Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-14105-6 — a History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to Its Legacy Peter Kenez Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-14105-6 — A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to its Legacy Peter Kenez Index More Information

Index

1905 Revolution, 8 Andropov, Yurii, 243–244 animal husbandry, 199–200 A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, anti-Bolsheviks. See Red Army 227–228 antiparty group, 193–194 Abalkin, Leonid, 268 anti-Semitism. See Jews Abkhazians, 271 Antonov, Aleksandr, 45 abortion, 116–117 Armenia, 272 agriculture. See also peasant communes artists and serfdom, 4 Bolshevik feeling toward, 67 at the beginning of the Soviet Union, 63–64 socialist realism, 123–125 collectivation of, 96–100 arts decline after Russian Revolution, 43 dissident, 225, 228 drought and famine in, 48 effect on Brezhnev society, 223 effect of New Economic Policies, 42, 59–60 glasnost’, 254–255 government subsidation of, 219–220 Stalinist propaganda against, 177–179 link system, 169 the thaw, 191 postwar, 167 Austria, 204 Stalinist crisis in, 82–83 autocracy tsarist attitudes toward, 11 and Putin, 305–310 under Khrushchev, 195–200 beginning of Muscovite, 3, 5 under Putin, 311–312 collapse of, 14 Akhmatova, Anna, 177–178 fears of return to, 292 alcoholism campaign, 250 Azerbaiijan, 272 Alekseev, General Mikhail, 16 Alexander II, 6 Babel, Isaac, 172 Alexander III, 7 backwardness (cultural), 64–65, 73–75, Allies (Second World War), 154–159 82, 196 Alperowitz, Gar, 161 Baltic states. See also Eastern Europe anarchy and NATO, 327–328 after Bolshevik Revolution, 45 German interest in, 139 after collapse of the Soviet Union, 278 independence of, 272 and the Bolshevik Party, 27–33 Soviet Union incorporation, 135–136 Andreev, Andrei, 120, 169 Battle of Moscow, 140–141 Andreeva, Nina, 259 Belarus, 56, 145

371

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-14105-6 — A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to its Legacy Peter Kenez Index More Information

372 Index Berezovskii, Boris, 317–318 Bulganin, Nikolai, 185 Beria,Lavrentiy, 120, 185, 187, 189 Bulgaria, 261–262 Bessarabia, 145 bureaucracy birth rate start of rule by, 3 Chechnya, 311–312 under Brezhnev, 216–217 post-Soviet, 290 under Gorbachev, 270 black market, 222 under Putin, 308–310 Bolshevik Party. See also radicalism after Bolshevik Revolution, 52–53 capitalism and collectivation beginning, 84–89 in early Soviet Union, 58–61 becoming one-party state, 50–51 shock therapy economy and, 279–283 causes for Bolshevik Revolution victory, Castro, Fidel, 209–210 37–40 Ceausescu, Nicolai, 238–239 cultural policies in the early Soviet Union, Central Asia, 271–273 64–70 cesaropapism, 5 disputes after Bolshevik Revolution, 46–47 Chebrikov, Viktor, 248 growth of, 51 Chechnya conﬂict, 295–299, 312–315 importance of industrialization to, 89 Cheka (Russian Bolshevik police), 33, 39, 104 new political system after Bolshevik Chernenko, Konstantin, 244–245 Revolution, 48–53 Chernobyl disaster, 254 rise of after First World War, 24–27 Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 286–287, 295 social institutions in the early Soviet Union, Chiang Kai-shek, 81 70–75 China Bolshevik Revolution. See also revolutionary and Khrushchev, 207 movement Communist victory in, 165–166 and civil war, 33–37 hostility to Soviet Union, 237 causes for Bolshevik victory, 37–40 land reform in, 283 causes of, 14 Nixon trip to, 235 February Revolution, 15–16 rise of Chiang Kai-shek, 81 October Revolution, 27–33 Chronicle of Current Events, 226–227 Provisional Government dual power, 16–19 Churchill, Prime Minister Winston, 154 Provisional Government problems, citizen (classes of early Soviet), 93 19–24 civil war rise of Bolsheviks in the, 24–27 and the Bolshevik Revolution, 33–37 books. See publishing industry Bolsheviks gaining ower during, 52 Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 31–32 misery from, 42–43 Brezhnev, Leonid Spanish, 129 agriculture under, 219–220 Ukrainian, 330–334 conservative economy of, 218–222 Clark, Katerina, 124 corruption, 217–218 class struggle. See also radicalism death of, 243 and kulaks, 87, 89 dissent, 222–229 Bolshevik, 25, 86 foreign policy of, 234–242 under Stalin, 121 governmental institutions of, 216–217 class-conscious workers, 55 military buildup under, 233–235 Cold War, 160–162 minorities under, 229–230 collectivation. See also kulaks rise to power of, 214 beginnings of, 84–89 brigade system, 169–170 brigade, 169–170 Bukharin, N. during the Second World War, 167–168 and Stalin, 77–79 government subsidation of, 219–220 economy, 81 harshness of Stalinist, 113–114 great purge trial, 106–107 link system, 169

