JASON MITTELL
Narrative Complexity in Contemporary American Television
longside the host of procedural crime tended Bordwell's approacb to television, suggesting that di'anias, domestic sitcoms, and realit\- com- programs like Twin Peaks and Tlic Sinj^ii{^ Detective migbt petitions tbat populate the American televi- be usefully thought of as "art television," importing norms sion schedule, a new form of entertainment trom art cinema onto the small screen.^ Although certainly television has emerged over tbe past two decades to botb cinema influences many aspects of television, especially critical and popular acclaim. This model of television concerning visual style, I am reluctant to map a model of storytelling is distinct for its use of narrative complexity storytelling tied to self-contained feature films onto tbe as an alternative to tbe conventional episodic and serial ongoing long-form narrative structure of series televi- forms that have typified most American television since sion and tbus believe we can more productively develop its inception.We can see such innovative narrative form a vocabulary for television narrative in terms of its own in popular hits of recent decades from Sciitfcld to Lost, medium. Television's narrative complexity is predicated West Wif{{^ to The X-Files, as well as in critically beloved on specific facets of storytelling that seem uniquely suited but ratings-challenged sbows like Arrested Dex'clopmcut, to the series structure that sets televisit)n apart from film Veronica Mars, Boonitowii. and Firefly. HBO bas built its and distinguish it from conventional modes of episodic reputation and subscriber base upon narratively com- and serial forms. plex shows, sucb as Tlie Sopranos, Six Feet Under, Curb Narrative complexity is sufficiently widespread and Your Enthusiasm, and The Wire. Clearly, tbese shows oiler popular tbat we may consider the 199()s to tbe present an alternative to conventional television narrative—the as the era ot television complexity. Complexity bas not purpose ofthis essay is to chart out the formal attributes overtaken conventional forms witbin tbe majority' of of tbis storytelling mode, explore its unique pleasures and television programming today-—there are still many more patterns of comprehension, and suggest a range of reasons conventional sitcoms and dramas on-air tban complex for its emergence in tbe 1990s. narratives. Yet just as 1970s Hollywood is remembered In trying to understand the storytelling practices of far more for the innovative work of Altman, Scorsese, contemporary American television, we migbt consider and Coppola than for the more commonplace (and often narrative complexity as a distinct narrational mode, as more popular) conventional disaster films, romances, and suggested by David Bordwell's analysis of film narrative. comedy films tbat filled theaters, I believe tbat American For Bordwell, a "narrational mode is a historically distinct television of the past twenty years will be remembered set of norms of narrational construction and compreben- as an era of narrative experimentation and innovation, sion," one that crosses genres, specific creators, and artistic challenging the norms of what the medium can do.Thus movements to forge a coherent category of practices.' for arguments sake it is useful to explore bow today's Bordwell outlines specific cinematic modes such as clas- television bas redefined narrative norms in a series of ways sical Hollywood, art cinema, and historical materialism, that 1 label "complex." Even tbough this mode represents all of wbicb encompass distinct storytelling strategies neither tbe majority of television nor its most popular while still referencing one anotber and building on the programs (at least by the flawed standard of Nielsen rat- foundations ot otber modes. Kristin Tbompson has ex- ings), a sufficiently widespread number of programs work
The Velvet LightTrap. Number 58, Fall 2006 ©2006 by the University ofTexas Press. RO. Box 7819. Austin,TX 7871 3-7819 30 Narrative Complexity against conventional narrative practices using an innovative aesthetic issues that have typically been downplayed m the cluster of narrational tecbiiiques to justity sucb analysis.-^ development of television studies as a field." Drawing upon Obviously, tbe labels "conventional" and "complex" are this range of sources, we can establisb a detailed account not \-alue-free descriptions, just as terms like "primitive" oi the narratological form tbat contemporary' American and "classical" signal evaluative standpoints in film stud- television offers as a true aesthetic innovation unique to its ies. While I have argvied elsewhere for the importance medium.Tbis new mode, whicb 1 term narrative complex- of questions of value in studying television, a tendency ity, is not as uniform and convention driven as episodic that contemporary critical approacbes dismiss, 1 do not or serials norms (in tact, its most defining characteristic propose these terms as explicitly evaluative.^ Complexity migbt be its unconventionality),but it is still useful to group and value are not mutually gtiaranteed—personally, I much together a growing number of programs that work against prefer watching high-cjuality conventional programs like the conventions of episodic and serial traditions in a range VIC Dick Urn Dyke Show and Everybody Eoves Raymond to of intriguing ways. While some point to tbis emerging tbe narratively complex but conceptually muddled and form as "novelistic" television, I contend that it is unique logically maddening 24. However, narrative complex- to tbe television medium despite the clear influences from ity otiers a range of creative opportunities and palette other forms such as novels, films, videogames, and comic of audience responses that are unique to the television books.'' medium and thus should be studied and appreciated as In examining narrative complexity as a narrational a key development in the history of American narrative mode I follow a paradigm of bistorical poetics tbat situates forms.