For other uses, see Seven deadly sins (disambiguation). the creation of the mnemonic acronym “SALIGIA” based The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital on the first letters in Latin of the seven deadly sins: su- perbia, avaritia, luxuria, invidia, gula, ira, acedia.[3]

1 Biblical lists

Hieronymus Bosch's The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things vices or cardinal sins, is a classification of vices (part of Christian ethics) that has been used since early Christian times to educate and instruct Christians concerning fallen humanity’s tendency to sin. In the currently recognized version, the sins are usually given as wrath, , sloth, pride, lust, envy, and gluttony. Each is a form of Idolatry- of-Self wherein the subjective reigns over the objective. The Catholic Church divides sin into two categories: venial sins, in which guilt is relatively minor, and the more severe mortal sins. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, a mortal or deadly sin is believed to de- The Holy Spirit and the Seven Deadly Sins . Folio from Walters stroy the life of grace and charity within a person. “Mor- manuscript W.171 (15th century) tal sin, by attacking the vital principle within us – that is, charity – necessitates a new initiative of God’s mercy In the Book of Proverbs 6:16-19, among the verses tradi- and a conversion of heart which is normally accomplished tionally associated with King Solomon, it states that the within the setting of the sacrament of reconciliation.”[1] Lord specifically regards “six things the Lord hateth, and [4] According to Catholic moral thought, the seven deadly seven that are an abomination unto Him”, namely: sins are not discrete from other sins, but are instead the origin (“capital” comes from the Latin caput, head) of the 1. A proud look others. Vices can be either venial or mortal, depending on the situation, but “are called 'capital' because they en- 2. A lying tongue [2] gender other sins, other vices”. 3. Hands that shed innocent blood Beginning in the early 14th century, the popularity of the seven deadly sins as a theme among European artists of 4. A heart that devises wicked plots the time eventually helped to ingrain them in many areas 5. Feet that are swift to run into mischief of Catholic culture and Catholic consciousness in general throughout the world. One means of such ingraining was 6. A deceitful witness that uttereth lies

1 2 2 HISTORY

7. Him that soweth discord among brethren • Λύπη (lypē) sadness – in the Philokalia, this term is rendered as envy, sadness at another’s good fortune Another list, given this time by the Epistle to the Gala- • tians (Galatians 5:19-21), includes more of the tradi- Ὀργή (orgē) wrath tional seven sins, although the list is substantially longer: • Κενοδοξία (kenodoxia) boasting adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idola- try, sorcery, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, • Ἀκηδία (akēdia) acedia – in the Philokalia, this seditions, heresies, envyings, murders, drunkenness, rev- term is rendered as dejection ellings, “and such like”.[5] Since the apostle Paul goes on to say that the persons who practice these sins “shall not They were translated into the Latin of Western Christian- inherit the Kingdom of God”, they are usually listed as ity (largely due to the writings of John Cassian),[8] thus (possible) mortal sins rather than capital vices. becoming part of the Western tradition’s spiritual pietas (or Catholic devotions), as follows:[9]

2 History • Gula (gluttony)

• Fornicatio (fornication, lust)

• Avaritia (avarice/greed)

• Superbia (hubris, pride)

• Tristitia (sorrow/despair/despondency)

• Ira (wrath)

• Vanagloria (vainglory)

• Acedia (sloth)

These “evil thoughts” can be categorized into three types:[9]

• lustful appetite (gluttony, fornication, and avarice)

• irascibility (wrath)

• mind-related (vainglory, sorrow, pride, and discour- agement)

In AD 590, a little over two centuries after Evagrius wrote his list, Pope Gregory I revised this list to form the more common Seven Deadly Sins, by folding (sor- row/despair/despondency) into acedia, vainglory into pride, and adding envy.[10] In the order used by Pope Gre- An allegorical image depicting the human heart subject to the gory, and repeated by Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) cen- seven deadly sins, each represented by an animal (clockwise: turies later in his epic poem The , the seven toad = avarice; snake = envy; lion = wrath; snail = sloth; pig deadly sins are as follows: = gluttony; goat = lust; peacock = pride).

