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3. Filtered Cathodic Vacuum Arcs

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3. Filtered Cathodic Vacuum Arcs 3. Filtered Cathodic Vacuum Arcs 3.1. Introduction ‘Vacuum arc’ is a term used to describe a direct current (DC) glow discharge involving the explosive emission of plasma from the surface of a conductive electrode. The electrode material itself is used to sustain the discharge without the need for a background gas and the process can therefore occur under vacuum conditions. When the plasma material is emitted from the cathode surface the term ‘cathodic vacuum arc’ is used. Emission from the anode surface is also possible under certain conditions, termed ‘anodic vacuum arc’. 3.1.1. Historical review A.W.Wright performed the first documented experiments on the vacuum arc as a deposition technique in the 19th century, investigating the deposition of metal films on the walls of glass discharge tubes [1]. Thomas Edison filed a patent in 1884 claiming “the process of plating with electrical conducting material by forming an electric arc in vacuum”[2]. Edison utilised the technique for depositing a conducting layer onto phonographic wax cylinders to produce an inverse impression of the original recording for use as a template. Intermittent research was conducted on vacuum arcs until the 1960’s when Kikuchi et al. published work on “structures of metal films produced by vacuum-arc evaporation method”[3]. Since this work a renaissance of research on vacuum arc technology has occurred. A major stimulus for 39 this renewed interest was the research undertaken for the development of vacuum interrupters [4]. 3.1.2. Arc thin film deposition A significant drawback in the utilisation of vacuum arcs for thin film deposition is contamination of the plasma by molten droplets of cathode material. Although being on average of the order of a few micrometres in diameter, these droplets are termed macroparticles. Development of the macroparticle filter has been instrumental in the adoption of vacuum arcs as thin film deposition plasma sources in industry and research. Pioneering work on filter design and efficiency was undertaken by Aksenov and co-workers from the Kharkov group in the former USSR. This work produced the most popular design of macroparticle filter employed today; the magnetic solenoid toroidal duct system [5]. Deposition of ceramic materials can be achieved by the introduction of a reactive gas into the deposition chamber. Ionisation of the gas is facilitated by collisions with the cathodic arc plasma and ceramic compounds are deposited by chemical reactions between the gas ions and the metal ions. Titanium nitride is commonly produced by this method. It was this material, with its attractive gold colour, which caught the eye of J. Filner, a New York based precious metals dealer, who subsequently bought soviet vacuum arc technology to the West around 1980. Condensation of pure carbon plasmas from graphite cathodic arcs produces a diamond-like carbon (DLC) film with a high proportion of sp3 (diamond) bonds. 40 Cathodic arcs are unusual in their ability to produce hydrogen free DLC (often termed tetrahedral amorphous carbon or ta-c) and a significant portion of cathodic arc research has been focused on the development of the technology for this purpose. 3.1.3. Arc Ion Source In contrast to most conventional plasma sources, a very large proportion of the plasma produced by a cathodic arc is ionised. This allows the plasma to be manipulated electro-magnetically. It is for this reason that the magnetic solenoid can be employed as a macroparticle filter. Another way in which this feature is exploited to advantage is through the extraction of ions from the plasma by the use of charged extraction grids to create a metal ion source. Extensive development of this technology has been undertaken by Ian G. Brown and the plasma applications group at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, California [6]. The ion extractors and cathodic arc source are collectively trade named “metal vapour vacuum arcs” (MEVVA). Recent interest in plasma based ion implantation has seen cathodic arcs utilised as a source of metal ions for MePIIID. This thesis is concerned primarily with MePIIID using cathodic arcs for modifying the surface properties of polymers. Deposition of ultra thin films on insulators by cathodic arc is a secondary, but equally interesting, concern of this thesis. 