ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS

“DTC IS THE SECRET-EDGE WEAPON OF THE SAF”

DR NG ENG HEN MINISTER FOR DEFENCE II The opinions and views expressed in this work are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Ministry of Defence TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword

Message

Preface

1 CHAPTER 1 : The Beginnings of Defence Logistics and Engineering

21 CHAPTER 2 : Development of Armament

45 CHAPTER 3 : Development of 155mm Artillery

57 CHAPTER 4 : Development of Armoured Fighting Vehicles

82 CHAPTER 5 : Exploratory Development of Autonomous and Remotely Operated Vehicle

101 CHAPTER 6 : Innovation in Command, Control, Communications and Computers Systems

122 CHAPTER 7 : Defence Construction and Passive Defence

141 CHAPTER 8 : Rock Caverns for Ammunition Facility

171 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

178 GLOSSARY

183 INDEX FOREWORD

The journey of Singapore’s Defence engineers and scientists stands at the frontier The stories that are told in this book Technology Community (DTC) parallels of technological progress. Indeed the DTC is series chronicles should lift the spirits of that of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) the secret-edge weapon of the SAF. Singaporeans, old and young. They celebrate – indeed both were co-dependent and what pioneers and successive generations of iterative processes which fed off As the DTC celebrates its 50th anniversary, committed scientists and engineers have each other’s success. Pioneers in both we want to thank especially its pioneers accomplished over the years. But they also communities recognised very early on the who were committed to achieve the give hope to our future, as they will serve as stark limitations of a small island with no unthinkable and were not daunted by severe reminders during difficult times to overcome geographical depth and limited manpower. challenges along the way. Their efforts and challenges and continue to keep Singapore But despite this realisation, they were beliefs have spawned world class agencies safe and secure for many years to come. undaunted and shared a common resolve such as DSTA and DSO, and the family of to mitigate Singapore’s vulnerabilities Singapore Technologies (ST) companies. and constraints, and build a credible SAF through sheer will, commitment and the More hearteningly, the virtuous effects harnessing of the powers of technology. In extend into mainstream society too. Dr Goh Keng Swee’s words, “we have to Today the defence cluster of DSTA, DSO, Dr Ng Eng Hen supplement the SAF’s manpower with new MINDEF, the SAF and ST employs the Minister for Defence technology, as manpower constraints will largest proportion of scientists and engineers Singapore always be there. Our dependency should in Singapore – almost one in every 12! It be more on technology than manpower. is not an overstatement that these entities And we must develop indigenously that have been the main receptacles to maintain technological edge.” As worthy and the science and technology capabilities in important as these ideals were, it was an our nation, providing life-long careers in the arduous journey for the DTC. With poor process. standards of general education, let alone engineers or scientists, how could Singapore Beyond defence, the DTC has also positively develop such capabilities? impacted our society in a variety of ways: in producing mass thermal scanners to combat This book series chronicles the last 50 years the 2003 SARS outbreak, in designing and of that ascent that begun in 1966. The DTC building the iconic Marina Bay Floating has indeed come a long way from its humble Platform to host the National Day Parades and beginnings and with it, a transformation sports events, in breaking new ground and of the SAF’s capabilities. Today, both old mindsets when we built the underground the SAF and the DTC are respected storage for munitions, in forming the nucleus professional bodies and the requests from to start the MRO (maintenance, repair and advanced economies to collaborate reflect overhaul) industries to service airlines in the standards which we have achieved. Singapore and globally. Our closely-knit community of defence

ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS MESSAGE

The Defence Technology Community (DTC) • The integration of the RSN’s missile renowned R&D partners locally and around has steadily evolved over the last 50 years. We gunboats and missile corvettes which the world, I am confident that the DTC will started off as a small, three-man technical built up the DTC’s confidence to move remain steadfast in delivering the critical department in the Logistics Division in 1966 on to specify and acquire best of breed technologies and innovative solutions for supporting defence equipment procurement systems to integrate into new ships like the SAF and the nation. May the stories in and there was much work to be done. The the frigates. It also laid the foundations these books inspire our current and future Army then was largely equipped with for ST Engineering’s capabilities to design defence engineers and scientists to continue second-hand vehicles and surplus equipment and build ships for the RSN and some to push boundaries and think creatively to left by the British. The Republic of other navies. deliver capabilities that will safeguard our Singapore Navy (RSN) had two boats, one • The conversion of old US Navy’s A-4 sovereignty for the years to come. steel and the other wooden. Recognising the Skyhawk aircraft into the A-4SU Super need to overcome the immutable challenges Skyhawk for the Republic of Singapore of geography and resource constraints Air Force, building up ST Engineering’s facing Singapore, we extended our scope to capabilities to undertake further aircraft include conceptualisation, development and upgrades such as for the F-5E Tiger fighter upgrade of defence systems. These efforts aircraft, and to undertake servicing and Mr Ng Chee Khern leverage the force multiplying effects of repair of commercial aircraft. Permanent Secretary (Defence Development) technology to meet the unique challenges • The system-of-systems integration Ministry of Defence, Singapore and operational requirements of the Singapore efforts to evolve the island air defence Armed Forces (SAF), beyond what could be system, building on legacy systems left had buying off-the-shelf. by the British to seamlessly incorporate new weapons, sensors, and indigenously This four-book “Engineering Singapore’s developed command and control systems Defence – The Early Years” series covers the to extend the range and coverage of entire spectrum of the DTC’s work in the Singapore’s air defence umbrella, and land, air and sea domains to deliver cutting- the build-up of the DTC as a system-of- edge technological capabilities to the SAF. systems to deliver cutting-edge capabilities It chronicles our 50-year journey and and systems to the SAF, and to meet the documents the largely unheard stories of technology requirements of the nation. our people – their challenges, struggles and triumphs, their resolve and ingenuity, and While not exhaustive, these stories provide their persistence in overcoming the odds. us with a glimpse of the “dare-to-do” and These stories include: enterprising spirit that our DTC personnel and forerunners possess. • The upgrading of the French-made AMX-13 light tank to the AMX-13 SM1 There is no end to change and transformation. configuration by the DTC, the Army and Singapore and the SAF will continue to face ST Engineering, laying the foundation for many challenges in the years ahead. However, the design, engineering and production of with the capabilities and expertise developed the Bionix, Bronco and Terrex armoured over the years in its more than 5,000-strong fighting vehicles for the Army. personnel, and its established linkages with

ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS PREFACE

provided by tenderers were major tasks Chapter 3 describes the development of of fighting units in the Army from the early for each purchase. Acceptance tests were 155mm artillery, the backbone of the days of line and wireless communication conducted to ensure the materials supplied firepower of our Army. Engineers in Ministry devices, to the digital command, control, were in accordance with the specifications of Defence (MINDEF), CIS and Ordnance communications and computers system-of- before the various logistics bases would take Development and Engineering of Singapore systems. them into inventory for issue to the units. (ODE), after one decade of experience in the development and production of armament Chapter 7 is an account of the technical Chapter 1 is an account of the development for the SAF, were ready to make a major challenges in the planning, design and of technical capability in the Logistics leap into the development and production of engineering of operational infrastructure Division which began with the testing and 155mm howitzers. They had the confidence facilities for the SAF. The capability to design, evaluation of equipment and stores for the of developing 155mm howitzers that would test and evaluate, and construct passive training schools located in Singapore Armed best meet the needs of the Army and at a total protection measures was also used to support Forces Training Institute (SAFTI) and the life cycle cost lower than that produced by the Ministry of Home Affairs in the planning first two National Service (NS) battalions. established armament manufacturers from and design of Civil Defence Shelters for the The planned development of the SAF and overseas. protection of our civilian population from MID was disrupted by the decision of the weapon effects. UK Government to withdraw all troops from Chapter 4 is an external view by a very Singapore by 1971. We had three years to respected expert on military matters and land Chapter 8 is the last chapter of this book on build an army, air force and navy and the warfare on the growth of the engineering and the creation of underground space in rock logistics and engineering organisations for development capability of armoured fighting caverns for the storage of ammunition in their support. Graduates in engineering and vehicles for our Army. the SAF’s Underground Ammunition Facility Critical to the build-up of the Singapore science enlisted into NS were tasked with the (UAF) at Mandai. The chapter shows the Armed Forces (SAF) was logistics. Equipment responsibility to provide technical support Chapter 5 is a contribution from key life cycle approach in the planning, from and stores needed for training had to be for the rapid development of the three arms members of the research and development conception to operation, technology purchased and issued to units before training of the SAF. team of Singapore’s first driverless vehicle, development through computer simulation could begin. The trainees would need to be a M113 armoured personnel carrier named model, small-scale testing and large-scale clothed in uniforms and equipped with their Chapter 2 describes the development of Ulysses by the project team. The principal testing and collaboration with the best personal equipment, housed in barracks, technical capabilities in our defence industries investigator was from the Singapore Institute engineers in the world in the development provided with their personal weapons and to provide armament for the SAF. The of Manufacturing Technology (SimTech) and operation of ammunition facilities. This transportation, and most importantly be fed strategy of integrated armament development and members of the project team included project was groundbreaking as it showed four to five times each day to prepare for the would provide the SAF with operational engineers from the Defence Science and that Singapore could more than double the vigorous training. The Logistics Division in capabilities greater than those that could be Technology Agency (DSTA) and ST Kinetics. amount of usable space with the development the Ministry of Interior and Defence (MID) purchased from overseas. The clear focus on This chapter shows the daring of engineers to of underground rock caverns. carried out this task with officers recruited engineering and the development of leading increase the combat capability of our future as Short Service Commission Officers. They edge armament, tempered with the need armoured fighting vehicles through automation, learnt about logistics by doing. Tenders for the for economic viability, drove the growth of information, precision and integration. supply of equipment and stores were called our defence industries. Personal accounts by each day, and contracts and procurement orders former engineers of the Chartered Industries Chapter 6 is the perspective from very issued as soon as the completion of evaluation of Singapore (CIS) showed the courage and knowledgeable users of technology – officers Prof Lui Pao Chuen of the offers. Preparation of specifications technical capabilities of our armament of the Signal Formation. They wrote on the Editor, Engineering Land Systems for the procurement and testing of samples engineers. growth of the command and control capability

ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS Chapter One Chapter 1 THE BEGINNINGS OF DEFENCE LOGISTICS AND ENGINEERING

THE BEGINNINGS OF support for the SAF. Rooms at Lower Barracks introduce National Service (NS). SAFTI would DEFENCE LOGISTICS were converted into offices for MID. The need to be expanded to accommodate the Combined Operations Room located in Upper large number of trainees that would be called AND ENGINEERING Barracks at Pearl’s Hill became the operations up for NS, and found suitable to be trained room of MID. With the staff expansion in as NCOs (non-commissioned officers) and MID, more office space was needed. The officers. Upper Barracks was subsequently also This chapter serves two purposes: to provide converted into MID’s offices. The first Director of SAFTI, Lieutenant an introduction to the subjects that will be Colonel (LTC) Kirpa Ram Vij, was a lieutenant Entrance to SAFTI, circa 1966 covered by this book, and to record some of in the Singapore Volunteer Corps (SVC) and a the early developments of defence science Principal Assistant Secretary in the Ministry On completion of the preparatory course, each and technology in Singapore. of Finance as its Head of Organisation graduate received a hard-earned certificate from and Methods. He was appointed LTC on Dr Goh Keng Swee himself at a graduation At Singapore’s independence on 9th August 15th February 1966 upon the commencement ceremony on 7th May 1966. Younger officers 1965, the Singapore Police Force (SPF) was a of the preparatory course. The SPF provided like LTA Goh Lye Choon were promoted to well-established force with a proud tradition the best field commanders they had in the rank of captain (CPT) and became platoon in the maintenance of law and order. It had Pearl’s Hill Upper Barracks, circa 1945 service for the preparatory course. They were commanders (PC) for the first training course 6,700 Regulars, and 1,300 Guard and Escort Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) T.E. at SAFTI. There were two training companies personnel. The SPF was also supplemented by First SAF Build-up Plan Ricketts, DSP R.A. Lawrence, DSP Richard with Major (MAJ) John Morrice in command of some 1,200 Volunteer Special Constables. It Tay, DSP Wilfred Skinner (then goalkeeper A Company and DSP T.E. Ricketts in command was well-organised with a command structure, The first plan for the build-up of the SAF of the national football team) and Inspector of B Company. Training of the first batch of officers and men. Many young school-leavers prepared soon after Singapore’s independence Chin Chee Chean. Senior in age and rank recruits began on 1st July 1966 with 150 recruits would aspire to join the SPF to be inspectors, set out the details for the organisation of MID, to the trainees, they were remembered for in each company. They were accommodated in if they had a Higher School Certificate, the and the tasks required to raise an ORBAT their keen understanding of human nature the newly-completed wooden barracks of the equivalent of an "A" level education. The SPF (order of battle) of 12 battalions for defence and generosity in sharing their knowledge SAFTI camp. had a training school for basic, advanced and internal security operations. The 12 of leadership with the younger members of and higher-level training for constables and battalions were: the preparatory course. officers. The Senior Police Officers’ Mess at Mount Pleasant was the institution for • seven infantry battalions Israel sent a team of five advisors to assist in informal learning and socialising for senior • two recce battalions the preparatory course. As the camp at Pasir police officers. The Police Reserve Units and • one engineer battalion Laba was being constructed, the base camp the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) • one artillery battalion of the preparatory course was at Jurong Town had also generated many police officers with • one commando battalion Primary School. Each day the trainees would outstanding leadership qualities. ride in British-made Bedford trucks to the Pasir Raising an Army Laba Live Firing Area for their training. COL The SPF came under the command of the (Ret) Goh Lye Choon remembered fondly Ministry of Interior and Defence (MID), Crucial to the success of the plan was the that Permanent Secretary for MID (PS(MID)) Dr Goh Keng Swee, then Minister for together with the fledging Singapore Armed availability of manpower with the qualities George Bogaars had spent much time in the Interior and Defence, and LTC Kirpa Ram Vij, Forces (SAF). The SPF logistics units for necessary to make good commanders and field during the preparatory course. He had then Director SAFTI at the vehicle repair, radio repair and weapons soldiers. The first task was to train a cadre also resolved problems between the Israeli opening of SAFTI, on 18th June 1967 repair became logistics bases of the SAF. of instructors for the Singapore Armed team and regular army officers who had found They were named Vehicle Repair Base, Forces Training Institute (SAFTI) which was the training with the self-loading rifle and SAFTI was the first military camp construction Electronics Supply and Maintenance Base, established on 14th February 1966. individual field crafts to be a repetition of project of the SAF. It was completed in a and Weapons, Ammunition and Optics Base what they had already knew. matter of months to meet the start of the (WAOB) respectively. By mid 1966 MID concluded that it would not first training course. The top architect of the be possible to recruit the number of officers Public Works Department (PWD), Mr Lim The Radio Division located in Lower Barracks and soldiers needed for the 12 battalions. The Soon Chye was assigned to be the Senior at Pearl’s Hill provided communications government took the very difficult decision to Architect (Defence). He and his team of PWD