Index 373 revolution of, 96–100 Czechoslovakia under Khrushchev, 196–200 and perestroika, 261–262 Comintern. See Communism and the White movement, 35 Commissariat for Enlightenment, 117–119 crisis of 1938, 129–130 communes. See peasant communes nationalist movement in, 238–239 Communism Soviet interest postwar, 164 and Gorbachev democratization, 269 Soviet public opinion and, 227 and perestroika, 259–261 and Putin, 303–304 Daniel, Yulii, 226 and Soviet expansion, 160–161 Declaration of Rights of the Toiling and and the Nazi movement, 126–129 Exploited Peoples, 55, 57 and the Spanish Civil War, 129 decline after Russian Revolution disintegration of bloc of nations, privatization of, 283 237–242 democracy during the Second World War, 167–168 after 1905 revolution, 8 in China, 165–166, 207 and Bolsheviks, 49, 51, 119 industrialization postwar, 170 and Kievan state, 1–2 lack of enthusiasm for in Second World and perestroika, 258–261, 269–270 War, 144–146 and Stalin, 121 not emphasized during the Second World Putin synthesis of, 303–304 War, 152–154 Denikin, General Anton, 36–37 postwar collectivation, 169–170 de-Stalinization, 190–194, 203 purging of Stalinist past, 190–194 dictatorship. See tyranny under Khrushchev, 203–213, 219 diplomacy, 154–159, 203 under Stalin, 171–176 discipline Western belief in lack of modern Soviet, Bolshevik, 10, 39 235 German, 12, 141 compensation labor, 94, 111, 113, 244, 248–250 of collective farm workers, 98–99 Lenin, 54, 65 under Stalin, 112 New Economic Policies, 51 constitution Stalinist, 177–182 introduction of 1906, 8–9 dissent post-Soviet, 283–288 under Bolsheviks, 52 Stalinist, 119–121 under Brezhnev, 222–229 corruption under Putin, 326 and organized crime, 290–291 divorce, 72 in shock therapy economy, 281–283 Dobrynin, Anatoly, 251 purging of by Gorbachev, 248 “doctors plot”, 182, 189, 191 under Brezhnev, 217–218 Dubcek, Alexander, 246 under Putin, 308, 315–320 Dudaev, Dzhokhar, 296 Cossacks, 34, 37, 145 Duma. See also presidential republic Council of Commissars, 29, 50 criticism of the tsar in, 17 crime (post Soviet), 290–291 dissolution of, 287 Crimean Tatars, 229–230, 273 opposition to post-Soviet reforms, 285–287 Cuban missile crisis, 209–210, 233 post-Soviet, 295 cultural revolution. See also socialist realism start of political parties, 9–11 in China, 237 Dunham, Vera, 124 Leninist, 64–70 Stalinist, 100–102 East Germany currency and Khrushchev wall, 205 in shock therapy economy, 280 and perestroika, 261–262 stabilization, 59 under Brezhnev, 238

