Social Sciences, Humanities and Education Journal (SHE Journal) Volume 1 (3) 93 – 102, September 2020 | ISSN: 2720-9946 (Online) | ISSN: 2723-3626 (Print) The article is published with Open Access at: http://e-journal.unipma.ac.id/index.php/SHE

BREAST IRONING: A OF THE GIRL-CHILD’S PERSONALITY INTEGRITY AND SEXUAL AUTONOMY

Titi Christiana Falana , Department of Philosophy, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.

Abstract: ironing also known as breast flattening, has been considered as one of the most widespread and systematic violations of the universal human rights to personal integrity and sexual autonomy perpetuated against the girl child . This exhilarating practi ce which is typically carried out by the girl’s mother on the pretext of protecting the female child from teenage sexual harassment and rape, early pregn ancy and dropping out of school is unfortunately done to protect family name. Employing the qualitative research approach and the expository analytic method, this research reveals that this practice has ensuring clinical, psychological and social consequences on the female victim. The paper considers this practice a rape based on the fact that the female victim’s consent is never sought. Natural sense of justice demands that the victim whose personality integrity and right to sexual autonomy was to be defiled and destroyed deserves to give an informed consent. Therefore, the paper concludes that this harmful practice is an abuse because it violently violates the girl child right full sexual autonomy and right to possess natural physiological endowment that adorns a woman. This paper therefore recommends that strict laws and penalties should be promulgated to totally abolish and eradicate this barbaric and horrific mutilation.

Keywords: , Girl-Child, Ironing, Mutilation, Rape, Rights, Sexual, Violation.

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Citation: Falana, T. C. (2020). Breast ironing : A rape of the girl -child’s personality integrity and sexual autonomy. Social Sciences, Humanities and Education Journal (SHE Journal) , 1(3), 93 – 102. DOI: 10.25273/she.v1i3.7596

Published by Universitas PGRI Madiun. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial- ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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INTRODUCTION violent violation of the girl child’ right to sexual autonomy and right to physical Breast ironing is one amongst the integrity. numerous despicable gender-based Consequently, this paper considers violence against the girl child. Gender- breast ironing as a public rape of the girl based violence is a problem that affects child’s physical integrity, sexual integrity millions of girls and women, transversely and right to sexual autonomy with the boundaries of culture, religion, socio consent of the society. The mortal impact economic class, education, age and other of this practice on the girl child arising levels of human social intercourse. It has from its clinical and psychological been documented as a human rights issue complications can never be obliterated in that manifests itself in physical, the life time of the girl. Most regrettably psychological, social, and cultural forms this senseless public rape is a carried out (Edor 2005). This form of violence has with the express and tacit consent of the been regarded by many as one of the most mother. This has been one of the major pervasive of human rights violations, factors that has consisted a push back to denying women and girls’ equality, concerted effort made to abolish this security, dignity, self-worth, and their obnoxious and enduring harmful practice. right to enjoy fundamental liberties The paper concludes that this obnoxious (Robinson 2019). Such violence is highly practice could be metaphorically prevalent within the family, remains considered as punishing the she-goat for widely socially tolerated and is often a the iniquities of the he-goat. It therefore cycle of abuse that manifests itself in an recommends that all well-meaning men endless variety of forms. Various forms of and women of goodwill globally must rise such violence have been recognized up in condemnation and work globally, such as female genital mutilation assiduously to see to the end of this and forced marriages (Simpson 2018). barbaric practice that mutilates the However there exists other form of physical integrity of the girl-child. violence which has been rendered invisible due to silence. A prominent WHAT IS BREAST IRONING? example includes the practice of breast ironing. Breast ironing is otherwise referred The focus of this paper is to to as breast flattening. It is the consistent determine whether the practice of breast pounding and massaging of a pubescent ironing could be rightly considered as a girl’s breasts, using hard or heated cultural practice that is imperative objects, in an attempt to retard their (essential); or whether it could be ideally development or in the extreme to make seen as an unnecessary and callous them disappear. Breast ironing may be cultural practice that constitutes a brute simply defined as the pounding and and violent violation of the girl child’s massaging of a pubescent girl’s breasts, right to sexual autonomy and right to using hard or heated objects, to try to physical integrity. With the aid of make them stop developing or disappear. expository analysis the paper reveals that Julie Ada Tchoukuo in her work titled considering the clinical, psychological and Introducing the Practice of Breast Ironing physiological complications and problems as a Human Rights Issue in , associated to breast ironing and coupled opines that, “breast ironing, usually with the fact that the purported reason referred to as another form of mutilation, for which breast ironing has been is a practice whereby a young girl’s perpetuated from historic time remains developing breasts are pounded, pressed unabated, therefore, the practice of breast or massaged with an object usually ironing is not only an unnecessary abuse heated in a wooden fire, to make them of the girl child but more significantly a stop developing, grow more slowly or