[11][12][13] The modern concept of the seven deadly sins is linked to 1. luxuria (lechery/lust) the works of the fourth-century monk Evagrius Ponticus, 2. gula (gluttony) who listed eight evil thoughts in Greek as follows:[6] 3. avaritia (avarice/greed) • Γαστριμαργία (gastrimargia) gluttony 4. acedia (sloth/discouragement) • Πορνεία (porneia) prostitution, fornication 5. ira (wrath) • Φιλαργυρία (philargyria) avarice 6. invidia (envy) • Ὑπερηφανία (hyperēphania) hubris – sometimes rendered as self-esteem[7] 7. superbia (pride) 3.2 Gluttony 3

The identification and definition of the seven deadly sins over their history has been a fluid process and the idea of what each of the seven actually encompasses has evolved over time. Additionally, as a result of semantic change:

• socordia sloth was substituted for acedia

It is this revised list that Dante uses. The process of se- mantic change has been aided by the fact that the per- sonality traits are not collectively referred to, in either a cohesive or codified manner, by the itself; other lit- erary and ecclesiastical works were instead consulted, as sources from which definitions might be drawn. Part II of Dante’s Divine Comedy, Purgatorio, has almost certainly been the best known source since the Renaissance. The modern Catholic Catechism lists the sins in Latin as "superbia, avaritia, invidia, ira, luxuria, gula, pigritia seu acedia", with an English translation of "pride, avarice, envy, wrath, lust, gluttony, and sloth/acedia".[14] Each of the seven deadly sins now also has an opposite among cor- responding seven holy virtues (sometimes also referred to as the contrary virtues). In parallel order to the sins they oppose, the seven holy virtues are humility, charity, kindness, patience, chastity, temperance, and diligence (see below). Lust Sankt Bartholomäus church (Reichenthal), Pulpit (1894) 3 Historical and modern defini- tions

3.1 Lust

Main article: Lust Lust, or lechery (carnal "luxuria"), is an intense and un- controlled desire. It is usually thought of as uncontrolled sexual wants, however the word was originally a general term for desire. Therefore, lust could include the uncon- trolled desire for money, food, fame, or power. In Dante’s Purgatorio, the penitent walks within flames to purge himself of lustful thoughts and feelings. In Dante’s Inferno, unforgiven souls of the sin of lust are blown about Excess in restless hurricane-like winds symbolic of their own lack (Albert Anker, 1896) of self-control to their lustful passions in earthly life.

selfishness; essentially placing concern with one’s own in- 3.2 Gluttony terests above the well-being or interests of others. Medieval church leaders (e.g., ) took Main article: Gluttony a more expansive view of gluttony,[15] arguing that it Gluttony (Latin, gula) is the overindulgence and could also include an obsessive anticipation of meals, and overconsumption of anything to the point of waste. The the constant eating of delicacies and excessively costly word derives from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp foods.[16] Aquinas went so far as to prepare a list of six down or swallow, ways to commit gluttony, comprising: In Christianity, it is considered a sin if the excessive desire for food causes it to be withheld from the needy.[15] • Praepropere – eating too soon Because of these scripts, gluttony can be interpreted as • Laute – eating too expensively 4 3 HISTORICAL AND MODERN DEFINITIONS

• Nimis – eating too much 3.4 Sloth

• Ardenter – eating too eagerly Main article: Sloth (deadly sin) Sloth (Latin, acedia) can entail different vices. While • Studiose – eating too daintily