374 Index Eastern Europe. See also Baltic states Second World War, 140, 167 and international Communism, 193 Stalinist, 99–100 and the Second World War, 163–165 February Revolution, 15–16 collapse of, 261–263 feudalism, 113–114 German interest in, 145 film industry nationalist movement, 231–232, 238–241 and Stalin cult, 172–173 under Khrushchev, 205–207 as Stalinist propaganda tool, 122, 135, 137 economy. See also New Economic Policies during the Second World War, 149–151 agricultural base of, 4 effect on Brezhnev society, 223 and downfall of the Soviet Union, 265–269 glasnost’, 254–255 and the rise of the Bolsheviks, 26–27 socialist realism, 124–125 capitalist principles in, 58–61 under Khrushchev, 191 collapse of after Bolshevik Revolution, 45 under Stalin, 178–179 concessions after Bolshevik Revolution, Finland, 164, 204 234–242 Finland War, 133 five-year plan, 80–84 First World War. See also war fundamental features from industrialization and Russian civil war, 35–36 drive, 92 and the Bolshevik Revolution, 15–16, ideology under Khrushchev, 195 19–24 post-Soviet misery, 288–291 and the Russian economy, 11–12 postwar reconstruction, 167–171 Russian ineffectiveness in, 31 Putin, 304–305 women in, 71 sovnarkhozy, 202–203 five-year plan (economic) tsarist, 7, 11 after New Economic Policy, 80–84 under Brezhnev, 218–222 collectivation in, 84–89, 96–100 under Putin, 310–312 cultural revolution in, 100–102 war communism, 39 industrialization during, 89–92, 111–113 education social transformation under, 93–96 in early Soviet Union, 73–75 Ford, President Gerald, 234 machine tractor stations in, 97 foreign policy propaganda to subvert, 49 and diplomacy in the Second World War, Stalinist, 117–119 154–159 tsars fearful of, 7 Gorbachev, 251–253 under Khrushchev, 211–212 Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 131, 136 Eisenhower, President Dwight, 208 of Brezhnev, 234–242 elections Stalin post Second World War, 162–164 and perestroika, 259–261 under Khrushchev, 203–210 fraud in Putin third term, 324 under Putin, 327–330 post-Soviet, 284, 291–295 under Stalin, 126–131, 162 under Putin, 305–306 formalism, 179–180 elite. See also nomenklatura free trade, 43 post-Soviet, 293 freedom of association Putin’s struggle against, 316–319 and Lenin, 33 tsars defeated, 3–4 glasnost’, 257 Eurasianism, 334 Stalinist, 119 European Union, 332 freedom of expression, 225–229 freedom of speech, 254–257 family freedom of the press at the beginning of the Soviet Union, 70–72 and Lenin, 33 under Stalin, 114–117 glasnost’, 253–257 famine under Bolsheviks, 119 postwar, 167 FSB, 302, See also KGB

Index 375 Gaider, Yegor, 278–283, 292, 297 human rights genocide (Jewish), 146–147 and dissent, 227–229 gentry and the Helsinki agreement, 235–236 alliance with tsar, 4 Hungarian revolution, 225 and liberal political parties, 9 Hungary Germany and perestroika, 261–262 aid to Lenin after exile, 24–25 under Brezhnev, 238 and Khrushchev, 204–205 under Khrushchev, 205–207 and the Bolshevik Revolution, 31–32 and the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, ideology 131, 136 Bolshevik, 49–50, 64–70, 114 and White movement, 224–225 diminishing effect under Brezhnev, minorities in the Soviet Union, 230 223–224 Nazi movement, 126–129 Eurasianism, 334 propaganda in Second World War, Gorbachev, 252 147 Khrushchev, 219 glasnost’, 253–257 Nazi movement toward Soviets, 146–147 gold standard, 7 Stalinist, 119–126 Golden Age, 41 Ukrainian, 55–56 Golitsyn, Prince Nikolai, 15 under Stalin, 171–176 Gomulka, Wladislaw, 206 Western belief in lack of modern Soviet, Gorbachev, Mikhail 235 alcoholism campaign, 250 illiberal democracy, 305–310 background of, 246–247 indigenization policy, 57 corruption purging of, 248 industrialization diplomatic revolution of, 251–253 and collectives, 88 economic reforms of, 248–250 decline after Russian Revolution, 43 foreign policy of, 251–253 during the Second World War, 144 glasnost’, 253–257 effect of New Economic Policies, 59–60 perestroika, 257–261, 270 establishment of, 7 political cabinet of, 247–248 in early Soviet Union, 89–92 putsch of 1991, 263–275 labor force, 93–94 resignation of, 275–277 postwar, 170 rise to power of, 244–245 stagnation under Brezhnev, 220–222 unravelling of multinational state, 271–275 Stalinist, 111–113, 119 Gosizdat, 68 under Khrushchev, 200–203 Great Britain, 154–159 inﬂation, 267, 281 great purge trial, 106 insecurity (Soviet leader), 234 Grigorenko, General Petr, 230 intelligentsia Guchkov, Aleksandr, 17, 20 Bolshevik feeling toward, 65–68 Gulag Archipelago, The, 227 post-Soviet, 289 Gusinskii, Vladimir, 317–318 Stalin against, 82, 102, 177–181 the thaw, 191 Havel, Vaclav, 223 internationalism (Bolshevik), 234–242 Helsinki agreement, 235–236 Islam Hitler, Adolf. See also Nazi movement and Chechen resistance, 296 and anti-Semitism, 182 and Marxism, 56–57 and Stalin, 126–129 and Putin, 328 Battle of Moscow, 140–141 radicalism of, 298–299 cult of, 172 Israel, 208 war declaration on United States, 155 Iudenich, General Nikolai, 36–37 Home Army, 158–159 Ivanov, General Nikolai, 15