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disappear completely” (Tchoukuo, 2014, that women of African descent have a pp. 10). Expressing similar concern, Bawe higher rate of young breast development, Rosaline Ngunshi, opined that “breast with some experiencing breast growth by ironing also known as a form of the age of 7 (Pharmacy Times, 2010; Ogar mutilation is another weird practice & Edor 2020). It is also more likely for whereby pubescent girl’s breasts are young girls to undergo the tradition if flatten. This involves pounding and they begin developing breasts younger, massaging the developing breasts of with statistics stating that girls who young girls from about eight years with experienced before age 9 were hot objects to try to make them 50% more likely to have their breasts disappear” (1966: 5). This mutilation ironed (Ngunshi, 1966). A critical look commences when the child is eight years around one’s vicinity would incredibly of age because at this age she is nearing reveal that even some female children of puberty and the very first changes that six years of age have begun developing occurs in puberty that begin at about this breasts. And unfortunately, the attraction age is gradual development of breast. this holds for their male counterparts The objects used in carrying out cannot be wished away. Hence, the this practice vary; however, the most flattening of the breast is believed to help widely used implement for breast ironing prevent young women from unwanted is a wooden pestle normally used for attention or rape, as well as to delay pounding fufu, eba, yam, etc. Other objects sexual activity which could lead to early include grinding stones, black fruits, pregnancy. Breasts are considered a sign plantain peels, mortar pestles, coconut of sexual readiness in many cultures so if shells, ladles, spatulas or hammers, all the breasts are removed, it is believed carefully heated over burning coals. With that women will receive less sexual these objects, mothers consistently press attention (Tchoukou, 2014). It may be and iron their daughters developing plausibly argued that no superior logic breasts to destroy any indication of can disprove this fact. emerging womanhood. The massage It has been argued that the practice could last from one week to several of breast ironing has no connection with months depending on how resistant the religion, ethnicity, wealth or formal breasts are and also depending on how education, urban or rural dwelling. This resistant the victim or her body is to the practice is not limited to rural areas or practice. Sometimes, the heated objects poor families where women are perceived are used twice a day for weeks or months to be uneducated, ignorant or unexposed to crush the budding breast. It should be to women’s equality or children’s rights, asserted that “breast ironing is possible but is also reported to be prevalent in because the breast is nothing but the urban areas where women are more tissue overlying the chest muscles educated and exposed. To validate this otherwise known as pectoral muscles. In empirical statement, Tapscott observed other words, breasts consist of fatty that “wives of parliamentarians and tissues that is why they are susceptible to ministers also iron the breasts of their ironing-they can be dissolved or melted daughters without the knowledge of their by consistent ironing” (Bartholomew, husband” (2012, pp. 27). 2016, pp. 31). Typically, women start developing DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREASTS breasts between the ages of 8-15 hence, IRONING AND BREASTS MASSAGING breast ironing might probably begin at this young age. This has become It is pertinent to distinguish problematic due to the age of puberty between breast massaging and breast occurring at younger ages in females in ironing. This becomes necessary at this the past decade, with studies showing point because some people are in the