• Forente – eating wildly

3.3 Greed

Main article: Greed Greed (Latin, avaritia), also known as avarice, cupid-

Sloth Parable of the Wheat and the Tares by Abraham Bloemaert, Walters Art Museum

sloth is sometimes defined as physical laziness, spiritual laziness is emphasized. Failing to develop spiritually will lead to becoming guilty of sloth. In the Christian faith, sloth rejects grace and God. Sloth has also been defined as a failure to do things that one should do. By this definition, evil exists when good men fail to act. Edmund Burke (1729-1797) wrote in Present Discontents (II. 78) “No man, who is not inflamed by vain-glory into enthusiasm, can flatter himself that his single, unsup- ported, desultory, unsystematic endeavours are of power to defeat the subtle designs and united Cabals of ambi- tious citizens. When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sac- 1909 painting The Worship of Mammon by Evelyn De Morgan. rifice in a contemptible struggle.” Over time, the “acedia” in Pope Gregory’s order has come ity or covetousness, is, like lust and gluttony, a sin of to be closer in meaning to sloth. The focus came to be on excess. However, greed (as seen by the Church) is ap- the consequences of acedia rather than the cause, and so, plied to a very excessive or rapacious desire and pursuit by the 17th century, the exact deadly sin referred to was of material possessions. Thomas Aquinas wrote, “Greed believed to be the failure to utilize one’s talents and gifts. is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much Even in Dante’s time there were signs of this change; in as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal his Purgatorio he had portrayed the penance for acedia as things.” In Dante’s Purgatory, the penitents were bound running continuously at top speed. and laid face down on the ground for having concen- trated too much on earthly thoughts. Hoarding of mate- rials or objects, theft and robbery, especially by means of 3.5 Wrath violence, trickery, or manipulation of authority are all ac- tions that may be inspired by Greed. Such misdeeds can Main article: Wrath include simony, where one attempts to purchase or sell Wrath (Latin, ira), also known as "rage", may be de- sacraments, including Holy Orders and, therefore, posi- scribed as inordinate and uncontrolled feelings of ha- tions of authority in the Church hierarchy. tred and anger. Wrath, in its purest form, presents with As defined outside of Christian writings, greed is an inor- self-destructiveness, violence, and hate that may provoke dinate desire to acquire or possess more than one needs, feuds that can go on for centuries. Wrath may persist long especially with respect to material wealth.[17] after the person who did another a grievous wrong is dead. 3.7 Pride 5

Wrath, by Jacques de l'Ange Envy Arch in the nave with a gothic fresco from 1511 of a man with a dog-head, which symbolizes envy (Dalbyneder Church, Den- Feelings of anger can manifest in different ways, includ- mark) ing impatience, revenge, and self-destructive behavior, such as drug abuse or suicide. 3.7 Pride Wrath is the only sin not necessarily associated with self- ishness or self-interest, although one can of course be Main article: Pride wrathful for selfish reasons, such as jealousy (closely re- Pride (Latin, superbia), or hubris (Greek), is consid- lated to the sin of envy). Dante described vengeance as “love of justice perverted to revenge and spite". In its original form, the sin of wrath also encompassed anger pointed internally as well as externally. Thus suicide was deemed the ultimate, albeit tragic, expression of hatred directed inwardly, a final rejection of God’s gifts.

3.6 Envy

Main article: Envy Envy (Latin, invidia), like greed and lust, is character- ized by an insatiable desire. Envy is similar to jealousy in that they both feel discontent towards someone’s traits, status, abilities, or rewards. The difference is the envious also desire the entity and covet it. Building the Tower of Babel was, for Dante, an example of pride. Painting by Pieter Brueghel the Elder Envy can be directly related to the Ten Commandments, specifically, “Neither shall you desire... anything that be- ered, on almost every list, the original and most serious of longs to your neighbour.” Dante defined this as “a desire the seven deadly sins: the source of the others. It is identi- to deprive other men of theirs”. In Dante’s Purgatory, fied as believing that one is essentially better than others, the punishment for the envious is to have their eyes sewn failing to acknowledge the accomplishments of others, shut with wire because they have gained sinful pleasure and excessive admiration of the personal self (especially from seeing others brought low. Aquinas described envy holding self out of proper position toward God); it also in- as “sorrow for another’s good”.[18] cludes vainglory (Latin, vanagloria) which is unjustified 6 6 ASSOCIATIONS WITH DEMONS