^ Arguably, the pleasures potentially otfered by tormai developments within specific historical contexts complex narratives are richer and more multifaceted than of production, circulation, and reception.'" Following a conventional programming, but value judgments sbould historical poetic approach, innovations in media form are be tied to individual programs ratber than claiming the not viewed as creative breakthroughs of visionary artists superiority of an entire narrational mode or genre. Tbus but at the nexus ofa number of historical forces tbat work while we should not shy away from evaluative dimensions to transform tbe norms established with any creative prac- in narrative transformations, the goal of my analysis is not tice. Such an analysis examines the formal elements of any to argue that contemporary television is somehow better medium alongside the historic^il contexts that helped shape than it was in the 1970s but rather to explore how and innovations and perpetuate particular norms. So what are why narrative strategies have changed and to consider the the relevant contexts that enabled tbe emergence of nar- broader cultural implications ot this sbitt. rative complexity? A number of key transformations in the media industries, technologies, and audience behaviors Television scholars have typically been reluctant to coincide with the rise of narrative complexity, not func- focus their analyses on the medium's narrative form, as tioning as straightforward causes of tbis formal evolution television studies emerged trom the twin paradigms ot but certainly enabling the creative strategies to flourish. mass communications and cultural studies, both ot which Although there is much more to examine about these tend to tbreground social impacts over aesthetic analysis, various contextual developments, a brief overview of key although using markedly different methodologies. Analy- changes in 199()s television practices points to both how ses of conventional television narration are surprisingly these transformations impact creative practices and bow limited, with classic work by Horace Newcomb, Robert formal features always expand beyond textual borders. Allen, Sarah Kozlotf,John Ellis, and Jane Feuer representing the bulk of tlie field.'' Some early accounts of innovative One key influence on the rise of narrative complexity narrative strategies by Newcomb, Christopher Anderson, on contemporary television is the changing perception of Thomas Schatz, and Marc Dolan suggest the antecedents tbe mediums legitimacy and its appeal to creators. Many of contemporary narrative complexity in Magnum, LiI.,S(. of the innovative television programs of the past twenty Ehcu'hcrc. And Twin Pcaks.'^ More recently, Steven Johnson years bave come from creators who launched their careers and jetirey Sconce bave oti^ered tbeir own accounts of in film, a medium witb more traditional cultural cachet: contemporary television's narrative torm, offering insights David Lynch {'lirin Pcahs) and IJarry Leviiison {Homicide: that 1 build upon throughout; I take these writings as a Life on the Street and Oz) as directors, Aaron Sorkin {Sports sign that media critics are turning attention to formal and \'iilht and West H^/i/i,'). Joss Whedon {Buffy, An^^^cl, and Jason Mitteli 31
Firefly), Mm Bali {Six Feet (./n^cr), and J. J. Abrams {Alias comprised of viewers who watch little other television is and Lost) as screenwriters. Part ofthe appeal is television s particularly valued by advertisers. For cable channels like reputation as a producer's medium, where writers and HBO, complex programs like Tlic IVirc, Oz, and Dead- creators retain control of their work more than in film's wood may not reach Sopmrws-like status, but the prestige director-centered model. Additionally, as reality television of these programs flirthers the channel's brand image of has emerged as a popular and cost-effective alternative being more sophisticated tban traditional television and to scripted programming, television writers seem to be thus worthy ofa monthly premium (and generating fu- asserting what they can offer that is unique to fictional ture DVD sales). While many complex shows like Firefly, television; narrative complexity highlights one limit of real- Boomtown, Wondcrfalls, and early innovator My So-Called ity shows, asserting the carefully controlled dramatic and Life were never granted time to establish a core audience, coiiiedic manipulation of plots and characters that reality all of these short-lived programs have emerged on DVD, producers find more difficult to generate." Many of these as their dedicated fandoms embrace the coUectability of writers embrace the broader challenges and possibilities television in this new form, a trend tbat the media indus- for creativity in long-form series, as extended character tries are eager to capitalize upon by creating programs with depth, ongoing plotting, and episodic variations are simply maximum "rewatchability."'" unavailable options within a two-honr film—note how Technological transformations have accelerated this shift Whedon s film Scrci'iiry, which extended the narrative of in similar ways. For the first thirty years of the medium Firefly., compressed an entire season's plot into two hours, television watching was primarily controlled by networks, minimizing storytelling variety, character exploration, offering limited choice of programming on a tightly de- and ongoing suspense. While innovative film narration limited schedule with no other options to access content. has emerged as a "boutique" form over the past years in While reruns proliferated in syndication, typically,programs the guise of puzzle films like Memento and Adaptation, the were shown out of order, encouraging episodic narratives norms of Hollywood still favor spectacle and formulas to accommodate an almost random presentation ofa se- suitable for a peak opening