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habit of using the term interchangeably to imperative. These reasons include, to imply the same thing. However, research protect the girl from teenage sexual reveals that both are not the same harassment and rape, early pregnancy, because they are practiced for different and to ensure the girl pursues education reasons. For the records, breast rather than be forced into early marriage. massaging is an ancient practice basically These reasons where precipitated for on mothers to enhance the instance, by the background fact that flow of milk for the baby's consumption. It breast ironing is mostly practiced in parts is also considered helpful during the time of Cameroon, where boys and men may of weaning the child. On the other hand, think that girls whose breasts have begun breast ironing is a practice of mutilating a to grow are ready for sex. This is a very teenage girl’s developing breasts through formidable argument based on empirical pounding, pressing or massaging with an fact. The first point of attract in a female object usually heated in a wooden fire, to body is the breasts and female pubescent make them stop developing, grow more girls unknowingly start sending sexual slowly or disappear completely. signals to their male counterparts with It is germane to underscore that the their budding succulent breasts. basic difference between breast Ultimately the ground reason for ironing massaging and breast ironing is that while the girl child’s breasts is to forestall the the former is a willful activity in the sense future tarnishing of the family name. The that the one whose breast is to be family their female children of their massage must be an adult who already is physical integrity and sexual autonomy a mother; the latter is imposed on its with the consent of culture to protect victims who are usually girls between the their family name. ages of eight and fourteen who have started developing breasts. It is usually CULTURE AND THE ORIGIN OF BREAST done by a female relative close to the IRONING victim. The question that arises in respect to the origin of this practice is whether it WOMEN RESPONSIBLE FOR BREASTS has been historically part of a particular IRONING culture or whether it is merely a practice that has acquired the status of culture It germane to observe that across over time. A further question that arises is cultures and geographical climes women whether it is a practice that was (the girl’s mother, grandmother, aunt or abandoned and is re-emerging or a guardian,) typically carried out this practice that has been on-going but is now practice and the simple reason for this is more visible. These questions became the fact that it has to do with the private imperative because it has often been part of a female. Of course the father argued that the principal justification of couldn’t have been the one to invade his breast ironing is that it is a cultural daughter’s privacy, hence the woman is imperative; an imperative because it is commanded by culture (even against her meant to preserve core moral values of wish) to carry out this cultural ordinance. society. These values include chastity and Commonsense morality would never abstinence from premarital sex. In theory, allow a male or the father to behold the a distinction has been made between private region of her pubescent daughter culture as a system and practices deemed and this is why the mother has to either to be culture. Sewell asserts that “most freely or under compulsion carry out this theoretical writings on culture have rape with the consent of the society. presumed that the concept of culture as a Societies where this cultural practice system is in conflict with the concept of prevails have adduced several reasons culture as practice” (2013, pp. 28). why this practice became culturally Scholars who are apologists of culture as

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a practice insist that culture is a ‘sphere of society to transmit oral history, oral law, practical activity carried out via willful oral traditions and other knowledge action, power relations, struggle, across generations without a writing contradiction and change (2013, pp. 30). system. Heinge holds that, “for a material While proponents who project culture as to be regarded as cultural material or a system argue that culture is a system of tradition that has been transmitted orally, norms, values and social relations. it is important that such material be held The term culture has been defined in common by a group of people over in various ways. It has been described as a several generations” (Heinge, 2013, pp. prime source of one’s identity and has 39). It may therefore be argued that the also been regarded as the source of ‘self- practice of breast ironing is one which can definition, expression and sense of group be regarded as cultural material belonging (Edor 2016). Hence, culture can transmitted orally. This is premised on be said to indicate a way of acting, the fact that this practice has been held in thinking and doing things that is common by a group of people over distinctive to a certain group of persons. several generations, in that, it is common Anthropologists generally use the term among all 250 ethnic groups in Cameroon culture to refer to a society or a group in and has been passed on through which many people live and think in the generations. same way (Northoff 2013). According to In places where breast ironing is this definition, culture includes inherited practiced in Cameroon, it is a common ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge practice for every household. This implies which constitute the shared basis of social that it is a practice held common by action. In this light, an inherited idea or everyone under the jurisdiction of that belief through usage and transfer to particular culture. Now the question is, at succeeding generations can be regarded what point did this practice began in as culture. Cameroon which studies have revealed to From the above, it can be argued be its epicenter. Taku in her work titled that for certain beliefs or behaviors to be Children’s Fund ‘Domestic viewed as culture; it is not a requirement and Girls’ that it be deeply embedded and revealed that: historically part of a specific culture. Therefore the mere fact that a specific It is difficult to state exactly when belief is practiced and passed on from this practice began or at what point generations to generations can lead to it the motivation behind the practice being regarded as part of culture. It of breast massage changed. And the should be added also that society A can only evidence as to the history of borrow something from society B and it this practice is the fact that today’s automatically become part of the culture elderly women also suffered this of society A. treatment (Taku, 2014, pp. 45). Cultural materials and traditions can be transmitted orally from one However, it is worth noting that, from generation to another. In this regard, other research, older women did not Wilson asserts that oral tradition is the suffer breast ironing but the ancient process in which history, stories, religious practice of breast massage. She further beliefs are passed on from generation to argues that this practice is deeply rooted generation (Wilson, 38). She further in custom mainly because mothers who affirms that for the African people, oral tolerated it were told by their own tradition is linked to their way of life, in mothers that it was done to protect them. that it is regarded as the primary means As a result mothers who endured this of conveying culture and attitudes. practice also repeated the gesture to Therefore in this way, it is possible for a protect their own daughters and this

