Evolutionary Origins of Music. Classical and Recent Hypotheses Kasper Kalinowski Et Al
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Evolutionary origins of music. Classical and recent hypotheses Kasper Kalinowski et al. Anthropological Review • Vol. 84(2), 213–231 (2021) Evolutionary origins of music. Classical and recent hypotheses Kasper Kalinowski1,2, Agata Kozłowska3, Marta Malesza4, Dariusz P. Danel5 1 Department of Psychology of Development and Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury 2 Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw 3 Department of Individual Differences, Faculty of Psychology, University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw 4 Faculty of Psychology, University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw, Poland 5 Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to review recent hypotheses on the evolutionary origins of music in Homo sapiens, taking into account the most influential traditional hypotheses. To date, theories derived from evo- lution have focused primarily on the importance that music carries in solving detailed adaptive problems. The three most influential theoretical concepts have described the evolution of human music in terms of 1) sexual selection, 2) the formation of social bonds, or treated it 3) as a byproduct. According to recent proposals, traditional hypotheses are flawed or insufficient in fully explaining the complexity of music in Homo sapiens. This paper will critically discuss three traditional hypotheses of music evolution (music as an effect of sexual selection, a mechanism of social bonding, and a byproduct), as well as and two recent concepts of music evolution - music as a credible signal and Music and Social Bonding (MSB) hypothesis. KEY WORDS: evolutionary psychology, music, biomusicology, evolutionary theories of music, functions of music Introduction basis of an early version of the theory of evolution, noted that man’s capaci- Explaining the phenomenon of music in ties for music “must be ranked amongst the evolutionary terms was already a prob- most mysterious with which he is endowed”. lem for Darwin, who, unable to fully ex- (Darwin 1871). Despite the fact that the plain the phenomenon of music on the explanation of music genesis is consid- Original Research Article Received: April 10, 2021; Revised: May 13, 2021; Accepted: May 14, 2021 DOI: 10.2478/anre-2021-0011 © 2021 Polish Anthropological Society 214 Kasper Kalinowski et al. ered crucial in the context of language terms can be based on three main con- evolution (Huron 2001), and music it- cepts (Mehr et al. 2020; Fitch 2006; Hu- self is treated as a second and equally ron 2001; Cross 2009). Music in Homo sa- important communication channel of pienswas interpreted as: 1) a byproduct of Homo sapiens (Harvey 2020), the issue of evolutionary processes, 2) sexual selec- the evolutionary origins of music is still tion, and 3) a social bonding mechanism. unclear. This is due to the complexity of These concepts allowed the creation of music. According to Fitch (2006), the hypotheses that can be empirically and term “music” itself should be treated as experimentally verified (Miller 2001; an ‘’umbrella term’’, and it is crucial to Tifferet et al. 2015; Kreutz 2014; Launay distinguish between the different com- et al. 2015; Wilks 2011). Nonetheless ponents of capacity for music, which data collected to date are not sufficient may have evolved at different times enough to fully accept one of the tradi- independently of each other. The fact tional hypotheses (Fitch 2006; Mehr et that music does not constitute a single al. 2020, Savage et al. 2020). detailed capacity makes answering the A novel and more comprehensive question “Why did music evolve?” consid- approach to the problem of the origins erably challenging. of music is offered by recent hypothe- Music has seemingly accompanied ses analyzing the evolutionary origin of Homo sapiens since at least the Paleolith- music in terms of credible signal (in at ic period. The oldest surviving artefacts, least two contexts – coalitional interac- which are indisputably considered mu- tions and infant care) (Mehr et al. 2020) sical instruments, are ca. 43 and were and Music and Social Bonding (MSB) hy- found in the caves of the Swabian Jura pothesis, (Savage et al. 2020). The two, region (Higham et al. 2012; Blake and new alternative scenarios for the genesis Cross 2008; Kunej and Turk 2000; d’Err- of music fill gaps that previous concepts ico et al. 2000). Some researchers push have not dealt with and set the stage this boundary even further – according to for further research. Most importantly, Steven Mithen’s hypothesis, singing phy- they are not limited to single adaptation logenetically preceded the emergence of problems, which was perhaps the biggest articulate speech in Homo sapiens and was drawback of traditional concepts. Bio- present among Neanderthals (Mithen musicology, as the field that attempts to 2011). Evidence of the presence of mu- answer the question of the evolutionary sic among Neanderthals is