. In northern institutions, research uct of such a specific milieu. Read a modern- was further transformed into applied classic text like Garfinkel’s Studies in Ethno- sciences such as engineering, agronomy, methodology, Coleman’s Foundations of Social and medicine. In this applied form, knowl- Theory, Bourdieu’s Logic of Practice, or Haber- edge was returned to the global periphery. mas’s Theory of Communicative Action and Here it was used by colonial powers and, lat- you will see, rather, an assumption that the er, postcolonial states, in the mines, in agri- thoughts produced here simply apply uni- culture, and in government. versally. ‘‘The tasks of a critical theory of In our time, this traffic continues. The society’’—to quote the final chapter of periphery is as vital a source of raw materials Habermas’s magisterial work—are the tasks for the knowledge economy as it is for the that can be seen from a window in Starn- material economy, yielding data for the new berg, Westwood, or Hyde Park. And in due biology, pharmaceuticals, astronomy, social course, sociologists everywhere in the world science, linguistics, archaeology, and more. start looking at their own societies through It is, for instance, a key source of data for those windows in Starnberg, Westwood, the giant quantitative models central to cli- and Hyde Park. mate science, a relationship that can be seen This pattern is familiar to every sociologist in the famous reports of the Intergovernmen- in the global periphery. I’ll give just one tal Panel on Climate Change. example. When sociology was being In this economy of knowledge, intellectual launched as a new discipline in Australian workers in the global periphery are pushed universities, the most coherent statement of toward a particular cultural and intellectual what the name meant was an article in an stance. Hountondji calls this stance ‘‘extra- Australian journal by Harold Fallding, ‘‘The version’’: being oriented to authority exter- Scope and Purpose of Sociology’’ (1962). nal to your own society. It is reflected, in Fallding declared that sociology was the the simplest possible way, in citation study of systems of social action, analyzed patterns. Researchers in the global North functionally in the manner of Talcott Parsons. usually cite other researchers in the global He was quite clear that there was no other North, often only researchers in the global path for sociology. Theoretical fashions North; researchers in the global South main- change, but extraversion remains. Fifty years ly cite researchers, and especially theorists, later, in 2013, the Australian Sociological in the global North. But extraversion is Association’s journal published a special expressed in many other ways, too: in aca- issue, in fact a double issue, called ‘‘Antipo- demic travel, in appointments to jobs, in dean Fields: Working with Bourdieu.’’ research practices, in publication prefer- What’s wrong with that? Bourdieu was an ences, and so on. impressive theorist; so, for that matter, was Sociology is part of this global economy Parsons. But to understand them in depth and reproduces its structure. The discipline’s is to realize that their theorizing embeds

Contemporary Sociology 47, 4 402 Featured Essay perspectives on the world that arise from the that the movement for postcolonial sociolo- social formations of the global North, because gy is trying to bridge. of their historical position in imperialism and That is why a key task for some of the their current core position in the neoliberal participants has simply been recovering the world economy. I’ve made a rough invento- history of social thought from the colonized ry of these effects: the claim of universality; world and bringing it into contemporary reading from the center; gestures of exclu- sociological discussion (see, e.g., Patel 2011; sion; and grand erasure (Connell 2006). I’m Maia 2008, 2011; Qi 2014). Farid Alatas’s sure that list can be improved on. Alternative Discourses in Asian Social Thought Extraverted sociology in the periphery, is exemplary here. It is notable that Alatas then, is the project of understanding colonial (2012, 2014) has gone on to make a deeper and postcolonial societies through concepts analysis of a powerful social thinker entirely proposed in the metropole for understanding outside the European canon, showing how the metropole; using methods developed in ideas from Ibn Khaldun can cast light on the metropole; and, following the demands states and political-economic changes of corporate-style managers, trying to publish beyond Ibn Khaldun’s own time. the results in top journals of the metropole What ‘‘decolonizing sociology’’ means, after jumping through the hoops of assess- then, is correcting the distortions and exclu- ment by researchers in the metropole. sions produced by empire and global Extraverted sociology in the periphery is inequality and reshaping the discipline in a viable academic project. It’s acceptable a democratic direction on a world scale.It organizationally because its practices appear concerns sociology in the global North as to Rectors, Deans, and Vice-Presidents much as the global South. (Research) quite like the practices of the bio- medical and engineering research that they love. It’s acceptable educationally because it Three Intellectual Questions fits with the bestselling northern textbooks, This project faces a number of conceptual dif- which need only minor local