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continued in vicious circle. She also mutilation. These factors include decline argues that breast ironing is merely ‘a of teenage/early marriage practice, vicious circle that survives through incessant sexual abuse of children and ignorance more than tradition’ (Taku, tarnishing of family name (honour), and 2012. pp. 47). From this, it can be religious fanaticism. deduced that there is oral tradition that i. Decline of teenage/early marriage speaks at length about this practice. practice: From historic time, Rebecca Tapscott’s in a works, Cameroon is renowned for the Understanding Breast Ironin: A Study of culture of teenage and early the Methods, Motivations, and Outcomes of marriage practice. Teenage girls Breast Flattening Practices in Cameroon, were married off as soon as they maintained that: experience their first menstrual period. Moreover, pubescent girls Findings on the history of this were betrothed when in infancy practice indicate that breast ironing and are handed over to their is not an ancient ‘traditional betroths in marriage as soon as practice. Thus, this practice became their physiological organs are prevalent in Cameroon with developed and become suggestive urbanization, in that, women who to men. As long as this was the migrated to cities became practice, before teenage girls ever concerned about the safety of their got to be abused they were daughters. Therefore, the old already married off. However, practice which was used to soothe with time the practice of teenage and massage the breasts was and early marriage steadily revived and adapted (Tapscott, declined as a result of civilization, 2012. pp. 48). urbanization and sustained education on the negative Thus far may be adduced that breast consequences of teenage ironing originated in Cameroon at certain marriage. time and has since them became an Consequently, with the drastic essential cultural practice. Meanwhile, the decline of this practice, the concept breast ironing has it origin from pubescent girl child and young the Cameroonian tradition and culture girls became vulnerable to which is breast shaping or massaging. philanderers and allegedly there This culture is premised to the were widespread cases of sexual development and nourishment of the abuses resulting in early mother's milk for the breast feeding of pregnancies. Increasingly, young her baby. It follows that the practice is girls who are victims started solely for adults who are willing and of dropping out of school. Against course are mothers. Unlike breast ironing this backdrop, to protect the girl whose practice is centered on children. child from this unfortunate More so, from the onset, breast shaping or situation the culture of breast massaging has been in existence which is ironing was introduced. successfully replaced by the breast ii. Sexual abuse of children flattening or ironing. (premarital sex) and the fear of Notwithstanding the difficulty in tarnishing family name: The establishing the actual time when breast steady decline of teenage and ironing originated, there are however early marriage practice which some historical antecedence and factors snowballed into sexual abuse of that instigated societies in Cameroon children and widespread of where breast ironing is predominately premarital sex constituted a great practice to originate this physical dishonour to families of victims.

