Instilling a Rugged Manhood: The Popular Press Coverage of College Athletics and the National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1896–1916 A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Ashley D. Furrow August 2013 © 2013 Ashley D. Furrow. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled Instilling a Rugged Manhood: The Popular Press Coverage of College Athletics and the National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1896–1916 by ASHLEY D. FURROW has been approved for the E. W. Scripps School of Journalism and the Scripps College of Communication by Aimee Edmondson Assistant Professor of Journalism Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii Abstract FURROW, ASHLEY D., Ph.D., August 2013, Journalism Instilling a Rugged Manhood: The Popular Press Coverage of College Athletics and the National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1896–1916 Director of Dissertation: Aimee Edmondson Within the context of the Progressive era, this dissertation offers an in-depth analysis of the state of intercollegiate athletics around the turn of the twentieth century, the transformations it underwent, and the media’s role in that process. The National Collegiate Athletic Association was founded in 1906—in the middle of the Progressive era—after a public outcry for football reform came in 1905, a year that produced eighteen deaths and one hundred forty-nine reported injuries. Using framing theory and the concept of collective memory, this study seeks to explore the coverage of college athletics by popular mass circulation magazines from 1896 to 1916 and the coverage of the National Collegiate Athletic Association by the New York Times and the evening edition of the New York World from 1906 to 1916. Four media frames were found in popular magazines from 1896 to 1916 focusing on college athletics, including Call for Reform, Muscular Christianity, Evils of College Athletics, and Methods in Strategy. The most dominant frame, “Call for Reform,” emphasized the constant debate occurring within the pages of these magazines as to whether the benefits of competitive college athletics outweighed their possible evils. The primary examples were commercialism, professionalism, football rule changes, and alumni issues. The “muscular Christianity” frame reiterated the importance and benefits iii of college athletics as a key to defining men as men worthwhile, stressing a martial mentality. Even though primarily focused on manhood, examples of this frame applied to women’s athletics as well, and it was the only one to highlight women’s athletics. To combat the tendency of educators and sporting advocates to oversell the benefits of college athletics, popular magazines published articles noting the “evils of college athletics,” namely the win-at-any-cost mentality and the hero culture surrounding popular athletes. The most common example of this frame focused on the shift in focus from academic scholarship to athletics. The “methods in strategy” frame provided vivid details to readers as to the ways in which to develop and make an intercollegiate team as well as the proper training for certain sports. Close examination of the New York Times and The Evening World reveals the dawning of the NCAA’s evolution into a dominating and powerful regulator of intercollegiate athletics as these newspapers charted the progression of its growing influence over college athletics. As more institutions joined and as the most prestigious institutions gave up their resistance to join, the NCAA began its transformation into the largest and most influential governing body in the field of intercollegiate sports, and the struggle for control of intercollegiate athletics is highlighted throughout this analysis. iv To my mom, who continues to inspire me with her perseverance, courage, and love. To my dad, who chose to be the biggest influence in my life. v Acknowledgments First and foremost, I want to thank my chair, mentor, and friend, Dr. Aimee Edmondson. Without her guidance, camaraderie and frequent therapy sessions in her office, I would not have made it through graduate school. I am forever grateful for her historical research expertise, and her assistance in helping me land an assistant professor position at the University of Memphis. I look forward to our future collaborations, and her continued support, especially with restaurant recommendations in Memphis. Special thanks to Dr. Joseph Bernt, who first believed in my abilities as a young scholar, and advocated on my behalf for acceptance into the Ph.D. program. He served as my Master’s thesis chair, and his encouragement and support in all of my research endeavors has been invaluable. The foundation and inspiration for this dissertation was fostered in his magazine research class, and I appreciate his direction in the form of books, research articles, and discussions over many lunches. I would also like to thank Dr. Joseph Slade for his historical and cultural insights into the Progressive era, laying the foundation for the context of my dissertation. Finally, I am deeply grateful for finding a mentor in a fellow Florida Gator, Dr. Heather Lawrence. I look forward to our future research projects, fusing our love of sports administration with communication. I definitely would not have been able to complete my degree without the constant support of the entire E.W. Scripps School of Journalism faculty and staff. Finally, I want to personally thank Ellen Summers, the archivist at the NCAA archives in Indianapolis, for answering all of my questions and gathering all the materials I needed to successfully complete this dissertation. vi I owe my deepest gratitude to my family, who via long distance has shown me love, support, and encouragement with phone calls, text messages, emails, and cards, throughout my four-year stint away from my Florida home. My parents, Rick and Susan Furrow, have been my biggest cheerleaders and motivating forces, fostering a love of sports and education throughout my life. Although my nerdiness may be lost on them at times, my aunt and cousins provided me with much-needed comic relief, days at the beach, and plenty of umbrella drinks. My nephews, Brody and Maddox, granted me daily inspiration and motivation, especially Maddox, who has proven that life is worth fighting for each and every day. And no acknowledgment could be complete without thanking my partner in crime and life-long best friend, Sam Smith, who has been by my side through everything and always makes my life more complete. More than four years ago, I drove my loaded car into Athens, Ohio, from sunny Sarasota, Florida, not knowing a soul and ready for my next adventure: a one-year Master’s program. That first day, I met Molly Yanity, a fellow sports enthusiast, and I can honestly say my life has never been the same since. She has been my rock, my confidant, and my sister (as well as my office mate and house mate) throughout my time at Ohio University. I will miss having her by my side in my next life adventure, but I know she will never be far from my heart (or my research). I also owe my sanity and success to the Thursday nights spent at Jackie O’s surrounded by my fellow Scripps graduate students, namely Sally Ann Cruikshank, Janie Henderson, and Ed Simpson. Thank you all for the laughter, tears, and craft beers. vii Finally, I am thankful for my fiancé, Josh, whose constant support, laughs, and love over the last two and a half years has been pivotal to my success. We have had our ups and downs, but through the distance, I have kept one thing in mind, “i carry your heart with me.” He makes it easier to breathe, but also has the ability to take my breath away. I look forward to our next adventure together. He is my lobster. Table of Contents Page Abstract.............................................................................................................................. iii! Dedication........................................................................................................................... v! Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ vii! List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi! Chapter 1: Introduction....................................................................................................... 1! Chapter 2: Setting the Scene............................................................................................. 11! WASP Mentality and Growing Anxiety....................................................................... 14 Fear of Feminization..................................................................................................... 22 Rise of Popular Magazines ........................................................................................... 34 Rise of Popular New York Newspapers ....................................................................... 41 Sports Coverage in the Popular Press........................................................................... 44 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework and Methodology...................................................... 49! Framing Theory ............................................................................................................ 49! Collective Memory ......................................................................................................