adaptations. ficulties; I will briefly discuss three. It’s acceptable professionally since it speaks The first concerns how we understand a conceptual and methodological language inequality and agency in the global economy known all over the world. It might get you of knowledge. The more militant versions of published in the American Sociological Review. postcolonial criticism often speak of cultural But if you do that, you are reproducing the and intellectual ‘‘domination’’ by the global conventional global division of labor, sup- North. That is familiar in Afrocentric argu- plying data from the periphery for theoreti- ments, for instance in the recent ‘‘Rhodes cal processing in the North. Extraverted Must Fall’’ campaign in South African uni- sociology is endlessly disappointing as an versities. It’s an accent also heard in the de- intellectual project, a continuous, cautious colonial literature concerned with Latin remaking of the intellectual dependency America, together with a particularly sharp that Hussein Alatas (1977) was analyzing critique of colonialism as the ‘‘darker side’’ forty years ago. Because the discipline in of European enlightenment (Mignolo 2011). the metropole took almost no interest In such a perspective, cultural struggle is in the social critics of empire mentioned itself a kind of decolonization; one simply earlier—they don’t fit the story of the replaces the alien knowledge system. No Three Founding Fathers, or the old and one could deny that colonial power imposed new testament of Classical Theory and Mod- culture. Valentin Mudimbe in The Invention of ern Theory—extraverted sociology in the Africa (1988) summarizes what empire had periphery hasn’t taken much interest in to do: dominate space, integrate the local these critics either. A gulf arose between economy into global circuits, and re-form the professionalized discipline of sociology the natives’ minds through religion and edu- and the many projects of critical social cation. The British in India did the last quite thought in the majority world. It’s that gulf systematically, setting up the largest of all

Contemporary Sociology 47, 4 Featured Essay 403 colonial university systems with a Europe- new agendas of research can be set, and she an-derived curriculum designed to train gives a long list of knowledge projects being a local workforce of empire. pursued by indigenous communities. Yet ‘‘western science,’’ as mentioned earli- But there is another way of reshaping er, depended on very large inputs from the social science, addressing not how it pro- colonized world. It constitutes an economy, ceeds but what it studies. Part of the case not a prison. And when we think about the against mainstream sociology is how often global workforce involved, the teachers, its concerns are marginal to the biggest writers, artists, researchers, priests, collec- issues. It’s hard to get worked up about tors, and administrators, we must recognize reflexive modernity or shifting subjectivities the agency of intellectual workers in the col- when you are facing starvation in a drought, onized and postcolonial world. rampant pollution in a mega-city, a grey These workers were not passive, nor sim- economy embracing half the population, ply overwhelmed. Sometimes they were rape and femicide committed with impunity, deliberately killed off—one thinks of the tor- military dictatorship, forced migration, cli- ture and killing of Maya priests, and the mate disaster, or other such conveniences of burning of their priceless books, by the Span- modern life. If social science is to be relevant, ish in the Yucata´n holocaust of 1562. But the it has to be a different social science. intellectual opposition to colonialism contin- Again, let me give one example. Land is ued in many forms, often trying to use the hardly ever mentioned in northern social resources of the colonial regime itself. In theory. It was an absolutely central matter more recent times, postcolonial states have for empire, and remains so for postcolonial expanded higher education and research indigenous life (Yunupingu 1997). It’s the centers in the global periphery. As recent subject of another classic of modern social research shows, the workforces of these insti- science, Bina Agarwal’s A Field of One’s tutions are obliged to engage with the Own (1994), concerned with women’s land authority of the metropole, but they also rights, and land use, across the different show their own agency—constructing new environments of South Asia. This book is agendas, finding local audiences, and devel- a tremendous synthesis on family power oping practical engagements (Connell, relations and negotiations, legal structures, Pearse, Collyer, Maia, and Morrell 2017). economic policies and processes, gender The second question concerns the agenda divisions of labor, and ideology. Agarwal is of change. Much of the programmatic discus- by profession a development economist, sion has focused on the intellectual and but there is a lot of sociology in A Field of methodological framework of sociology, or One’s Own, and political science too. social science more broadly. Starting from In this breathtaking work, there is very lit- this work, an agenda of change would focus tle methodological innovation. Agarwal’s on finding new conceptual frameworks, or material comes from familiar ethnographic rethinking familiar methods, to make them methods, legal and policy documents, and usable