weekend; comparatively, many ries. Since the mainstreaming of cable and the VCR in the narratively complex programs are among the mediums early 19H()s, the balanee has shifted more toward viewer biggest hits, suggesting that the market for complexity may control—the proliferation of channels has helped routin- be more valued on television than in film. ize repeats, so that viewers can catch up on a program in Certainly, shifts in the television industry have helped chronologically aired reruns or view missed premium cable reinforce strategies of coniplexity.Traditional industry logic shows multiple times throughout the week.Time-shifting dictated that audiences lacked the weekly consistency to technologies likeVC^Rs and digital video recorders enable allow for serialized narratives, and the pressures of syndi- vievv-ers to choose when they want to watch a program, cation favored interchangeable episodes of conventional bnt,more important for narrative construction, viewers can sitcoms and procedural dramas. But as the number of rewatch episodes or segments tt) parse out complex mo- channels has grown and tbe size of the audience for any ments.While select series have been sold on videotape for single pRigram has shrunk, networks and channels have years, the eompact packaging and visual quahty ot DVDs grown to recognize that a consistent cult following of a have led to a boom in a new mode of television viewing, small but dedicated audience can suffice to make a show with fans bingiiig on a sbow a season at a time (like the economically viable.The overall audience size of Buffy and frequently reported attempts to watch a season oi' 24 to Veronica .\4ars do not make tbese shows hits, but measured match its diegetic time frame), and encouraging multiple expectations of newer networks like UPN and WB as viewings of what used to be a mosdy ephemeral form of well as the youthful demographics and culdike dedica- entertainment. tion drawn by such programming encourage networks Technological transformations away from tbe televi- to allow sucb experimentations to grow an audience. sion screen have also impacted television narrative. The Many complex prc-)grams expressly appeal to a boutique internet's ubiquity has enabled fans to embrace a "col- audience ot more upscale educated viewers who typically lective intelligence" for information, interpretations, and avoid television, save for programs like Tlw West Winji, The discussions of complex narratives tbat invite participatory Simpsons, and Tlie Sopnnios—needless to say, an audience engagement—and in instances such as Babylon 5 or Vi-ronica 32 Narrative Complexity
Mars, creators join in the discussions and use these forums programming.While it would be hard to claim that any of as teedbaek mechanisms to test tor comprehension and these industrial, creative, technological, and participatory pleasures.'^ Other digital technologies like videogames, developments explicitly caused the emergence of narrative blogs, online role-playing sites, and fin websites have of- complexity as a narrational mode, togedicr diey set the fered realms that enable viewers to extend their participa- stage for its development and growing popularity. tion iu these rich storyworlds beyond the one-way flow So what exactly is narrative complexity'? At its most of traditional television viewing, extending the nietaverses basic level, narrative complexity is a redefinition ot epi- of complex narrative creations like Buffy's Sunnydale sodic forms under the inffuence of serial narration—not and the Simpsons' Springfield into fully interactive and necessarily a complete merger of episodic and serial forms participatory realms.The consumer and creative practices but a shifting balance. Rejecting the need for plot closure of fan culture that cultural studies scholars embraced as within every episode that typifies conventional episodic subcultural phenomena in the 199()s have become more form, narrative complexity foregrounds ongoing stories widely distributed and participated in with the distribution aeross a range of genres. Additionally, narrative complex- means ofthe internet, making active audience behavior ity moves serial form outside ofthe generic assumptions even more ofa mainstream practice. While none of these tied to soap operas—many (although certainly not all) new technologies direcdy caused tlie emergence of nar- complex programs tell stories serially while rejecting or rative complexity, the incentives and possibilities they downplaying the melodramatic style and primary focus provided to both media industries and viewers encourage on relationships over plots of soap operas, whieb also the success ot many sueh programs. distances contemporary programs trom the cultural con- notations ofthe denigrated soap genre.'^Wliile certainly Wiiile claims that programming trends are a direct re- soap opera narration can be quite complex and requires flection of audience tastes and viewing practices are gross a high degree of audienee activity to parse out the web oversimplifications, there is no doubt that many of the of relationships and backstory evoked at every plot turn, innovations comprising narrative complexity have stuck narratively complex programming typically foregrounds because they have been actively embraced by viewers. plot developments far more centrally than soaps, allow- Using the new technologies oi home recording, DVDs, ing relationship and character drama to emerge from plot and online participation, viewers have taken an active role development in an emphasis reversed from soap operas. in consuming narratively complex television and helping it thrive within die media industries. As suggested below, Historically, this move toward complexity dates to the this programming form demands an active and attentive late 197()s and early 1980s, as prime-time soap operas hke process of comprehension to decode both the complex Dallas and Dynasty (as well as parodic predecessors Soap and stories and modes