Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

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Spatial and temporal constancy of seismic strain release along an evolving segment of the Paciﬁc–North America plate boundary

Kurt L. Frankel a,⁎, James F. Dolan b, Lewis A. Owen c, Plamen Ganev b, Robert C. Finkel d a School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332 USA b Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA c Department of Geology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA d Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA article info abstract

Article history: Three new slip rates from the Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley (DVFLV) fault contribute to an exceptionally Received 10 August 2010 detailed record of lateral rate variations on this 300-km-long system. From south to north, these three new Received in revised form 15 February 2011 sites are: South Mud Canyon, Cucomongo Canyon, and Indian Creek. Slip rates were determined by combining Accepted 18 February 2011 offsets measured with 1-m-resolution airborne lidar data with 10Be cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure and optically stimulated luminescence ages from displaced alluvial fans. The offset fans date to 17.4±2.3 ka Editor: P. Shearer at South Mud Canyon, 39±3 ka at Cucomongo Canyon, and 6.3±1.8 ka at Indian Creek, yielding slip rates of Keywords: 2.1+0.5/−0.4 mm/yr, 6.1+1.3/−1.0 mm/yr and 2.2+0.8/−0.6 mm/yr, respectively. At Indian Creek, the eastern California shear zone Holocene (~6 ka) and late Quaternary (~70 ka) slip rates are the same, within uncertainty, suggesting Walker Lane temporal constancy of seismic strain release along the northern DVFLV fault zone over these time spans. lidar When combined with slip rates determined in earlier companion studies, these results show that the late cosmogenic nuclide geochronology Quaternary slip rate decreases northward and southward from the central part of the fault, as slip is optically stimulated luminescence transferred onto north-trending zones of distributed normal faulting towards the northeast and southwest of fault slip rates the central zone of rapid deformation. This complex pattern of strain accommodation may reﬂect structural transient strain evolution towards a straighter, structurally simpler zone of dextral shear that locally utilizes well-established strain distribution dextral faults that are linked where necessary by nascent zones of deformation. Summation of the rates of all faults major faults in the eastern California shear zone (ECSZ) at the 37°N latitude of Red Wall Canyon in northern Death Valley shows that the cumulative geologic rate of ~8.5–10 mm/yr is indistinguishable from the ~9 mm/ yr geodetic rate. Although the cumulative rate on the major faults of the ECSZ is slower to the north and south, this probably reﬂects more distributed deformation in these areas, rather than transient strain accumulation. These results demonstrate the importance of obtaining multiple slip rates to effectively document the behavior of any fault system, especially in studies of seismic hazard assessment and comparisons of geologic and geodetic rate data. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction On parts of plate boundary fault zones where both detailed geologic and geodetic rate data are available such as the central San Understanding the temporal and spatial distribution of strain along Andreas, North Anatolian, and Altyn Tagh faults and in parts of the evolving plate boundary fault systems is one of the most important eastern California shear zone (ECSZ), rates of strain release appear to topics in active tectonics. Furthermore, determining the constancy of be constant throughout the Quaternary (Argus and Gordon, 2001; strain accumulation and release on major structures is fundamental to Bennett et al., 2003; Cowgill et al., 2009; Frankel et al., 2007a; Kozaci identifying how deformation is accommodated in the lithosphere. et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2009a; McClusky et al., 2000; Sieh and Jahns, Comparisons of short-term (decadal) geodetic data and long-term 1984; Wernicke et al., 2000). Long- and short-term rates do not (103–106 years) geologic plate motion data indicate that rates of strain always agree, however, along parts of plate boundary fault systems storage and release are, to ﬁrst order, constant along most plate such as the Mojave section of the ECSZ (Oskin et al., 2008), the Garlock boundaries over a wide range of timescales (e.g., Sella et al., 2002). fault (Dolan et al., 2007; McGill et al., 2009; Peltzer et al., 2001), the central Walker Lane (Frankel et al., 2007b), the Wasatch fault (Friedrich et al., 2003; Niemi et al., 2004), and parts of the Altyn Tagh fault (Cowgill, 2007). ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 404 894 4008. These observations suggest discrepancies between long- and short- E-mail address: [email protected] (K.L. Frankel). term rates of deformation and raise basic questions about how strain is