376 Index Japan (war with), 7–8, 130, 141, 155, 163, 183 Komsomol organization, 53, 61, 72, 148 Jews Korean War, 165, 204 and Soviet nationalism, 151–152 Kornilov, General Lavr, 21, 27, 30, 264, 279 Nazi genocide of, 146–147 Kosygin, Aleksei, 214, 219–222 Paniat’, 257 Kudrin, Aleksei, 325 prevention of migration to Russia, 133 kulaks. See also peasant communes, under Brezhnev, 230–231 collectivation under Stalin, 182–183 agricultural crisis in, 82–83 judiciary beginning of, 11 in shock therapy economy, 280 Bolshevik targeting of, 43, 63, 80 reform under Alexander II, 6 forced into collectives, 85–86 subgroups of, 86 Kadets (political party), 9, 17 Kyrgyz, 271 Kadyrov, Akhmed, 313 Kadyrov, Ramzan, 314–315 labor day, 98 Kaganovich, Lazar, 115, 120, 175, 185, labor force 193–194 compensation of farm, 98–99 Kalinin, Mikhail, 115, 120 creation of urban, 93–96 Kamenev, Lev, 24–25, 27, 77 shortage under Brezhnev, 221 Katyn massacres, 158 land reform Kerensky, Aleksandr agriculture collectives, 96–100 and Czech troops, 35 and the Russian civil war, 38–39 liberalism of, 30 Bolsheviks and, 29, 62 Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ Deputies, 18 in China, 283 putsch of 1917, 279 in Provisional Government, 21–23 rise of, 21 language promotion, 122 KGB. See also FSB legislature. See Duma and Putin, 301 Leibnitz, Gottfried, 1 under Brezhnev, 227–228 Lenin, V. I. Khabalov, General Sergei, 15 and nationalism, 55–58 Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 265, 286–288 and revolution from the Provisional Khordorkovskii, Mikhail, 318–319 Government, 24–27 Khrushchev, Nikita and the Bolshevik Party, 10–11 agriculture policies, 195–200 and the Council of Commissars, 50 and nomenklatura, 217 and the Petrograd Soviet, 19 assuming power, 189–190 cultural backwardness, 65 background of, 188 in the October Revolution, 27–33 brigade system under, 169–170 removal of, 75 downfall of, 210–213 terror under, 104 foreign relations, 203–210 Leningrad industrialization under, 200–203 affair, 178 purging of Stalinist past, 190–194 famine in Second World War, 140 under Stalin, 128, 167, 174–175 Leonhard, Wolfgang, 164 Kiev liberalism as Viking city-state, 2 after collapse of the Soviet Union, 278 Christianity of, 5 collapse of, 14 Kirov, Sergei, 105 dual government in Bolshevik Revolution, Kissinger, Henry, 235 16–19 kleptocracy, 315 in Putin’s third term, 325–326 Kolchak, Admiral Aleksandr, 35–37 political parties, 9 kolkhoz. See collectivation problems with after tsarist government, 19 Kolko, Gabriel, 161 Liberman reforms, 221