for the social groups marginalized economic statistics. Its originality is essen- by empire. tially in what it’s about, in the object of Exactly that is the intention of Linda knowledge that it constitutes. In that respect Tuhiwai Smith’s celebrated Decolonizing it’s a far cry from Decolonizing Methodologies. Methodologies (2012). It comes from the Plainly, we need both. But it’s not clear how author’s involvement in the Kaupapa to link these very different ways of formulat- Maori project of educational and cultural ing a postcolonial sociology. change, launched by the colonized people of The third problem concerns the epistemo- Aotearoa/New Zealand. Criticizing the whole logical structure of a postcolonial sociology. tradition of ethnographic research on the Mainstream knowledge formation, generally Maori people, Smith asks how research can speaking, works on the assumption that there be of use to them and effectively controlled is one and only one episteme. There may be by them. She discusses knowledge resources sharp conflicts within it, for instance between that already exist in the culture and the way quantitative and qualitative methods or

Contemporary Sociology 47, 4 404 Featured Essay structuralist and post-structuralist theory; but Questions of Practice it’s generally assumed they are contesting the Coming down from these heights, what does same ground. the project of decolonizing sociology mean There is a certain grandeur in this concep- for our everyday work as sociologists? tion: one social science that can work for all First and foremost, decolonizing the cur- humanity. But there are stark problems, too. riculum. There’s now a lot of discussion It violates just about everything we know in about this, and some sharp controversies, the sociology of knowledge. It’s inconsistent more focused on the humanities than the with the experience of cross-cultural encoun- social sciences. The idea is relevant not only ter. And because there is really only one body to disciplinary sociology but also to applied of social thought in a position to act globally sociology teaching in areas like health, edu- as The One, in practice this epistemology cation, and counseling. It involves rewriting provides an alibi for Eurocentrism. course plans, textbooks, and online resources Many people, therefore, have opted for to give weight to the social experience of the a mosaic epistemology. In this conception, colonized and postcolonial world. separate knowledge systems sit beside each There is pressure for this kind of change other like tiles in a mosaic, each based on from the increased diversity of student bod- a specific culture or historical experience. ies, and from mobilizations like the ‘‘Why Most indigenous knowledge projects seem Is My Curriculum White?’’ campaign in Brit- to presume a local, at most a regional, ish universities.2 Yet de-parochializing validity (see the African examples in Odora teaching in the social sciences can be justi- Hoppers 2002). Mosaic epistemology offers fied whoever the students are. We simply a clear alternative to northern hegemony need to ask ourselves what is required for and global inequality, replacing the priority an adequate knowledge of the major social of one knowledge system with respectful questions facing humanity now. relations among many. In recent years there have been many more However, a mosaic approach also faces dif- practical attempts to write courses and texts ficulties, pointed out by Bibi Bakare-Yusuf with a consciously global coverage. So we (2004). Cultures and societies are not fixed are building up experience. The problem in one posture. Pre-colonial cultures were with many of these efforts is the tendency not silos, but interacted with each other to keep a northern conceptual framework over long periods of time, absorbed outside while putting in more southern content— influences, and had internal diversity. These thus reproducing within teaching the asym- arguments are reinforced when we recognize metrical structure of the global economy of the massive disruption caused by colonial- knowledge. ism and postcolonial power. Much contem- It’s essential, then, that a project of decolo- porary research, outside the metropole, is nizing the curriculum should address con- done in conditions where ‘‘relative chaos, ceptual questions as well as content. We gross economic disparities, displacement, need to be bold. I’m strongly in agreement uncertainty and surprise’’ are the norm, not with Achille Mbembe’s recent essay the exception (Bennett 2008:7). ‘‘Decolonizing the University: New Direc- If there is to be a third possibility, it must be tions’’ (2016), which urges attention to the some kind of solidarity-based epistemology large and difficult intellectual questions (Connell 2015). This looks for the connections involved in the reform project. between knowledge projects, as much as the A knowledge formation is not just an epis- differences between them: what Chilla teme. It is a socially embedded and practiced Bulbeck (1998) calls ‘‘braiding at the episteme, involving the labor through borders,’’ or what Gurminder Bhambra which knowledge is brought into being, (2014) calls ‘‘connected sociologies.’’ Boaven- tura de Sousa Santos (2014) proposes the valuable idea of ‘‘ecologies of knowledges.’’ It is early days yet, but I think this is the direc- 2 See https://www.nus.org.uk/en/news/why- tion in which we must search. is-my-curriculum-white/.