0012-821X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.034 566 K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576 distributed through the lithosphere along evolving plate boundaries, et al., 2009). In contrast, geodetic data suggest strain accumulation including: 1) how temporally constant are rates of strain accumulation along the central Garlock fault at rates of ≤2–3 mm/yr (McClusky and release? 2) How spatially constant are rates of strain accumulation et al., 2001; Meade and Hager, 2005; Miller et al., 2001; Peltzer et al., and release? 3) Are geologic slip rates averaged over thousands to 2001). The pronounced contrast between the short-term geodetic and millions of years compatible with short-term geodetic rates, or are longer-term (104 yr) geologic slip-rate data suggests that the Garlock secular variations in rates of deformation common? 4) If strain fault exhibits two “modes” of strain accumulation, and that the fault is transients occur, over what temporal and spatial scales do they currently in a slow strain accumulation mode (Dolan et al., 2007; operate? And 5) are strain transients localized features that charac- McGill et al., 2009; Oskin et al., 2008; Peltzer et al., 2001). terize regions of relative structural complexity or a general character- Displacement from the Mojave segment of the ECSZ is transferred istic of evolving plate boundaries (e.g., Bennett et al., 2004; Dixon et al., northward across the Garlock fault onto four main fault systems: the 2003; Dolan et al., 2007; Friedrich et al., 2003, 2004; Wernicke et al., Owens Valley, Hunter Mountain–Saline Valley, DVFLV, and Stateline 2008)? fault zones (Fig. 1). A series of down-to-the-northwest normal faults Herein, we address these issues along the Death Valley–Fish Lake are thought to transfer slip between the Owens Valley, Hunter Valley (DVFLV) fault zone by combining fault displacement measure- Mountain–Saline Valley, and DVFLV faults (Fig. 1; Dixon et al., 1995; ments determined from airborne lidar data combined with optically Lee et al., 2001a; Reheis and Dixon, 1996). Farther north, these major stimulated luminescence (OSL) and terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide fault systems act to transfer right-lateral deformation northward (TCN) geochronology of offset landforms to determine slip rates over through the major right step at the Mina Deflection and on to the faults a variety of temporal and spatial scales. Our results bear on the of the Walker Lane in western Nevada (Ganev et al., 2010; Hoeft and importance of understanding the strain distribution along structures Frankel, 2010; Lee et al., 2009b; Oldow, 2003; Wesnousky, 2005a,b). associated with this evolving segment of the Pacific–North America At the northern end of the ECSZ, dextral motion between the Sierra plate boundary. Nevada block and North America is funneled down on to two faults bounding the east and west sides of the White Mountains: the White 2. Eastern California shear zone Mountains fault zone to the west and the northern DVFLV fault zone to the east. Of these two, modeling of GPS data suggests that the Fish The ECSZ, and its northern continuation, the Walker Lane, is an Lake Valley fault system is storing ~90% (~8.4 mm/yr of right-lateral evolving segment of the Pacific–North America plate boundary shear) of the elastic strain accumulating in this region (Dixon et al., (Faulds et al., 2005; Nur et al., 1993; Wesnousky, 2005a). This 100– 2000). However, recent late Pleistocene slip rate studies on these two 300-km-wide northwest-trending transtensional zone of right-lateral faults suggest the cumulative, late Quaternary fault slip rate may be shear and extension is critical to accurately assessing the Mesozoic to much slower than the short-term geodetic rate of elastic strain Cenozoic history of the Pacific–North America plate boundary inboard accumulation; late Pleistocene slip rates on the White Mountains of the San Andreas fault (Fig. 1; Stewart, 1988). As such, numerous (b0.5 mm/yr) and northern DVFLV faults (b4 mm/yr) account for less studies have focused on this region in recent years, each with the goal than half of the region-wide 9.3±0.2 mm/yr rate of dextral shear of unraveling pieces of the spatial and temporal history of the strain determined from GPS data (Bennett et al., 2003; Frankel et al., 2007b; distribution “puzzle” (e.g., Frankel et al., 2008; 2010). Kirby et al., 2006). The ECSZ is thought to accommodate 20–25% of total relative motion between the Pacific and North American plates (Bennett et al., 2.1. Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley fault system 2003; Dixon et al., 2000, 2003; Dokka and Travis, 1990; Flesch et al., 2000; Frankel et al., 2007a; Hammond and Thatcher, 2004, 2007; Key to understanding the distribution of strain in the ECSZ is Hearn and Humphreys, 1998; Humphreys and Weldon, 1994; producing a detailed along-strike set of slip rates on major faults such McClusky et al., 2001; Savage et al., 2001; Stewart, 1988; Thatcher as the DVFLV system. Moreover, determining rates over both et al., 1999). The area of active deformation extends northward from Holocene and late Quaternary time scales is critical to assessing the the eastern end of the Big Bend section of the San Andreas fault near constancy of strain accumulation and release, which on some faults Palm Springs for N800 km through the Mojave Desert and the western has been shown to differ by a factor of four or more, or even differ in part of the Basin and Range (Fig. 1). sign (e.g., Friedrich et al., 2003, 2004). Although previous studies In the Mojave Desert, south of the left-lateral Garlock fault, the (Frankel et al., 2007a,b) suggest that rates of dextral shear decrease ECSZ comprises a 100-km-wide network of north-northwest-trending northward along the DVFLV fault, they are based on a limited number right-lateral faults. Geodetic data indicate that elastic strain is accu- of rate data. mulating across this zone at a rate of 12±2 mm/yr (Gan et al., 2000; The DVFLV fault system is the largest and most continuous fault McClusky et al., 2001; Miller et al., 2001; Peltzer et al., 2001; Savage system in the ECSZ, extending some 300 km northward from its et al., 1990). However, such evidence for rapid strain accumulation and intersection with the Garlock fault to the Mina Deflection (Fig. 1). Both release during the recent past is at odds with geologic fault slip-rate geologic and geodetic observations suggest that the DVFLV fault zone data, which suggest that the long-term, cumulative deformation rate accommodates the majority of slip in the northern ECSZ. Specifically, across the Mojave segment of the ECSZ is ≤6.2±1.9 mm/yr, or about several space-based geodetic surveys show that, over the past half of the current rate of strain accumulation determined from space- ~15 years, the DVFLV fault zone has been storing elastic strain at a based geodesy (e.g., Dolan et al., 2007; Oskin and Iriondo, 2004; Oskin rate of 3–8 mm/yr of the total measured 9.3±0.2 mm/yr of dextral et al., 2007, 2008; Peltzer et al., 2001). These observations suggest a shear between the Sierra Nevada block and the North America plate in pronounced strain transient across this part of the Pacific–North the northern ECSZ/Walker Lane (Bennett et al., 1997, 2003; Dixon America plate boundary in which the lower crust and/or mantle et al., 1995, 2000, 2003; Hearn and Humphreys, 1998; Humphreys and lithosphere beneath the Mojave is deforming at a rate that is much Weldon, 1994; McClusky et al., 2001; Savage et al., 1990; Wernicke faster than average (Dolan et al., 2007; Oskin et al., 2008). et al., 2004). Although numerous geodetic data are available from the The Garlock fault provides another striking example of transient region, only a few field-based studies have attempted to measure strain accumulation, albeit with an opposite sense, in which the intermediate- and long-term geologic slip rates on the DVFLV fault geologic fault slip rates are considerably faster than rates of elastic zone (Brogan et al., 1991; Frankel et al., 2007a,b; Ganev et al., 2010; strain accumulation inferred from geodetically constrained models. Klinger, 2001; Niemi et al., 2001; Reheis and Sawyer, 1997). Late Specifically, geologic slip-rate data from the central part of the Garlock Quaternary right lateral-oblique fault activity along the DVFLV fault fault reveals a rate of ~7±2 mm/yr (McGill and Sieh, 1993; McGill zone is characterized by numerous deformed landforms, including K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576 567