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in battles. The mobility of infantry battalions There were four departments in the General Staff by foot over close terrain and crossing of Division: Organisation, Training, Operations, water obstacles without the need to build and Communications and Electronics. The bridges and prepare flotation devices was Combat Means Committee comprising General highly valued. Our soldiers must therefore Staff officers, Senior Specialist Staff Officers be physically very fit and trained for long (SSSO) and Head Technical Department, marches with full battle order. Logistics Division would recommend adoption of operational requirements to the Director of General Staff. As operational requirements were critical to the acquisition of weapon systems, a systems study would be necessary with the use of Operations Research (OR) as a tool. OR was developed in the United Kingdom (UK) and US during World War II to use scientific methodologies to solve operational problems, Passing-Out-Parade of the 1st SAF Officer Cadet Course with 117 graduates on 16th July 1967 for example, the determination of the depth at which depth charges should be detonated engineers worked tirelessly to build the SAFTI to work with PWD for the construction of in the prosecution of submarines. camp which was declared open on 18th June camps and military facilities. A fresh electrical Officers attending the Peoples’ Defence 1967 by Dr Goh Keng Swee, then Minister for engineering graduate, Mr Wan Siew Kay, then Force Officers’ Orientation Course in 1968 A newly-graduated mechanical engineer, Interior and Defence, about one month before serving NS, was assigned to work with him. Mr Henry Cheong, was enlisted as the staff the Passing-Out-Parade of our first batch of Ministry of Interior and Defence officer to address force development issues like 117 SAF officers on 16th July 1967. As there were no Singaporeans experienced in the analysis of operation requirements and raising an army, civil servants, teachers, police The first Director of General Staff was Assistant their solutions. He was the secretary of the The National Service (Amendment) Act was officers, volunteer officers in the SVC, regular Chief Commissioner of Police, Mr Tan Teck Combat Means Committee. He was sent to passed on 14th March 1967. The first batch of officers from 1 and 2 SIR were deployed to Khim, who later became the Commissioner UK Ministry of Defence to learn OR and spent recruits was called up in August 1967 for NS. staff MID departments and installations. of Police. Other SPF officers who served a year learning how the British Army, Royal Many SPF officers and Administrative Officers in MID and the SAF included Mr Michael Navy and the Royal Air Force (RAF) used OR Two new battalions, 3 and 4 SIR, would who were then in service with the former Thoo, the first Chief of Communications in the planning of their future operational be raised with the officers and NCOs who Ministry of Home Affairs also continued their and Electronics and Mr Sahari, the first CO of capabilities. He was the first Weapon Staff graduated from SAFTI as commanders. The service in MID. WAOB. Mr Derrick De Souza served under the Officer of the SAF. Commanding Officer (CO) of 3 SIR was MAJ Director of Logistics and Mr Reggi Sandosham Richard Jambu and the CO of 4 SIR was MAJ As the first Director of SAFTI, LTC Kipa Ram served in the General Staff Division. Mr Lim Logistics Division T.E. Ricketts (seconded from the SPF). The Vij and his staff had to study all the training Choon Mong was a department head in the camps for these two battalions were under doctrine materials that the Israeli advisors Manpower Division. Mr T.S. Zain, Assistant The Logistics Division was responsible to construction on the reclaimed land at Bedok. had brought with them to decide which of Superintendent of Police (ASP) and Officer- clothe, equip, house and feed the constant Despite the best efforts made by PWD, these the doctrines would be relevant to the SAF. in-Command (OC) (Office Administration flow of recruits enlisted for NS, and to support camps could not be ready for the first intake of Warfare in large areas of the desert would & Security), looked after the whole MID. the procurement of training stores for SAFTI, full-time National Servicemen (NSFs). Flats at not be the same as the terrain that the SAF Mr Zain rostered MID officers for duties as School of Artillery and School of Engineers. Taman Jurong were converted into temporary would be operating in. duty staff officers. Mr Cecil Cooke and Mr Procurement was the top priority activity of barracks to accommodate the recruits. Tan Chin Hwee served under Mr Tay Seow the Logistics Division. There were a number of guiding principles Wah in the Security and Intelligence Division. A parallel construction project was the that did not depend on terrain, like the value The first Director Logistics, Mr DF Collins, conversion of the passenger, cargo and office of surprise. Operations security would be of General Staff Division and Combat was posted into MID from the Central Supply buildings of the disused Kallang Airport into critical importance to achieve surprise at the Means Committee Office to lead the procurement of equipment the Central Manpower Base (CMPB) for the strategic, operational and tactical levels. The and stores for the SAF. It was a mad rush processing of NS enlistees. MAJ Tan Hup appearance of an SAF force in an area that the The General Staff Division was responsible for to purchase all the materials that would be Seng was the officer in the Logistics Division enemy was not prepared for would be decisive planning, force development and operations. required for training to begin on 1st July 1966

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at SAFTI. Dr Goh Keng Swee had directed The writing of tender specifications for the Though feeding of the troops in the field was carried out over a period of four months that the training must commence as scheduled procurement of equipment and supplies for the was very important, feeding “A”, “B” and with 10 teams. Each team consisted of four and to sort out the logistics and manpower Army was the responsibility of the Test and “C” 1 vehicles with fuel and weapons with officers and 12 other ranks. problems along the way. Evaluation Section of the Logistics Division. ammunition were equally important. This section also had the responsibility to test Equipment would also break down in the The data collected from the inspections was Dr Goh Keng Swee had set out very clearly and evaluate samples submitted in the tender, field, which required field maintenance. Quick of great assistance to the managers of the the division of responsibilities between and to accept deliveries into the logistics repairs of minor battlefield damages would inventory control system and maintenance the SAF, MID and Chartered Industries of bases. The name of the section was soon help in the recovery of a unit’s operational system of the SAF. Singapore (CIS) in the development of our changed to Test, Evaluation and Acceptance capability after a hard-fought battle. defence capability. The SAF would plan, train (TEA) Section to reflect the function it had and operate the armed forces. MID would to perform to inspect and accept all stores Field logistics was thus planned as an be responsible for manpower, logistics and and equipment purchased by the Logistics important operation to sustain the operational finance. CIS would produce ammunition and Division for the SAF. capability of SAF units and as a force multiplier. weapons for the armed forces. Engineers and technicians contributed directly Actuation Department to the fighting capability of the SAF through Mr Ong Kah Kok, who was the first field logistics. Director of People’s Association, was posted The most powerful man in the Logistics to MID in early 1966 and reported directly Division next to Director Logistics was COL Actuation Department evolved into G4 Army to Dr Goh Keng Swee to implement special Minjoot, Head of Actuation Department. He and eventually became a department of the projects. The special project that had the held the highest rank of colonel in the Volunteer General Staff in 1975. Christmas eve party of the highest priority was the organisation of our Corps and was highly regarded by all. He Technical Department to mark a very busy first National Day Parade on 9th August 1966. commanded all the SAF logistics bases and Inspectorate Branch, Organisation year supporting the acquisition of There was no precedence in the organisation units, and had complete authority to decide and Control Department weapons and materials for the SAF, 1969 of such a large event in Singapore. Mr Ong on the priority of allocation of equipment, Kah Kok had to draw on all his connections supplies, transport and maintenance services. The Logistics Division also had the New Force Build-up Plan after in the Public Service and MID to pull off the He was the SAF’s first G4 Army. He was responsibility to ensure that the equipment the Announcement of UK Troop event. In June 1966, He succeeded Mr D.F. very well supported by an adoring staff, LTA would be operated and maintained in Withdrawal by 1971 Collins as Director Logistics and remained Hamid Khan, who was known by everyone accordance with the procedures spelt out in that appointment until December 1973. in the SAF as the man to turn to for supplies, in the technical manuals. As this function After 3 and 4 SIR were raised in September During his tenure he was the man behind from “Herbert Johnson” peak caps to jungle was important, the Inspectorate Branch was 1967, there was a perceptible sigh of relief all the contracts signed for the procurement boots. established in the Organisation and Control in MID. Life could not be worse than the of equipment for the SAF. Department. The TEA Section became a crazy times that MID had gone through in “The person I remembered most is LTA Hamid section of this new branch. the previous 12 months to build training The procurement process would begin with an Khan. Being an experienced quartermaster, he was schools, train officers and buy equipment SSSO of the General Staff Division providing able to control the requisitions from the various units’ By early 1969 there was a nagging concern for the Army. This calm was just before the a statement of stores and equipment needed quartermasters lining up each morning to request that the logistics administration in the SAF storm which struck us in January 1968. for new units that would be raised. The for stores. He was also very resourceful, able to beg, units could be better managed. There had been Logistics Division would prepare the scale borrow, or mobilise equipment when needed urgently no systematic stock-check to verify that all On 15th January 1968, the UK Government of equipping and tables of entitlement for for parades or ceremonies. He was the man COL stores were properly accounted for. To prevent announced that all its forces would withdraw each unit. The provisioning staff would then Minjoot relied on when in tight situation. I recall stores from being moved between storehouses from Singapore by December 1971. There consolidate the requirement for each item and that LTA Hamid Khan was the first WO1 to be during inspection to cover shortfalls, all units was less than four years to build the SAF to prepare a requisition list with the quantity promoted to Second Lieutenant.” in the same area would be inspected at the deal with threats from the land, air and sea. for tendering. The tender document would same time. There were seven major units like Two infantry battalions had just been formed include the description or specifications of - LTA Seow Tiang Keng, an engineering SAFTI and logistics bases, 13 battalion size and the support arms, Artillery, Engineers the items to be supplied. The equipment for graduate who had served as the 2IC in the units and nine minor units. The inspection and Signals, had just started. Effort to raise training aids proved to be the most difficult TEA Section. two recce battalions was still being planned. 1 Standard terms used in the SAF. “A” and “B” vehicles refer to to purchase as most of the items needed had armoured vehicles and soft-skinned vehicles respectively. “C” to be designed and then manufactured. assets refer to engineering plants.

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The basic premise in the plan for the planning and development of the land, air new weapon systems to be acquired for the morale problem as the graduates serving development of the SAF was that the British and sea forces. proposed ORBAT required plenty of money, full-time were only paid NS allowance and would not withdraw its forces before 1975. The technical manpower and training space for served in appointments that they did not plan for the SAF’s ORBAT development There was an urgent need to establish an Air the armoured brigade and the air forces. think would enhance their careers. would begin with land forces, followed by Staff and a Naval Staff to plan and drive the air and naval forces. Air defence would be force development in these two domains. The budget for defence rose to around 6% of provided by the RAF with their Lightning The concept of the SAF as one single service the GDP. Hundreds of engineers and technical supersonic interceptors at Tengah, the Air would require the Air Staff and Naval Staff officers, and thousands of technicians were Defence Radar Unit at Bukit Gombak, and to come under the General Staff Division needed. The training of technicians paralleled the squadron of Bloodhound surface-to-air in MID. The first task for the General Staff the training of SAF combat vocationalists. missile systems at Seletar. Division was the preparation of a new plan An institute for the training of technicians, for the development of the new ORBAT. the SAF Technical School (SAFTECH), was To allay our fear of not having an air defence established at Seletar Air Base. Mr Foo Kok umbrella, the UK agreed to provide the Strengthening Technical Capability Swee was appointed Director of SAFTECH following assistance: in MID and Commander of Seletar Air Base, and given the rank of LTC. • Transfer the Air Defence Radar Unit The Logistics Division needed to be and Bloodhound surface-to-air missile strengthened with additional staff in each of As the delivery lead-time for major equipment squadron to Singapore the departments and logistic bases. A new would take more than 24 months after order, • Sell Rapier to Singapore, if asked department, the Technical Department, the build-up plan required early decisions, • Sell Hunter Mark 6 fighter aircraft to was established in July 1968 as the fourth within two years from 1968, for major Singapore after 1970 department to lead in the procurement of ORBAT equipment like: • Train Singaporean fighter pilots complex weapon systems like tanks, fighter • Turn over RAF airfields to Singapore by 1972 aircraft and combat ships, and to develop the • Fighter aircraft engineering and logistics support for training • Surface-to-air missiles The 12-battalion ORBAT of the SAF was and operations. The mission of the Technical • Anti-aircraft artillery being raised as fast as manpower resources Department was to provide technical support • Helicopters were made available. Mechanisation was in the purchase of equipment, prescribe • Armoured personnel carriers needed to increase the capability of the SAF. specifications and standards for their • 155mm artillery This could be done with the building of maintenance after introduction into service. • Communication equipment and systems one armoured brigade with the manpower • Missile gun boats resources that had been planned for the The staff of the Inspectorate Branch and two recce battalions, and to convert one TEA Section formed the core of Technical The Manpower Division had the hardest active and one reserve infantry battalion Department. The technical staff of seven task of recruiting staff with relevant working into two armoured infantry battalions. The comprised, a Physics graduate CPT Lui Pao experience from the private sector as SSC range of the 120mm mortar would not be Chuen, a Chemistry graduate LTA Chye officers to lead the young officers that would sufficient to support the armoured brigade and Wee Seng and an Engineering graduate LTA be available through NS. As all university howitzers would be needed for the artillery Seow Tiang Keng, and four second lieutenants graduates and newly employed officers in the battalions. Signal battalions with longer-range (2LTs) from the first batch of Service Officer’s Civil Service were liable for NS, MID had the communication capability would be needed Course. entire cohort of university graduates deployed for the new SAF ORBAT. Field logistics units to staff MID and SAF units. would be needed to sustain the combat units The second Service Officer’s Course was in the field. completed in January 1969. Six engineers As SAFTI was already operating at maximum joined the department. capacity, it could not train all available The organisation and establishment of MID graduates to be officers. Some graduates was based on the plan to raise an ORBAT of The head count went up to 13 officers and would be serving their NS part time in the 12 battalions and logistics bases. However, 16 other ranks. The 13 officers also served in PDF and the SPF, and some were not even it was grossly inadequate in supporting the the Inspectorate Branch concurrently. The called up for NS. This created an enormous

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National Service, as perceived by The negative vibe on this unfair treatment and the willingness to step forward to serve Ammunition Section, as well as Civil National Servicemen, LTA (Ret) Sia accentuated into the “Why me?” emotion replaced the previous misunderstandings and Engineering Group. A few key activities Chong Hean that graduate NS officers sought to obtain negativity. The energy and morale improved, as necessitated this rapid expansion, namely the a clarification from the then Permanent the officers felt that their work was appreciated decision to acquire V-200 vehicles, the expansion In the rapid build-up of the SAF in the late Secretary of Defence Ministry but the issue and they were learning new things. of CIS beyond just AR-15 manufacturing to 1960’s following the announcement of was never satisfactorily addressed. This would also include making of mortar bombs and withdrawal of British troops from Singapore, continue well into the time when graduates Despite the changed environment, the the rapid build-up of army bases. graduate NS officers felt most unhappy eventually became commissioned officers graduate officers within the department were and perceived an unfair treatment among receiving a higher allowance of around $500 still handicapped on two fronts. Firstly, there While all these activities were progressing, them. Although all fresh graduates, new per month. were limited experienced persons to provide a number of NS graduate officers were civil servants and returned scholars were guidance, and when in doubt, there was no required to travel overseas to carry out their liable to be called up, not all were enlisted Two other events also had bearing on the one to turn to for consultation. Secondly, jobs, including prototype-testing of weapon into full-time NS. Firstly, there was limited perception of graduate NS officers on the interactions with the logistics bases were systems on V-200 at the manufacturing site capacity at SAFTI to accommodate all the organisation. Due to the rapid build-up of the often difficult as personnel from the bases and reviewing specifications of vehicles. graduates as trainees, and secondly, to sustain SAF, the graduate civil servants were initially viewed themselves as superior in expertise Others were asked to look into the bases to the rapid industrialisation programme and drafted to serve three months of NS and on to the fresh new hands inducted to the see whether improvements to maintenance related service sectors required, a proportion their completion of basic training, they were Technical Department. There was insufficient and repair services could be made. There of quality graduates. Hence, quite a number told that their NS service was extended to two cooperation and cohesion between the two were also instances of the malfunctioning who were liable were only serving part-time years. Furthermore, nearing the completion groups to work things out together and new of ammunition that were put into the hands PDF or SPF duties. There was a vast disparity of the two-year NS, the service for NS officers had to navigate this complex work of the Technical Department to assist in the in the treatment, both in terms of training and graduate officers was extended to three years. environment to develop healthy relationships. investigation. These varied activities, while pay, when graduate NSFs undergoing training Although the frequent changes in the policy they may look simple and out of the scope in SAFTI compared with their contemporaries were understandable given the changing From the first batch of NS graduate officers, of modern defence science and technology outside. The monthly allowance for an NSF requirements caused by the accelerated 2LT Ho Tat Hung, 2LT Lee Huang Shang, 2LT organisations, had provided the learning was only $90 per month, versus a fresh withdrawal of the British forces, in the NS Lim Thye Soon and 2LT Sng Bock Thiam experiences and motivation for the NS graduate’s average salary of $750 per month, graduate officers’ perspective then, this was were quickly inducted to work alongside SSC graduate officers to regain the energy level and with some being paid as much as $1,000 per the extension of unfair treatment that set officer LTA Seow Tiang Keng to build up the to fill the gaps created by the rapid expansion month working outside. The harsh training their long-term career plans back by three Technical Department under the leadership of the SAF. NSFs received at SAFTI as compared to years, while their contemporaries outside of CPT Lui Pao Chuen. Three sections sheltered lives of their friends and fellow were making further progress. under the umbrella of General Supplies, Beyond serving NS in the Technical graduates serving part-time NS also made Ordnance and Vehicle were set up. The early Department, it was regretful that many them more miserable. This developed in them Within the context of unhappiness surrounding activities included preparation of technical NS graduate officers in the early years did a strong distaste to serve NS and to continue NS then, the development of the Technical specifications for procurement, exploring and not remain to serve in the Army as regular their career with MID after their ROD (run Department in its early years was an uphill developing simple prototypes such as general officers. One exception, however, was Mr out date as used then). battle. The first major challenge was to build purpose machine gun (GPMG) mounting on Cheng Fook Choon who went on to become up the strengths of the Technical Department a Land Rover vehicle, and conducting test CEO of ODE, but passed on young while During the later part of officer cadet training, as the tight supply of good graduates and and acceptance of prototypes and initial on the job. Regardless, many of us who a small number of graduate cadets took up poor retention of experienced personnel products before handing them over to the had served under CPT, and later MAJ Lui the offer to be converted to SSC officers and were big issues. Secondly, given the strong TEA section of the Logistics Division for Pao Chuen were profoundly grateful. The were sent to Israel for training on technical distaste of graduate NS officers on the Army, ongoing operations. experience with venturing into areas that support of armoured vehicles. The numbers the motivation and cohesion factors were of we were not trained in, the “never say die” were however quite small and was done significant concern. In the following six months, there was rapid attitude in approaching challenges whether almost three-quarters of the way through expansion of the set-up, with NSFs 2LT Sia technical or human-related, and the energy to the training cycle, and also during a time However, to the group of NS officers who were Chong Hean, 2LT Lee Soon Khiong, 2LT keep working while the workload was piling when the graduate NS trainees had a poor posted to the Technical Department headed Chan Yok Han, 2LT Lee Teng Kiat, 2LT Tan up, had become guiding work ethics that perception of the Army. However, these cases by CPT Lui Pao Chuen, it was a refreshing Suan Yong and 2LT Wan Siew Kay joining propelled us to be successful in our respective were exceptions rather than the norm for the change from life in SAFTI. In a relatively the department. More sections were set up careers outside the SAF. progression of NS graduates. short period of time, the distrust of the Army including a General Administration Section,