of storytelling offered by eontemporary Mary Hartman, Mary Hariman) were popular innovations, television. Audiences tend to embrace complex programs and more critically hailed (though initially ratings-chal- in mueh more passionate and coinmitted terms than most lenged) shows hke Hill St. Blues, St. Elsewhere, and Cheers conventional television, using these shows as the basis tor imported serial storytelling into the generic forms of cop robust fan cultures and active feedback to the television shows, medical dramas, and sitcoms, respectively."' Unlike industry' (especially when their programs are in jeopardy of soap operas, these prime-time serials are not uniformly cancellation).The rise ot narrative coniplexit\' has also seen dedicated to delaying narrative closure, as typically these the rise in amateur television criticism, as sites like televi- shows feature some episodic plotlines alongside multi- sionwithoutpity.coiii have emerged to provide thoughthil episode arcs and ongoing relationship dramas.These early and humorous commentaries on weekly episodes. '"* Steven programs tend to allocate episodic and serial stories as tied Johnson claims that tbis form ot complexity otfered view- to typical generic norms—relationship stories carry over ers a "cognitive workout" that increases problem-solving between episodes, as in soap operas, but the police and and observational skills—whether or not this argument medical cases are generally bound within one episode or can be empirically substantiated, tbere is no doubt that serialized as a two-parter. Thus unlike soap operas, indi- tbis brand of television storytelling encourages audiences vidual episodes have a distinctive identity as more than just to become more actively engaged and offers a broader one step in a long narrative journey. Similar divisions be- range of rewards and pleasures than most conventional tween serialized relationships and episodie plots continued jason Mitteil 33
to late lySOs programs like Mooiili(;^htiin^,tliirtysoinethin\i. and seem to undermine some of the revelations of tbe ongoing Star Trek: 'Hic !\'c.xt Gcricration, all of which incorporated mythology concerning alien presence on Earth. Despite inntivativc narrative devices that would become more viewers" cultish devotion to unraveling the mysteries driv- common in the 199()s. ing Agent Mulder's endless quest, this episode (as well as Tbe programs of the 199()s and beyond build on 1980s many others) left viewers unsure as to bow to consistendy innovations by expanding the role of story arcs across fit events into the story wo rid. Viewing tastes thus divided episodes and seasons. Early attempts at this long-form arc between conspiracy buffs, who saw the sometimes reflexive storytelling in tbe mideighties, notably, lVisc^^)iy and Crime and tonally divergent monster-of-the-week episodes as Story, did not catch on with audiences or foster imitators distraetions from tbe serious mythological mysteries, and until the breakthrough of Twin Peaks in the early 1990s. fans who grew to appreciate the coherence of the stand- This cult hit, whose influence was far more long-lasting alone episodes in light of the increasingly inscrutable and tlian the series itself, triggered a w-ave of programs em- contradictory arc—personally, I found myself in the latter bracing its creative narrative strategies while forgoing its camp before abandoning the show entirely. stylistic excesses and thematic oddities. Effectively a cross Buffy and Anj^cl are arguably more adept at juggling the between a mystery, soap opera, and art film. Twin Peaks of- dual demands of serial and episodie pleasures. While both fered television viewers and executives a glimpse into tbe shows (together and separately) present a rich and ongoing narrative possibilities that the episodic series would mine mythology ot a battle between the forces t)f good and evil, in the future. While lu'in Peaks was ultimately a ratings plotlines are centered upon season-long arcs featuring a failure, tbe positive buzz and accolades it received opened particular villain, or "big bad," in Bufffs parlance. Within the door to other programs tbat took creative liberties a given season, nearly every episode advances the season s witb storytelling form in the early I99(ls, most notably, arc wliile still offering episodic coherence and miniresolu- Seinfeld and 'The X-Files, both ot whicb added key facets to tions. Even highly experimental or ffashy episodes balance the repertoire of narrative complexity with more ratings between episodic and serial demands; for instance, Buffy\ success. "Hush" features literal monsters-of-the-week, known as 'The X-Files exemplifies what may be the hallmark of The Gendenien, who steal the voices ofthe town of Sun- narrative complexity: an interplay between the demands nydale, leading to an impressively constructed episode told ot episodic and serial stoiytelling. Complex dramas like in near silence. Yet despite the episode's one-off villains The X-F'iles, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel, and The Sopra- and highly unusual wordless mode of storytelling, "Hush" nos often oscillate between long-term arc storytelling and still advances various narrative arcs, as characters reveal key stand-alone episodes. As Sconce discusses, any given X-Files secrets and deepen relationships to move the season-long episode migbt focus on the long-term "mythology," an on- plot forward; many other Buffy and Allied episodes simi- going, highly elaborate conspiracy plot that endlessly delays larly offer unique episodic elements witb undercurrents of resolution and closure, or offer self-contained "monster-of- arc narration. These shows also interweave melodramatic the-week" stories that generally exist outside ofthe arcing relationship dramas and eharacter development with story scope of the mythology; Although 'The X-Files features arcs—at its most accomplished, Buffy uses torward plot an influential array of narrational innovations, the