Fig. 1. Location map showing Quaternary faults in eastern California and western Nevada and the tectonic context of the Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley fault system. Black arrows show generalized dextral shear as determined from the geodetic velocity field of Bennett et al. (2003). Faults are from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Quaternary fault and fold database. White circles are the following slip-rate site locations referred to in the text. CC — Cucomongo Canyon, FC — Furnace Creek, IC — Indian Creek, PAC — Perry Aiken Creek, SMC — South Mud Canyon, RWC — Red Wall Canyon. AHF — Ash Hill fault, ALF — Airport Lake fault, BSF — Benton Springs fault, BM — Black Mountains, CA — California, CF — Coaldale fault, CM — Cottonwood Mountains, CVF — Clayton Valley fault, DSF — Deep Springs fault, EF — Excelsior Mountains fault, EPF — Emigrant Peak fault, EVF — Eureka Valley fault, FLVF — Fish Lake Valley fault, FM — Funeral Mountains, FW — Furnace Creek Wash, GF — Garlock fault, GM — Grapevine Mountains, HCF — Hilton Creek fault, HMF — Hunter Mountain–Saline Valley fault, IM — Inyo Mountains, LCR — Last Chance Range, LF — Lida fault, LMF — Lone Mountain fault, LVC — Long Valley Caldera, MLF — Mono Lake fault, NDVF — northern Death Valley fault, NV — Nevada, OVF — Owens Valley fault, PM — Panamint Mountains, PSF — Petrified Springs fault, PVF — Panamint Valley fault, QVF — Queen Valley fault, RF — Rattlesnake Flat fault, RVF — Round Valley fault, SF — Stateline fault, SLF — Silver Lake fault, SPLM — Silver Peak-Lone Mountain extensional complex, SNF — Sierra Nevada frontal fault, TMF — Tin Mountain fault, TPF — Towne Pass fault, WF — Warm Springs fault, WM — White Mountains, WMF — White Mountains fault, YM — Yucca Mountain. fault scarps, displaced fans, offset drainage channels, shutter-ridges, 0.7 mm/yr between central and northern Fish Lake Valley (Ganev and sag ponds (e.g., Brogan et al., 1991). et al., 2010). Recent slip rate investigations have helped refine the intermedi- The new slip rates presented herein, from three additional sites on ate-term (104–105 years) slip rates in this region (Frankel et al., the southern, central, and northern sections of the DVFLV fault zone, 2007a,b; Ganev et al., 2010; this study). Frankel et al. (2007a) facilitate a detailed examination of along-strike changes in deforma- reported a slip rate of 4.3 mm/yr at the Red Wall Canyon fan in tion. We use these new rate data to address the issues of on-fault northern Death Valley. To the north, however, the right-lateral slip versus off-fault deformation, apparent geologic-geodetic rate discre- rate of the DVFLV fault system slows down to ~2.5 mm/yr by the pancies, and the temporal constancy of deformation along the DVFLV northern end of the geomorphically well-defined fault zone at Indian fault. The rates fill in gaps in our understanding of the spatial and Creek in northern Fish Lake Valley (Frankel et al., 2007b). Along this temporal distribution of deformation in the ECSZ and more generally, same stretch of the fault, however, the pattern is reversed for the late lend insight into the overall behavior of strike-slip faults, with basic Quaternary extension rate, which increases northward from 0.1 to implications for seismic hazard assessment and the geodynamics of 568 K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576 strain accommodation in the upper crust in structurally complicated, evolving fault systems.

3. Strike-slip displacement

Right-lateral strike-slip displacements were measured directly from lidar-derived digital elevation models. Channel walls and thalwegs of offset streams were measured for comparison and in all cases the displacements from these features are consistent with each other. Details of the lidar data can be found in the Supplementary Data.

3.1. South Mud Canyon

The South Mud Canyon site contains the best-preserved offset along the southern section of the DVFLV fault (Fig. 2). Brogan et al. (1991) labeled this the Beatty Junction section of the Death Valley fault, and along with Noble and Wright (1954) and Hunt and Mabey (1966), mapped a single strand of the fault through this area. These authors noted that older fan deposits are progressively offset more than younger ones. Our mapping of the DVFLV fault at this site shows that it is actually expressed as two parallel structures, with the southwestern strand having accumulated more displacement than the northeastern strand. Both strands offset the Q3a fan deposit (Fig. 2). In the northwestern part of the South Mud Canyon site, the northeastern strand offsets the channel wall in the Q3a fan deposit by 7± 1 m, whereas the southwestern strand offsets a channel incised through this same fan by 30±5 m. The two strands merge to the southeast and displace a channel in the southeast portion of the fan complex by 37±7 m (Fig. 2). The uncertainty in displacement is based on the width of the channel headwaters to the northeast of the fault trace (Fig. 2). Although retrodeforming the South Mud Canyon fan appears to block the large drainage crossing the fault (Fig. 2), this channel is clearly much younger than the displaced Q3a fan deposit. Given that this channel is still active, it is probable that it is recently incised. Thus, the 7 m displacement of the northwest channel wall on the northeast side of the fault is a minimum offset of the newly cut terrace riser, which is presumably much younger than the fan surface age. In addition, ~1 km to the south of the South Mud Canyon site, there is another possible, albeit less-convincing offset that yields ~30 m of right-lateral displacement, which corroborates the offset at the South Mud Canyon site (Fig. S1).