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Creation of Ministry of Defence and systems engineers in SMG. Mr Lim Siong 2.5 years of NS would not build up the Sending Defence Engineers Ministry of Home Affairs Guan who was serving in PWD joined SMG engineering capability needed in our technical to Defence Industry and Other and his first project was the introduction of organisations. It was assessed that a minimum Ministries The Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) and 35mm anti-aircraft guns into the SAF. The time of stay of five years would be needed the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) were conceptualisation, planning and project for the accumulation of knowledge in a As most of the work was not engineering created on 11th August 1970 with the splitting management of Junior Flying Club was his sustainable way. in nature but more with the setting up of of MID. MHA remained at Pearl's Hill until second project. A major preoccupation of SMG units and the associated administration August 1977 when it moved into the camp of was in the development of the Air Force, and When 2PS was alerted to this problem, he and maintenance, there was a distinct the HQ Far East Land Forces at Phoenix Park, the technical infrastructure for the support of tasked that a board of senior engineers be dissatisfaction among the young engineers. Tanglin Road. In 1972 MINDEF moved out a technologically-advanced military. formed to interview all enlistees for NS who This dissatisfaction came to a head in of Pearl’s Hill to the UK HQ Far East Land had a degree in engineering or science to assess 1973 when a number of engineers wrote a Forces Camp at Tanglin. On 18th March 1975, the Straits Times reported their interest in signing up for service in MID. petition to Dr Goh Keng Swee. 2PS Pillay a question raised in Parliament by MP JF The board found that a significant number of met the engineers to hear their grievances. Dr Goh Keng Swee was appointed the first Conceicao and MP Ng Yeow Chong on the need graduates would be willing to sign up for five He identified the root of the problem to be Minister for Defence on 11th August 1970. for MINDEF to establish SMG to coordinate years of service and be paid the market rate a lack of engineering work and engineering the introduction of various weapons. Dr of $900 per month upon commissioning as leaders, and proposed that the engineers be A top priority for Dr Goh Keng Swee was the Goh Keng Swee, the Minister for Defence officers. This scheme of service was named the sent from MINDEF to other ministries and development of Air Staff and Singapore Air said, “Modern weapons are of a highly complex “Specific Term of Engagement” and attracted the defence industries. Defence Command (SADC). He had a choice nature, requiring intricate programming, logistics many top quality engineering graduates to between continuing the build-up with SAF and manpower, and are also closely related. It is sign up. An example is Mr Liew Mun Leong Only the SADC disagreed and made their Army officers or to employ RAF officers. Dr therefore necessary to ensure that there is minimum was the first civil engineer recruited under this case why the Air Force needed engineers. Dr Goh chose the latter. waste. Weapons like Bloodhound missiles cost $100 scheme. Mr Alan Chan Heng Loon, a graduate Goh Keng Swee accepted their argument and million, when operational, would require a wide in aviation from France, joined the SADC and allowed the Air Force to keep their engineers. There was a major change in the management variety of skills for maintenance and servicing. Mr Alan Bragassam, a naval architect, joined The Technical Department, SMG and some style of MINDEF. Dr Goh Keng Swee It would be the responsibility of the Science and the Maritime Command (MC). smaller logistics and engineering units were built organisations around individuals Management Group to co-ordinate the programmes. closed and all the engineers posted out. and not individuals to fill the posts in an The group consisted of engineers sent abroad for The logistics and engineering units of the organisation structure. Layers of decision- training, and they had distinguished academic records SADC, MC and Logistics Division were soon Mr Lim Siong Guan was posted to Singapore making committees were eliminated with in mechanical, civil, electrical and other fields.” strengthened with the injection of officers Automotive Engineering (SAE) and became the decentralisation. who had degrees in engineering or science. the General Manager of the company within Sustaining the Development of a year. The number of engineers in MINDEF Project directors were appointed for every Defence Engineering Capability SAF Postgraduate Fellowship had grown from 70 in 1971 to 200 in 1973, single major project. They were given authority Programme but fell back to 100 after the posting exercise. to conceptualise, plan and implement There was, however, a storm gathering. All the The Specific Term of Engagement scheme projects. A 2nd Permanent Secretary (2PS) engineers from the first batch of NS graduate The SAF Postgraduate Fellowship programme was scrapped. The closure of the technical was appointed with Mr JYM Pillay being officers left on completion of their three years to overseas universities began in 1971 at the organisations had an unintended consequence. the first 2PS of MINDEF. He established the of obligatory service (this was later reduced to same time as the SAF Overseas Scholarship The knowledge of the organisations and their Science and Management Group (SMG) to 2.5 years for officers and NCOs; all graduates programme. Between 1971 and 1973, four files were lost. assist him in the conceptualisation, planning who were not commissioned as officers were officers, MAJ Lui Pao Chuen, MAJ Henry and management of major projects like the appointed as NCOs during their NS). They Cheong, CPT Lee Kheng Nam and CPT Mr Philip Yeo, Head Organisation and Control handing over of Bloodhound surface-to-air could not be persuaded to sign up as regular Lim Lay Geok were sent to the US Naval Department, had the complete support of missile system from the UK to Singapore. officers or on SSC. They felt that they had Postgraduate School in Monterey, California Director Logistics, Mr Ong Kah Kok to lost out to their peers who were selected for for MSc degree in OR and System Analysis. introduce computers and modern management Mr Pillay was head of SMG with MAJ Lui Pao part-time NS, and therefore wanted to pursue CPT Quek Poh Huat was also sent to the systems to logistics organisations. He also led Chuen as his deputy. The Public Service their careers without further delay. same school, for MSc degree in Defence the development of field logistics for the Army Commission provided SMG with a list Management. and the training of logistics officers in the of their top scholars who were serving in It became obvious that filling the establishment School of Logistics Administration. various ministries for selection to become with engineers that were only serving

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With a mandate from Dr Goh Keng Swee, did not buy the best lightweight titanium knowledge and experience on the management as ammunition specialists. They graduated Mr Philip Yeo and his systems engineers led helmet because it was not found to be good of procurement. He was supported by a younger in 1968 and returned to take up leadership major changes in other MINDEF organisations. value for money. business executive, MAJ Yeo Teck Meng, a and training appointments in the SAF. While The Systems & Computer Division grew from graduate in Economics who was employed they were on course in the UK, a British Army being the Systems & Research Branch under US Military Standards were used as reference by a large corporation. MAJ April Wee who armament and bomb disposal expert Warrant the Organisation and Control Department for the specifications of combat control had served in logistics and administration in Officer Clifton Webb was the licensing officer in 1970 to a full division within a short time. equipment and ammunition. Safety was the 1 SIR provided the department with expertise of the SAF. topmost factor in the specification of weapons on military needs. The rebuilding of engineering in the Logistics and ammunition. As the logistics staff had no Upon return, the most senior officer MAJ Division began in 1974 with Mr Lim Siong experience in the development, production An Administrative Officer, Mr Foo Kok Swee, Wong Geok Seam became CO of WAOB. Guan moving back from SAE to MINDEF to and use of weapons and ammunition, they a PSC scholar who graduated in the US in 1964 CPT Seow Whatt Choon assisted him with be the head of the newly formed Ordnance had to be extremely diligent to learn all they with a degree in electrical engineering, was training of ammunition technicians. The UK’s Department. He became Director Logistics could from publications and experts from made the Head of Organisation and Control regulations on the management of explosives in 1975 and was succeeded by Mr Philip Yeo overseas. Industrial standards were adopted Department of the Logistics Division. were adopted by the SAF. The knowledge that in 1976. as the specifications for equipment that would they had acquired in the UK was developed not be deployed in and subject to the harsh Professional engineers were also recruited on into lesson “formats” for training. Guiding Principles for Procurement conditions in the field. Short Service Commission as lieutenants or of Stores and Equipment captains on enlistment. They would wear SAF Selection of Weapons Myth of SAF Buying Second-Hand uniforms for work in the Logistics Division, As our soldiers were small in size, one key Equipment Logistics Bases and Communications and The most important piece of equipment for operational requirement was for our equipment Electronics units. A freshly-graduated a soldier is his personal weapon. The most to be lightweight. They had to be as light as There was a myth in the SAF that Singapore mechanical engineer, LTA Chiang Woon Seng important decision for the SAF was the possible to ease the load that our soldiers was so poor then that we could only afford and an electrical engineer, LTA Lee Teck Hoe selection of this personal weapon and the would have to carry. The word “lightweight” to buy second-hand equipment, for example, were recruited as Short Service Commission calibre of its ammunition. The Self-Loading was the mantra used in the evaluation of every dented steel US Army M1 helmets. It is true officers for the PP&P Department. The Test Rifle then in service with the SAF in 1965 piece of equipment and weapon for the SAF. that the SAF was not wealthy in the fledgling and Evaluation Section was established in was very reliable but heavy. The 7.62x51mm The combat weight that a soldier would be years of Singapore’s independence but from November 1966 with the recruitment of LTA ammunition was standard North Atlantic allowed to carry in operations was such an the weapons that we had purchased, it is clear Seow Tiang Keng (electrical engineer), LTA Treaty Organisation (NATO) ammunition. important operational planning parameter they were the best weapons of each class to Chye Wee Seng (chemistry graduate) and CPT that it had been approved by the PS(MID) meet the needs of the SAF. However, in view Lui Pao Chuen (physics graduate). The rifle for the SAF had to meet the requirement Mr George Bogaars after much deliberation of the rapid build-up of the SAF in the early of being lightweight for easy carriage and by the General Staff Division. The standard years, 1 and 2 SIR and Peoples’ Defence Force Armament Officers performance such as in the areas of accuracy, poncho available in the stores catered to the (PDF) units continued to use the equipment penetrating power and reliability. The weight needs of British Army soldiers and was made that they were using as newly-formed units The expert on weapons then was MAJ Peter of the ammunition was a critical factor in the from rubber. It was completely waterproof like 3 SIR, 4 SIR and 20 Singapore Artillery Law. He was an officer from 1 SIR with a great selection. but heavy. Lightweight nylon ponchos that (SA) and schools at SAFTI had priority for passion for all types of weapons. He read up weighed less than half of the rubber ponchos equipping. everything that he could find on weapons and All the rifles under production then were were purchased instead. ammunition and became an authority in the considered. The German Heckler & Koch Professional Managers Employed SAF on armaments. He was a principal officer G3 rifle of the German Army was found to Logistics Division also had to ensure the for Procurement in the selection of weapons for the SAF and be very well-designed. The Russian AK-47 equipment purchased were good value for held the appointment of CO of WAOB located designed by Mikhail Kalashnikov was a great money. The helmet was a critical item for the Senior logistics management staff were at Mount Vernon Police Camp. assault rifle and was widely used by militaries protection of our soldiers. Samples of different recruited from the private sector on Short in the East. The rifle was also in production types of helmets were evaluated. A helmet Service Commissions. A critical appointment Ammunition officers of the SAF would need in many countries. Almost 100 million AK- made of titanium was very light and strong was the Head of PP&P (Plans, Provisioning & to have the best professional training on the 47s were then reported to be in service. The but the price was very high. The US Army Procurement) Department. This appointment subject and be qualified. The UK provided 7.62x39mm round of the AK-47 could be fired M1 helmet weighing 2.85 pounds was finally was filled by MAJ Siew Nim Wah, a very assistance in the build-up of expertise by from standard NATO 7.62x51mm weapons. selected as standard helmet for the SAF. We experienced senior executive with extensive accepting three officers for a year’s training With a battle-proven track record the AK-47

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was a very attractive rifle for the SAF. But it assessment that the AR-15 would be more General Purpose Machine Gun mortars at the battalion level would not be was heavy, at 5kg with a loaded 30-round suitable to meet its operational requirements as responsive to the needs of the infantry magazine. and become a future weapon of armed forces. The best GPMG in the Western World was the in assault and in defence. The M2 mortar The leaders of the SAF had the guts to move Belgian FN MAG. It was designed by Ernest was used by the US Army as a light infantry AR-15 Rifle before the US Army had adopted the AR-15. Vervier of Fabrique Nationale. It had been support weapon in Vietnam. The weight of in operational service since 1958 and battle- the mortar was 19kg and the bombs weighed The competitor to AK-47 was the AR-15 Their judgement was vindicated when the proven. The Bren gun, a .303” calibre Light 1.4kg. SOLTAM had a lightweight mortar which was then not in production for military AR-15 was adopted by the US Army in 1969, Machine Gun in service with the SAF then which weighed less than 8kg with a range of customers. Two designers of AR-15, Eugene and designated as M-16 to replace the M-14 as was completely outclassed. But the weight of 1.6km, comparable to that of the M2 mortar. Stoner and Jim Sullivan, had a reputation in their standard rifle. Following the adoption of GPMG at 11.8kg was heavy. It would be used The SAF selected the SOLTAM lightweight the armament world of being great weapon M-16, the US Army wanted all their soldiers to provide direct support fire from firebases 60mm mortar on completion of the test and designers. The AR-15 was light in weight, in Vietnam to be armed with the M-16 in the in an assault of an objective. evaluation programme. accurate and could be fired in automatic shortest time possible. Had the SAF waited, mode with a high rate of fire. Colt Industries they would not have been able to purchase As the patent of GPMG MAG would expire in There were teething quality problems when bought the rights for this rifle from the small the M-16 until much later as the production late 1970s, a local development of the weapon the mortar entered service but were eventually company, Armalite, and began marketing the capacity of M-16 in the US was limited and for production was undertaken by Ordnance rectified. rifle to the US Army, Marine Corps, Navy and the US Army had priority. An important Development and Engineering of Singapore Air Force, and other militaries worldwide. lesson learnt from the selection of AR-15 was (ODE, now ST Kinetics). The prototype 120mm Lightweight Mortar Small numbers of AR-15 were purchased by the great value in daring to be a leader instead GPMG was completed in 1974 but it took a the US Army and US Marine Corps for test of playing safe as a follower. few years to make improvements on parts’ The SAF selected the 120mm lightweight and evaluation, and operational trials. interchangeability and reliability. mortar as its Artillery weapon. Though the After much negotiation with the US, a licence range of the 120mm mortar was short at 6km Lightweight was achieved with the use of was granted to Singapore for the production 81mm Mortar compared to that of the US Army’s M2A1 aluminium for the receiver and plastic for of M-16 by CIS. The production of M-16 was 105mm howitzer’s range of 11km, it had a the butt and other parts of the rifle. The only much faster than the recruitment of soldiers The evaluation of the 81mm mortars for very large warhead and high rate of fire. weapon parts made of steel were the barrel into the SAF and there was a stock of M-16s to the infantry resulted in the 81mm mortar and the bolt carrier assembly. The weight of meet all the needs of new units being raised. manufactured by SOLTAM to be the clear The deciding factor in favour of the 120mm AR-15, without the magazine, was 2.9kg. winner. The mortar was both lightweight and lightweight mortar was the element of The magazine was made from aluminium The knowledge that Singapore had equipped accurate. Although there were some quality surprise. Attack by artillery with this weapon as compared to steel in the AK-47. But the all its units with M-16s became a political problems, they were eventually sorted out by could come from position unexpected by greatest weight saving was achieved with a issue in the US. There were accusations in the company and the infantry was satisfied. the enemy. The concept of operation was smaller calibre bullet, 5.56mm as compared Congress that their soldiers in Vietnam were for the 120mm mortar and ammunition to to the 7.62mm standard round of the US deprived of M-16s because of commercial Licensed production of the 81mm bombs be man-packed and carried by the crew to Army and NATO. The 5.56mm round was interests in the sale to Singapore. began in CIS with the manufacture of the the deployment site. The three components half the weight of the 7.62mm round. For body parts in the plant at Jalan Boon Lay, and of the mortar, barrel, base plate and tripod, the same weight, a soldier would have twice M-16 had teething problems in Vietnam. the filling of TNT charge in the new plant at would be man-packed. the number of 5.56mm rounds. The barrel The bolt of some rifles could not close if the Bukit Timah. Production of the 81mm mortars and firing mechanisms could also be lighter weapon was dirty and not properly cleaned was subsequently done by ODE. At a demonstration at the SAFTI Live Firing with the smaller 5.56mm round. The trade- after firing. This would result in stoppages. Area a battalion of 120mm mortars was off to achieve weight-saving was the lower The problem was solved with the adoption Engineers from the Logistics Division played deployed right in front of the spectator penetration power. This was, however, not of a “forward assist” button to push the bolt an important role in testing and evaluation of stand under camouflage. The spectators were a serious problem for our infantry as their into the lock position with the thumb. There the CIS mortar bombs, and accepting them shocked when the mortars opened fire and contact range was short. was no more need to unlock the receiver to after tests for use in the SAF. revealed their position. clear the stoppage. The decision taken by the SAF in 1966 to 60mm Mortar Despite the fact that the soldiers assigned adopt the AR-15 was a major one. Instead Though M-16 had been replaced by SAR-21 to Artillery must meet stringent physical of selecting a proven rifle like the AK-47 or in 1999 as standard rifle of the SAF, 5.56mm The SAF had a requirement for indirect fire standards, the carriage of this heavy load in the Heckler & Koch G3, the SAF trusted its calibre has remained the SAF standard till today. support at the company level. The 81mm long marches had caused injuries.