Index 377 Liberman, Evsei, 202 Home Army, 158–159 link system (agricultural), 169 in the First World War, 11–12, 19–24 literature (propaganda against), 177–179 in the Second World War, 143–144, 147 Lithuania, 272 losing war with Japan, 7–8 Litvinov, Maxim, 128, 130 reform under Alexander II, 6 loans for shares, 294, 316, 318 refusal to obey in February Revolution, 15–16 Lvov, Prince Georgii, 17, 24 Stalinist purge of, 106 Lysenko, Trofim, 181 uprising of Kronstadt sailors, 46–47 Western influence on, 6 machine tractor stations, 97, 198–199 military (Allied), 154–159 Maidan revolution, 333 Miliukov, Pavel, 18, 20 Makhno, Nestor, 36, 45 minorities Malenkov, Georgy, 176, 185, 187–189, and nationalism, 229–233 193–194, 203 and Russian nationalism, 57 Manifesto of October 1905, 8–9 and the birth of the Soviet Union, 53–58 Mao Zedong, Chairman, 207 and the Declaration of Rights of the Toiling market economy and Exploited Peoples, 55 attempt under Gorbachev, 248–250 Chechen, 295–299 in shock therapy economy, 279–283, 293 NKVD suspicion of, 148 under Khrushchev, 202 Russian promoted over, 122 marriage, 71 under Khrushchev, 229–233 Marxism misery and Bolshevik ideology, 64 during the Second World War, 166 and industrialization, 200–201 from Bolshevik Revolution, 42–43 and Stalin, 121 post-Soviet, 288–291 and the Bolshevik Party, 10–11 postwar, 167 Bolshevik ideology form of, 49 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 115, 120, 130, 134, ideology of progress, 89 175, 185, 187, 193–194 predictable future, 263 Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 131, 135 principles of, 30 Mongols Maskhadov, Aslan, 297–298 conquest of Kievan state, 2–3 mass mobilization, 211 religion under, 5 material civilization, 65–66 Moscow Medvedev, President Dimitri battle of, 140–141 and Putin, 306 during Mongol rule, 3 rise to power of, 321–323 post-Soviet, 288 war with Georgia, 330 murder (mass) Medvedev, Roy, 228 beginning from collectivation, 89 Mensheviks (political party), 10–11, 18–19, 51 institutions of, 103–111 Meskhetians, 271 Jewish genocide, 146–147 middle class, 215 Katyn massacres, 158 Middle East Muslim. See Islam and Brezhnev, 236–237 and Khrushchev, 208 Nagy, Imre, 205, 246 Mikoian, Anastas, 120, 176 Narkompros, 117–119 military nationalism and civil war leadership, 30, 33–37 among minorities in civil war, 37–38 and perestroika, 263 and unravelling of Soviet Union, 271–275 and Soviet world standing, 233–234 as Communist ideology, 119 and the Petrograd Soviet, 18–19 Bolshevik, 53–58 arms control with United States, 252–253 during the Second World War, 150–154 Chechnya conflict, 296–297 in Czechoslovakia, 238–239