Contemporary Sociology 47, 4 Featured Essay 405 sustained, developed, and communicated. research cooperation. This has been done, This includes practices of data-gathering, for instance, by the Dutch-funded SEPHIS interpretation, or ijtihad; organizations like program in combination with the Ford Foun- schools, madrassas, and universities; institu- dation for social research on sexuality (Wier- tions like examinations, disciplines, journals, inga and Sı´vori 2013). and (on the toxic side) league tables. Above I’d like to finish with a do-it-yourself plea. all, it involves a workforce. We do not know the answers to many of the Decolonizing sociology therefore requires questions touched on in this essay. We will rethinking the composition of sociology’s only find them by trying. workforce and changing the conditions in Colleagues and students interested in the which it produces and circulates knowledge. decolonization project have often asked I don’t think we currently have a clear pic- how I found the materials in Southern Theory, ture of sociology’s workforce on a world so they can find such material themselves. scale. We do have some valuable snapshots, The answer is embarrassingly low-tech: I for instance in the short accounts from differ- went and looked. I was confident the materi- ent countries in the ISA’s excellent Global Dia- al was there to find, so I haunted libraries logue (http://isa-global-dialogue.net/), or in and bookshops (second-hand bookshops the discussion of underfunding and political a specialty!), visited universities and pressure on social scientists in Thandika institutes, read lots of regional histories, Mkandawire’s African Intellectuals (2005). struggled with languages, and annoyed What is clear is the existence of massive colleagues in every country I could reach inequalities in income, research funding, with requests for their advice. When I began and other resources—within particular coun- doing this, the Internet was in a primitive tries, but especially important on a world state; I had the advantage of international scale. Resource inequalities, as well as lan- travel. I’m sure similar things can now be guage questions, are reflected in very unequal done with a much smaller carbon footprint. participation in meetings like the ISA World And the beauty of any project for widening Congresses of Sociology and more generally our own knowledge is this: nobody can stop in publication and citation patterns. These us. contribute to inequalities of recognition in the global economy of knowledge. Decolonizing sociology, then, involves References questions of redistribution, and that is some- Agarwal, Bina. 1994. A Field of One’s Own: Gender thing we do not normally imagine for an and Land Rights in South Asia. New York: individual discipline. In today’s managerial Cambridge University Press. university, individual academics and even Al-Afghani, Sayyid Jamal ad-Din. 1968. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and departments don’t control large funds; Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din ‘‘al- most have to campaign to get even a single Afghani.’’ Translated by Nikki R. Keddie and line for a new appointment. The big ques- Hamid Algar. Berkeley: University of Cali- tions of overall levels of investment in fornia Press. research and higher education are beyond Alatas, Syed Farid. 2006. Alternative Discourses in the power of individual universities. Asian Social Science: Responses to Eurocentrism. But perhaps we give up too easily. Sociolo- New Delhi: SAGE Publications. Alatas, Syed Farid. 2012. Ibn Khaldun. New Delhi: gists in rich countries seeking grants might Oxford University Press. take care to include some international col- Alatas, Syed Farid. 2014. Applying Ibn Khaldun: The laboration in every project. Resources put Recovery of a Lost Tradition in Sociology. London: into course development can be shared inter- Routledge. nationally by making curricula and curricu- Alatas, Syed Hussein. 1977. Intellectuals in Devel- lum materials available online. To be really oping Societies. London: Frank Cass. Amin, Samir. 1969. Accumulation on a World Scale: useful this needs organizing through A Critique of the Theory of Underdevelopment. a body such as the ISA, but the inherent costs New York: Monthly Review Press. are low. Resources from the global North can Bakare-Yusuf, Bibi. 2003. ‘‘‘Yorubas Don’t Do be used to support South/South links and Gender’: A Critical Review of Oyeronke

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