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There was also an operational problem. The If the round did not hit the target, the firer The competitor was the Carl Gustav M2 was made with a pipe and barrel filled with lightweight base plate would sink into the would be in danger from counter-fire by the 84mm anti-tank rocket which had more than concrete to simulate the weight distribution ground after firing a few rounds. Different tank or armoured fighting vehicle. twice the range of M20 and weighed 4kg. of the weapon during such trainings. Jeeps solutions to reduce the sinking like adding running on public roads in the western parts a ring around the baseplate to increase its While the M-72 appeared to be an obvious The Carl Gustav used a rifled barrel to spin of Singapore became a common sight. surface area were found to be operationally choice for use as a secondary anti-tank stabilise its rounds as compared to the use unacceptable. weapon of our infantry section, it was still of fins to stabilise the M20 round. Spin 20mm Cannon an additional weapon to be carried. stabilisation had the advantage of greater After all the attempts to solve the base plate accuracy. The penalty for spin stabilisation The last weapon the SAF needed for infantry sinking problem failed, the decision was to The M203 40mm grenade launcher, weighing was the need for a heavy steel rifled barrel. support was the 20mm cannon to engage replace the lightweight base plate and use the 1.4kg and fitted to the bottom of our AR-15 The weight of the Carl Gustav launcher at targets protected by the steel armour of standard 120mm mortar base plate instead. rifles, would reduce the combat load of the 16kg was much heavier than the M20 at 6.5kg. armoured personnel carriers or reinforced To minimise injuries, deployment by foot was soldier. Besides the advantage of being lighter, But it could hit and destroy stationary targets concrete walls of bunkers. There were two also changed to the 120mm mortars being the launching of the grenade did not have a at 700m and tanks at 150m. finalists, the Swiss Oerlikon GK 204 and the towed by Land Rovers or Unimog trucks. large launch signature. There was no back French Hispano Suiza Hs.404. On completion blast. The weapon operator would not need It was a difficult choice. Despite a concern of the evaluation, the SAF decided that with This was one case when the concept of to have his rear clear of his buddies when that soldiers could discard the weapon during the 106mm recoilless rifle and the Carl Gustav, operation could not be achieved because of firing the grenade launcher. He could also fire long marches when tired, the SAF selected the operational need for this weapon had technical limitations of the weapon system. 5.56mm rounds and 40mm grenades without the Carl Gustav. diminished. Rosemary Yeo and her fellow writers will having to change weapons. The different continue the stories in the development of 40mm ammunition, from illumination round The highly desired lightweight requirement With this decision, the test and evaluation artillery for the SAF in Chapter 3. to buckshot round, made it a very versatile was given up for the capability to engage programme for the SAF’s infantry weapons weapon for the soldier. targets at 700m. was complete. Anti-Tank Weapon The major disadvantage of the M203 was 106mm Recoilless Rifle Anti-Personnel and Anti-Tank Mines M-72 Light Anti-Tank Weapon versus its low armour-penetrating power. The High M203 40mm Grenade Launcher Explosive Dual Purpose round (HEDP) could The US Army’s M40 106mm recoilless The SAF had a need for anti-personnel (AP) only penetrate 50mm of armour. It could rifle was the obvious choice for this class mines and anti-tank (AT) mines to deny The M-72 light anti-tank weapon (LAW) defeat APCs but not tanks. This weapon was of weapons. It saw action in the Vietnam enemy freedom of movement in selected areas was a new lightweight anti-tank weapon new and introduced into the US Army only War and had a reputation for operational of operation. adopted by the US Army in early 1963. It was in 1969. It was finally selected for the SAF. effectiveness and reliability. A disadvantage used by infantry soldiers at the section level The selection of the 40mm grenade was a of the 106mm recoilless rifle was the large With the established TNT plant of CIS and to defend themselves against tanks. It was decision that led to the later development of back blast. Despite wearing ear protectors previous experience gained in the manufacturing simple to use and did not require a dedicated a family of 40mm weapons and ammunition some soldiers did suffered various degrees of of mortar bombs, the local manufacture of crew. It was cheap and the launching tube that are still in service with the SAF today. hearing loss from repeated exposure during mines would be relatively simple. would be thrown away after the round had live firing exercises. been fired. The High Explosive Anti-Tank M20 versus Carl Gustav Anti-Tank Weapon During the evaluation of AP mines, a request (HEAT) warhead was 66mm calibre and The weapon was mounted on a M151 jeep. for information was sent to different suppliers. could penetrate 200mm of Rolled Armour The decision for the primary anti-tank Instead of modifying the Land Rover which One of the suppliers, Brennan Co, was the Steel, the reference thickness for anti-tank weapon for the infantry was more difficult. was standard in the SAF, the decision was agent for some European companies and had weapons to defeat the front armour of main The two finalists were the M20 from the US made to purchase it with the jeep. This violated catalogues of AP mines then under production battle tanks (MBTs). It was also specified to and the 84mm Carl Gustav from Sweden. the concept of commonality of combat vehicles in their principal’s plant. The manager penetrate 600mm of reinforced concrete. The to ease logistics support in the field. obtained a training mine from PRB, Belgium limitation of the M-72 was its short range The M20 US Army Bazooka, a man-portable and sent it to the TEA Section for evaluation. of about 150m. The back blast of the M-72 anti-tank rocket weighing 6.5kg, was The M151 jeep had been modified for carriage was also very high, and the launch position considered by the SAF for adoption as the of M40. The training for drivers of the M151 The marking on the AP mine was “training would be exposed when a round was fired. infantry’s anti-tank weapon. The range of jeep had to include the weapon on-board as its mine”. A TEA officer dismantled the mine to the M20 was 300m against stationary targets. centre of gravity was higher. A dummy M40 study the trigger mechanism. Suddenly, there

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was a flash and bang with white smoke pouring was palatable. The key to the feeding problem biscuits” that would not be crushed by rough the outsourcing of cooking to commercial from the body of the mine. He suffered burns was good cooks. The challenge for the SAF handling were also included but they were companies had improved the palatability of on his hand and was rushed to the medical was finding good cooks to train 18-year-old difficult to eat. cooked food in the SAF cook houses. centre for attention. The mine was a training NSF soldiers to become cooks in the Army mine with a trigger and a smoke charge to School of Catering. The need that could not be met by our food Local Production of Ammunition let trainees and instructors know that the industry was the production of instant rice mine was activated. A new rule was added Food for our soldiers was very important. A that did not require the lighting of fire for In 1966, Dr Goh Keng Swee concluded that to the TEA procedure: No training items on dietician, LTA Lee Pui Chin, newly graduated cooking. The Thai Army had instant rice in for strategic and economic considerations, explosives would be allowed into the office. from an Australian university was recruited their compo rations pack that could be eaten Singapore would need to build an armament Armament experts in the WAOB must first into TEA Section. She had to prescribe the after adding water. Our two food industries, industry for Singapore. He was neither check and certify them to be harmless before nutritional value of the rations that were Yeo Hiap Seng and Amoy Canning, tried deterred by the technical challenges nor they could be examined by TEA engineers. being purchased for SAF units. She was also their best but could not replicate the Thai the high cost of setting up an armament responsible for checking on the quality of instant rice. industry. CIS was established in 1966 with The SAF adopted the 7kg AT mine made fresh rations supplied by contractors to the its first project, the production of 5.56mm by Alsetex Astrale to be used against MBTs SAF units. The work on food was never done as tastes ammunition for the Colt AR-15 that had just and the 3.5kg mine to immobilise pursuing would change with time and technology would been selected to be the standard rifle of the vehicles. The PRB non-detectable AP mine Besides fresh rations, the SAF required also provide new options that were not feasible SAF. A young administrative assistant (then was selected. The Claymore mine used by “compo rations” that soldiers carried in their earlier. The staff of TEA Section became test still on probation), Mr Tham Mow Siang from the US Army was selected for ambushes and back packs during training exercises and for subjects when new food items were being People's Association was posted to MID in perimeter defence. operations. Each compo ration pack contained evaluated for the compo rations pack. March 1966 and given the responsibility to all the food that a team of two soldiers would set up CIS. Local Production of Stores and need for 24 hours. Hexamine solid fuel tablets There was nothing like cooked food in the Equipment were provided in the pack for food warming field to raise the morale of troops. But cooking and boiling of water for coffee and tea. in the field was quite different from cooking A major task given to the Logistics Division in the cook house as equipment would need by Dr Goh Keng Swee was to nurture the However, in some operational scenarios, the to be smaller to be brought into the field. local industry to produce equipment needed lighting of fire to cook food was not allowed. The development of the SAF field kitchen by the SAF. General equipment like uniforms, The compo rations had to contain sufficient thus began in mid-1969, together with the boots, webbing, ponchos and accommodation food that could be eaten directly from the development of the doctrine on field logistics. stores were made in Singapore. Companies pack. A soldier in the field was assessed to like Diaward had projected the needs of the need a calorie content of 4,000 calories then. The problem of contractors creating temptation SAF for webbing and set up a production plant for our quartermasters and cooks was finally in Singapore to capture this emerging market. Operational readiness required the compo resolved with the setting up of Singapore Food rations to be stocked at the units and issued Industries (SFI) to supply food to the SAF. The Food for Our Soldiers when required. As the compo rations was centralisation of quality assurance ensured expensive compared to fresh rations, the shelf- that fresh rations would be of uniform quality Chartered Industries of Singapore at Quality control of rations proved to be a life of all the items had to be for as long as it across all SAF units. In the initial years SFI 249 Jalan Boon Lay, circa 1968 challenge as delivery was made directly to was possible. The plastic water-proof package tried their best to import frozen meat and the cookhouses of SAF camps every day. could not be resealed by units to replace fish from sources that offered the best price. Some dishonest contractor staff would try items that had exceeded their shelf-lives. All Frozen fish imported from Russia was found to bribe the cooks and quartermasters of units the food thus would have to be consumed to be inedible by our soldiers and the entire to accept lower quality of fresh rations that before the expiry date of the item with the stock of frozen fish was rejected by inspectors they were delivering. shortest shelf-life. This was not popular with from the Logistics Division. the soldiers as they would be eating compo TEA Section staff quickly discovered that rations instead of a freshly cooked meal. But the problem of finding enough cooks to soldiers ate food and not calories or nutrition. prepare palatable food remained. There was If the food was not palatable they would not Canned chicken was an obvious choice for not enough time to train NSFs into good cooks eat it. The challenge was to serve food that the protein of the compo rations. Hard “dog before they completed their service. However,

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DEVELOPMENT OF It is a tedious process that planners from advantages, aggressors will recognise that the hole in the rear sight and align the front ARMAMENT MINDEF and the SAF, working alongside the SAF’s full-force potential can be achieved aiming post with a target. Acquiring a moving weapon designers from the defence industry, in a much shorter mobilisation cycle, and the target in one’s gunsight would be a demanding resolved to streamline: Every minute counts accuracy of automatic rifle fire will take its skill to learn and difficult to maintain. The when the SAF is needed to confront clear and toll on enemy combatants. time from detecting a target to squeezing the present dangers that threaten Singaporeans. trigger was a critical performance parameter From the 1967 to the 1990s, when Singapore’s The journey of the development, production that would differentiate the new assault rifle citizen soldiers were enlisted for NS or The SAR-21’s factory zeroed 1.5x magnification and deployment of a weapon system is from the M-16S1. mobilised by the SAF, each soldier was issued integrated aiming scope allows every soldier long and tortuous, fraught with danger of a Singapore-made M-16S11 (early batches used to achieve good accuracy for a high hit cancellation of the project at every milestone. Fitting a telescope on the M-16 could partially the AR-15, predecessor to the M-16) assault probability without the need for individual The successful deployment of the SAR-21 improve the performance but it would not rifle that fired 5.56mm bullets. zeroing in the field. The SAR-21 also has a is an example of this journey. With the be as robust a solution as a scope that was laser aiming device built into the hand guard introduction of the Ultimax 100 light machine designed integral to the weapon. The built-in Today, when Singapore’s citizen soldiers for easy target acquisition during the day and gun into service in 1982, the firepower of an aiming scope with a 1.5x magnification was are enlisted or mobilised by the SAF, each night in close combat operations. With the infantry section was significantly increased. optimised for target acquisition and not for soldier is armed with a Singapore-made SAR- SAR-21, an infantry battalion can be fully The optimal size of an infantry section and long-range target engagement. 21 5.56mm assault rifle – a Singapore Assault armed and ready for deployment in a much weapons was determined through operational Rifle for the 21st century, specially designed shorter time. NSmen making the transition trials with one battalion of troops. The seven- A sharpshooter providing long-range support and built for the men and women who serve from citizens to soldiers as their mobilised unit man section was finally selected by the Army would find the 1.5x magnification inadequate the SAF. moves from a peacetime posture to operations after much debate and operational trials. The and would need to use a 3.0x magnification. need only draw arms and ammunition, then next question that was addressed was the For the latter, there is a SAR-21 marksman On paper, it may seem that the 5.56mm assault proceed to the firing range fully confident operational requirements of the new assault variant with 3.0x magnification aiming scope. rifle that Singaporean soldiers now carry into that their rifles will place every shot where rifle that would be significantly more effective operations delivers the same firepower as they are aimed. than the M-16S1. The new assault rifle must All the other shortcomings of the M-16S1 were the M-16S1 rifle used by the SAF before the be designed to meet the needs of Singaporean taken into consideration in the development of SAR-21 was introduced in 1999. soldiers who were smaller in build than their the SAR-21, leveraging advances in technology counterparts in the US Army. Many of them to deliver marked improvements in accuracy, Innovations in Defence were short-sighted and aiming of rifles during ergonomics and ease of use. wet weather could be problematic. If you look beyond the obvious, however, A similar observation is derived when you will find telling signs of the contributions Assault rifles would need to engage target at analysing the Army’s indirect fire weapons. Singapore’s defence scientists and engineers different ranges. Fighting at close quarters The calibres of mortars deployed have stayed have made to the SAF’s mission readiness was very demanding as there would not be consistent, with 81mm and 120mm tubes used and deterrent edge. The SAR-21’s technical time for careful aiming. It would take a soldier since the 1970s. On paper, the Army’s mortar and operational advantages over the M-16S1 lots of training to be able to point and shoot teams pack the same punch as yesteryear. are numerous. well. Speed of engagement was critical as Indeed, one could argue that the retirement SAF soldier with the SAR-21 assault rifle the enemy could be expected to shoot back. of Soltam 160mm Very Heavy Mortars from With the M-16S1, an infantry battalion A laser pointer would be invaluable for the the Singapore Artillery’s ORBAT had resulted required about half a day to prepare itself Indeed, the SAF records show that more than soldier as he would be able to point and shoot in a capability gap in mortar bomb throw for operations. Much of the time was spent 6 out of 10 NSmen are marksmen – notably without looking through the sight of his rifle. weight that today’s Army lacks. The reality on the time-consuming process of zeroing better than battalions armed with the M-16S1. This led to the operational requirement for a is, however, quite different. the rifle using a modified ice pick, Canadian Such accuracy will prove invaluable during a built-in LAD (Laser Aiming Device). Bull Target and test shots at the firing range firefight. While the sizes of mortar tubes have stayed to painstakingly adjusting the iron sights on For longer-range engagements, the ability to constant, product improvement projects M-16S1 rifles by hand to suit each soldier. Weapons that allow the SAF to respond align the barrel of the rifle along the target led by the defence industry’s Large Calibre more speedily and sustain the delivery of line, with the target moving, was a critical Ammunition teams have given the Singapore