shows momentum to generate emotional responses to characters eventual creative and critical deeline highlights one ofthe and allows relationships to help drive plots forward, as ex- key tensions inherent in narrative eomplexirv" balancing emplified by how "Hush" simultaneously offers closure to the competing demands and pleasures ot episodic And se- a monster-of-the-week, furthers the relationship between rial norms. According to many X-Files viewers and critics, Butfy- and Riley, and adds new wrinkles to the season-long the show suffered from too great a disjunction between arc concerning the Initiative. the overly complex and unsatisfyingly deferred mythology But narrative complexity cannot simply be defined as versus the detached independence of nionster-of-the-week prime-time episodic seriality; within tbe broader mode episodes that might contradict the aeerued knowledge of of complexity, many programs actively work against serial the conspiracy. For instance, the highly regarded (and quite norms but also embrace narrative strategies to rebel against parodic) episode "Jose Chung's From Outer Space' mocks episodic conventionality. Eor instance, Seinfeld has a mixed the shows nested conspiracies, wbile the events it presents relationship with serial plotting—some seasons feature an 34 Narrative Complexity ongoing situation, like Jerry's NBC^ sitcom pilot, George's have passed in Springfield's life cycle—yet nobody else impending wedding, or Elaine's new job.These story ares bas aged. Often making jokes about the need to return to work primarily to offer backstory tor in-jokes and self- equilibrium state, Tlie Simpsons offers ambiguous expec- aware references—Cieorge suggests a potential story for an tations over which transformations are "reset" after each episode ofhis andjerry s sitcom"about nothing"based on episode—frequent losses of jobs, destruction of property, the night they waited for a table at a Chinese restaurant, and damaging of relationships that wall be restored by next the actual plot of an earlier episode. However, these arcs week's episode—and that will be carried over serially—^like and ongoing plots demand little explicit knowledge from Apu's family, Skinner and Crabapple's relationship, and episode to episode, as actual actions and events rarely carry Maude Fhuiderss death. Thus these complex comedies across episodes—arguably because ofthe infrequeiicy of selectively engage the norms of serial form, weaving certain significant actions and events on a show committed to events into their bacLstories while ambigtiously discard- chronichng minutiae and insignificances. While certainly ing other moments into the more conmionplace realm of appreciation ofthe shows storyworld is heightened the forgotten episodic histories, a distinction that viewers must more you notice ongoing references like Art Vandelay or either overlook as inconsistency or embrace as one ofthe Bob Sacamano, narrative comprehension does not require sophisticated traits of narrative complexity—evidence of the engagement in any long-term arcs as with The X-Files fan practices online suggest that the latter is more conimon or Buffy YeK >SVnj/cW offers a wealth of narrative complexity, once audiences accept the shifting rules as one ofthe so- often througii its refusal to conform to episodic norms of phisticated pleasures offered by these complex comedies. closure, resolution, and distinct story hues. Many episodes Seinfeld typifies another facet of narrative complexity, leave characters in an untenable situation—Kramer ar- offering a more self-conscious mode of sttirytelling than is rested for being a pimp, )erry running into the woods typic;il w-ithin conventional television narration.'"The show after becoming a "wolt-man," George stuck in an airplane revels in the mechanics of its plotting, weaving stories for restroom with a serial killer.These unresolved moments do eacb character togedier in a given episode through unlikely not function as cliff-hangers as in serial dramas but rather coincidence, parodic media references, and circular structure. as comedic punclilines not to be referenced again. In conventional television narratives that feature A and B Seinfeld and other narratively complex comedies like plots the two stories may otfer thematic parallels or pRwide The Si}npsons, .Malcolm in the Middle, Curb Your ISnthusiasm, counterpoint to one another, but they rarely interact at the and Arrested Development use television's episodic form level of action. C'omplexity, especially in comedies, works to undercut conventional assumptions of returning to against these norms by altering the reladonship between equilibrium and situational continuity' while embracing multiple plodines. creating interweaving stories diat often conditional seriality—some story lines do in fact continue. collide and coincide. Seitijehl typically starts out its four \\ hilc others are never referred to again. Arrested Develop- plothnes separately, leaving it to the experienced viewer's ment, a more explicitly seriahzed comedy, subverts these imagination as tt> how the stories will collide with unlikely conventions even more, as most episodes end with a "next repercussions diroughout the diegesis.'*' Such interwoven week on Arrested Development" teaser, showing scenes plotting has been adopted and expanded by CurhYoiir Linlhti- continuing that episode's stories. However, regular viewers siasm and Arrested Dewlopnicnt, extending the coincidences soon learn that future episodes will not show these scenes, and collisions across episodes in a way that transforms serial nor will they have actually occurred within the ongo- narrative into elaborate inside jokes—only by know-ing ing storyworld (although in the seeond season the show- Larry's encounter with Michael the bhnd man from Curl)\ varies this norm by allowing some ofthe teaser material first season does his return in the fourth season make sense. to occur diegetically). Likewise, 'I'hc Simpsons generally Likewise, Arrested expands the number of coinciding plots embraces an excessive and even parodic take on episodic per episode, with often six or more story lines bouncing form, rejecting continuity- between episodes by returning off one another, resulting in unlikely coincidences, twists, to an everlasting present equilibrium state of Bart in fourth and ironic repercussions, some of whicb may not become grade and general dysfunctional family stasis.''' However, evident until subsequent episodes or seasons. there are exceptions to these norms,such asApu's marriage While this mode of comedic narrative is often quite and parenting of octuplets, that suggest at least two years amusing on its own terms, it does suggest a particular set jason Mitteli 35