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Hence, to forestall the disgrace integrity and sexual autonomy of the that might result from the child victim. possibly raped by migrates or locals because of their BREAST IRONING AS A RAPE OF THE impressionable state and PERSONALITY INTEGRITY AND ABUSE curiosity, the breasts of pubescent OF SEXUAL AUTONOMY girls were ironed. With this, it is believed that families’ prestige Breast ironing cannot be considered and honour were preserved. as a reasonable cultural practice that iii. Religious fanaticism: One of the merits to be called a cultural imperative. factors that influenced parents to The reason for this position is that even in subjecting their teenage girls to the societies where it was practiced the harrowing experience of sexual harassments and teenage breast ironing is religious pregnancies were still evident. Flatting of fanaticism. Since most pubescent the breast or retarding its development girls may not be able to practice cannot remove sexual urges from the girl abstinence the only viable option child. Again, apart from the breasts, there to save sex would have been the other physiological organs which are use of contraceptives. However, sexually suggestive. At this point one may most families were conservatives also ask, what happens to the male child whose religious fanaticism cannot who approached the girl child for possible allow them permit their children sexual activity. Why punish the she-goat the use of contraceptives. Coupled the crimes of the he-goat? with the fact that religious The practice of breast ironing is precepts outlaw premarital sex, conceived to be a the only hard option was to iron deteriorating the female child's quality the breasts of these which affect her physiologically and impressionable daughters to psychologically as it distort her social life. retard and slow the growth of From the inception of this practice it has their breast thereby delaying it been misconstrued from its original sense sending signals of readiness to into gender based violence on the girl their male counterparts for ready child forced against her wish to satisfy the for sexual intercourse. cravings of her parents. Breast ironing is These three reasons combined has considered an abuse because of the been the reason and driving force of clinical and psychological consequences breast ironing for ages. On the strength of that necessarily accompanies it. these three cardinal reasons advocates of Breast ironing has caused more breasts ironing believe that breast ironing harm than good to women. Contrary to is a cultural imperative that must be the supposed reasons adduced as its allowed to continue unabated for the justification as a cultural imperative, moral sanctity of the social order. On the breast ironing has not in any way helped basis of this, even if the girl child suffers prevent unwanted attention, rape, or any harm, it is worth the price for the teenage pregnancy in the societies where good for society. In other words, it is a it has been practiced. Rather it has necessary evil. Now the question is, can infamously positioned women who were breast ironing be rightly considered a its victims for a lifetime of difficulties cultural imperative or on the contrary a including pain, inability for breastfeeding, gross violation of the girl child rights of , and in some personal integrity, personal liberty and situations breast cancer. A practical sexual autonomy, or even something example that demonstrates the fact that worse? A case can be plausibly made that breast ironing is indeed an abuse and breast ironing is a rape of the personality distortion of the girl child’s physical

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integrity is the account of a young woman parts: lobules, ducts and connective tissue named Gaelle, who is now twenty six (26), (Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium who spoke about her experience of breast 1999). The lobules are the grand that ironing as a girl stating, and I quote: produce milk, the ducts are tubes that carry milk to the nipples and finally, the At night, my mother would make connective tissues (which consists of me wear a really tight elastic band fibrous and fatty tissues) surrounds and around my chest. During the day, holds everything together. It is these she'd massage me with a spatula, a tissues that breast ironing destroys pestle, a stick or a rock. It really thereby temporarily retarding the growth hurt. I asked her to stop and of the breast and later triggering the eventually she did. But after the abnormal growth of these tissues thereby ironing, my breasts grew really fast. causing cancer. Like really, really fast. I was so 2. Cysts: A cyst is a sac-like pocket of ashamed. I wanted to hide them. membranous tissue that contains fluid, air People on the street would scream or other substances (Falk & Bunkin at me about my boobs. By my 1953). It can grow anywhere in the twenties, my breasts started to sag human body or under the skin. There are like those of a 50- year-old woman. about about 13 different kinds cyst: I'm reluctant to undress in front of breast cyst, epidermis, sebaceous, people. Sometimes, I keep my top ganglion, ovarian, chalazae, etc. Breast on when I have sex with my ironing has been found to have caused boyfriend. I really resent my mother breast cysts to most of its victims. (Bidan, 2015). 3. Abscesses: Abscesses can be defined as a confined pocket of pus that collects in This woman, like many others, has tissues, organs or spaces inside the body felt the harsh realities of breast ironing. It (Hackett 2001). When an area in the body destroys more than a girl’s breasts but becomes infected the body’s immune also her confidence. There is also the system sends white blood cells to fight the story of Emmanuelle, a 23-year-old, who infection. These cells collect and combine spoke about her mother ironing her with the damaged tissue and germs, breasts and the pain that came with the creating liquid called pus. This has been massaging, describing it “as if she was one of the likely consequences of breast stabbing something into my chest” (Bidan, ironing 2015). She goes on to say that her cousin 4. Dissymmetry of the breast: Breast raped and impregnated her when she was ironing also causes dissymmetry of the only 13 years old and because of the breasts. This is a physiological condition ironing she no longer had breasts to whereby the two breasts are not of the produce milk to feed her child (Bidan, same shape and size. In some extreme 2015). Both these women describe cases it even causes the complete examples of harms which have had long disappearance of one or both breasts. term negative effects on them that are a Imagine a young lady with two unequal result of breast ironing but also highlight breasts or even without breast at all! This that this method is not an effective distorts the physical integrity of the method against rape or pregnancy. Some victim because breasts have a very of the concrete clinical and medical important aesthetic value. The sight of complications associated to breast ironing this has both psychological and social are discussed below: consequences on the victim and it 1. Breast Cancer: Breast cancer is a invariably affects the individual self- disease in which cells in the breast grow concept, confidence, identity and esteem. out of control. According to medical 5. Breast Itching and Discharge of Milk: experts, a breast is made up of three main It has also been reported that some