1 M-16S1 is the version of M-16 that CIS had purchased the lethal force contribute to military deterrence. requirement. An assault rifle with iron sights Army’s 81mm and 120mm mortars an licence to produce. By showcasing the SAR-21’s operational would require the soldier to look through expanded range ring and a more lethal kill

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zone at point of impact. Fuses designed and ammunition project teams. The milestone’s means we will possess a minimum essential millions. The sheer quantity of weapons and made in Singapore, optimised for use in terrain significance stems from the fact that weapons capability, which is a baseline level of defence rifle ammunition issued explains why the where targets may be masked by foliage cover, engineering represents a specialised area of engineering know-how needed to design, reliability of our small arms and ammunition give mortar teams the flexibility to deliver military technology that obsoletes quickly develop, manufacture and maintain key pieces is paramount. A failure rate of a fraction of a airburst barrages which are lethal against unless efforts are made to institutionalise of defence equipment and sensors. percent, when magnified by the scale at which dug-in targets masked by terrain. Some of lessons learned and experiences gained, such arms are issued, could compromise the these fuses are touted to be “easier to set and in nurturing successive generations of Experience and expertise gained from safety of the NSF, NSman or Regular whose than an alarm clock”. These enhanced target engineering staff to hold the torch. indigenous defence projects reward the life depends on the serviceability of the engagement capabilities, complemented by defence-ecosystem with the know-how weapon and effectiveness of its ammunition. assets tasked with real-time target acquisition Today, the SAF can count on the Singapore’s and confidence to support MINDEF and the A stoppage requiring immediate action - IA like UAVs, result in a sensor-to-shooter loop defence eco-system to design, develop, SAF’s survey of the landscape of current and in army parlance - in the midst of a firefight, that is faster, more accurate and more resilient manufacture and maintain infantry weapons emerging threats, and recommend solutions or dud ammunition, could possibly cost the to enemy counter-fire. During a fire mission, like automatic weapons, support weapons for countering these threats. Such know- life of an SAF warfighter. mortar batteries deployed by the SAF are like anti-tank guided weapons and specialised how, paired with a rigorous and systematic more effective as these mortars have a longer ordnance for combat engineers like rocket- process for weapons evaluations, contribute This explained why Singapore’s defence reach and capability to destroy a wider range propelled LAMBE mine-clearing line charge. immeasurably to Singapore’s reputation for planners, particularly our late founding of targets. being a reference customer who makes astute Minister for Interior and Defence and later The projects showcased in this chapter tell one weapons purchases. Minister for Defence Dr Goh Keng Swee, set Furthermore, reassigning towed 120mm part of their journey. Engineering prototypes very high standards for CIS (now known as mortars to infantry battalions and streamlining ranging from 5.56mm flechette rounds, a Soon after Singapore’s independence, the ST Kinetics). tube artillery battalions to just 155mm heavy multi-barrel 20mm gatling gun and fast-firing ability to manufacture and support small artillery guns (instead of a mix of 105mm 9mm machine pistols never made it to the arms was identified as one of the key areas of Recognition of the importance of the assault and 155mm guns, and 120mm mortars production stage. That said, the weapons defence technology that the young Republic rifle as the backbone of the SAF’s firepower previously) increases the firepower of the engineers who worked on such projects had must master. and an assured ammunition supply explains infantry while bringing attendant advantages nonetheless gained invaluable first-hand why the first CIS project had centred upon in the management of ammunition supplies experience in firearms and ammunition The assault rifle is the cornerstone of the the manufacture of 5.56x45mm ammunition – since all tube artillery battalions share the engineering. SAF’s firepower. The rifle’s value counts for which was then a new calibre being evaluated same projectiles and charges. nought without a ready and reliable supply by NATO forces and the US Army. Self-Reliance vs Self-Sufficiency of rifle ammunition that fires reliably and The SAF’s transformation into a third consistently whenever the trigger is pulled. Their journey began in 1966 on a humble generation fighting force must therefore be In the past 50 years, Singapore has invested footing. seen with a wider aperture which takes into heavily in efforts that give the SAF The accuracy of this weapon, the effectiveness account advantages brought into play by technological and operational advantages in of its ammunition, operational effectiveness Production of 5.56mm Ammunition individual weapons, as well as structural and battle. Central to this effort is the measure (Is it light enough for sustained operations? organisational changes to its ORBAT. Such of self-reliance in defence materiel deemed Can targets be acquired and shots delivered The local production of the 5.56mm battle-winning advantages are not obvious essential for mission success. swiftly during a firefight? Can the magazine ammunition was a very ambitious project. In with a cursory look at the weapons and be changed quickly?), and reliability of the 1966, Dr Goh met Sir Laurence Hartnett who ammunition that the Singapore Army uses. Self-reliance is not the same as being self- rifle and ammunition are central to the success was then the General Manager of the General sufficient. As a small city state with limited of the SAF’s operations. Motor’s car producing factory in Australia. Dr 50 Years of Small Arms and resources, we must recognise that we Goh was impressed by his wide knowledge Ammunition Developments can never be self-sufficient in all defence In the SAF (and indeed any conventional and ability to create innovative solutions for requirements because doing so would divert army), the assault rifle and rifle ammunition engineering problems. Dr Goh gave him the This chapter will attempt to highlight needed resources away from other segments are stocked in greater quantities than any challenge to plan and develop CIS to be the some of the less obvious, yet impactful and of our economy. other implement of war. A fully mobilised forerunner to Singapore’s defence industry. invaluable contributions that Singapore’s SAF has more than 300,000 men and women The first project was the production of weapons designers have made to the SAF in Singapore can, however, aspire to be self- under arms. Assault rifles are issued on the 5.56mm rounds for the AR-15 rifle made by the past 50 years. This half-century milestone reliant in areas of military technology deemed scale of hundreds of thousands. Singapore’s Colt Industries, Connecticut that had just is significant for Singapore’s weapons and essential for the SAF’s mission success. This war reserve of bullets is stockpiled in the been selected by the General Staff Division

23 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 24 Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENT Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENT

to be the standard rifle of the SAF. anxiously for his arrival. He was surprised rounds, CIS invited the TEA Section to test As there were precision machines to make to see us, and even more surprised when we them at the CIS test range at Jalan Boon Lay. tools and dies for the ammunition plant, CIS was set up in 1966 with an office in the told him that we did not receive his reply The testing officer fired the AR-15 rifle in Dr Goh added another manufacturing plant Cathay Building while its future factory along to our telegraph report. He said that he had the single round firing mode and found the that needed precision tools and dies and the Jalan Boon Lay was being built on a 69-acre replied by telegraph immediately instructing rounds hitting the target as to be expected. Singapore Mint was built on a 25-acre land. site in the new Jurong industrial estate. The us to proceed accordingly. We were delighted He then switched to the automatic mode and To the delight of the management and staff, CIS factory was one of the first factories and immediately departed for Mulhouse to after a few rounds there was an explosion. the Mint could start minting the Singapore in Jurong. A young Administrative Officer, negotiate with Manurhin and placed orders The casing of a round had ruptured in the coins in March 1968. Mr Tham Mow Siang, was appointed the for the full line of machinery to produce chamber with bits of brass flying out when Project Director for the establishment of CIS, small arms ammunition. We wondered what the casing was ejected. Some bits of the brass CIS was very focused and had only one goal reporting to Director Logistics and to Dr Goh. happened to Dr Goh’s telegraphic instructions. casing found their way into the arms of the then and that was to make the production testing officer. of the small arms ammunition and minting Mr Tham recalled how CIS was set up, “In Filled with excitement of having our own of the Singapore coins a success. Everyone 1966, Sir Hartnett, consultant to then MID for and Singapore’s first small arms ammunition This first lesson on ammunition testing in the company was united, worked very the manufacture of small arms ammunition, manufacturing plant, we returned to Singapore was learnt by the TEA Section with the hard, had courage to make difficult decisions, Mr Robert Lee Bee Kow, Precision Metal and very quickly and enthusiastically, formed promulgation of a safety rule forbidding cooperated and contributed as one family to Machining Workshop Manager and I, posted CIS and planned for the construction of the firing of any new weapons and ammunition ensure the success. It was a very happy and to MID, were appointed by Dr Goh to look factory at Jalan Boon Lay.” by testers. The weapons and ammunition proud day for all when Dr Goh officiated at into the procurement of machinery for the must first be tested on a stand with remote the opening of CIS on 27th April 1968. manufacture of small arms ammunition. One of the first specifications prepared by firing. This rule would only be lifted after the Mr Robert Lee was identified and appointed the TEA Section, Logistics Division was for weapon had been tested and found to have Following Dr Goh’s decision that CIS by Dr Goh to go on the mission with Sir the manufacture and acceptance of 5.56mm met all the specifications on a testing stand. should produce the AR-15 rifle a team from Hartnett and me because of his comprehensive rounds. As the 5.56mm round had not yet Colt Industries came to Singapore for site knowledge on machinery and precision been accepted by any army in the world, there The cause of the explosion was found to be survey and negotiations. They visited CIS machine tools which, in the mid 1960s, very was no specifications from other established due to overfilling of explosives in some of and were impressed by the modern plant few Singaporeans had. armament authorities in the US and NATO to the rounds. This problem of overfilling was and air-conditioned filling room for the adopt for our use. The 7.62mm round was then quickly addressed by CIS. Series production ammunition. They asked if they could test In August 1966 the three of us visited the standard round in the US and NATO, and for the SAF began soon after. Samples from the 5.56mm rounds with the AR-15 rifle that several companies in Europe. After having specifications for its production and testing every batch were tested and witnessed by they had brought with them. They went to seen their machinery and their capabilities, were available. inspectors from the TEA Section before the firing range and did their usual series of and studied their offers, we found that acceptance by the Logistics Division for demonstration firing with the CIS produced Manurhin, a company in Mulhouse, France, The defence engineers of the TEA Section delivery to the ammunition storehouses of rounds. They were surprised by the accuracy to have the most suitable machinery with used the NATO specifications of the 7.62mm WAOB. of their shots. They wanted to understand full capability for the manufacture of small round as reference in the preparation of the reason and asked to see the specifications arms ammunition. We sent a telegraph to Dr specifications for 5.56mm round that Unexpected Consequence of the of the ammunition. They then told us that Goh informing him of our findings and for CIS would be producing. To make sure High Specifications for 5.56mm the specifications were similar to that used his decision to proceed with the purchase. that the product would be of a standard Round in the US for “match ammunition”, rounds comparable to that of NATO’s 7.62mm round, prepared by hand for shooting competitions. We waited in London for Dr Goh’s reply so engineering judgement was used to tighten The mass production of 5.56mm rounds They bought a sizeable amount of 5.56mm that we could return to Mulhouse to negotiate the manufacturing tolerances. CIS had to began in August 1967, but only after everyone rounds from CIS for their AR-15 rifles in with Manurhin. We waited anxiously for 16 work very hard to manufacture the 5.56mm involved was confident that the tools and dies demonstrations to other potential customers days for his reply. Finally, we found out that round to meet these specifications. Mr Lai were perfect and tests of the ammunition parts like South Korea. he was coming to London to represent then Chun Loong, a young engineer responsible and completed ammunition showed perfect Prime Minister, Mr Lee Kuan Yew, for the for quality assurance, established procedures results according to military specifications; This was a pleasant surprise for the TEA Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ Conference to ensure that the product would meet all the accuracy and perfection were critical and Section as it showed its practice of erring on which was to begin on 6th September 1966. specifications on delivery. could not be over emphasised or compromised. the side of more safety had additional benefits Sir Hartnett, Mr Robert Lee and I went to the beyond safety. Heathrow Airport VIP lounge and waited On completion of the first batch of 5.56mm

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Pioneer Armament Engineers With each project, Mr Lai learnt valuable the order from Dr Goh and asked Mr Lai to to become President of CIS. lessons and built up his engineering explain to the Minister. Mr Lai made the case One of the pioneer armament engineers of judgement and self-confidence. He learnt that on how his contingency measures would be His greatest contribution to the development Singapore is Mr Lai Chun Loong. In 1967 he customers had a tendency to over-specify their adequate, and why the 1,000-ton May Press and production of armament for the SAF and returned to Singapore upon completion of requirements. Their cost-benefit analysis was should not be bought. Dr Goh accepted the international market was in the creation of his degree in Mechanical Engineering from skewed towards performance over cost. But recommendation and rescinded his order to a culture of innovation and enterprise in the the University of Auckland under a Colombo CIS as a commercial entity had to be mindful buy the 1,000-ton May Press. engineers of CIS. He decided that, as research Plan Scholarship. He graduated in three years of costs, profitability and sustainability. The and development would be fundamental instead of the normal four years of study. company could go bust if it did not watch Years after CIS began making the 35mm to the future of CIS, he would build up its these factors with the eye of a hawk. rounds under licence for Oerlikon, Mr Lai Engineering Department. He found the Given a choice by the Public Service found out why Dr Goh had recommended engineer who had the leadership qualities Commission to work in an engineering The self-confidence and engineering capability buying the second 1,000-ton May Press to and technical competence in then LTC Henry company or in a government department like of Mr Lai are best illustrated in the following ensure production could continue even if one Cheong to build the Engineering Department. the PWD he selected the former. As a graduate event. Around 1975, Oerlikon Machine Tool press failed. Despite opposition from his colleagues he he was liable for NS and he reported to CMPB Works of Switzerland needed additional boldly allocated 1% of the company’s revenue (Central Manpower Base) for his enlistment. manufacturing capacity for its world beating “I was surprised that Dr Goh was willing to into Engineering Department. After enlistment, Mr Lai was instructed to anti-aircraft gun, the Oerlikon 35mm twin invest in another May Press because he was report to CIS. When he arrived he found gun for an international market. Oerlikon very careful about spending money,” said the factory was still under construction, and had sold 24 twin guns to Singapore in 1969 Mr Lai. “Years later, I found out the reason fitting out was in progress. He started work at and it got to know the capability of CIS for that decision. He told me in one casual CIS from March 1968 and was appointed as in the development and production of top meeting, ‘The reason I was so careful with an engineer in charge of Quality Control and quality armament products. It assessed that the first overseas order you guys obtained began his education on production of bullets CIS would be able to produce the 35mm was because we could not afford to fail. If on-the-job. He learnt by doing. ammunition. Mr Ong Kah Kok, then chairman we had failed in this first export order, we of CIS, negotiated a contract with Dr Buhler, might as well close shop’.” The reputation of The equipment for the production plant Chairman of Oerlikon, in Switzerland. On CIS was more valuable than the price of one was brand new, ordered for the project by his return, approval was sought from then May Press. the contractor of the plant Manurhin. The Minister for Defence Dr Goh for the first measuring and testing equipment in the export sale of CIS. Mr Lai gave the briefing Mr Lai added, “If we had fouled up the first Metrology Department were of the highest and answered questions on contingency plans order, we were finished. It seemed like a quality and precision to meet the stringent to meet CIS’ contractual obligations. When rash decision to buy a second May Press, standards that CIS would be achieving. The asked what was the critical equipment for the but looking at it from the big picture, it was job was a mechanical engineer’s dream, to manufacturing process, Mr Lai answered that a careful and considered move with the participate in the development of the most it was the 1,000-ton May Press that would be company’s reputation at stake. Again, there modern precision engineering company of needed to make the steel cartridge case of the was no cost-benefit study; it was a case of Singapore. 35mm round. There was only one 1,000-ton ‘just do it’.” Then LTC Henry Cheong, circa 1969 May Press in Singapore. He ordered Mr Lai to The 5.56mm round that Manurhin plant buy another 1,000-ton May Press. Noting that the May Press argument was the Mr Lai recall, “Henry Cheong completed his would be producing was not yet a standard first time he “disagreed” with Dr Goh, Mr MSc in OR and Systems Engineering in 1975 round of NATO and therefore there was no Mr Lai was not happy with the decision as, Lai said, “That episode helped me gain his under the SAF Fellowship Programme. He common standard for acceptance by the with all the preparation for contingencies trust, because I reasoned with him on the was persuaded to join CIS around 1977 as Logistics Division. As customers were king, made, he did not see the need to spend a issue of the May Press and did not give in. In the Product Development Manager. Mr Lai took the acceptance specifications million dollars to buy another 1,000-ton May retrospect, I was proven correct.” from the TEA Section as given and worked Press as insurance. As there was no assurance The first act of Henry was to excite young hard on the production tolerances to ensure of a repeat order from Oerlikon, CIS would be Production for the order to Oerlikon began engineers to join him to develop new the products would meet the specifications. burdened with a 1,000-ton “white elephant”. soon after. The technical capability, sound armament products. CIS was running out This was a challenge but Mr Lai rose up to The General Manager Mr Cyril Olsen did judgement and self-confidence of Mr Lai of office space, and did not have many it and production proceeded. not want to be responsible for disobeying were recognised and with time he rose up engineering facilities then, just a tool room