3.2. Cucomongo Canyon

Cucomongo Canyon marks the topographic divide between northern Death Valley and southern Fish Lake Valley, and is located along the Cucomongo Canyon section of the DVFLV fault (Reheis and Sawyer, 1997). Here, the DVFLV fault is expressed as a single strand displacing late Pleistocene fan deposits. Based on aerial photograph analysis and field mapping, Reheis (1992) and Reheis and Sawyer (1997) estimated total right-lateral displacement at this location to be 110–180 m. We revise this estimate to 240±35 m based on retrodeforming a beheaded channel that incises the Qfi surface to the only possible source area along this part of the fault zone (Fig. 3). The Fig. 2. High-resolution airborne lidar-derived digital elevation model (DEM) for the restoration is based on matching the northwest channel wall and South Mud Canyon study area. Cosmogenic nuclide and OSL sample locations are shown thalwegs developed in the Qfi fan deposit. The southeast channel wall in Figure S2. The Q3a alluvial fan surfaces are shaded in pale gray. The black lines show fi the trace of the northern Death Valley fault zone. White arrows indicate linear channel in the Q unit has been eroded to the southwest of the fault and walls used to determine right-lateral displacement across the fault. A) Uninterpreted therefore is not used in the offset estimate. The uncertainty in the bare-earth lidar DEM of the study area. B) Geologic map of South Mud Canyon offset. offset is based on the width of the channel upstream of the fault. C) Retrodeformed South Mud Canyon offset yielding 37±7 m of displacement. Note the match of the arrows when slip is restored along the two strands of the fault. 3.3. Indian Creek displacement. At this location the fault zone begins to lose geomorphic The Indian Creek fan, which is located at the north end of Fish Lake expression northward (Fig. 1; Reheis and Sawyer, 1997). Reheis and Valley along the Chiatovich Creek section of the DVFLV fault (Reheis and Sawyer (1997) and Reheis et al. (1993) estimated 83–165 m of right Sawyer, 1997), provides a rich record of both strike-slip and extensional lateral displacement and ~75 m of extension across the late Pleistocene K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576 569

Fig. 3. Hillshaded, lidar-derived digital elevation model for the Cucomongo Canyon study area showing locations for the 10Be TCN surface samples and depth profiles. The shaded gray surface is the offset Qfi unit (modified from Reheis et al., 1995). White arrows indicate linear channel walls used to determine right-lateral displacement across the fault. Streams incised through the alluvial fan flow from southwest to northeast. A) Offset Qfi alluvial fan deposit. Note the prominent beheaded channel; the only possible source area for this channel is the large drainage to the northwest on the southwest side of the fault. B) Retrodeformed fan yielding 240±35 m of displacement.

Qfi fan deposit. Frankel et al. (2007b) and Ganev et al. (2010) revised (Fig. 4). The width of the offset channel is used as the uncertainty in these estimates to 178±20 m and 44±2 m, respectively. this measurement. Immediately to the north of the displaced Qfi fan is a younger, Holocene deposit (Qfl), which is also displaced right-laterally by the DVFLV fault (Fig. 4). Reheis and Sawyer (1997) and Reheis et al. 4. Geochronology (1993) estimated that this fan was displaced 3–15 m with a preferred offset of 3 m. Reanalysis of this site using lidar data Samples were collected for terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) and suggests that the Holocene right-lateral displacement is 15± 2 m, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) geochronology to determine the based on a single offset channel incised through the Qfl surface timing of fan formation and fault slip rates. Details on sample processing

Fig. 4. Hillshaded lidar-derived digital elevation model for Indian Creek study area showing locations for the 10Be TCN surface samples and offset channel. The shaded gray surface is the offset Qfl unit as mapped by Reheis et al. (1995). A) Geologic map of the offset Qfl fan deposit at Indian Creek. Streams incised through the alluvial fan flow from southwest to northeast. Note the presence of a modern road along the northern edge of the offset Qfl surface. B) Offset Qfl surface restored 15±2 m to its pre-faulting positioning. 570 K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576

A accurately determine the age of the offset fan at this location (Table S2; Fig. 5); OSL samples range in age from 12.0±0.9 ka to 20.9±1.4 ka. The youngest sample in this distribution is likely the result of minor bioturbation. We therefore use the remaining seven samples the age of 10 Q3a TCN Be ages the Q3a deposit, which yield a weighted mean age and standard deviation of 17.4±2.3 ka (Fig. 5). In addition to the OSL ages from the offset Q3a deposit, we collected three samples from the surrounding younger Q3c fans and one sample from the older Q2c unit (Table S2). The Q3c OSL ages range from 2.0±0.1 ka to 3.7±0.3 ka and the Q2c fan yields an age of relative probability 38.3±2.7 ka, which help bracket the Q3a OSL age.

4.2. Cucomongo Canyon

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 The displaced fan in Cucomongo Canyon was dated using a TCN fi 10Be model age (ka) depth pro le and two pebble amalgamation samples, each consisting of 80 2–4-mm-long clasts from pavement developed on the fan surface (Table S1; Fig. 6). The offset Qfi fan deposit is characterized by B deeply incised channels, a moderately to well-developed desert pavement with a distinct absence of cobbles and boulders, moderate Q3a weighted to dark coatings of desert varnish on surface clasts, and a well- mean OSL age: developed soil with a 5–10-cm-thick, silty vesicular A horizon and an 17.4 ± 2.3 ka argillic B horizon with moderate clay-film accumulation and stage II to III carbonate development (Reheis and Sawyer, 1997). Reheis and bioturbation (?) Sawyer (1997) estimated the age of the Qfi deposit at 50–130 ka based on fan morphology and soil development. The TCN depth profile yields an age of 38.3±7.1 ka (following

relative probability Hidy et al., 2010; see Supplementary Data), which is the same, within uncertainty, as the ages of 39.0±3.6 ka and 38.6±3.5 ka determined from the amalgamated surface pebbles (Fig. 6). Given the amount of vegetation on the present-day fan surface, it is likely that the top of

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 OSL age (ka) 10 5 Be concentration (x10 atoms/g SiO2) 0 2 4 6 8 10 Fig. 5. Probability density functions (PDFs) for A) 10Be ages for surface cobbles on Q3a 0 surfaces and B) OSL ages for Q3a sediments the South Mud Canyon area. Individual sample PDFs represent age and associated 1σ uncertainty. -20

-40 and analysis and analytical data can be found in the Supplementary Data. bioturbation(?) Uncertainties for all ages are reported at the 1σ conﬁdence level. -60