of pleasures for viewers, one that is relatively unavailable mode of visual spectacle highlights the excessive beauty in conventional television narrative.The viewers of such norms of beer commercials and Baywatch more than the complex comedies as Seinfeld and Arrested Development not pyrotechnics of the large screen), narratively complex only focus on the diegetic world offered by the sitcoms programs offer another mode of attractions: the narra- but also revel in the creative mechanics involved in the tive special effect. These moments push the operational producers' abilities to pull off sucb complex plot structures, aesthetic to the foreground, calling attention to tbe con- a mode of viewing Sconce labels as "metareflexive" but that structed nature ofthe narration and asking us to marvel at warrants more detailed consideration .This set of pleasures how the writers pulled it off; often these instances forgo suggests an inffucntial concept offered by Neil Harris in realism in exchange for a formally aware baroque quality his account of P.T Barnum: Harris suggests that Barnum's in which we watch the process ot narration as a machine mechanical stunts and hoaxes invited spectators to embrace rather than engaging in its diegesis. an "operational aesthetic ' in which tbe pleasure was less As programs become established in their own complex about "what will happen?" and mc^re concerning "how conventions we also marvel at how far creators can push did be do that?""" In watching Seinfeld we expect that the boundaries of complexity, offering barcjque variations each character's petty goals will be thwarted in a farcical on themes and norms; these narrative special effects can unraveling, but we watch to see how tbe writers will pull be the climaxes of shows, as when all the divergent Seinfeld off the narrative mechanics required to bring together the or Arrested Development plots collide or when a plot twist four plodines into a calibrated comedic Rube Goldberg on Lost or 24 forces us to reconsider all that we've viewed narrative machine. There is a degree of self-consciousness before in the episode. Or narrative spectacles can be varia- m this mode of plotting not only in the explicit reflexivity tions on a theme—Six Feet Under begins every episode offered by these programs (like Schijchh show-within-a- with a "death ofthe week," but by the second season the show or Arrested Development^ winking acknowledgment creators vary- the presentation of these deaths to otfer mis- of television techniques like product placement, stunt directions and elaborations to keep viewers engaged once casting, and voice-over narration) but also in the awareness they understand the show's intrinsic norms. A particularly that viewers watch complex programs in part to see "how telling moment of narrative spectacle comes fi^om the Lost will they do it?" This operational aesthetic is on display episode "Orientation": after discovering what is hidden within oiihne fan forum dissections ofthe techniques that beneath the mysterious hatch, tw-o characters watch a train- complex comedies and dramas use to guide, manipulate. ing film that details the origins ofthe facility as part ofa deceive, and misdirect viewers, suggesting the key pleasure research institute. Once finished with tlie enigmatic film of unraveling the operations of narrative mechanics."' We containing many obscure details that recast events ofthe watch these shows not just to get swept away in a realistic shows first season in a new light, Locke gleefully exclaims, narrative world (although that certainly can happen) but "We're going to have to watch that again!" mirroring the also to watch the gears at work, marveling at the craft reaction of millions of viewers prepared to parse the film required to pull off such narrative pyrotechnics. for clues to the diegetic and formal mysteries otfered by the show.This is not the reffexive self-awareness ofTex Avery The operational aesthetic is heightened in spectacular cartoons acknowledging their own construction or the moments within narratively complex programs, specific se- technique of some modernist art films asking us to view quences or episodes that we might consider akin to special their constructedness from an emotional distance; opera- etfects. Accounts of cinematic special effects highlight how tional reffexivity invites us to care about the storyworld these moments of awe and amazement pull us out ofthe while simultaneously appreciating its construction. diegesis, inviting us to marvel at the technique required to achieve visions of interplanetary travel, realistic dino- Another level of narrative spectacle centers on entire saurs, or elaborate figbts upon treetops. These spectacles episodes. Buff]' is probably the most accomplished show are often held in opposition to narration, harking back to for narratively spectacular episodes, with individual epi- tbe cinema of attractions that predated narrative fihn and sodes predicated on narrative devices like starkly limiting deemphasizing classical narradve form in the contemporary storytelling parameters (the silence of "Hush"), genre blockbuster cinema."" Wbile such special effects do appear mixing (the musical episode "Once More