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A Comparison of Classic Human Development Theorists and the Implications for a Model of Developmental Social Interaction DOCUMENT RESUME ED 407 125 PS 025 355 AUTHOR 011hoff, Jim TITLE Human Development Theories: A Comparison of Classic Human Development Theorists and the Implications for a Model of Developmental Social Interaction. PUB DATE Jun 96 NOTE 20p. PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Child Development; *Friendship; *Individual Development; *Interaction; *Interpersonal Relationship; Models; *Theories IDENTIFIERS *Developmental Theory; Erikson (Erik); Fowler (James); Freud (Sigmund); Kohlberg (Lawrence); Piaget (Jean); Selman (Robert) ABSTRACT This paper explores several theories of human development, with particular attention to the development of social interaction. Part 1 compares and contrasts major developmental theories, including those of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg, Kegan, Fowler, and Selman. From birth to 1 year, infants are laying the foundation that will guide their later social interactions. Between years 2 and 5 the beginnings of autonomy and the dominance of egocentrism can be observed. Children ages 6 to 12 show concrete thinking, the emergence of the self-concept, the freedom from impulses, and the need to be successful. Youth, age 13 and older, show many precursors of adult attitudes and behaviors, with identity formation as a major issue, the possibility of abstract thought, and the beliefs of the community as a source of strength. Part 2 applies those theories to the expanding understanding of friendship, emphasizing the friendships of school-age children. Self-acceptance plays a crucial role in social interaction development. In Stage 1 of friendships, birth to 2 years, children play in each other's presence rather than with each other. Stage 2, ages 2 to 5, involves quickly changing friendships, characterized by creativity, joint fantasy, and shared imagination. Stage 3, ages 6 to 12, entails the emergence of reciprocity, shared activities, increasing peer influence, and the separation of self-perception from social status. Stage 4, ages 13 and following, is characterized by the recognition that friends have rights and relationships that are independent of oneself, increasing stability of self-esteem, and true moral thinking. (Contains 14 references.)(KDFB) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION , Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) N@ This document has been reproduced as Deceived from the person or organization originating 0. 0 Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. Points of view or opinions stated in this docu- ment do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. Human Development Theories A Comparison of Classic Human Development Theorists and the Implications for a Model of Developmental Social Interaction Jim 011hoff PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) I BEST COPY AVM RE 2 A Comparison of Classic Human Development Theorists and the Implications for a Model of Developmental Social Interaction Objective and Abstract This paper intends to explore the various theorists of human development, with particular attention to the development of social interaction. Part one compares and contrasts the majordevelopmental theories, while part 2 applies those theories to the expanding understandings of friendship. The friendships of the school-age child are emphasized. 2 3 ( TABLE OF CONTENTS Part 1: Human Development Overview of the Social Development of Children 4 Stage 1: Ages 0-1 5 Stage 2: Ages 2-5 5 Stage 3: Ages 6-12 6 Stage 4: Ages 13 and following 7 Conclusions about the theorists 8 Part 2: Developmental Social Interaction Overview of Social Interaction 9 The Development of Friendship 11 Stage 1: Ages 0-1 11 Stage 2: Ages 2-5 13 Stage 3: Ages 6-12 14 Stage 4: Ages 13 and following 15 Conclusions 16 Bibliography and References 16 © 1996 by Jim 011hoff 3 Overview of the Social Development of Children Social development can mean many things. Since most development is affected and effected by human interaction, I have included many theorists in the upcoming descriptions. Sigmund Freud (1937/1957) was the first major developmentalist. While his theories have generally lost acceptance, most other theories were built on his work. Erik Erikson (1963), Freud's student,described a life-stage theory that, while largely untestable, is still used today. Jean Piaget (Beard, 1969) identified a series foundational stages, universal and invariant, de- termining our ability to understand and work with concepts. Moral development, the brainchild of Lawrence Kohlberg (1984), defines our growing understandings of ethical situations. Robert Kegan (1982), with work based on Jane Loevinger, identifies the expanding ego and the relations with the world. James Fowler (1981) used the other developmentalists to bring to light a series of stages that identify how we think about issues of faith, spirituality, and our relationship with something larger. Robert Selman (Steuer, 1994) looked at the ways we take (and don't take) the perspectives of others into account when we think and act. Each theorist looks at different aspects of a whole reality. There is a remarkable amount of similarity between the theories. For the most part, the theories can be grouped into stages. What I have called the Four Stages of Childhood are: Stage 1 (ages 0-1); Stage 2 (ages 2-5); Stage 3 (ages 6-12); and Stage 4 (ages 13 and up). Growth and movement through the stages, occurs when the self is lost and a new self is cre- ated (Kegan, 1982). 4 5 BEST Cl PY AVM RE Stage 1: Ages 0-1 Stage 1 is largely a matter of bodily functions. Many of the theorists do not even mention these first two years, because they believe little social development can go on.Piaget labels this stage sensorimotor, learning only what can be achieved kinesthetically. Fowler passesthis stage off as undif- ferentiated, although giving a nod to Erikson's theory. Freud called this stage the oral stage, believing that the libido's needs are met orally. While Freud's theories are not very influential in and of themselves today, Freud identifiedwhat we would today call bonding. Erikson surely takes a lesson from Freud and identifies trust andmistrust as the key psychosocial crisis at this age. Even though infants are not social creatures (as weusually define social), they are laying foundations at this age that will guide social interactions for the restof their lives. Stage 2: Ages 2-5 Stage 2 begins the preoperational cognitions in the child. They are grossly egocentric in their ability to take another person's perspective. Kohlberg characterizes their moral thinking assimply a fear of punishment. We must be obedient or else. Erikson suggests it is here that they learn to be autonomous and independent. A paththat does not include this learning will be sown with shame, self-doubt, lack ofself-esteem, and a reluc- tance to risk or to take control of life. Freud identified this issueof learning to take control over one's 5 6 Maslow Age0 PsychosexualFreudOral SensorimotorCognitivePiaget Undifferenti-UltimacyFowlerated PerspectiveSelman FriendshipSelman S:0:Kegan Reflexes EgoNone IncorporativeKeganEgo KohlbergMoral EriksonTrustIdentityMistrust vs. MotivationSurvival 21 Anal Preopera-tional ProjectiveIntuitive- Egocentric 0:S: ReflexesImpulses Impulsive PunishmentObedience AutonomyShameDoubt & vs. Satisfaction 43 Phallic AssistanceMomentaryPlaymatesOne-Way vs.Initiative Guilt 65 Latency Concrete Mythic-Literal InformationalSocial FairTwo-Way, Weather 0:S: Impulses Wishes Imperial Instramental IndustryInferiority vs. Safety 87 ReflectiveSelf- 109 Mutual tuallyIntimate, Shared Mu- 1112 Convention-Social and 7 1413 Genital Early Formal ConventionalSynthetic- System FriendshipMature S:0: MutualityWishes Interpersonal Interpersonal RoleIdentitysion Confu- vs. BelongingLove and life, although he labeled it a function of toilet training. While the child in Stage 1 was controlled by impulses, the child in Stage 2 can take controlof the impulses--having impulses rather than be them (Kegan, 1982). The child is able torecognize things, but not apart from the perception of them. Stage 3: Ages 6-12 Piaget labels this stage concrete, describing a conceptual array unable to think in the abstract. Selective attention is given to that which is practical, concrete, black-and-white. Fowlerfollows this diagnosis in describing the mythic-literal child. Unable to think critically orreflectively, unable to ab- stract or separate symbols from meaning, the child isconfined to a form of logic that is parametered by wooden literalism. The self-concept emerges for the first time, a perception of oneself. But as Selman reminds us, at the early ages of this stage, there is as yet no shared reality--noability to construct another's point of view (Steuer, 1994). As the child moves toward the end of Stage 3, they enter what Selmancalls the mutual stage, and they begin to understand other perspectives. Kohlberg calls this the stageof instru- mental moral perception. While the child has an inability to understand and incorporateother per- spectives, they are drawn to an understanding of what is socially defined as "nice." The calmness of Freud's latency period
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