-80 4.1. South Mud Canyon -100 We dated the offset Q3a fan deposit at the South Mud Canyon site using TCN 10Be and OSL methods (Figs. S2 to S5). The Q3a surface is -120

characterized by subdued bar-and-swale topography with 0.1–0.5 m depth (cm) of relief, with moderately- to heavily varnished and rubified pebble- -140 to cobble-sized clasts forming a well-packed pavement. A moderately -160 depth-profile well-developed soil is present beneath the surface and is distin- = 38.3 ± 7.1 ka guished by 10–20-cm-thick Av horizon, a 40- to 50-cm-thick B ho- -180 surface clasts rizon with Stage II salt and carbonate accumulations, and a weakly = 39.0 ± 3.6 ka developed C horizon (Bull, 1991; Frankel and Dolan, 2007). -200 = 38.7 ± 3.5 ka Eighteen 10Be ages from cobbles collected on the Q3a fan surface range in age from 37.7±3.7 ka to 152.6±15.1 ka (Table S1; Fig. 5). -220 Many of these samples cluster around 70–80 ka, however this age is incompatible with the soil development, fan morphology, and Fig. 6. Sample depth versus 10Be concentration from Cucomongo Canyon depth profile geomorphic context of the Q3a deposit. Many of the clasts that samples. Solid black line is the best fit regression from 100,000 Monte Carlo profile fi compose the Q3a deposit at the South Mud Canyon site are likely either simulations through the samples (gray circles) in the depth pro le (following methods outlined in Hidy et al., 2010), which yields an age of 38.3±7.1 ka. Gray shading derived from older fan deposits to the northeast (upstream) of the surrounding the solid black line represents the solution space for the 100,000 Monte study site, or reflect extended residence time on hillslopes or in Carlo profile simulations. Vertical gray line represents the inheritance and associated channels prior to deposition (Owen et al., 2011); cobbles collected from uncertainty (light gray vertical box). White circles represent the 10Be concentrations the active alluvial channels near this site ranging in age from ~8–30 ka from the two amalgamated surface clast samples, which yield ages of 39.0±3.6 ka and 38.7±3.5 ka. See Fig. 3 for depth profile and amalgamation sample locations and (Table S1; Fig. S2). Supplementary Data for analytical results and further details of the depth profile and age 10 fi The wide spread of Be ages reduces con dence in these data , so we calculations. Uncertainties in the depth profile regression, inheritance, and individual rely instead on eight OSL samples collected from the Q3a deposit to more sample 10Be concentrations are shown at the 1σ confidence level. K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576 571 the depth profile has been bioturbated. Although the depth profile 5.1. South Mud Canyon samples do not fall exactly on the depth vs. 10Be concentration curve, we have confidence in this age due to its good agreement with the Combining the 37±7 m of displacement across the Q3a surface and surface samples and relatively low inheritance (Fig. 6). The weighted the OSL age of 17.4±2.3 ka yields a slip rate of 2.1 +0.5/−0.4 mm/yr at mean age and standard deviation of the depth profile and two surface the South Mud Canyon site. This rate is significantly slower than the one amalgamation samples is 39±3 ka. other geochronologically-determined right-lateral slip rate of ~4.3 mm/yr along the northern Death Valley fault zone at Red Wall Canyon (Fig. 1; Frankel et al., 2007a). 4.3. Indian Creek 5.2. Cucomongo Canyon slip rate We collected seven TCN samples from the tops of small boulders exposed on the surface of the Qfl deposit at the Indian Creek fan (Table S1). The slip rate at Cucomongo Canyon, which is nearly the mid-point The Qfl deposit is characterized by moderate bar and swale topography along the DVFLV fault system, was calculated by combining the and immature pavement. Surface clasts range in size from pebbles to small measured 240±35 m of right-lateral displacement with the TCN 10Be boulders and are covered with poorly to moderately developed varnish. age of 39±3 ka. This yields a rate of 6.1 +1.3/−1.0 mm/yr, which is Soils have a 5–7-cm-thick vesicular A horizon and a weakly developed the fastest dextral rate along the entire northern DVFLV fault and is argillic B horizon with thin clay films and stage II carbonate development higher than the preferred rate of 3 mm/yr determined by Reheis and (Reheis and Sawyer, 1997). Sawyer (1997) for this location. The 10Be samples range in age from 5.2±0.5 ka to 35.7±3.1 ka (Table S1; Fig. 7). Five of the samples cluster in the probability 5.3. Indian Creek distribution shown in Fig. 7. We use these samples to determine a weighted mean age and standard deviation for the Qfl deposit of 6.3± The slip rate determined at Indian Creek is the shortest-term 1.8 ka. This age is in excellent agreement with a single radiocarbon geologic rate for the DVFLV fault zone. This rate combines the 15±2 m age of 6.6±0.1 ka reported by Reheis et al. (1993) from the same fan of right-lateral displacement with the TCN 10Be fan age of 6.3±1.8 ka, deposit. The two outlying samples likely record inherited TCN yielding a slip rate of 2.2 +0.8/−0.6 mm/yr. The new Holocene rate concentrations from exposure prior to deposition in the Qfl unit. reported here is the same, within uncertainty, as the late Quaternary (~70 ka) rate of 2.5 +0.4/−0.3 mm/yr at the same location (Frankel et al., 2007b); both rates are significantly faster than the preferred 5. Fault slip rates Holocene rate of 0.6 mm/yr determined by Reheis and Sawyer (1997). Thus, although there is significant spatial variation in the DVFLV fault Fault slip rates were calculated using the approach of Zechar and slip rate, at the one location where rates can be defined over multiple Frankel (2009; Fig. S6) and are reported with their associated 1σ time scales, the fault slip rate appears to have remained relatively uncertainties. All slip rates reported herein should be interpreted as constant. Despite the absence of similar Pleistocene–Holocene slip- minima because we used offset channels incised through abandoned rate pairs at other sites along the system, the excellent agreement fan surfaces to determine displacement. Since the OSL and TCN ages between the late Pleistocene and Holocene rates at Indian Creek record the timing of fan deposition and the channels were incised and suggests that rates of deformation along the fault system have been subsequently offset at some undetermined time following deposition, constant when averaged over these time spans. the rates could be significantly faster. Although we are confident that we captured all of the strain release recorded by the fault zone, it is 6. Discussion also possible that there are also small secondary strands that were missed or that strain is accommodated by off-fault deformation. 6.1. Spatial variations in slip rate