an instrument origins of music, is an interdisciplinary discovered in the Slovenian Divje babe I area (Honning 2018; Peretz 2006). Ac- cave, which was allegedly made by made cordingly, both the music as the credible by them . However, due to the poor con- signal hypothesis and the MSB hypothe- dition of the artefact, the discovery is sis integrate contributions from biology, questionable, and according to some re- archaeology, evolutionary psychology, searchers, the “Neanderthal flute” should neuroscience, primatology, and compar- be interpreted as a bone nibbled by pred- ative cultural studies. ators (Tuniz et al. 2010; Diedrich 2015; Before presenting music as a credible Turk et al. 2020). signal hypothesis and the MSB hypoth- Previous theories explaining the esis, three groups of theories that have emergence of music in evolutionary dominated biology and psychology for Evolutionary origins of music. Classical and recent hypotheses 215 over two decades will be discussed along a previous relationship. Overall, over with critical comments. Theories that 92% of all songs had some “reproduc- describe music as 1) an effect of sexu- tive content”. When Hobbs and Gal- al selection, 2) social bonding, and 3) a lup compared the songs of artists who byproduct. entered the charts and other randomly selected songs by the same artists, the Sexual selection theories conclusions were very clear. “Hits” had much more reproductive content than of music songs that were less successful. The love threads in the songs are nothing new – The hypothesis of the evolution of music in pop and country music they have been as an activity to promote one’s genetic prevalent at least since the 1960s, as quality and increase fitness through indi- shown by Hobbs and Gallup. They went vidual reproductive success is very pop- even further and analysed the content of ular not only in evolutionary psychology the most famous opera arias (some of but also in the popular science literature. them from the 16th century). Again, the Not only does it confirm common majority of songs (90%) concerned “re- human intuitions derived from folk psy- productive content”. chology, but such an explanation seems The roots of perceiving music as a particularly attractive given that love, be- result of the mechanism of sexual selec- trayal, or intimate relationships are often tion can be found in the works of Darwin central themes of musical works in many (1871). However, songs may represent cultures (Mehr et al. 2019). Nonetheless, only some kind of ideal which western particular cultures may have indigenous culture can no longer enact due to cul- themes dominating their music, e.g., Ab- tural changes and progressing fertility original Australians and their music and decline (Westoff 1983; Teitelbaum 2013; dreaming ceremonies devoted to spirits Caldwell 2006). and land creation. (Curan et al. 2019; However, Darwin himself did not de- Hume et al, 2007; Boyd 2018). vote much attention to music and treat- From among an infinite number of ed it on a par with other characteristics topics, the authors of the lyrics usually that increase reproductive success, such choose one – love, sex and their conse- as deer antlers or a peacock’s tail (Fitch quences (positive and negative). Hobbs 2006; Bannan 2017). and Gallup (2011) analysed the content The works of Miller (2000, 2001) of music hits on the Billboard list (in should be considered the beginning of genres of pop, country and rap music). empirical verification of Darwin’s intu- They were looking for “reproductive con- itions in the field of music. According tent” in the lyrics. As positive “content”, to Miller’s concept, music is a “cogni- topics included falling in love, romance, tive peacock tail”, and the proficiency in sex, close relationships, attachment producing it translates into reproductive and admiration for a romantic partner. success and serves men to attract female As negative “content” it was checked sexual partners. Indirect evidence to sup- whether the songs discussed unrequit- port the concept of music as an effect of ed love, betrayal, abandonment or the sexual selection is the predominance of memory of the old happy moments in male artists, not only in music, but also 216 Kasper Kalinowski et al. in other areas of art, such as literature The most serious objection is the lack of (Lange et al. 2013; Euler 2014; Sternberg confirmation of music as mechanism of and Lubart 1991). sexual selection hypothesis in genetic re- Despite the popularity of this con- search (Mosing et al. 2015). The largest cept, it is supported by surprisingly little study of this type to date collected data empirical data, and some of which even supporting the hypothesis of music with contradicts the music sexual selection sexual selection to a minor extent. Ad- hypothesis. mittedly, moderate genetic influences on According to the Theory of Parental musical aptitude for both sexes, but ge- Investments(Trivers 1972), grater mating netic influences were low and nonsignifi- efforts are typical to sex that invests less cant for female heritability.