Microwave Engineering Land & Space Radiocommunications
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MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAND & SPACE RADIOCOMMUNICATIONS Gérard Barué A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION MICROWAVE ENGINEERING WILEY SURVIVAL GUIDES IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE Emmanuel Desurvire, Editor Wiley Survival Guide in Global Telecommunications: Signaling Principles, Network Protocols, and Wireless Systems Emmanuel Desurvire Wiley Survival Guide in Global Telecommunications: Broadband Access, Optical Components and Networks, and Cryptography Emmanuel Desurvire Fiber to the Home: The New Empowerment Paul E. Green, Jr. Electric Power Systems: A Conceptual Introduction Alexandra von Meier Fiber Optic Essentials K. Thyagarajan and Ajoy Ghatak Fiber to the Home: The New Empowerment Paul E. Green, Jr. Microwave Engineering: Land & Space Radiocommunications Gérard Barué MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAND & SPACE RADIOCOMMUNICATIONS Gérard Barué A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION Copyright © 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 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For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Barue, Gerard, 1945– Microwave engineering : land & space radiocommunications / by Gerard Barue. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-08996-5 (cloth) 1. Microwave communication systems. 2. Microwaves. I. Title. TK7876.B37 2008 621.381′3—dc22 2008019299 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To my son Vincent, a brilliant architect, fi rst prizewinner at the French Academy of Architecture To my wife, Dominique, who had the privilege of reading the manuscript entirely This book is dedicated to the memory of Philippe Magne, THOMSON-CSF former Scientifi c and Technical Manager, who developed extensively the microwave radiocommunications in all domains. CONTENTS Foreword xvii Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxv 1. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation 1 1.1 Properties of Plane Electromagnetic Wave 1 1.1.1 Equation of Wave or Propagation 1 1.1.2 Wave Velocity 3 1.1.3 Power Flux Density 4 1.1.4 Field Created in Free Space by Isotropic Radiator 5 1.1.5 Wave Polarization 5 1.2 Radiant Continuous Aperture 9 1.2.1 Expression of Directivity and Gain 9 1.2.2 Radiation Pattern 12 1.2.3 Near Field and Far Field 15 1.2.4 Effective Aperture 17 1.2.5 Skin Effect 17 1.3 General Characteristics of Antennas 18 1.3.1 Expression of Gain and Beamwidth 18 1.3.2 Reference Radiation Patterns 20 1.3.3 Characteristics of Polarization 23 1.4 Free-Space Loss and Electromagnetic Field Strength 25 1.4.1 Attenuation of Propagation 25 1.4.2 Electromagnetic Field Strength 26 1.5 Refl ector and Passive Repeater 28 1.5.1 Refl ector in Far Field 28 1.5.2 Passive Repeater in Far Field 33 1.5.3 Refl ector in Near Field (Periscope) 35 1.6 Model of Propagation 37 1.6.1 Spherical Diffraction 37 1.6.2 Fresnel’s Ellipsoid 38 1.7 Refl ection and Refraction 39 1.7.1 General Laws 39 vii viii CONTENTS 1.7.2 Divergence Factor 42 1.7.3 Roughness Factor 45 1.7.4 Factor of Limitation of Refl ection Zone 45 1.8 Infl uence of Atmosphere 47 1.8.1 Refractivity 47 1.8.2 Vertical Gradient of Refractive Index 47 1.8.3 Curvature of Radioelectric Rays 59 1.8.4 Effective Earth Radius 60 1.8.5 Variation of Launch and Arrival Angles of Rays 63 1.8.6 Positive Minimal Value of Effective Earth-radius Factor 65 1.8.7 Tropospheric Radio Ducts 67 1.8.7.1 Conditions of Appearance 67 1.8.7.2 Trajectories of Rays in Radio Duct 69 1.9 Propagation by Diffraction 70 1.9.1 Diffraction over Smooth Spherical Earth 72 1.9.2 Diffraction over Single-Knife-Edge Obstacle 76 1.9.3 Diffraction over Single Rounded Obstacle 77 1.9.4 Diffraction over Double Isolated Edges 78 1.9.5 Diffraction Loss General Curves 80 