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making tools for the ammunition factories. Every year we would hold a dinner for Dr Manufacture of Mortar Bombs 81mm Mortar Bombs Dropping Goh to showcase our new products. This Short As the team was built up we need space to was usually held in a function room at a On Saturday 27th April 1968, Chartered house them. I took the decision to convert hotel. Dr Goh enjoyed playing with those Industries of Singapore was officially opened Even as the production of 5.56mm ammunition the space above our canteen to house these new products. by then Minister for Defence Dr Goh Keng and mortar bombs got off on to a good technical staff. Then we spent money to Swee. In his speech, Dr Goh stated that start, defence engineers had to troubleshoot buy equipment such as the computer-aided Before I left CIS in September 1993, I wrote a they were witnessing the first-stage of the problems as the young Army gained experience design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) paper to ask that the Engineering Department development of the company, the production using weapons and ammunition in local systems. Henry set up the CAD/CAM unit; not be disbanded. In the paper I explained of small arms ammunition and coins. He terrain and climate conditions. the technology was pretty new in those days. how we had painfully put this team together announced that Chartered Industries had Later we added more sophisticated equipment and its importance to the defence industry. entered into a licensing agreement with There were training reports that some bombs such as velocity measuring equipment and I concluded by saying ‘once it's disbanded it Establissement Salgad of Finland for the fell short of the targets when 81mm mortar high speed cameras. These were expensive will be impossible to put them back again’. I production of mortar bombs. He continued, bombs were used to engage targets at short equipment to purchase and there was no wrote this paper as I heard rumours that the “This is a considerable undertaking involving ranges with low charges in the Pasir Laba external financial support. Funding was taken Engineering Department would be downsized a total investment of $15 million on plant Live Firing Area. This was a critical defect from the bottom line of CIS.” after I left.” and equipment. First stage production will which was not observed during acceptance commence at the end of this year and the full tests that were done with higher charges to Mr Lai added, “As the team grew and new production line is expected to be completed verify the dispersion of the rounds at the products were introduced CIS brought in by the middle of 1970. There are also other maximum range. more technical staff. At a point in time CIS proposals now under consideration with had more than 300 engineers and technicians. European armaments manufacturers. All One of the theories for the rounds dropping The more promising ones were sent overseas things considered, this promises to be one short was that the propelling charges were for further studies and training. of the growth industries of Jurong. Further, wet because of rain falling on the bombs. A because it is the first large-scale venture into test was done with bombs that had become To support the R&D efforts I set aside 1% precision engineering in Singapore, local slightly damp after watering with a watering of company's revenue to the Engineering industries will benefit by the expertise that can. This had no effect on the bombs and they Department to fund the initial concept will grow in the tool and die workshop.” hit their targets. The test was repeated with studies. Salaries were not high in those days, the charges almost soaking wet. This test so the sum of money budgeted helped us to Phase 1 of the manufacture of 81mm mortar almost ended in disaster with the bomb falling move forward. I met with some resistance bomb bodies and tails in the machine shop about 50m in front of the mortar. Luckily for from fellow colleagues who were unhappy of CIS at Jalan Boon Lay began in 1968. the testing team, the fuse of the bomb did that the company was spending so much on The filling of the mortar bombs with their not arm as the velocity of the bomb did not the engineering effort. The return had yet to TNT explosive charge could not be done at reach the level for the arming mechanism to be seen in those early days. Jalan Boon Lay as the safety distance for the be unlocked. TNT filling plant was large and could not When a project had traction or good reception be accommodated there. A new filling plant This was another lesson learnt by the hard from MINDEF, a supplementary budget was would have to be built. As the SAF would way during testing: Do not conduct a test set up to fund it. MINDEF sometimes helped also require a large amount of demolition without taking into account all the possible with some funding at this stage. materials and mines there was also a need to consequences. A dummy round could have produce TNT. CIS therefore built a plant for been used for this test but was ruled out as Dr Goh paid a lot of attention to what we the manufacture of TNT and for the filling the range practice would require all “blinds” were doing. He pushed us to make more parts of mortar bombs in the Bukit Timah Nature (unexploded bombs) to be found and disposed. for the M-16 rifles and also was instrumental Reserve, next to the ammunition depot of Looking for blinds was not one of the tasks in getting us started with the Ultimax 100 the SAF. that TEA testers enjoyed doing and so a live programme. He gave Philip Yeo, then Deputy round was used in the 81mm mortar bomb Chairman of CIS, a free hand to drive the test. Another testing rule was that live rounds growth of the company along. should not be used if dummy rounds could be used instead. Spending time looking for

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a dummy round in the target area would be in Tanglin with the rifle in his car boot. could not be reduced significantly with the The SAR-21 is designed with a long stroke better than having a live round exploding purchase of semi-finished parts for processing gas piston and rotating bolt operating system prematurely on you. “Why should the Minister call me? I was just a and final assembly. which provides very low recoil for good junior engineer,” Mr Lai recalled. “At the same controllability during firing. Its integrated A second theory was that when the bomb was time, I was excited about the whole idea of Dr Goh had determined at the start of the factory zeroed 1.5x magnification optical sight loaded into the barrel air pressure could move meeting up with the great man. And nobody M-16 programme that CIS, on completion and laser aiming device enable soldiers to the small number of charges up the body of knew what he wanted to do with the rifle, of the licensed production of M-16S1, would achieve high hit probability and easy target the shell to above the flash holes resulting which was even more worrying!” need to produce another assault rifle to sustain acquisition. Its tough translucent polymer in incomplete combustion. A test was done the production capability. For CIS to be able magazine enables ammunition status to be with charges tied to the bomb body and with In Dr Goh’s office, the Defence Minister asked to sell this assault rifle overseas it had to known, and has a patented Kevlar shield and one charge above the flash holes. The bomb Mr Lai to strip the rifle to its components. Mr be affordable. An international search for a vent hole to protect the firer in an unlikely dropped short at around the same distance Lai was then asked to separate the Singapore- designs of low-cost assault rifles ended with event of a chamber explosion. The SAR-21 has as that observed in earlier training exercises. made components from parts made overseas, the selection of the Sterling’s Light Automatic a family of weapons comprising the up-to- This was confirmed by repeating the test. and then to further segregate the high-value Rifle (LAR). It was produced by CIS as the date modular mounting system variants that parts from the low-value ones. SAR-80. The SAF bought limited quantities of has a set of Picatinny rails for mounting of The fix to the rounds falling short was the SAR-80 as it was heavier than the M-16S1 accessories for various mission requirements, relatively easy with the addition of a metal Mr Lai noted, “Dr Goh proceeded to ask, and did not have superior performance. It did M203 under barrel variant and marksman clip to be used for low charges to prevent ‘Why aren’t we making this? Why aren’t we not replace the M-16S1 as the standard assault variant with 3x magnification aiming scope the charges from moving up the bomb. This making that? Why?’ His constantly asking rifle of the SAF. for infantry support. The SAR-21 is also modification was tested and the problem us ‘why’ was a way of challenging us. ‘Why exported and adopted by countries such as was solved. This requirement for a clip aren’t we doing this or that?’ That really got It took about 10 years of more R&D before the Botswana, Brunei, Morocco, Peru and Timor was incorporated into the specifications our minds thinking.” M-16S1 was knocked off its perch by the SAR- Leste, and also fielded by the special forces of the 81mm mortar bombs. Ammunition 21 assault rifle in the early 1990s. The SAR-21 of several nations worldwide. technicians inserted clips into the containers Dr Goh found that the costs of some of the was designed and developed by CIS with of rounds that had been accepted and kept in small parts were very high – parts made Defence Technology Group (the predecessor Licensed Production of Anti- ammunition storehouses. by a new manufacturing process known as of DSTA) and the SAF. It was officially started Aircraft Guns and Ammunition in “Investment Casting”. In 1974 he sent the in January 1992 and completed in 1998. The Mid 1970s Manufacture of M-16S1 Rifles General Manager of CIS, then Mr KC Oei and tripartite project team spent the six years Director Logistics, then LTC Lui Pao Chuen, working out the requirements and testing With the acquisition of the best land-based The manufacture of M-16S1 required more to South Korea to learn how to make M-16 various prototypes before the design freeze anti-aircraft guns, the Swiss Oerlikon 35mm precision engineering capability than that parts cheaper. The South Korean Ministry resulted in the first production batch of SAR- twin gun for SADC and the best naval anti- needed for the manufacture of small arms of National Defence had an arsenal in Pusan 21s in 1998. That gestation period resulted in aircraft guns, the Swedish Bofors 40mm ammunition and mortar bombs. The tolerance that manufactured weapons and ammunition a bullpup rifle which was shorter than the gun for the Singapore Maritime Command, of weapon parts had to be very tight to meet to meet their needs. Its Director Logistics M-16S1, yet retained the same barrel length there was opportunity to produce some the parts interchangeability requirement. The Bureau was a Major General of the Republic as the M-16S1 for firing accuracy. The SAR-21 of the guns, assemblies and ammunition receiver was made from aluminium alloy of Korea (ROK) Army. The arsenal was under was put in-service in 1999 with the SAF and in Singapore. Oerlikon was the partner of casting and machined. CIS was initially the command of the Commanding General remains in-service till today. CIS and a joint venture Allied Ordnance of licensed to make 11 parts. The remaining parts of the ROK Army’s Logistics Command. The Singapore (AOS) was set up with Bofors. The were purchased from Colt’s suppliers. With M-16 manufacturing plant was completely The SAR-21 is a highly innovative product and contract manufacture of Oerlikon guns and the engineering capability and production integrated, with raw materials like aluminium ergonomically designed to suit the Singaporean Bofors guns and ammunition gave a boost capacity more parts could be made in CIS to ingots, and steel and plastic coming into the soldier. Being reliable in performance also to the precision engineering capability of reduce the unit cost of M-16S1. receiving bay of the plant and completed provides confidence to the soldier as part of a Singapore. Making the world’s most advanced M-16s leaving. The plant had a much higher positive psychological defence. Compact and anti-aircraft guns built up the self-confidence There’s a side story to what triggered this level of automation as compared to CIS, with rugged, the SAR-21s made their public debut of our engineers. The belief that they could decision. A young CIS engineer, Mr Lai Chun production rate at about five times higher. at the 1999 Army Open House in dramatic design the best 155mm guns in the world if Loong, was summoned to Dr Goh’s office, Investment casting was not a complicated fashion with SAF demonstrators throwing the they were given a chance to do it. with orders to bring along an M-16S1 rifle. manufacturing and could be done by CIS, rifle on the ground to show how tough it was. He did as he was told and drove to MINDEF but the cost of producing M-16S1 by CIS

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Extended Range Mortar Bombs departments. I refreshed my memory of we would not find excuses for not trying.” Extended Range 155mm Artillery Fortran and Basic programming languages Round Around the early 1980s, the Engineering to aid the design of the mortar shell walls to If project risk management methodology Department of CIS moved from research to withstand the launch stresses, and to simulate had been available then, the project team In the late 1980s, CIS started to design the in-house design and development of products. the trajectory of the projectile to ensure that could have saved some development time 155mm Extended Range Full Bore with it remains stable during flight. The optimum by addressing the potential issues, critical Hollow Base (ERFB-HB) and with Base Bleed Mr Lee Chuen Fei, an armament engineer amount of propellant charges and burn-rate components, critical lead time and establish (ERFB-BB) rounds, to enhance the artillery who served in CIS from 1978 to 1996, must be determined to keep within the safety the priorities, instead of depending too much firepower by extending the range from 19km3 recalled the many conversations he had chamber pressure limits of the mortar barrel on a trial-and-error approach. to 30km fired from the standard 39-calibre with his mentor, Mr Henry Cheong, then yet achieve higher muzzle velocity to extend howitzer. Director of Engineering Department2, on the range.” CIS had a very well equipped tool room refinements needed to give mortar bombs a with experienced machinists. They could ODE was concurrently developing the longer reach. Mr Cheong’s mandate was to Mr Lee added, “I remember visiting Prof machine any prototypes like test barrels for 52-calibre artillery howitzer which could explore and expand the type and number of Shang Huai Meng of the National University measuring the pressures using piezo-electric fire the ERFB-BB round to reach a range of CIS armaments and ammunition products. of Singapore (NUS) who was my lecturer in gauge, the mortar shell bodies, the fins from above 40km. Mechanics of Solids to consult him about solid aluminum bars or extrusions. Mr Lee said, “On a number of occasions, the formulas given in the Engineering The ERFB round was said to be originated Henry talked to me about extending the range Design Manual so that I could use them for For measuring the Pressure-Time curves in the and designed by Dr Gerald Bull from Space of the 81mm mortar bomb. He described the developing computer simulation software barrel, CIS used piezo-electric gauge tapped Research Corporation, McGill University, CG (centre of gravity), flight trajectory and to compute stresses. In those times, FEM into a special thick barrel and tested at the Canada. It was reported that due to his flight stability of the mortar bomb. I had no (Finite Element Methods) was a luxury and Baffled Range at the CIS Rifle Range Complex. involvement in Project Babylon "supergun" idea what he was talking about then and to beyond reach. I also visited Mr Teng Ngai for the Iraqi government, Dr Bull was keep on par with Henry I started reading Huat and Mr Lim Liat at Defence Science For range testing, SAFTI range dates were assassinated outside his apartment in Brussels, up the Oerlikon Handbook and magazines Organisation (DSO, now known as DSO allocated mainly for weekend testing. The CIS Belgium in March 1990. Different from the which he passed to me. I also referred to the National Laboratories) to consult them about ER bomb project team burnt many weekends conventional artillery M107 round which was US Engineering Design Manual AMCP Series point-mass trajectory simulations before to conduct range and dispersion verification also produced by CIS, the ogive of the ERFB for Ammunition Design from our CIS Library. developing the trajectory software for mortar testing, lobbing bomb after bomb and closely round was streamlined from the front all the We did not have the luxury to check things bomb in Fortran language.” measuring their effects in the impact zone. way down to the copper band to achieve the up on the Internet then. We did not even have High explosives were not allowed for safety aerodynamic profile. This profile presented a a desktop computer.” We see here that even in the early days reasons, therefore the prototype bombs for conflicting requirement as the round needed of Singapore’s defence industry, close spotting purpose had to be manually filled to be supported at two sections along the Mr Lee and the CIS team streamlined the collaboration with research institutes and with TiO2 (Titanium Dioxide) by hand at the barrel during launching. The four nubs aerodynamic profile of the standard 81mm MINDEF agencies such as DSO was a critical Rifle Range Complex, also during weekends were angled to match the flow around the mortar bomb, and then developed a propulsion element that underpinned our defence in order not to affect the daily production projectile rotation during flight. There were charge system to optimise the launch pressure projects. operations. The result of their efforts was two possible options to attach the four nubs and gave the prototype extended range (ER) an ER bomb that improved the range of the to the projectile so that these nubs could ride bomb an appropriate length of tail fin to “The culture for innovation was very 81mm mortar, giving the mortar team the on the inner rifling of the barrel and provide provide flight stability along with a leading conducive,” Mr Lee noted. “Henry was very ability to hit targets from a greater distance the necessary support during the launch of edge to the tail fins to reduce drag. hands-on. I remember people calling him the in support of army operations. This increases the projectile to supersonic speed of almost mad scientist. He constantly came up with his the mortar team’s survivability, as mortar 900 m/sec (Mach 2.6). Mr Lee recalled, “Computer simulation tools vision for new products. The engineers in the barrages can be delivered further away from were primitive then and the only computing Engineering Department did not fear being the enemy’s frontline and adds to the shock The nubs could either be welded to the device we had was the mainframe computer reprimanded for making mistakes. When they effect of mortar attacks. round or machined from the projectile. used by finance and human resource encountered an issue, Henry would call them The relatively thinner shell wall meant that up to debate on “What could be done to solve we had to use tougher spring steel 9260 as the problem? Why was it done this way?” 2 Mr Henry Cheong was promoted to Senior Vice President in 1991 and then to Executive Vice President in 1996 and There were coarse words (that’s his nature, 3 19km is the range of the standard M107 HE round fired from concurrently Director of Engineering at Singapore Technologies. not intentional) but he never intimidated so the standard 39-calibre howitzer.