with FeeUng"), on television (although arguably television's dominant shifts in perspective (telling an adventure from the vantage 36 Narrative Complexity point of habitual bystander Xander in "The Zeppo"), able to reconfigure the scenario in a way that was diegeti- or toregroiinding an unusual narrator (Andrew's pseii- cally consistent (at least with the shows own outrageous dodocunientary in "Storyteller"). While each ot these norms of espionage technology and mythology), narra- episodes and others like them in StarTrck:'Ilic Next Gen- tively engaging, and emotionally honest to the characters eration ("Frame of Mind,""The Inner Light"), 'Hic X-Files and relationships. Similar series revisions were pulled otf ("Monday," "Triangle"), An^e! ("Snnle Time," "Spin the in subsequent seasons of Alias as well as Bnjjy (through the Bottle"). SeiiiJ'-'^d ("The Betrayal," "The Parking Lot"), introduction ofBuffys sister Dawn) and Ai^cl (with the Scrubs ("His Story," "My Screw Up"), and '/'//(• Simpsons heroes taking over their archenemy's law firm). In all of ("Trilogy of Error," "22 Short Films about Springheld") these cases audiences take pleasure not only in the diegetic may offer diegetic thrills and laughs, the more distinctive twists but also in the exceptional storytelling techniques pleasure in these programs is marveling at the narrational needed to pull otf such machinations—we thrill both at bravado on display by violating storytelling conventions the stories being told and at the way in whicb their telling in a spectacular tashion.Through the operational aesthetic breaks television conventions."'^ these complex narratives invite viewers to engage at the Narrative spectacle can be built into the core scenarios level ot tormai analyst, dissecting the techniques used to of programs as well—24 is often heralded for its real-time convey spectacular displays of storytelling cratt; this mode narrative structure, which in narratological parlance equates of formally aware viewing is highly encouraged by these story time and discourse time (excepting eoinmercial programs, as their pleasures are embedded in a level of breaks). Even more interesting here is that it may be the awareness that transcends the traditional tocus on diegetic only television series ever named tor its storytelling tech- action typical of most viewers. nique, not in reference to its diegetic world (tbe number Not only can individual episodes manifest the op- 24 refers to nothing notable in the storyworld) but rather erational aesthetic through narrative spectacle, but whole to the nnniber of hours (and episodes) needed to convey programs can be predicated upon such storytelling pyro- the story. Other programs are similarly notable for their technics, either through their ongoing stories or inherent storytelling discourse (how the story is told) more than the structure. For an example ofthe [ormer, Alias has otTered story itself—Boomtouni offers fairly typical police stories, a strong example ot narrative complexity, juggling both but when told through changing multiple limited perspec- ongoing and episodic stories ot espionage witb arcs of tives among an ensemble of characters, tbe cases are more relationship dramas mapped onto both family and spy poli- nuanced and eomplex tban tbey first appear, jaih and Bohby tics. But its boldest moments of narrative spectacle occur tells a typical tale ot teen brotbers, but, through the conceit wben the plot makes untoreseen sharp t\vists that cause ot frequent flash-torward interviews in the 2()40s,a tiiture the entire scenario to "reboot," changing the protessional tale emerges of one ot them becoming U.S. president, with and interpersonal dynamics of nearly every character.The future events and relationships resonating with adolescent tirst. and arguably most effective, of these reboots occurred family drama. Reunion highlights a group of high school midway dirough the second seasc^n in the post-Super Bowl triends, with eaeh weekly episode charting one year in episode "Phase One"; over the course ot this episode, the their lives over a twenty-year span.""' In all of these sht)ws entire espionage scenario was reconfigured, with the main what is arguably most compelling and distinctive is not characters status as a double agent shifting to becoming the stories that they tell but tbe narrative strategies used an outright CIA agent, chasing down the same main vil- iu tbe telling. lain but with ditterent alliances and motives. Additionally, Narratively complex programs also use a number of the relationships between characters transformed, with storytelling devices that, while not unique to this mode, are Sydney's innocent-bystander friend Francie being replaced used with such frequency and regularity as to become more by a nefarious agent and her long-simmering crush on the norm than the exception. Analepses, or alterations in Vaughn finally coming to truition—all within one hour! chronology', are not uncommon in conventional television, While mucb ot the etifectiveness ot this shifi: was in breath- with flashbacks serving either to recount crucial narrative ing lite into a premise tbat may have been on the verge of backstory (as a detective narrates the solution to a crime) or becoming too repetitive, an important pleasure was to be to frame an entire episode's action in the past tense (like the tound in tbe impressive way in which the producers were dramatization of Rob and Laura meetinii on The Dich Ian jason Mitteil 37