Our new rates, together with previous results (Frankel et al., 2007a,b; Ganev et al., 2010), reveal a highly variable slip rate along the DVFLV fault, with a peak of 6.1 +1.3/−1.0 mm/yr at Cucomongo Canyon on the central part of the fault, tapering to zero at the northern and southern ends of the system (Fig. 8; Table 1). These along-strike Qfl weighted changes reflect transfer of slip onto and off of the DVFLV system, and mean fan age: highlight the complicated manner in which strain is accommodated 6.3 ± 1.8 ka along this section of the Pacific–North America plate boundary. For example, the pronounced southward decrease in slip rate between Cucomongo Canyon and the 2.1 +0.5/−0.4 mm/yr rate at South Mud Canyon reflects transfer of slip westward on to the central Panamint Valley fault via the north- and northeast-trending Towne Pass and Cottonwood Mountains (Snow, 1990; Snow and Wernicke, relative probability inheritance 1989) extensional systems, as proposed by Reheis and Dixon (1996). The relatively fast 4.3 +0.5/−0.6 mm/yr rate at Red Wall Canyon, ~65 km south of Cucomongo Canyon, indicates that most of this slip transfer occurs south of Red Wall Canyon. The ~1.5 mm/yr difference between the Red Wall Canyon and Cucomongo Canyon rates records 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 strain transfer from the Hunter Mountain–Saline Valley fault system 10 Be model age (ka) onto the DVFLV fault along the down-to-the-northwest Tin Mountain fault and numerous unnamed faults displacing Pliocene basalt flows Fig. 7. Probability density functions (PDFs) for 10Be ages from surface cobbles on Qfl northeast of Saline Valley (Figs. 8 and 9; Burchfiel et al., 1987; Reheis surfaces at Indian Creek. The samples highlighted as “inheritance” are not included in the calculation for the weighted mean alluvial fan age. Individual PDFs represent and Dixon, 1996; Sternlof, 1988). At the southern end of the northern sample age and associated 1σ uncertainty. DVFLV fault, the slip rate decreases to zero as slip is likely transferred 572 K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576

8 displacement from the southeast termination of the fault in Furnace NW SE Creek Wash northwestward toward Cucomongo Canyon (Figs. 8 and 9). 7 The increase in total displacement from southeast to northwest along Cucomongo Canyon the southern half of the DVFLV fault would necessarily be concomitant 6 with a northward increase in right-lateral shear that would most likely 5 be accommodated by a northward increase in slip rate along this Red Wall Perry section of the DVFLV fault system. Canyon 4 Aiken Similarly, the ~3 mm/yr northward decrease in rate from Cucomongo Cr. Furnace Canyon to the Furnace Creek fan in central Fish Lake Valley reﬂects 3 Creek Indian transfer of slip onto structures to the east of Fish Lake Valley (Frankel Creek South Mud et al., 2007b, 2008). Frankel et al. (2007b) postulated that much of 2 Canyon this northward decrease is accommodated by the faults in the Silver 1 Peak–Lone Mountain extensional complex (SPLM), which encompasses a N60-km-wide set of down-to-the-northwest normal faults (Fig. 2; 0 Oldow, 1992, 2003; Oldow et al., 1994, 2008). These are the only

late Pleistocene right-lateral slip rate (mm/yr) 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 currently identiﬁed structures in the region east of Fish Lake Valley with along-strike distance (km) kinematically-acceptable orientations to accommodate the overall pattern of dextral shear. This inference is supported by the similarity of

LMF the rates at Furnace Creek, Perry Aiken Creek, and Indian Creek, which demonstrate that slip is relatively constant at ~2.5–3 mm/yr over this 30 km length of the central Fish Lake Valley fault. This indicates that

SPLM strain transfer off the DVFLV fault to the east is focused to the south of

EPF CVF LF Furnace Creek and to the north of Indian Creek. SLF Interestingly, the intersection of the Lida faults along the southern boundary of the SPLM extensional complex with the DVFLV fault is FLVF NDVF located just south of the Cucomongo Canyon site (Fig. 1), suggesting

the possibility that the maximum slip rate along the DVFLV system DSF

SNF may be slightly faster than the Cucomongo Canyon rate. Our WMF TMF

TPF documentation of a northward decrease in slip rate along the DVFLV fault contradicts earlier models of deformation in the northern ECSZ, HMF which suggested that as strain is transferred northward from the OVF AHF Owens Valley and Hunter Mountain-Saline Valley faults into Fish Lake PVF N Valley via down-to-the-northwest normal faults, rates of deformation should increase northward on the northern DVFLV fault (Dixon et al., 1995, 2000; Lee et al., 2001a; Reheis and Dixon, 1996). At the north end of the DVFLV system, slip on the Fish Lake Valley Fig. 8. Plot showing the along-strike distribution of late Quaternary slip rates on the fault decreases to zero within ~10 km of the Indian Creek site as strain Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley fault system. Error bars represent 1σ uncertainties in the ﬂ slip rates. AHF — Ash Hill fault; PVF — Panamint Valley fault; HMF — Hunter Mountain is transferred northeastward through the Mina De ection via fault; TPF — Towne Pass fault; TMF — Tin Mountain fault; OVF — Owens Valley fault; distributed normal faulting, east-trending left-lateral faulting, and SNF — Sierra Nevada frontal fault; WMF — White Mountains fault; DSF — Deep Springs vertical-axis rotations (Frankel et al., 2007b; Ganev et al., 2010; Hoeft fault; SLF — Stateline fault; NDVF — northern Death Valley fault; FLVF — Fish Lake Valley and Frankel, 2010; Lee et al., 2009b; Petronis et al., 2002, 2009; — — — — fault; LF Lida fault; CVF Clayton Valley faults; EPF Emigrant Peak fault; LMF Wesnousky, 2005). Lone Mountain fault; SPLM — Silver Peak–Lone Mountain extensional complex. Oldow (2003), Oldow et al. (1994, 2001, 2008), and Petronis et al. (2002, 2009) demonstrated that structures east of Fish Lake Valley southward onto the Black Mountains normal fault. We note, however, (Fig. 1) acted as extensional transfer zones and accommodated the possibility that if taken at the extreme limits of their uncertainties, vertical axis block rotation between the nascent DVFLV fault zone and slip rates along the central third of the DVFLV fault could be constant. the Walker Lane from the mid-Miocene through the Pliocene, and our A similar pattern for total dextral displacement along the northern results imply that these structures continue to play an important role Death Valley fault was noted by Wright and Troxel (1970) who in accommodating strain transfer between the southern Walker Lane suggested that Miocene extension is far more pronounced on the and northern ECSZ (e.g., Hoeft and Frankel, 2010; Wesnousky, 2005b). northeast-trending normal faults in the Panamint and Cottonwood On the basis of soil ages and scarp heights, Reheis and Sawyer (1997) Mountains and southern Last Chance Range to the southwest of the estimated a late Quaternary slip rate of 0.9±0.5 mm/yr for the DVFLV fault than in the Grapevine and Funeral Mountains to the Emigrant Peak fault (Fig. 9). This rate is too slow to account for more northeast. This results in progressively higher total right-lateral than ~25% of the total ~3 mm/yr northward decrease in right-lateral

Table 1 Rates of right-lateral strike-slip faulting along the northern Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley fault.