41 3.2. General Considerations 3.2.1. Cathodic arc components Modern practical cathodic vacuum arcs consist of several essential components; a conductive cathode from which the plasma is derived; an anode, which is essentially an electron-collecting electrode; a trigger to initiate the discharge; a power supply; and a vacuum chamber (figure 3.1). Additional components may include magnetic confinement coils and a macroparticle filter. Trigger Anode Plasma Cathode Power supply Vacuum pump Figure 3.1: Schematic showing the essential components of a cathodic vacuum arc. Choice of a cathode material is limited only by its ability to conduct a current. All pure metallic species as well as conductive alloys, graphitic carbon and doped semiconductors are potential cathodes. Un-doped semiconductors can also be heated to increase the carrier electron concentration. It is the cathode material that determines the composition of the plasma. Cathode designs are almost invariably a solid disc with one end connected to the power supply and the other circular surface being the region 42 of arcing and plasma production. A large range of cathode diameters exist, ranging from thin wires to tens of centimetres. The anode must be immersed in the plasma plume that originates from the cathode surface. The location of the anode must be such that it does not impede the flow of the majority of the plasma, whilst being close enough to the region of plasma production to collect enough electrons to sustain the discharge. Common anode designs include a cylinder around the cathode through which the majority of plasma can flow, or a flat collecting plate with a central hole that allows the majority of plasma to pass through. 3.2.2. The Arc Discharge Both electrodes are housed in a vacuum chamber and the vessel evacuated. Before an arc is initiated a potential is established between the electrodes. This pre-discharge potential is of the order of many tens of volts. The arc is initiated by creating a small amount of plasma to provide current continuity between the electrodes. This can be achieved by a number of different methods. Physical contact with the cathode by a mechanical trigger electrode held at anode potential is a common method. Non- contact methods such as high-voltage flashover from a trigger electrode or laser ablation of the cathode material are also employed. Once an electrical connection is made between the primary electrodes the arc is self- sustaining. Unlike more conventional discharges that require an ionised gas as a conductive medium, it is the cathode material itself that acts as the ‘switch’ between the electrodes. So long as the power supply can maintain a potential difference 43 between the electrodes, and the anode can effectively collect electrons from the cathode, the arc will run until all the cathode material is ablated. The burn voltage is the potential difference sustained between the cathode and the anode during the discharge, as distinguished from the pre-discharge potential applied between the electrodes. Since the power supply is generally of low impedance, the electrical resistance of the plasma is the primary determinant of the burn voltage. 3.2.3. Pulsed vs continuous Cathodic vacuum arc plasma sources can be grouped into two classes: continuous (or DC) and pulsed. Essentially all cathodic arc discharges are DC discharges. The distinction between DC and pulsed discharges comes about due to the short burn times of the pulsed arc and not due to any oscillatory nature of the arc. DC arcs are generally operated at much lower currents than their pulsed counterparts and consequently exhibit markedly different current-voltage and plasma characteristics. In general, DC arcs draw currents in the range of 20 to 200 A with burn voltages between 10 and 100V. It is interesting to note that at very low operating currents (<10A), DC arcs exhibit high-frequency oscillatory fluctuations. Pulsed arcs generally draw currents from a few hundred amps up to tens of kiloamps with burn voltages similar to that of their DC counterparts. DC and pulsed arcs require different power supplies. DC arcs generally utilise a continuous current source similar to a welding power supply. Pulsed arcs require high instantaneous currents and often utilise a capacitor bank as a power reservoir. One of the limiting factors of the pulsed arc repetition rate is the charging time of the 44 capacitors. A more severe limitation is the resistive heating load of the electrical components. The cooling capability requirement is generally the major limitation in total power usage for both classes of arc. Since the erosion rate of the cathode is closely linked with the power dissipated in the cathode, the plasma production capability of cathodic arcs is in part limited by the ability to cool the electrical components. 3.3. Cathode Spots Unlike conventional glow discharges, in a vacuum arc the current continuity at the cathode cannot be provided by the charged particles from the plasma column. At the cathode surface the arc current is channelled through micrometer diameter bright spots called cathode spots. These spots have an extremely high current density that leads to enhanced ionisation and energy transfer to the electrode. Energetic ions and electrons are emitted from the spot and provide the metal vapour necessary to sustain the discharge in vacuum environment. In addition to production of the plasma species, macroparticles are produced by local heating and explosive emission of molten droplets from the spot region. Theoretical models of physical processes at the arc spots vary widely, and are far from conclusive.
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