378 Index nationalism (cont.) Paulus, General Friedrich, 142 in Poland, 239–241 peaceful coexistence, 203–204 Russian, 273–274 peasant communes. See also kulaks, Stalinist, 121–122 agriculture NATO and New Economic Policies, 50, 234–242 and Khrushchev, 205 and Russian civil war, 34, 38 and Putin, 327–328 dissolution of, 11 Ukraine joining, 331–332 effect of New Economic Policies, 42 Navalnyi, Aleksei, 325 emancipation of, 6–7 Nazi movement. See also Hitler, Adolf gaining from Bolshevik Revolution, and invasion of Poland, 130–131 43–44 and invasion of Soviet Union, 137–144 in early Soviet Union, 62–64 and Stalin, 126–129 in Provisional Government, 21–23 and the Czechoslovakia crisis of 1938, postwar, 168–169 129–130 propaganda toward, 49–50 ideology toward Soviet people, 146–147 under Khrushchev, 196 success of, 135 under Putin, 311–312 Nemtsov, Boris, 326 uprising of Tambov, 45 NEPman, 60 perestroika, 257–261 New Economic Policies Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ Deputies, 18, beginnings of, 45–48 20, 51 economic consequences of, 58–61 Piatakov, Yurii, 106 effect on peasants, 42 plebiscite, 274–275 end of, 77–84 Pokrovskii, Mikhail, 121 political system of, 48–53 Poland state farms, 96 nationalist movement in, 239–241 Nicholas II, 8 Nazi invasion of, 130–131 Nixon, President Richard, 208, 235 Russian War, 36–37 NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Soviet interest postwar, 163 Affairs). See also terror status in the Second World War, 157–159 and minorities, 148 under Khrushchev, 206 and Stalin, 111 Politburo, 187 and the Cheka, 104 political prisoner, 193 Katyn massacres, 158 Politkovskaia, Anna, 307 killing of, 109 Poroshenko, President Petro, 333–334 nobility. See elite Pravda (newspaper), 8 nomenklatura, 217, 284 Preobrazhenskii, Yevgenii, 77–78, 81 presidential republic, 292–293 October Revolution, 27–33 princes. See tsars Octobrist Party (political party), 10, 17 privatization OGPU failure of Putin’s economy, 315–317 and kulaks, 86 in shock therapy economy, 281–283 as terror machine, 104 proﬁt. See market economy oligarchs. See elite proletariat Olympics, 320 after the Second World War, 171 orange revolution, 332 and New Economic Policies, 45–46 Order Number One (Petrograd Soviet), 18 and Social Democratic parties, 10–11 at the beginning of the Soviet Union, 60–61 Paniat’, 257 during the industrialization movement, parliament. See Duma 93–95 partisan movement, 149–151 from industrialization, 7 Pasternak, Boris, 224–225 meaning of, 55

Index 379 suffering from civil war, 44 Reagan, President Ronald, 252–253 under Khrushchev, 196 reconstruction (postwar), 170 propaganda Red Army Bolshevik appreciation of, 49 and Allied assistance in the Second World effect of Khrushchev, 204–205 War, 155–156 effect of Stalinist, 123 and Japanese aggression, 130 in Second World War, 137, 150–154 and perestroika, 263 lack of German in Second World War, and the birth of the Soviet Union, 57 147 and Trotsky, 39 partisan movement, 149 Battle of Moscow, 140–141 Stalinist ideological, 176–183 Battle of Stalingrad, 142 Stalinist industrial, 90, 119 disappointing in Finland War, 133 transmission belts, 52–53 in the civil war, 33–37 Provisional Government not prepared for Second World War, dual power in, 16–19 137–139 problems with, 19–24 partisan movement, 149–152 publishing industry satellite state independence, 271–273 Bolshevik feeling toward, 68–70 religion under Brezhnev, 225 and Islam, 56–57 Pussy Riot, 325 during the Second World War, 153 Putin, President Vladimir in early Soviet Union, 100 and corruption, 315–320 in premodern Russian state, 5 and Medvedev, 321–323 propaganda to subvert, 50 and Ukraine, 330–335 revolutionary movement. See also Bolshevik anti-democratic tendencies of, 303–304 Revolution autocratic political system of, 305–310 1905, 8 Chechnya conﬂict, 312–315 and education of proletariat, 7–8 economy under, 310–312 soviets in the, 8 foreign policy, 327–330 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 131, 134 rise to power of, 226, 301–302 Romanov dynasty, 15 social structure, 310 Roosevelt, President Franklin, 154, 159 third term of, 324–326 Rosneft (oil company), 319–320 putsch of 1917, 264, 279 Russian Federation putsch of 1991, 263–277 Chechnya conﬂict, 295–299 constitution, 283–288 Radek, Karl, 106 independence of, 273–274 radicalism. See also class struggle, Bolshevik misery in, 288–291 Party Russo-Polish War, 36–37, 56 and Gorbachev, 268 Rutskoi, Alexander, 286–288 and Putin, 328 Ryazan miracle, 199–200 and rise of the Bolshevik working class, 25–27 sailor uprising, 46–47 and the cultural revolution, 101–102 Sakharov, Andrei, 227–228, 254 and the Petrograd Soviet, 18–19 SALT agreement, 235 in Chechnya, 298–299, 312 samizdat, 225–226 in soviets, 8 schools. See education peasant communes, 21–23 science Stalinists stingy in support of foreign, and dissent under Brezhnev, 228 162 Bolshevik feeling toward, 65–67 railroads, 58–59 under Stalin, 125–126, 180–181 Rakosi, Matyas, 205–206 scissors crisis, 59 Rasputin, Valentin, 229 second economy. See black market