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compared to the 1050 steel. CIS decided on BBUs. The firing test of the two series at the entire fleet would be very costly. A began life with two 30mm guns. During live- the latter due to concern that welding could Alkantpan Range had to be conducted one new engine, automatic transmission and firing exercises it was found that the RAT introduce quality issues such as welding in the morning, and one in the afternoon. suspension would improve the light tank’s (Ram Air Turbine) would be deployed. The defects. CIS’s manufacturing capability was Somchem proposed to test one series from reliability and mobility. The firepower could high stress to the airframe would cause the also stronger in machining as compared one source in the morning, and the other be improved with the replacement of the lock of the RAT to be released. After much to welding. ED’s forging process specialist source in the afternoon. The wind speed, 75mm high-velocity gun by a 90mm Cockerill testing and modification this problem was Mr Hui Tee Jong developed the forging direction and air temperature were quite medium velocity gun firing more effective contained. It was then found that cracks in the and machining processes to establish the different between morning and afternoon. I HEAT ammunition. The innovative solution aircraft structure were beginning to appear. preformed shape of the spring steel projectile suggested mixing the projectiles of two series would be the development of a 75mm round With great reluctance the Air Force decided to minimise the machining process. CIS in a randomised manner so that we could that would have the same penetration power to give up the 30mm guns and to revert to purchased special Computer Numeric Code compute and rule out any environmental as the 105mm gun. The savings that would the 20mm guns. machines – computer-controlled machine influences between morning and afternoon. be achieved with delaying the purchase tools - to fabricate the nubs, special ultrasonic Prof Goh Thong Nee taught me Design of of new tanks would be very substantial. The use of 70 mm rockets was their solution machine to perform 100% check to ensure no Experiments in Statistics during my MSc Advances in technology would also provide to replace the loss of the 30mm guns. CIS was cracks along the shell body during the forging, (Industrial Engineering) course at NUS and I greater effectiveness at an affordable cost. asked if they could develop 70mm rockets for and machining processes and auto-gauging understood that randomisation is very critical This was the challenge that the Engineering A-4S. The Engineering Department studied machine to measure the tolerances. when doing such tests. The 6-foot tall gigantic Department set out to conquer. Mr Lee Chuen the proposition and decided that the capability Range Expert had insisted to do it his way but Fei was the armament engineer who climbed of producing rockets would be important for Despite having a full ogive optimised I refused to relent and stuck to my position. He the Mount Everest in the development of the future growth of the company. Despite aerodynamic profile, the projectile could only was angry, but fortunately I was the customer. the 75mm Armour-Piercing Fin-Stabilised the weak business case, the capability achieve up to 24km with a hollow base unit. Eventually I was able to compute and obtain Discarding-Sabot with Tracer (APFSDS-T) development case was strong enough for Mr To reach the target 30km, the hollow base unit meaningful test results by segregating the round. Henry Cheong and his group of engineers was replaced with a Base Bleed unit (BBU). environmental factors between the two series who had a bent in rocket engineering to take The slow-burning base bleed propellant of tests. He was then convinced and when Design and Development of Armament on the development project. Mr Lee Kah would generate gases that emerge from the we met in subsequent trips, there was a look for Fighter Aircraft Hoo was then a young engineer who had central hole at the base at subsonic velocity of respect in his face and we became good just joined CIS. His account of the learning and fill up the vacuum at the base. This would friends.” The development of upgrades to the A-4B by doing in rocket design and development inhibit the formation of turbulence behind Skyhawk fighters was done with very little will be an inspiration for innovators to dare the projectile base that would induce drag. In various projects throughout the years, the participation from our Air Force pilots. The to dream and dare to do. men and women who were part of our defence A-4B had been decommissioned by the US CIS had two potential suppliers for BBUs: eco-system went through trial by fire and had Navy and mothballed for storage at Davis- SNPE from France and Somchem in South to stand their ground many times. By 1995, a Monthan Air Force Base in the Arizona Africa. These suppliers also manufactured family of 155mm ER Artillery projectiles were desert, the graveyard of US military aircraft. propellant charges. Somchen’s charge called delivered to the SAF. It complemented ODE’s Lockheed had been contracted to refurbish the C30 (for 30km range) used a combustible new 52-caliber 155mm FH-2000 Howitzer. two squadrons of A-4B Skyhawks and to sleeve to house the stick propellant and that upgrade their firepower. Our pilots had been would moderate the burning rate and reduce Yet, more improvements were planned by the operating former RAF Hawker Hunter fighter the heat transferred to the barrel. Due to the Engineering Department team. aircraft since 1970. The Hunter was armed charge’s solid structure, automatic loading was with four 30mm ADEN guns each with 150 also possible. Life Extension of AMX 13 Light rounds of ammunition. The fire power of Tanks the Hunter fighter was awesome. The A-4B Mr Lee Chuen Fei, who was part of the CIS Skyhawks were armed with two 20mm guns. team that developed the long-range 155mm In the mid 1980s, the Army had to make a rounds, said, “I remember my first trip to major decision whether to replace the AMX- Our pilots demanded that the firepower of South Africa to compare and evaluate the two 13 with a more modern tank or to do major the A-4B Skyhawks be upgraded with the types of Base Bleeds (SNPE’s vs Somchem’s). upgrades that will extend their service life replacement of the 20mm guns with 30mm Our objective was to measure the range and by another 15 years. With escalating cost guns. This was done by Lockheed and our dispersion achievement between the two of military equipment the replacement of A-4S (as the upgraded A-4B was designated)

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Armour-Piercing Fin-Stabilised of the column, the propellant would burn Development of 70mm Rockets how much could you train to fire the rockets Discarding-Sabot with Tracer both ways towards the back as well as the By Mr Lee Kah Hoo to be able to generate replacement orders By Mr Lee Chuen Fei front simultaneously. My boss initially was to sustain production? However, our local not convinced with this explanation but I did Armament engineer Mr Lee Kah Hoo recalls the defence industry had ambitions, and rockets Armament engineer Mr Lee Chuen Fei gives a first the trial anyway to prove this theory. The CIS efforts to develop Singapore’s first 70mm aerial and guided munitions were the natural next person account of the development of Singapore’s results were amazing. There was no further rockets for the Republic of Singapore Air Force steps as we progressed up the technology first sabot round for the SAF’s tank battalions. In breakage of any penetrators after we started (RSAF). Then newly-graduated, Mr Lee and CIS ladder to develop new products. My view its time, the 75mm armour-piercing fin-stabilised using the long primer with centre initiation colleagues found novel ways to acquire know-how was that they would add on to our strategic discarding-sabot (APFSDS) round was the most of the propellant. in rocket artillery with the help of foreign partners. capabilities. powerful anti-tank round for the AMX-13 light tank. I can never forget one critical event involving It was probably around 1986/7 that I started We progressively assembled a team of about It was not easy to establish a set of realistic the range and dispersion accuracy testing, to read rocket-related literature handed to 10 mechanical and chemical engineers, performance objectives with the demanding towards the later part of the APFSDS me by Mr Henry Cheong, then Director of and chemists for the project. Except for a user. We managed to compromise to agree development. Some of the staff went two Engineering Department in CIS. I also found chemist with a Masters’ degree and some that the APFSDS penetrator must penetrate weeks before the test to engage contractors to myself travelling to places where rockets were work experience, the CIS team comprised 240mm of rolled-homogeneous armour fabricate all the mountings and concrete base made. Visits to such facilities were always via mainly fresh graduates with no experience in (penetrate means able to see light from the set up for the rolled-homogeneous armour government channels at least at that time - ammunition development. Getting someone other side after penetration) at a range of plates we shipped there. They also erected maybe because rockets were regarded a class knowledgeable to guide us was thus expected 1.2km with an accuracy measured in milrad. the huge target frame for aiming the gun, higher in awe and science compared to guns and necessary. When the penetrator hits the armour plate at made from plastic floor mattresses that used and their ammunition, and hence commanded a speed of 1100-1200 m/sec (more than three to be popular in kampong houses. The 10m more secrecy and security. Nevertheless, the Such expertise came from our foreign partners. times the speed of sound), it melts its way by 10m target looked small 1km away. memories were priceless. We knew the Swiss defence company Oerlikon into the armour plate and the whole length Contraves pretty well and they recommended of the penetrator is spent along the path of During that test, the then Chief of Armour The technologies required in rocket propulsion a retired staff with rocket propellant expertise penetration. The massive kinetic energy is COL Patrick Choy attended. That morning, are very different compared to gun systems. as a consultant. The computer program that transferred to the target during the penetration all the APFSDS rounds hit low and badly For rocket artillery, other than the solid allowed us to do stress-strain analysis for stage. This penetration phenomenon is very damaged the concrete supporting the base of propellant rocket motor and warhead (usually the polymer-based combustible composite different from a small arms bullet penetration. the armour plate mounting. Fortunately the sub-munitions), you need a fire control system was sourced from an Italian company. Two grouping looked reasonably good from the (FCS) and a mobile launcher to aim the rockets of our staff went to Rome to learn to use the During the initial stage of the development, mattress frame in front of the target. COL in the right direction in three dimensions. The code and brought home the program, which many penetrators broke up and slapped Choy suggested we go for an early lunch FCS has to be programmed to account for, was vital to optimise the formulation and themselves onto the armour plate. I was to discuss the best action. During lunch it among other things, the wind, the intended mechanical properties of part of the rocket. fortunate to have attended a munitions suddenly crossed my mind that once an range and the required arming time. You also seminar overseas in the US during that “Encik” (Warrant Officer) from Armour told need specialised vehicles and equipment to For the launcher, I had to visit Harvard time and discovered that the primer played me that the older AMX-13’s elevating gear was stabilise the launcher, and to transport and Interiors, a US manufacturer based in St. a significant role in the initiation of the sensitive to its direction of travel. That means transfer the rocket loads. Louis, Missouri, many times to convince its propellant for the APFSDS. The propellant we need to bore-sight the gun by setting the 60-ish CEO to sell us the parts. At that time, was the high energy M30M multi-perforated barrel from bottom up so that the elevating It was quite far-fetched to expect CIS to Harvard was a premier maker of chairs and I grain but it also created stress waves during gears would be fully engaged and there would venture down that technology road at that could not figure out why the US authorities the burning process. The stress waves would be no backlash and therefore no gap between time. We could surely make the sub-munitions would continue to allow it to make military be strong enough to break the penetrator. I the gears. Otherwise the barrel could droop but that was not a new capability. Although launchers. It was interesting to watch their learnt that the propellant should not be ignited down. We needed to bring the barrel from the the system hardware (FCS, launcher, vehicles) chairs go through various auto load cycling in the conventional way at the base of the bottom and elevated it upwards till it reached could be purchased or modified from available tests to measure the chairs’ reliability and cartridge, which was the case in conventional the point of aim. After lunch we tried exactly hardware, the exciting new thing was in the durability. On each visit we would discuss high explosive round using another type of this for the next group of APFSDS rounds and rocket motors. But realistically, the Army’s many worldly things but he would still not propellant. We developed a long primer which all of them landed on the armour plate with requirement for 70mm free-flight aerial sell us the required parts and would not say ignited the propellant from the centre of the good grouping. The joy was fantastic. COL rockets as part of a US$10 million order would why. Finally, on one such visit, he relented. propellant column. Initiated from the centre Choy was so glad and praised the design. not make economic sense. Also, where and It was a big relief, as it was the last material

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on my shopping list. Not only did he sell us Soon our rockets were fired and tested for Quantum Leap in the Development The Ultimax 100 gave an SAF section of the parts, he also allowed a CIS production flight integrity and dispersion, with an ace of Armaments nine soldiers (reduced subsequently to seven manager there to learn the launcher assembly pilot hitting the bullseye! Incidentally, a few soldiers) much improved firepower as the process from paper tubes, wire harnesses, months after our last and final test in Korat, CIS experienced a number of hits and misses section had previously relied on heavy-barrel intervalometers, bulkheads and fairings. the hotel our staff usually stayed at collapsed with its range of infantry weapons designed AR-15 rifles for sustained automatic fire. As and killed more than a hundred people. That for the SAF. Thankfully, its successes such fire was limited by the 30-round box Interestingly, CIS was not the only was sometime in August 1993. We were lucky. outweighed the dud projects, giving rise to a magazines, infantry sections armed with the organisation in the region that was developing firm foundation on which the present-day ST purpose-designed SAW – essentially a light rocket technology. Thailand was already Kinetics built its capabilities, product lines and machine gun – saw their firepower boosted experimenting with various ammunition reputation for excellence in 40mm high and tremendously. developments and we shared what we knew low velocity grenades and bullpup weapon with each other. In addition, the Thais opened technology. Despite success in tests and demonstrations, their ranges for us to test out stuff. Our the Ultimax 100 did not enjoy a reputation for mutual aim was to combine our respective The SAR-80 5.56mm assault rifle was the reliability. Mr Henry Cheong related that he requirements for economies of scale. first assault rifle that was designed overseas and Mr Chia Mow Chick, Head of Weapons and manufactured in Singapore. It was not a Development was observing a firepower We fired the prototype rockets into the open success, with the SAF buying only a relatively demonstration by an infantry battalion at the sea from a launcher securely mounted on the small number for use by logistics units and live firing range of Sungei Gedong. They were beach and with carefully positioned radars, the military police, including the contingents on an observation tower and could see all the high-speed cameras and flash-photography guarding the Istana. weapons of an infantry battalion from 84mm equipment to capture each shot. There were Carl Gustav anti-tank rounds being fired to usually fishing boats a few kilometres out in The Ultimax 100 section automatic weapon 5.56mm rounds. The repeated stoppages of our line of fire, and although pre-warned they (SAW), on the other hand, was successful in the Ultimax 100 caught their eyes. They would not move even with additional sirens sales to the SAF and foreign military forces. could not understand why the weapon and warnings with loudspeakers. With the Two American designers – Mr James Sullivan would stop after every few rounds. Upon Thai safety officer’s permission, we would fire and Mr Robert Waterfield – helped CIS with the conclusion of the firepower demonstration a rocket out to sea, and on hearing the rocket the design of the Ultimax 100, which was they went to examine the Ultimax 100. They blast and seeing the smoke trail whizzing adopted as the Army’s first SAW. These small found the two steel pins that held up the in the air, they then scurried away. After a arms experts brought a wealth of experience aluminium magazine had enlarged the holes few scares they were back again, probably to CIS as Mr Sullivan had been part of the in the magazine. Rounds could not chamber confident our rockets would never reach them. weapons design team for the AR-15 rifle, properly when the magazine was not properly A few rockets simply exploded on leaving which evolved into the M-16 rifle. aligned. The solution would be to introduce the launcher. a gauge to check on the magazines and to The SAF liked the Ultimax 100 for its dispose of those magazines that were beyond As we progressed we conducted more stringent lightweight, low recoil and ease of use the allowable tolerance. The reputation of tests - aging studies (temperature cycling for even when firing sustained bursts from its service life correlation), vibration, shock and 100-round drum magazine. In addition, the drop tests – to stress-proof our motor design. 30-round box magazine used by M-16s could Statistical samples from batch production also be fitted to the Ultimax 100 once two went through thorough qualification tests holes were drilled near the magazine lip. to achieve the required reliability confidence The Ultimax 100 was demonstrated with levels. The long series of ground tests took much bravado, with firers frequently letting over three years to complete. off all 100 rounds in one impressive burst and sometimes firing it without its plastic The final hurdle was testing the rockets from buttstock, with the butt plate on the nose of an RSAF aircraft. First we had to ensure our the firer to underscore that the SAW’s constant in-house assembled launcher then with a load recoil principle produced very little recoil ST Kinetics’ CIS50MG 12.7 of rockets could be safely carried in flight. force. heavy machine gun

39 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 40 Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENT Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENT

Saboted Light Armour Penetrator to defeat lightly armoured vehicle

ST Kinetics’ families of low-velocity 40mm ammunition (left) and high-velocity 40mm ammunition (right) Demonstration of Air Bursting a weapon could be irreparably damaged if performance. What is more, it is designed Munition System, exploding as a string the problems detected in the field were not with left and right feed, which gives weapon of pearls (left), in front of addressed immediately, and the cause and mounts added flexibility for twin machine window (centre) and beside an alley solution made known to all users. gun configurations to maximise suppressive At barrel exit fire, or in pairing the machine gun with an Singapore’s 40mm AGL team also scored The Singapore-made infantry weapons AGL for added firepower during the assault. a world’s first when it designed the first that SAF soldiers were armed with each Air Bursting Munition System (ABMS) for represented what former Chief of Defence standard and lightweight versions of the belt- Force, LG Winston Choo, described as a fed automatic weapon. These programmable “quantum leap” in capability. ABMS munitions are set by a magnetic coil when the individual grenades are fired. The The CIS50MG 12.7mm heavy machine gun, 0.5” MG At 600mm from the barrel exit grenades can thus maximise their lethality by CIS40 automatic grenade launcher (AGL) and exploding behind walls or windows, above the family of high- and low-velocity 40mm roof tops, trenches or open hatches or as a grenades designed and produced by CIS are, “string of pearls” against troops in the open likewise, quantum leaps in infantry firepower. 40 AGL or behind cover.