boasting. Dante’s definition of pride was “love of self 4.2 Vainglory perverted to hatred and contempt for one’s neighbour”. In Jacob Bidermann’s medieval miracle play, Cenodoxus, Main article: Vanity pride is the deadliest of all the sins and leads directly to Vainglory (Latin, vanagloria) is unjustified boasting. the damnation of the titulary famed Parisian doctor. In perhaps the best-known example, the story of Lucifer, pride (his desire to compete with God) was what caused his fall from Heaven, and his resultant transformation into Satan. In Dante’s Divine Comedy, the penitents are bur- dened with stone slabs on their necks which force them to keep their heads bowed.

4 Historical sins

4.1 Acedia

Main article: Acedia Acedia (Latin, acedia) (from Greek ἀκηδία) is the ne- Conversion of the Magdalene' or 'Allegory of Modesty and Vanity by Bernardino Luini, c. 1520

Pope Gregory viewed it as a form of pride, so he folded vainglory into pride for his listing of sins. The Latin term gloria roughly means boasting, although its English cognate - glory - has come to have an exclu- sively positive meaning; historically, vain roughly meant futile, but by the 14th century had come to have the strong narcissistic undertones, of irrelevant accuracy, that it re- tains today.[19] As a result of these semantic changes, vainglory has become a rarely used word in itself, and is now commonly interpreted as referring to vanity (in its modern narcissistic sense).

Acedia 5 Catholic seven virtues mosaic, Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière The Catholic Church also recognizes seven virtues, which glect to take care of something that one should do. It correspond inversely to each of the seven deadly sins. is translated to apathetic listlessness; depression without joy. It is related to melancholy: acedia describes the be- haviour and melancholy suggests the emotion producing 6 Associations with demons it. In early Christian thought, the lack of joy was regarded as a willful refusal to enjoy the goodness of God and the In 1409-1410 The Lanterne of Light (an anonymous world God created; by contrast, apathy was considered a English Lollard tract often erroneously attributed to refusal to help others in time of need. Wycliffe)[20] paired each of the deadly sins with a demon, When Thomas Aquinas described acedia in his interpre- who tempted people by means of the associated sin. Ac- tation of the list, he described it as an uneasiness of the cording to this classification system, the pairings are as mind, being a progenitor for lesser sins such as restless- follows: ness and instability. Dante refined this definition further, describing acedia as the failure to love God with all one’s • Lucifer: pride heart, all one’s mind and all one’s soul; to him it was the middle sin, the only one characterised by an absence or • Mammon: greed - avarice (avarouse) and covetous- insufficiency of love. Some scholars have said that the ness (covetise) ultimate form of acedia was despair which leads to sui- cide. • Asmodeus: lust (leccherouse) 7

• : envy (envious) • Enneagram of Personality

• Belphegor: gluttony (glotouns) • Five poisons in Buddhism

• Aamon or Pazuzu: wrath (wraþþe) • Five Thieves in Sikhism

• Abaddon: sloth (slowȝ) • Knightly Virtues • Nafs and Tazkiah in Islam In 1589, Peter Binsfeld again paired each of the deadly sins with a demon, in a slightly contrasting classification • Seven Social Sins written by Mohandas Gandhi [21] system, whereby the pairings are as follows: • Sufism in Islam

• Lucifer: pride (superbia) • The Seven Sins of Memory • • Mammon: greed (avaritia) Theological virtues • • Asmodeus: lust (luxuria) Tree of virtues

• Leviathan: envy (invidia) 10 References • Beelzebub: gluttony (gula or gullia)