Site Latitude Longitude Displacement Age Slip rate Reference (°N) (°W) (m) (ka) (mm/yr)

South Mud Canyon 36.6255 117.0032 37±7 17±2 2.1 +0.5/−0.4 This study Red Wall Canyon 36.8758 117.2585 297±9 70±8 4.3 +0.5/−0.6 Frankel et al. (2007a) Cucomongo Canyon 37.3305 117.7051 240±35 39±3 6.1 +1.3/−1.0 This study Furnace Creek 37.5569 118.0081 290±20 94±11 3.1 +0.5/−0.4 Frankel et al. (2007b) Perry Aiken Creek 37.6626 118.1066 ~250 71±8 3.3 +0.7/−0.1 Ganev et al. (2010) Indian Creek 37.7845 118.1769 178±20 71±8 2.5 +0.4/−0.3 Frankel et al. (2007b) Indian Creek 37.7905 118.1807 15±2 6±2 2.2 +0.8/−0.6 This study K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576 573

Fig. 9. Locations of study areas (white circles) where late Quaternary rates of strike-slip displacement have been determined by tectonic geomorphic studies in eastern California and western Nevada north of the Garlock Fault (GF). The large numbers in white refer to rates of displacement along the Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley Fault system (DV-FLVF) determined in this study, Frankel et al. (2007a,b), and Ganev et al. (2010). The numbers in solid black refer to studies undertaken by Densmore and Anderson (1997), Guest et al. (2007), Kirby et al. (2006), Lee et al. (2001b, 2009a), Oswald and Wesnousky (2002), and Zhang et al. (1990). Shaded area with arrow illustrates the northward transfer of strain off of the DVFLV fault through the Silver Peak-Lone Mountain extensional complex and around the Mina Deflection and into the southern Walker Lane. BM-Black Mountains, DV — Death Valley, EPF — Emigrant Peak fault, EV — Eureka Valley DV-FLVF — Death Valley–Fish Lake Valley fault, GF — Garlock fault, GM — Grapevine Mountains, HMF — Hunter Mountain– Saline Valley fault, IM — Inyo Mountains, LMF — Lone Mountain fault, LV — Long Valley, OVF — Owens Valley fault, PM — Panamint Mountains, SLF — Silver Lake fault, SV — Saline Valley, WMF — White Mountains fault, AHF — Ash Hill fault, PVF — Panamint Valley fault. rate on the DVFLV fault between Cucomongo Canyon and Furnace much of the slip is accommodated by distributed zones of normal Creek in central Fish Lake Valley, and suggests that much of this faulting (e.g., Hoeft and Frankel, 2010). This observation has basic eastward slip transfer off the FLV fault is accommodated by relatively implications for the use of fault slip rates in both seismic hazard distributed normal faulting within the SPLM extensional complex assessment studies and geodynamics, particularly comparisons of (Fig. 9). Similar patterns of diffuse strain accommodation on normal short-term geodetic and longer-term geologic rates. faults has also been observed to the east of northern Death Valley For example, at the latitude of the Red Wall Canyon site in Death around Yucca Mountain and to the west along the central Sierra Valley, summation of geologic rates across the major faults of the ECSZ Nevada frontal fault zone (Fig. 1; Rood et al., 2011; Wernicke et al., yields a cumulative right-lateral rate of ~8.5–10 mm/yr (Frankel et al., 2004). 2007a; Lee et al., 2009a), approximately equal to the 9.3±0.2 mm/yr The SPLM extensional complex may therefore act as a transfer zone (Bennett et al., 2003) short-term geodetic rate. In marked contrast, at where Pacific-North America plate boundary deformation in the Walker the latitude of the Indian Creek site in northern Fish Lake Valley, a Lane is accommodated in a broader, more diffuse zone than previously summation of the 2.5–3 mm/yr rate on the northern DVFLV fault with recognized (Hoeft and Frankel, 2010; Oldow et al., 1994, 2001). As such, the 0.3–0.4 mm/yr of late Quaternary right-lateral slip on the White it appears that since at least the late Pleistocene, the northernmost part Mountains fault (Kirby et al., 2006), suggests that the total long-term of the ECSZ has accommodated deformation in a zone spanning a width rate of deformation accommodated by the two major right-lateral of N100 km, from Owens Valley in the west to the western margin of the strike-slip faults at~37.5°N latitude is b4 mm/yr, or less than half the Great Basin east of Fish Lake Valley (Fig. 9). Thus, instead of behaving geodetic rate. Similarly, at the latitude of the South Mud Canyon site, like a strain “funnel”, as proposed by Reheis and Dixon (1996) with the total long-term geologic rate of right-lateral slip across the right-lateral shear concentrated in a northward-narrowing zone before southern Owens Valley, Ash Hill, Panamint Valley, northern Death stepping to the east across the Mina Deflection into the central Walker Valley, and Stateline faults is only about half to two-thirds the region- lane, the northern ECSZ appears to be acting more like a strain “sieve,” wide geodetic rate (Bennett et al., 2003; Densmore and Anderson, where deformation is accommodated across a broad region on multiple 1997; Guest et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009a; Zhang et al., 1990). structures via distributed deformation. The rates described above indicate that at the latitude of the central part of the DVFLV fault system between Cucomongo Canyon and Red 6.2. Summation of northern ECSZ geologic slip rates Wall Canyon, the Pleistocene–Holocene cumulative slip rate for the major faults of the ECSZ matches the geodetic rate. This would appear The complicated pattern of strain transfer amongst multiple major to support the suggestion by Frankel et al. (2007a) and Lee et al. fault systems evident in the northern part of the ECSZ suggests that (2009a) that where the main right-lateral strike-slip faults (Owens 574 K.L. Frankel et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304 (2011) 565–576