Dyke Show). Similarly, conventional programs have often for mass audiences—-we may be temporarily confused by used dream or fantasy sequences to explore possibilities of moments of Lost or Alias, but these sliows ask us to trust other scenarios (like Roscdnnc's retelling as a 1950s sitcom) in the payoff that we will eventual arrive at a moment of or to probe a character's inner life (the experimental St. complex but coherent comprehension, not the ambiguity Bhni'hcrc episode"Sweet Dreams").Another device.found and questioned causality t^'pical of many art films."^ m episodes of conventional programs hke All in the I'am- The "Noel" episode of West Win^^ typifies the complex ily and Different Strokes, is retelling the same story from use ot such discursive strategies: the episode is framed by multiple perspectives, often called the ''Rashonion effect" Josh Lynian's therapy session to process his posttraumatic after the landmark Kurosawa film,Voice-over narration is stress reactions to being shot, which allows for the conven- at\'pical in most television,but conventional programs like tions of repeated flashbacks via Josh's narration. However, Dmsinct and Tlie Wonder Years use it to set the emotional the flashbacks are rampant and not always signaled as falling tone and provide expository transitions. Yet all of these within a clear order, with sound bridges between the pres- devices, which vary from the "exceedingly obvious" mode ent-tense therapy and past-teiise events adding to a sense ot conventional television stor>'telling, typically maximize oi disorientation that the show uses to increase tension their obviousness by explicitly signaling them as differentia- and anxiety. Additionally, we see frequent dramatizations tions from a norm, predicated by expository narration ("I of Josh cutting his hand on a glass, an accident he claims remember it well") or contrived scenarios (like bypnosis, to have happened but that his therapist correctly suspects courtroom testimonies, or recollections over a photo al- is a he masking a more violent act; these lying flashbacks bum) to highlight how the show is using unconventional lack a clear difterentiation from other past events until the conventions. end oi the episode, leaving the audience to decode the In contemporary narratively complex shows such varia- contradictions and confusing chronology.The episode cli- tions in storytelling strategies are more connnonplace and niaxes with a five-minute sequence interweaving disjoined signaled with much more subdety or delay; tbese shows sound and image from five ditferent time frames (including are constructed without fear of temporary' conRision for one that never actually happened), rhythmically edited to viewers. Fantasy sequences abound witbout clear demarca- convey a robust emotional arc—a presentational mode tions or signals, as Northern Expo.^ure, Six Feet Under, Tlw more common to European art cinema than American Sopranos, And Biijjy all present visions of cvenLs that oscillate television but ultimately in service ofa coherent ongoing between character subjectivity and diegetic reahty, playing narrative. While much of the episode s pleasure is serial, with the ambiguous boundary' to otfer character depth, as the more we know Josh the more we can engage with suspense, and comedic efiect. C^.omplex narration otten his breakdown, the episode stands alone as a dramatically breaks the fourth wall, whether it be visually represented compelling character portrait (which won actor Bradley direct address {Malcolm in the Middle, The Bernie Mac Shou) Whitford an Eiiiniy), but only if we accept its distinct or more ambiguous voice-over tbat blurs the line between storytelling conventions, a competency that regular view- diegetic and nondiegetic {Scnd^s. Arrested Dcx'elopment).C3^~ers learii over time. Narratively complex programs invite ing attention to its own breaking of convention. Programs temporary disorientation and confusion, allowing viewers like Lost,Jack and Bobby., and Boomtoum otfer analepses in to build up their comprehension skills through long-term every episode with few orienting signals, while Alias and viewing and active engagement."'' Tlie West Win riciit nitiiigs,lo:niiig the iinLicrlymg mystery unsolved of Secrets: Critical Approiiclws to "'liriii /Viit^, " Ed, David Lavery. viii .1 inkiscasoii aintelLition, IX-troit:Wayne State UH 1995, 51-69. 25. Bordweli, NarriUioii otfcrs an infliR'iiti.il .ifconnt of jrt L-moni.! . "Historical Poetics and the Popular Cinem3," Approaches narration along these lines. to the Popular Cinema. Ed, Joanne Hollows and Mark Jancovich. 26. Interestingly, when I scR-fni-d this fpisocit' for a class, one Manchester: Manchester UP, 1995, stndcnt who hnd never watched the show mistook it for a "recap Johnson, Steven. hj'eryihir{^ Bad !s Good forYoii: lloif 'today's Popu- episode." assuming that LII) the Hashhacks referred to events already lar Culture Is Actually Makiiiii Us Smarter. New York: Riverhead witnessed in previous shows.The only previously seen tootage used Books, 2005. is ;i few sea)nds ofjoshs shooting, KozlofT, Sarah, "NarrativeTheory andTeievision,"C/w)jii('/.'>(>/"/X'>f('i(r^(', 27. Seejolmson tor more on tills cross-media trend, Reassetiihled. Ed, Kobert t:, Allen. 2nd ed. Chape! Hill: U of North 28,These puzzle hlms clearly drew many techniques from earlier Carolina H 1992.61-1(10, narrative experiments m the art cinema.but aside from a few"paranoia McCrath, Charles,"TheTriuniph ofthe Prime-Time Novel." lekvi- tilms" ot the iy70s like llie Coin'cnatiofi. such techniques and form sioirTlie Critical View. Ed. Horace Newcomb. 6th ed. New York: were rarely used. Oxford UH 2(10(1,242-52. Mittell. Jason, Genre aud 'li-lerisioii: hroin i-op Shows to (^arioous iu American Culture. New York: l*..iiurledj;e. 2ll(l4, Works Cited , -The Loss ofValue (or tiie Valtie of L.b7)." Flow 2,5 (2005): available at http://idg.communication.utexas,edu/now/ Allen, Rohert C. Spfiikiiii; of Soap Opcnis. Chapel Hill; U of North Carolina H ]9S5. Ndalianis, Angela, .\'eo-Baroque Aesthetics aud Coiiteiiiporary Lnlertain- Anderson, Christopher.'"KeHeLtion on .Mai^iiiiiii, RI." Tdi-vifioii.Thc ment. Cambridge, MA: MIT R 2(K)4. Critical View. Ed. Horace Newcomti, 4th ed. New York: Oxtbid Newcomb, Horace, ".\/iii,'n/;Hi, Champagne ot Television?" Chaniieh UH 1987. 112-25, of (Aimiiuinicatiotis (1985): 23—26, Bordwell, David. "Historical Poetics of Cinema," The CiiienuiliiTi'.xi: , Tl'.-The Mo.