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South African Professional Military Education and Military Effectiveness Esterhuyse, A and Mokoena, B. 2018. The Need for Progress in an Era stability of Transformation: South African Professional Military Education and Military Effectiveness. Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 7(1): 6, pp. 1–17, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.610 RESEARCH ARTICLE The Need for Progress in an Era of Transformation: South African Professional Military Education and Military Effectiveness Abel Esterhuyse* and Benjamin Mokoena† The article explores the link between defence sector reform, military effective- ness, and education. During the post-1994 transition, defence sector reform in South Africa primarily involved the ‘transformation’ of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). The transformation of the military, though, was predominantly driven by the notion of racial representation with little emphasis on embedding military effectiveness as a central element of the transformation effort. While, education was recognised as a key element in the transformation of the military, the emphasis was on the programmes of the National War and Defence Colleges in Pretoria, targeting senior military officers. However, the accreditation of these institutional programmes through alignment with civilian universities was problematic and has forced the military to critically evaluate the pathway for the development of its officer corps. The evolving approach of the SANDF towards military education provides a useful case study to highlight the importance of a long-term view of military effectiveness, underpinned by a committed and edu- cated officer corps, as a central component of defence reform initiatives. Introduction and its peoples while meeting the State’s Defence sector reform, according to the obligations to contribute to international United Nations policy on the topic, describes peace and security” (UN 2011:16). These a national process that intends “to reconcile, civil-military structures include, amongst reform, transform, restructure, reengineer others, those responsible for education and [sic], enhance or develop an effective, effi- research in civil society. As a process that cient, accountable and affordable defence” is characterised by multidimensional and (UN 2011:16). The defence sector is defined multi-layered complexity, defence sector in an inclusive manner as “the civil-military reform, is highly dependable on education structures, and personnel responsible for as a process and a tool to reconcile, reform, the protection of the sovereignty of a State transform, restructure, reengineer, enhance or develop an effective, efficient, account- able and affordable defence. Since 1994, * Faculty of Military Science, Stellenbosch University, ZA the process of defence sector reform in South Africa was discussed and operational- † Department of Political Science (Mil.), Faculty of Military Science, Stellenbosch University, ZA ised under the notion of the transformation Corresponding author: Abel Esterhuyse, PhD of the South African National Defence Force ([email protected]) (SANDF) and the Secretariat of Defence. Art. 6, page 2 of 17 Esterhuyse and Mokoena: The Need for Progress in an Era of Transformation The overarching challenge of transform- the war and defence colleges. The authors ing defence policy and the armed forces would like to thank those involved in these in the context of the Constitution, the informal interviews for their reading and national security and economic realities of constructive feedback on earlier drafts of the country, and international law on armed this article. conflict, is addressed in the first chapter of the first White Paper on Defence published A Word on Military Transformation, in a democratic South Africa in 1996. The Effectiveness, and Education need for transformation is defined in terms Much has been written about the need for, of: the history of the armed forces in South and the drivers and impact of, transforma- Africa; the changing strategic environment tion in the South African armed forces after at the international, regional and domestic democratisation in 1994 (Heinecken 1998; levels; and, most importantly, the advent of Kahn & Louw 2013; Uys 1997; Winkates democracy. The process of transformation, it 2000). From a practical perspective, some is noted, will be guided by the principle of academics view South African armed defence in a democracy (DOD 1996). As a forces as suffering from transformation result, the word transformation appears 75 fatigue (Cilliers 1998). More specifically, times in the 1998 Defence Review. however, the armed forces face military effectiveness challenges because of how Approach and Methodology the transformation processes have unfolded The aim of this article is to contextualise the over the last 20 years.2 The process of trans- utility of higher education in the SANDF formation has had many important dimen- since democratisation in 1994 with specific sions. The initial debate that unfolded was reference to the National War and Defence about the appropriate role and nature of the Colleges in Pretoria.1 The first part of the military within a democratised South Africa article considers the importance of the inter- (Williams 2002). This issue became one of play between transformation, education and the cornerstones of the 1996 White Paper the idea of military effectiveness. The second on Defence (DOD 1996) and the subsequent section demarcates the need for education in Defence Review published in 1998. With the SANDF, and the third part considers the the 1998 Defence in a Democracy, higher ability of other educational institutions to education was positioned as an important address this need. The last part of the article mechanism to facilitate transformation and highlights challenges facing the education of address the issue of military effectiveness the military in South Africa. (Department of Defence 2015: Chapter 11). The research question informing this Despite the early good intentions and the discussion concerns the key factors early successes of the integration process, constraining the delivery of higher educa- the SANDF and defence establishment in tion at the war and defence colleges of the South Africa soon had to confront the con- SANDF. From a methodological perspective, troversy of the so-called Strategic Defence the first part of the article relies on second- Package – a controversial arms deal under- ary sources and a literature review. The sec- taken by the South African government. ond part of the article is based primarily on Tainted by questions of corruption, the arms the observations of the authors in the design deal has become a primary focal point in and delivery of programmes at the war and post-apartheid corruption scandals and has defence colleges of the SANDF. As a result, led to questions about the alignment of the some may consider the discussion to be newly procured equipment with the opera- somewhat anecdotal. However, the authors tional needs of the SANDF (Department of supplemented their views with informal and Justice and Constitutional Development confidential interviews with other profes- 2016). The defence package focused primar- sionals involved in programme delivery at ily on modernising the air capacity of the Air Esterhuyse and Mokoena: The Need for Progress in an Era of Transformation Art. 6, page 3 of 17 Force and the surface ships and submarines the challenges facing South Africa in peace to the Navy. In contrast, the security debate mission deployments in Africa (see Mandrup of the 1990s, with human security as the pri- 2008). Through its involvement in peace- mary construct, informed future visions for keeping, the SANDF became an important the South African armed forces that placed a element of South Africa’s foreign policy. high priority on involvement in peacekeep- However, it soon became clear that the South ing efforts in Africa (Ferreira & Henk 2009). African armed forces face a variety of disci- Such efforts would not only be expeditionary plinary and other challenges in conducting in nature, depending primarily on the Army, and sustaining these missions (Anon 2001; but would have to rely heavily on the Air De Carvalho and Nganje 2016). The prob- Force to provide tactical and strategic airlift. lems facing the South African military in The most important outcome of the arms the projection of force in peace missions in deal, however, was not the misalignment Africa culminated with the disastrous ‘Battle between missions and capabilities within the of Bangui’ that left 15 South African soldiers military. The most important outcome was in dead after a two-day battle with rebels in the the unfolding of a growing civil-military gap, Central African Republic. with the public increasingly mistrusting the Various critical vulnerabilities affecting military, and both the public and National the effectiveness of the South African Treasury becoming very sceptical about armed forces were exposed in Bangui. These the need for an expanding defence budget included, amongst others, the lack of a strate- (Heinecken 2005). Domestically, the mili- gic airlift capacity, inadequate command and tary’s image was tarnished, and its budget control, and a lack of logistical, medical, air was under pressure. Practically, deploy- and intelligence support. Two observations ments into Africa, kept the SANDF out of the can be made about the impact and aftermath public eye. However, most media report- of the Battle of Bangui (Vreÿ and Esterhuyse ing on military affairs seemed to
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