380 Index Second World War. See also war socialist realism, 123–125, See also cultural and the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, revolution 131 Socialist Revolutionaries (political party) diplomacy in the, 154–159 and civil war, 33 famine during, 140 and the Bolshevik Party, 32–33, 51 German advancement during, 137–141 and the Petrograd Soviet, 18–19 industrialization, 144 leaving government, 29 Red Army not prepared for start of, principles of, 10 137–139 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 225, 227–228 Soviet advancement in, 141–144 soviet Soviet people in the, 144–154 and revolutionary politics, 8 ‘Soviet Union involvement in, 133–137 end of participatory democracy in, 51 secret speech (Brezhnev), 224 not assuming old bureaucracy after segmented regionalism, 308–309 revolution, 51 self-determination. See nationalism Petrograd, 18 serfdom, 4, 6 rise of Bolsheviks in the, 24–27 Seventeenth Party Congress, 105, 110 Soviet Union Shevardnadze, Eduard, 233, 248, 251 and the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, 131, shock therapy economy, 279–283 136 show trials, 104–107 birth of modern, 53–58 Shvernik, Nikolay, 120 capitalist principles in, 58–61 siloviki, 307 collapse of, 275–277 Siniavskii, Andrei, 226 devastation after the Second World War, “Slavophiles”, 6–7 166–167 Social Democrats (political party), early cultural policies, 64–70 10–11 early economy, 62–64 social structure early struggle for leadership power, 75–79 and difficulty of classifying early Russian, effect of dissent on, 228–229 113–114 expansion before the Second World War, destruction of ruling, 43 133–137 gentry, 4 expansion under Brezhnev, 236 in New Economic Policies, 52–53 incorporation of Baltic states, 135–136 middle class, 215 Soviet Union during the Cold War minorities in, 23–24, 37–38 and Eastern European expansionism, NEPman, 60 162–164 of collective farm workers, 99 caution with the United States, 164–165 peasant communes, 6–7 policy of expansion, 160–161 post-Soviet, 291 rational for, 161–162 serfdom in, 4 sovkhoz, 96 tensions between classes, 7 sovnarkhozy, 202–203 tsars and aristocracy, 3–4 Spanish Civil War, 129 under Putin, 310 St. Petersburg Soviet, 8 Western influence on, 6 Stakhanov movement, 112 social transformation Stalin, Joseph during the five-year plans, 93–96 and Cold War beginnings, 161–162 Stalinist, 112–114 and nationalism, 55–58 socialism and the Provisional Government, 24–25 beginnings of political parties in, 10–11 and the Spanish Civil War, 129 dual government in Bolshevik Revolution, assuming control over Soviet Union, 76–79 16–19 cultural revolution under, 100–102 under Brezhnev, 216 Czechoslovakia crisis of 1938, 129–130 under Stalin, 121, 180–181 death of, 184–186