• Satan: wrath (ira) Notes • Belphegor: sloth (acedia) [1] Catechism of the Catholic Church, nn.1856. See also nn.1854–1864. In Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, there is a “parade” of the [2] Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 1866. seven deadly sins that is conducted by Mephistopheles, Satan, and Beelzebub suggesting that the demons do not [3] Boyle, Marjorie O'Rourke (1997) [October 23, 1997]. match with each deadly sin, but the demons are in com- “Three: The Flying Serpent”. Loyola’s Acts: The Rhetoric mand of the seven deadly sins. of the Self. The New Historicism: Studies in Cultural Po- etics, 36. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 100–146. ISBN 978-0-520-20937-4. 7 Patterns [4] [bible verse Proverbs 6:16–19] [5] Galatians According to a 2009 study by a Jesuit scholar, the most common deadly sin confessed by men is lust, and for [6] Evagrio Pontico,Gli Otto Spiriti Malvagi, trans., Felice women, pride.[22] It was unclear whether these differ- Comello, Pratiche Editrice, Parma, 1990, p.11-12. ences were due to the actual number of transgressions [7] In the translation of the Philokalia by Palmer, Ware, and committed by each gender, or whether differing views on Sherrard. what “counts” or should be confessed caused the observed pattern.[23] [8] Remedies for the Eight Principal Faults [9] Refoule, 1967

[10] Introduction to Paulist Press edition of John Climacus: 8 Cultural references The Ladder of Divine Ascent by Kallistos Ware, p63.

The seven deadly sins have long been a source of inspira- [11] Godsall-Myers, Jean E. (2003). Speaking in the medieval tion for writers and artists, from medieval works such as world. Brill. p. 27. ISBN 90-04-12955-3. Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy, to modern works such [12] Katherine Ludwig, Jansen (2001). The making of the as the film Se7en. Magdalen: preaching and popular devotion in the later The seven sins also have been used as enemies in the video . Princeton University Press. p. 168. ISBN 0-691-08987-6. game The Binding of Isaac: Rebirth. [13] Vossler, Karl; Spingarn, Joel Elias (1929). Mediæval Cul- ture: The religious, philosophic, and ethico-political back- 9 See also ground of the “Divine Comedy”. University of Michigan: Constable & company. p. 246.

• Arishadvargas in Hindu religion [14] “Catechism of the Catholic Church”. Vatican.va. Archived from the original on March 27, 2008. Retrieved • Cardinal virtues July 24, 2010. 8 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[15] Okholm, Dennis. “Rx for Gluttony”. Christianity Today, • Rebecca Konyndyk DeYoung, Glittering Vices: A Vol. 44, No. 10, September 11, 2000, p.62 New Look at the Seven Deadly Sins and Their Reme- dies, (Grand Rapids: BrazosPress, 2009) [16] “Gluttony”. Catholic Encyclopedia. • Solomon Schimmel, The Seven Deadly Sins: Jew- [17] “The Free Dictionary”. The Free Dictionary. April 1, ish, Christian, and Classical Reflections on Human 1987. Retrieved July 24, 2010. Psychology, (New York: Oxford University Press, [18] “Summa Theologica: Treatise on The Theological Virtues 1997) (QQ[1] - 46): Question. 36 - Of Envy (four articles)". • "Doctor Faustus" by Christopher Marlowe Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved January 2, 2010.

[19] Oxford English dictionary 12 External links [20] Milford, Humphrey. Introduction, The Lanterne of Liȝt. Oxford University Press, 1917 • Catholic Catechism on Sin [21] Morton W. Bloomfield, The Seven Deadly Sins, Michigan • State College Press, 1952, pp.214-215. Medieval mural depictions - in parish churches of England (online catalog, Anne Marshall, Open Uni- [22] “Two sexes 'sin in different ways’". BBC News. February versity) 18, 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2010. • Stranger, An Allegorical Tale of the Seven Deadly [23] Morning Edition (February 20, 2009). “True Confessions: Sins, ISBN 9781311073846 Men And Women Sin Differently”. Npr.org. Retrieved July 24, 2010.

Bibliography

• Refoule, F. (1967) Evagrius Ponticus. In Staff of Catholic University of America (Eds.) New Catholic Encyclopaedia. Volume 5, pp644–645. New York: McGrawHill.