Valley, Hunter Mountain–Saline Valley, northern Death Valley, and strike variations in slip rate. Rapid slip along the central part of the Stateline faults) are oriented more or less parallel to Pacific–North system decreases both northward and southward, and drops to zero America plate boundary motion, short-term geodetic rates of at the northern and southern ends of the fault. These pronounced deformation closely mirror the longer-term late Quaternary geologic lateral decreases in fault slip rate from the central peak reflect transfer rates. However, the along-strike rate changes on the DVFLV fault of strain from the DVFLV fault to zones of distributed normal faulting demonstrates that the controls on slip rates must be more complicated within several north-northeast-trending zones of extensional fault- than simply fault orientation. Specifically, the northward decrease in ing, including the Silver Peak–Lone Mountain and Towne Pass– rate along the DVFLV fault from ~6 mm/yr at Cucomongo Canyon to Cottonwood Mountains extensional complexes. These extensional ~2.5 mm/yr at Indian Creek near the north end of Fish Lake Valley systems serve to transfer strain amongst the major faults of the ECSZ- occurs without a significant change in fault strike of either the DVFLV Walker Lane, and may reflect nascent reorientation and straightening or White Mountains faults (Fig. 1). of the ECSZ-Walker Lane Belt to a more northerly trend, with An alternative explanation is that the complicated nature of strain utilization of older, well-established faults where they are oriented transfer in this part of the plate boundary is a consequence of the favorably. The rapid rate along the central DVFLV fault is the fastest of structural evolution of the system (e.g., Gourmelen et al., 2011) to a all faults east of the Sierra Nevada; summation of slip rates on all of the straighter, more north-northeast-trending profile that “short-circuits” major faults at the latitude of the central DVFLV yields a cumulative the structural complexity of the Mina Deflection, a 100-km-wide right geologic rate of ~8.5–10 mm/yr, similar to the 9.3±0.2 mm/yr rate of step in the Walker Lane. In this model, the evolving plate boundary dextral shear across the region measured geodetically. In contrast, the utilizes pre-existing faults (e.g., the DVFLV system) where appropri- cumulative slip rate across all of the major ECSZ faults at the latitude of ate, and establishes nascent fault zones where they are necessary to the northern and southern parts of the DVFLV fault system is link these well-established segments into a through-going whole. In significantly slower than the geodetic rate. Although this might at this regard, the northern ECSZ-southern Walker Lane may be viewed first suggest that the northern and southern parts of the system are as a larger-scale version of the 1992 Mw7.3 Landers earthquake currently experiencing a period of elevated elastic strain accumula- rupture, which utilized segments of five different fault systems that tion, we do not think that this is the case. Rather, the fact that the were linked by structurally complicated, evolving faults with well- cumulative geologic and geodetic rates agree at the latitude of the established structures together into one large rupture plane oriented central part of the DVFLV system, together with the presence of more northerly than the individual fault segments (Nur et al., 1993; adjacent, kinematically compatible structures, suggests the discrep- Sieh et al., 1993; Wald and Heaton, 1994). ancy is best explained by significant strain accommodation off of the Although the slip rate on the DVFLV fault system changes main faults of the ECSZ in zones of extensional faulting. These results markedly along strike, the geodetic rate across this region remains emphasize the necessity of documenting multiple slip rates along relatively constant to the north and south at ~9 mm/yr (Bennett et al., strike of major faults for use in seismic hazard assessment, studies of 2003). If the discrepancies between the cumulative geologic rates at seismic versus aseismic strain release, and comparisons of geologic the northern and southern ends of the system do not reflect more and geodetic rates of deformation. distributed faulting in these locations, then it is possible that these Supplementary materials related to this article can be found online regions may be experiencing transiently elevated rates of elastic strain at doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.034. accumulation. We think this is unlikely, however, and instead suggest that the discrepancy between the geologic fault slip rates and regional geodetic rate reflects locations where deformation is accommodated Acknowledgements off the main faults in distributed zones of extensional faulting (e.g., Wernicke et al., 2004). These observations, particularly the presence This study was supported by NSF grants EAR-0537901 (Dolan), of kinematically compatible structures that abut the main faults at EAR-0537580 (Owen), and EAR-0538009 (Finkel), NASA ESSF and LLNL-UEPP fellowships, Georgia Tech, and UC-WMRS. Stephanie locations where slip rate changes along strike (e.g., the SPLM and fi Towne Pass-Cottonwood Mountains extensional complexes), support Briggs and Alicia Nobles assisted with eldwork and sample the notion that the overall rate of slip accommodated on faults within preparation. Lidar data were collected by NCALM and are based on the northern part of the ECSZ is probably equal to the short-term rate services provided by the PBO operated by UNAVCO for EarthScope and of elastic strain accumulation. Thus, the northern part of the ECSZ supported by NSF (EAR-0350028 and EAR-0732947). Brian Wernicke fi between the Garlock fault and the Mina Deflection does not appear to and an anonymous reviewer provided comments that signi cantly be experiencing a period of transient strain accumulation, as has been helped improve the paper. suggested for the Mojave section of the ECSZ south of the Garlock fault (e.g., Dolan et al., 2007; Oskin et al., 2008). References These results highlight the fact that examination of slip rates in only one location would yield very different answers to the question Argus, D.F., Gordon, R.G., 2001. Present tectonic motion across the Coast Ranges and San Andreas fault system in central California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 113, 1580–1592. of whether short-term rates equal long-term rates. In terms of seismic Bennett, R.A., Wernicke, B.P., Davis, J.L., Elosegui, P., Snow, J.K., Abolins, M., House, M.A., hazard analysis, slip rate is one of the key inputs into modern Stirewalt, G.L., Ferrill, D.A., 1997. 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