Index 381 deiﬁcation of, 122–123 in the Spanish Civil War, 129 de-Stalinization after death, 190–194 Red Army and, 39 Finland War, 133 revolutionary movement, 16 frightened of Nazi power, 137–139 rise of, 8 ideology of, 171–176 scissors crisis, 59 incorporation of Baltic states, 135–136 support of Lenin, 25 industrialization under, 89–92 tsars mental deterioration of, 162 after 1905 revolution, 8 political culture postwar, 171–176 alliance with gentry, 4 postwar foreign policy, 162–164 and the First World War, 11–12 power after New Economic Policies, 81–83 decline of, 15–16 Second World War, 154–159 defeating aristocracy, 3 uniting secretariat, 52 deplorable heritage left by, 50 war crisis manufacture, 81 industrialization, 7, 11 Stalingrad, 142 reform under, 6 Stalinism Tukhachevskii, Marshall Mikhail, 109 collectivation, 113–114 tyranny education under, 117–119 of Ceausescu, 238–239 family under, 114–117 under Stalin, 104–111, 123–126 foreign policy, 126–131 ideology of, 119–126 Ukraine industrialization, 111–113 at beginning of Soviet Union, 55–56 institutions under, 103–111 famine in Second World War, 167 needing the Cold War, 177–182 Germans as liberators, 145 state farm, 96 minority autonomy in, 23 Stolypin, P., 11, 256 nationalist movement, 231, 330–335 Sverdlov, Yakov, 52 Stalin punished with famine, 100 unemployment tamizdat, 225 at the beginning of the Soviet Union, 61 terror. See also NKVD ending with industrialization movement, 93 and the Second World War, 144–146, under Brezhnev, 221 176–183 under Putin, 304 Chechnya conﬂict, 312–314 Union of Russian People (political party), 9 Nazi, 146–147, 152 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. See Soviet prisoner, 136–137 Union social transformation under, 112–114 United States Stalinist, 104–111, 114–117 alliance with Soviet Union in Second World “the great retreat”, 114 War, 154–159 “the thaw”, 191 and arms control, 252–253 Timasheff, Nicholas, 114 and Gorbachev, 251–253 Tito, Josep, 206 and Khrushchev, 203–204, 234–236 totalitarianism and Putin, 328 dissent under, 223 and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 209–210 Stalinist, 110–111, 123–126 and Ukraine, 334 under Stalin, 171–176 start of the Cold War, 160–161 transmission belts, 52–53 Ural-Siberian method, 83 transportation system, 58–59 urban labor force. See industrialization Treaty of Riga, 56 urban proletariat. See proletariat Trifonov, Yurii, 228 Uzbeks, 271 Trotsky, Leon and control over Soviet Union, 76–79 veche, 2 Bolshevism, 29 vernalization, 181

382 Index Vietnam War, 161 under Stalin, 114–117 Vikings, 2 Zhenotdel organization, 53 virgin lands program, 197–198 workers. See proletariat Vlasov, General Andrei, 145–146 World Trade Organization, 329 Voroshilov, Kliment, 120 Wrangel, General Petr, 36, 42 vouchers, 282 “wrecking” activity, 90

war. See also Second World War, Yakovlev, Aleksandr, 248, 251 First World War Yanukovych, President Viktor, 331–333 and Stalin avoidance of, 126–129 Yavlinski, Grigori, 268 and the 1905 Revolution, 8 Yeltsin, Boris and the tsarist economy, 11 “shock therapy” economy, 279–283 Cold, 160–162 and Brezhnev, 248 Communist economic policy and, 39 and Chechen resistance, 295–299 danger of two-front, 130–131 and Gorbachev, 259, 270 Finland, 133 misery under, 288–291 Japan, 7–8 putsch of 1991, 265, 275–277 Korean, 165, 204 reforms under, 279–283 misery caused by, 43 resignation of, 302–303 Russo-Polish, 36–37, 56 Yezhov, Nicolai, 115 scare manufactured by Stalin, 81 youth Western inﬂuence in Second World War, 148 and perestroika, 262 Komsomol organization, 53 and Ukraine, 332–334 religious propaganda and, 73 on Russian nobility, 6 Stalinist education, 118 White movement Yugoslavia, 206 and causes for Bolshevik victory, 37–38 Yushchenko, President Viktor, 331–332 and civil war, 33–37 leadership of, 30 Zhdanov, Andrei, 120, 175–177, 181 Witte, Sergei, 7, 11 Zhenotdel organization, 53 women Zhirinovski, Vladimir, 292, 322 imbalance after the Second Workd War, Zhukov, General Georgii, 141, 189, 194 166 Zinoviev, Grigory, 27, 77 important labor source, 93 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 177–179 in early Soviet Union, 70–72 Zyuganov, Gennadii, 293–295, 322 in war industry production, 144