• Schumacher, Meinolf (2005): “Catalogues of Demons as Catalogues of Vices in Medieval Ger- man Literature: 'Des Teufels Netz' and the Alexan- der Romance by Ulrich von Etzenbach.” In In the Garden of Evil: The Vices and Culture in the Middle Ages. Edited by Richard Newhauser, pp. 277–290. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies.

11 Further reading

• The Divine Comedy (“Inferno”, “Purgatorio”, and "Paradiso"), by Dante Alighieri

• Summa Theologica, by Thomas Aquinas

• The Concept of Sin, by Josef Pieper

• The Traveller’s Guide to Hell, by Michael Pauls & Dana Facaros

• Sacred Origins of Profound Things, by Charles Pa- nati

• The Faerie Queene, by Edmund Spenser

• The Seven Deadly Sins Series, Oxford University Press (7 vols.) 9

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

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13.2 Images

• File:'Conversion_of_the_Magdalene'_or_'Allegory_of_Modesty_and_Vanity'_Bernardo_Luini.JPG Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/%27Conversion_of_the_Magdalene%27_or_%27Allegory_of_Modesty_and_ Vanity%27_Bernardo_Luini.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Wmpearl Original artist: Bernardino Luini • File:Abraham_Bloemaert_-_Parable_of_the_Wheat_and_the_Tares_-_Walters_372505.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Abraham_Bloemaert_-_Parable_of_the_Wheat_and_the_Tares_-_Walters_372505.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Abraham Bloemaert • File:Acedia_(mosaic,_Basilique_Notre-Dame_de_Fourvière).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/ Acedia_%28mosaic%2C_Basilique_Notre-Dame_de_Fourvi%C3%A8re%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Origi- nal artist: Rartat • File:Albert_Anker_-_Stillleben_-_Unmässigkeit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Albert_Anker_ -_Stillleben_-_Unm%C3%A4ssigkeit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: SIKART dictionary and database. SIK inventory number 64673. Original artist: Albert Anker 13.3 Content license 11

• File:Boschsevendeadlysins.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Boschsevendeadlysins.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: “The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things”, painting by “Hieronymus Bosch” Original artist: Hieronymus Bosch (circa 1450–1516) • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Dalbyneder_kirke_vestre_hvælvfag_skibet_hundehoved.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/ Dalbyneder_kirke_vestre_hv%C3%A6lvfag_skibet_hundehoved.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Malene Thyssen • File:Dirc_van_Delft_-_The_Holy_Ghost_and_the_Seven_Deadly_Sins_-_Walters_W171110R_-_Full_Page.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Dirc_van_Delft_-_The_Holy_Ghost_and_the_Seven_Deadly_Sins_-_ Walters_W171110R_-_Full_Page.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Dirc van Delf • File:Jacques_de_l'Ange_-_A_young_Man_with_a_Sword_restrained_by_a_young_Woman,_'Anger'.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Jacques_de_l%27Ange_-_A_young_Man_with_a_Sword_restrained_by_ a_young_Woman%2C_%27Anger%27.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/objects/makedetail.php? pmu=730&mu=732>y=qsea&sec=&dtn=15&sfn=Artist%20Sort,Title&cpa=1&rpos=0&key=WA1845.28 Original artist: Jacques de l'Ange (f 1630 - 1650) • File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_(Vienna)_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_ Art_Project_-_edited.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Levels adjusted from File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_ of_Babel_(Vienna)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg, originally from Google Art Project. Original artist: Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1526/1530–1569) • File:Sankt_Bartholomäus_(Reichenthal)_04.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Sankt_Bartholom% C3%A4us_%28Reichenthal%29_04.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hermetiker • File:Tableau_de_mission_-François-Marie_Balanant_tableau_1-.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/ 25/Tableau_de_mission_-Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Balanant_tableau_1-.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Moreau.henri • File:The_worship_of_Mammon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/The_worship_of_Mammon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Evelyn De Morgan

13.3 Content license

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