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victims of breast ironing usually suffer 91(15), 1310–1316. from conditions like breast itching and https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/91.15 discharge of milk 9 Kantorowska 2016). .1310 You can imagine what degree of Edor, J. E. (2005). The inductive discomfort and embarrassment this might predicament as an indispensable be causing those suffering from it. sable evil for practical life. Sophia: An African Journal of Philosophy, CONCLUSION 8(1), 110-115. Falk, H. C., & Bunkin, I. A. (1953). From the foregoing expository Intraperitoneal cysts simulating analysis of the culture of breast ironing, it ovarian cysts. Obstetrical and is unarguably clear breast ironing has Gynecological Survey, 8(5), 738– caused more harm than good to women 739. (if at all it has any positive value). It has https://doi.org/10.1097/00006254 inflicted untold life time clinical and -195310000-00010 psychological burden on its victims; these Hackett, T. (2001). Abscesses and include pain, inability for breastfeeding, Cellulitis. In Veterinary Emergency psychological trauma, cancer etc. On the Medicine Secrets (pp. 135–137). strength of the findings of this research https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1- therefore, it is germane to argue that the 56053-421-1.50036-3 harrowing practice of breast ironing is a Henige, D. O. (2013). The Nomenclatures rape of the victim’s personality integrity, of Orality and Their Implications, personal liberty, and the right to sexual Massachusetts: Hendrickson autonomy. It is an abuse of the girl child Publisher Inc.. and a patriarchal injustice that punished Kantorowska, A., Wei, J. C., Cohen, R. S., the she-goat for the atrocities of the he- Lawrence, R. A., Gould, J. B., & Lee, goat. The paper recommends that society H. C. (2016). Impact of donor milk must begin to device a new method of availability on breast milk use and socializing the male child to understand necrotizing enterocolitis rates. the he too is expected to develop the Pediatrics, 137(3). virtues of continence, purity and self- https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015 discipline towards women. He must -3123 equally be made to understand that his Ngunshi, R. (1966). Breast Ironing: A manhood is his dignity and as such Harmful Traditional Practice in virginity must be a priceless virtue he Cameroon, Gender must maintain. On the legal perspective, Empowerment and Development, strict laws and penalties must be enacted Tennessee: The South Western to totally delete this inhumane and Company. senseless practice. Northoff, G. (2013). What is culture? Culture is context-dependence! REFERENCES Culture and Brain, 1(2-4), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40167- Bartholomew, L. (2016). Patriarchy and 013-0008-y harmful practices: not a problem for Ogar, T. E., & Edor, J. E. (2020). Creative us? Seen and Heard, 26(3), 29–37. Cultural Synergy: Towards the Bidan, M. (2015). The victims of Africa of the Future. PINISI Cameroon’s breast ironing tradition, Discretion Review, 4(1), 135-150. London: Routledge. Rebecca, J. C. (1994). “State Responsibility Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium, T. for Violations of Women’s Human (1999). Cancer Risks in BRCA2 Rights”, Harvard Human Mutation Carriers. JNCI Journal of Rights Journal. the National Cancer Institute,

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