1.9.6 Attenuation by Vegetation 81 1.10 Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases 81 1.10.1 Specifi c Attenuation 82 1.10.2 Terrestrial Paths 83 1.10.3 Slant Paths 84 1.10.3.1 Elevation Angle Greater Than 10° 85 1.10.3.2 Elevation Angle between 0° and 10° 85 1.11 Attenuation and Depolarization by Hydrometeors 85 1.11.1 Rain Attenuation 87 1.11.1.1 Terrestrial Paths 90 1.11.1.2 Earth–Space Paths 91 1.11.1.3 Site Diversity (Rayleigh’s Equations for Correlation between Random Variables) 94 1.11.1.4 Attenuation Due to Gases, Clouds, and Fog 99 1.11.2 Depolarization by Hydrometeors 99 1.11.2.1 Polarization of Electromagnetic Wave 99 1.11.2.2 Cross-Polarization Effects 100 1.12 Infl uence of Ionosphere 103 1.12.1 Scintillation 104 1.12.2 Faraday’s Rotation 105 1.12.3 Propagation Time Delay 106 CONTENTS ix 1.13 Thermal Radiation 106 1.13.1 Origin of Thermal Radiation 106 1.13.2 Propagation of Thermal Radiation 107 1.13.3 BlackBody 108 1.13.4 Gray Body 110 1.14 Probability Distributions 112 1.14.1 Introduction 112 1.14.2 Gauss’s Law of Distribution 112 1.14.3 Rayleigh’s Law of Distribution 114 1.14.4 Other Laws of Distribution 116 2. Principles of Digital Communication Systems 119 2.1 Signal Processing 119 2.1.1 Digital Multiplexing 120 2.1.1.1 Pulse Code Modulation 120 2.1.1.2 Line Codes 120 2.1.1.3 High-Order Digital Multiplexing 122 2.1.2 Digital Modulation 123 2.1.2.1 Usual Modulation Types 123 2.1.2.2 Bandwidth Effi ciency 125 2.1.2.3 Power Spectral Density and Transmitted Spectrum 125 2.2 Thermal Noise 128 2.2.1 Origin of the Thermal Noise 128 2.2.2 Thermal Noise Voltage 128 2.2.3 Analogy between Thermal Radiation and Thermal Noise 129 2.2.4 Apparent Noise Temperature 131 2.2.5 Noise Figure 131 2.2.6 Equivalent Noise Temperature 133 2.2.7 Radiated Noise 135 2.2.8 External Noise 136 2.2.8.1 Effect of External Noise 136 2.2.8.2 Sources of Noise Temperature 138 2.3 Digital Communication Systems Design 140 2.3.1 Noise in Digital Communication Systems 140 2.3.1.1 Gaussian Random Noise 141 2.3.1.2 Additive White Gaussian Noise 141 2.3.1.3 Detection of Binary Signals in Presence of AWGN 141 2.3.1.4 Error Probability of Binary Detection 142 2.3.1.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 143 x CONTENTS 2.3.1.6 Error Probability of Binary Signal 144 2.3.1.7 Error Probability for Modulated Signal 144 2.3.1.8 General Characteristics of Signal 146 2.3.1.9 Choice of Modulation 148 2.3.1.10 Coding for Error Detection and Correction 148 2.3.2 Other Electrical Sources of Corruption 152 2.3.2.1 Intermodulation 152 2.3.3 Interference 160 2.3.3.1 Effect Due to Jamming 160 2.3.3.2 Calculation of Level of Jamming 164 2.3.4 Effects of Refl ection 166 2.3.4.1 Refl ection on Ground 166 2.3.4.2 Multiple Refl ections 174 2.3.4.3 Standing Wave 176 2.3.5 Jitter, Wander, Phase Transients and Network Synchronization 180 2.3.5.1 Jitter 181 2.3.5.2 Wander 181 2.3.5.3 Phase Transients 181 2.3.5.4 Network Synchronization Engineering 181 3. Microwave Line-of-Sight Systems 183 3.1 Engineering of Line-of-Sight Systems 183 3.1.1 Introduction 183 3.1.2 Establishment of Radio Link Path Profi le 183 3.1.2.1 Determination of Azimuth and Distance 184 3.1.2.2 Data Necessary for Establishment of Path Profi le 185 3.2 Design of Line-of-Sight Microwave Radio Link: Interferometric Method 186 3.2.1 Layout of Path Profi le 186 3.2.2 Clearance Criteria 187 3.2.3 Regression Line and Terrain Roughness 188 3.2.4 Refl ection Zone 189 3.2.5 Differential Time Delay 189 3.2.6 Differential Attenuation 189 3.2.7 Reception in Space and/or Frequency Diversity 189 3.2.8 Example of Line-of-Sight Radio Link 191 3.2.9 Recordings in Ducting Conditions and Refl ection on Sea 201 3.2.9.1 Case of Terrestrial Link in Desert Climate 201 CONTENTS xi 3.2.9.2 Case of Long-Haul Link over Sea in Temperate Climate 208 3.2.10 Antenna Discrimination 212 3.2.11 Pointing of Antennas 214 3.2.11.1 Centering of Source of Illumination