The CIS50MG is a fifth lighter than the Cupola platform with twin weapons Engineering Capability for venerable Browning M2 0.5” machine gun concept (40mm automatic grenade launcher Integrated Armament Development it replaced and gives SAF troops a simpler, and 0.5” machine gun) for M113 At 2.2m from the barrel exit modular weapon that offers ease of use, CIS was fortunate to find some 300 young operation and maintenance with better Our ammunition designers have also worked and daring engineers to drive armament hard to improve the effectiveness of the development in its Engineering Department. CIS50MG, with a special armour-piercing The three critical success factors were, firstly, round called a Saboted Light Armour Penetrator the availability of Singaporean engineering designed to penetrate some 20mm of armour graduates willing to contribute to the plate from more than a kilometre away. build-up of Singapore’s defence capabilities, secondly, then-CIS President Mr Lai Chun It is not generally known that Singapore is Loong who believed in nurturing defence the world leader in 40mm AGLs and produces engineers and lastly, Mr Lai’s commitment possibly the widest range of ammunition to back his belief in talent development with types for this devastating crew-served the resources needed to trigger armament weapon. ST Kinetics 40AGL MK2 development projects. CIS allocated some 1% Left & Right Feed of CIS50MG, of the company’s revenue to its Engineering with feed covers open Department, with weapon development

41 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 42 Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENT Chapter 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ARMAMENT

projects steered by an engineering leader, about his achievements but shared that Mr Henry Cheong. the secret of the Engineering Department’s success was due to the trust earned from his Mr Lee Chuen Fei and Mr Lee Kah Hoo were boss, Mr Lai. They were trusted to invest just two of the 300 engineers in the Engineering without having to write long papers of Department. From their recollections, readers justification. Mr Cheong stated that despite can sense their passion and commitment the worry that Mr Lai had expressed on the to defence engineering. Also evident from Engineering Department’s wish list (“Henry their recollections is the exciting journey of will bankrupt the company!” was a phrase discovery, the joy of successful product trials Mr Lai had used occasionally to describe Mr and learning from failures, which are par for Cheong’s exploits), he did not pull back his the course during the creation of products support when development projects did not that were beyond world-class. progress as planned.

Mr Lai had shared some on a smart phone. He The Engineering Department of CIS has evolved was too modest to share on his achievements into other forms with the reorganisation in growing CIS and later ST Kinetics under of the entities of ST Kinetics. The spirit of his leadership. daring to dream and delighting users will continue with leaders who understand how The unsung hero of armament engineers to excite their staff to take on challenges and in Singapore is Mr Cheong. His ability to create opportunities to make Singapore a safer conceptualise engineering and operational country. issues in the products under development was Then Minister for Defence viewing the DSO’s TV-guided bomb at the 3rd Generation unmatched by anyone in Singapore. His depth Mr Cheong had earned the trust of the SAF TechX Defence Science Exhibition, 2004 of knowledge and keenness to learn helped CIS Board and its President, as well as the him forge deep and lasting friendships with leadership of ST Engineering, where much to the public for the first time at the 3rd the top armament engineers in the world. of Singapore’s defence industrial capabilities Generation SAF TechX Defence Science They would open their closely-guarded reside. He had also earned the trust of the Exhibition – some 20 years after the TV- secrets to him because he had earned their users of armaments produced by CIS, the guided bomb was developed as a technology trust. He led by example, daring to trust his officers and soldiers of the SAF. demonstrator. engineering judgement and validate his ideas through extensive tests and evaluation, in A single word that would encapsulate the weapon laboratories and during extensive field critical success factor of integrated armament trials with defence engineers and weapons development is Trust. staff officers. Postscript A unique capability of Mr Cheong was his understanding of the users and their Besides CIS, engineers and scientists elsewhere requirements, many of which were unique in the Singapore’s Defence Technology to the SAF’s operational requirements. He had Community (DTC) have also contributed learnt this from the various OR Departments substantially to the evolution of the precision of the UK MoD, the British Army, Royal Navy weapon capabilities of the SAF over the years. and RAF. It was Mr Cheong’s innate ability to Some of these have remained so classified integrate operations and defence technology that their full story cannot be told even as the that differentiated him from other armament DTC marks its 50th anniversary. Occasionally, engineers. we do get tantalising glimpses of the DTC’s level of expertise in this domain. For instance, Mr Cheong was also too modest to write in 2004 DSO’s TV-guided bomb was shown

43 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 44 Chapter Three Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY

DEVELOPMENT OF reduce the effort needed to dig the ground to M110 203mm SP gun which was not suitable had no technical manuals or maintenance 155MM ARTILLERY emplace the base plates. Testing proceeded for the SAF due to its vast size and weight. instructions to refer to. A team of engineers well until the firing of the mounted mortar and technicians was sent to SOLTAM to at high charge resulted in the V-200 engine The FH70, M68 gun and SP155 had both understand the design and establish the breaking from its mounting, among other strong points and shortcomings. maintenance regime required. Based on the equipment failures. The development of the Army’s operational and training doctrines, The history of the Singapore Artillery can be V-200 120mm mounted mortar was thus The FH70 towed howitzer was still in the first set of its operation and maintenance traced back to the 1880s when the Singapore deemed a failure as the V-200 was unable a conceptual stage then, and being a tri- manuals for this gun was developed under Volunteer Artillery (SVA) was first established to withstand the firing of the mortar at top nation project, the requirements of the three the leadership of LTA Teo Ming Kian, who in February 1888. It was absorbed under the charges. The limited range of the 120mm member nations would take precedence over was a military engineer with the Logistics SVC with the latter’s formation in 1901. In mortar was also assessed to be unacceptable. Singapore’s requirements. As for the SP155, Division then. the 1950s, this artillery branch under the SVC while it was a state-of-art gun1 then, it was was set up as the Singapore Royal Artillery Formative Years with Artillery Guns not in production and came with an exorbitant (Volunteer) and by the early 1960s, it was price tag of $4.5 million. In addition, Dr known as the 10 SVA. The SAF needed longer range artillery guns Goh Keng Swee, then Minister for Defence, with greater firepower but there were limited expressed that technical know-how wise, the Following Singapore’s independence on 9th choices in the market in the early 1970s. A SAF then was also not ready to operate the August 1965, the SVC was re-organised as study was carried out by MAJ Lui Pao Chuen sophisticated SP155 gun. the PDF and the 10 SVA was re-designated from the Logistics Division in December 1970 as 20 PDF (Artillery) which eventually to evaluate the cost-effectiveness between the The M68 gun was eventually acquired for the became known as the 20th Battalion 105mm guns and the 155mm gun howitzers. SA to develop their doctrinal and operational Singapore Artillery. Over the years, the SA While the 105mm guns were lighter and procedures. Although the contract was signed evolved into four artillery units, each with could achieve a higher rate of fire (three times in 1971, the equipping of the SA’s ORBAT its unique capabilities to serve specific roles faster), the 155mm guns offered greater target could not be met in time due to the failure M114 Gun of the Singapore Artillery and functions. effectiveness and was concluded to be more of SOLTAM to meet the contract delivery. cost-effective. While awaiting the delivery of the M68 FH88 – First Local Gun Design and The Early Years with Artillery guns, the M114 155mm gun howitzer was Development Weapon Systems A team of logistics and artillery officers visited acquired through an opportunistic buy2. the UK, Israel and Sweden to evaluate the These M114 guns were refurbished at the Following the phasing in of the M68 guns, The SA operated mainly with mortar systems 155mm towed guns and the self-propelled Ordnance Maintenance Base and became the M71 guns (a longer range derivative3 in the 1960s. The 120mm lightweight mortars (SP) guns, which included the FH70 towed the first operational artillery gun in the SAF of the M68 gun) were bought by the SAF. from SOLTAM were acquired, and although howitzer (UK), the SOLTAM M68 towed in 1974. Both guns were plagued with low reliability, heavy, they were intended to be man-portable howitzer (Israel) and the SP155 self-propelled obturation4 and hydraulic leakage problems. by foot soldiers. As the SAF expanded from howitzer (Sweden). The US was not prepared The first unit of M68 guns was delivered in Mr Teo Ming Kian recalled, “While trying to infantry battalions to the formation of to sell their M109 SP gun, but offered the 1973. However, not long after delivery, the solve the serviceability problem, I began to think infantry divisions and armoured brigades, the serviceability level of the M68 plummeted about how to produce some of the components locally. 120mm lightweight mortar was no longer able to a low of 20%. We found that we had The parts that were supplied by SOLTAM were to meet the SAF’s operational requirements. no understanding of the gun design, and very expensive. Worse still, they were not readily The Logistics Division thus sought to upgrade available. This was probably when the idea of local the mobility of these lightweight mortars to production was first conceived, not so much for self- the 120mm standard mortar that could be 1 The SP155 had an exceptionally high rate of fire. A three-man sufficiency, but to ensure readiness.” The recurrent towed using a Land Rover vehicle. crew could operate the system, which could fire 15 rounds in 45 problems of the M68 and M71 guns prompted seconds, with one round loaded in the gun, and two seven-round clips in the magazine. It fired the BOFORS fixed-ammunition the SA to source for more advanced systems With the acquisition of the V-200 armoured that had a weight of 47kg and a tactical range of 28km. in the late 1970s and early 1980s. 2 The M114 gun howitzers were bought at scrap metal value. personnel carrier in the early 1970s, the 3 The rifling of the M68 gun was 33 calibres in length, while Logistics Division embarked on a project that of the M71 gun was 39 calibres which gave it a much longer A feasibility study on the local development of range. (Note: The internal diameter of the gun tube is referred to to mount the 120mm lightweight mortar as the calibre. Hence, 33 calibres is 33 times of 155mm.) a 155mm gun, based on our experience with onto the V-200 to enhance its mobility, and M68 Gun of the Singapore Artillery 4 Sealing of gas generated during firing. the M68 and M71 guns, was carried out by

45 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 46 Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY

ODE in 1977. The study concluded that “the development of guns. The third option was for than ever in acquiring the FH77B guns from of designers and test engineers, build up its best approach to execute local production was to MINDEF to contract ODE to locally design, Bofors arising from encouraging results of the design facilities and set up its manufacturing obtain a licence and technical data package”. This develop and produce a 155mm gun with demonstration trials. It became increasingly facilities concurrently. The Army officers would shorten the long lead time to formulate improved features. This would come with difficult to convince the Army to go with shared with the engineering team their the design specifications and design the gun the highest risk given that ODE had, up to the local development option. Mr Teo Ming operational and maintenance experiences from scratch, and also reduce investment risk that point in time, produced only small and Kian, then Director of Logistics Division, with the M68 and M71 guns. Sub-systems that and assure project success. The management medium calibre weapons and mortars. For recalled the eventful meeting in January 1983 were critical to safety, such as the gun barrel, of ODE was, however, reluctant to take the ODE to commit to producing a 155mm gun that Mr Goh Chok Tong, then Minister for breech mechanism and recoil system, were business risk of producing the 155mm gun. with improved features over the in-service Defence, had with the Chief of General Staff, identified and their designs and sub-system guns at a lower cost, and within the same MG Winston Choo, the 2PS, Mr Philip Yeo, qualification test plans thoroughly scrutinised. It was only in 1982 that the idea of a locally timescale as licensed production was an and himself. This was after the MINDEF Sub-systems that were crucial to the gun designed and produced 155mm gun was audacious goal. However, it was a crucial HQ meeting where the Army registered great meeting key performance specifications, such supported by Mr Loh Chuk Yam when he opportunity for our local defence industries resistance to the local design and production as the auxiliary power unit and ammunition took over as the General Manager of ODE. to build up local design and development of a 155mm gun, citing bad experiences that handling system (rammer and primer loading Two key considerations that might have led to capabilities of weapon systems. It was also the Army had to “live with” such as with the mechanisms) were constantly reviewed the change in direction were the large number a significant stepping stone for MINDEF and SAR80 rifles5 that were produced by the CIS. through numerous test-and-fix cycles. of guns that the SAF needed and eventual the local defence industries, to work towards “I could still remember the atmosphere in the room Structural components were initially thought business prospect for the company. the much-desired self-reliance in providing at Tanglin Road, called “the White House”. It was to be straightforward mechanical systems support and depot maintenance capability at that meeting that the Minister for Defence laid given established design and manufacturing The SA was resolute in looking for a more for weapon systems. the responsibility of the project on my shoulders,” codes. But, as it turned out, fatigue failures due reliable gun with a higher rate of fire that Mr Teo Ming Kian recalled. to the high-impulse loads and cyclical loads could be operated by a smaller crew. From Of the three options, the Army fought for provided tremendous lessons to the team in an initial list of possible candidates, namely, the lowest-risk off-the-shelf buy. It was also With the encouragement and support from what constituted good designs (in terms of the FH70 (UK), M198 (US), Bofors FH77B the most expedient route to build up the Mr Philip Yeo, Mr Teo Ming Kian went to functionality, reliability and maintainability), (Sweden), SOLTAM M839P (Israel) and Giat Singapore Artillery’s ORBAT as the operator MINDEF HQ to seek approval for the local while ensuring consistency and cost-efficiency. TR155 (France), only the FH77B and M839P training and logistical support that were in development and production of the 155mm were shortlisted as prospective candidates place with the supplier could be easily adapted gun howitzers by ODE. The approval was ODE senior management also met up with that could meet the Singapore Artillery’s to suit the Army’s requirements. The Army obtained and a contract was signed with ODE the design teams regularly to provide strategic requirement. Three options to the acquisition was not supportive of a locally-designed gun for the local development and production of guidance and monitor the overall progress of the approach were also considered: to proceed as ODE’s proposed gun without a burst firing the 155mm towed gun howitzers which had project. Where it made sense to collaborate with with an off-the-shelf buy, to secure licensed capability fell short of its requirement. The to be reliable, be equipped with cross-country other market players instead of an indigenous production with a technical data package SA, too, had no confidence in this promise mobility, burst-rate firing capabilities and design and in-house production, the team was from the original equipment manufacturer, or of a conceptual gun. labour-saving features for easy deployment given leeway to do so. In most instances, the to indigenously design and build our own gun. of the gun. ODE team would explore if it made sense to From the perspective of the Logistics Division, produce parts under licence or to secure sufficient An off-the-shelf buy would be relatively Mr Teo Ming Kian strongly advocated the Overcoming the Odds local content so as to build up its engineering straightforward and would carry the lowest third option. He saw it as an excellent capabilities for local depot-level maintenance. risk with the shortest delivery schedule. The opportunity to improve on the design of Design and development work took off at Close co-operation with overseas contractors production know-how of the guns would the existing guns while building up local full steam in ODE with close collaboration was established for the development of key sub- reside with the suppliers. On the other hand, production and maintenance capabilities. At between the engineers from the Materials systems of the gun, such as the auxiliary power local production under licence was becoming a the strategic level, in a period of tension, the Management Organisation6 (MMO) and ODE. unit and the flick rammer system. common strategy adopted by most developing SAF would have greater assurance of access ODE had to rapidly assemble its best team countries for the purchase of weapon systems to the necessary spares and maintenance While design work was ongoing, the technical from overseas suppliers. This approach would support. The acquisition cost was also the team and the Army users worked out the 5 The "SAR-80" rifle was unreliable and a setback, with long entail minimal development risks and some lowest of these options considered. downtime due to poor design and poor maintainability. qualification and acceptance test plans. transfer of technical know-how to produce 6 In April 1983, the separation of engineering and logistic Sub-system testing and in-factory tests functions in the Logistics Division led to the formation of the parts of the gun. There would be limited Evaluation trials of overseas 155mm guns Materials Management Organisation (MMO) and G4, Army were carried out where possible to root out expertise build-up in the local design and were conducted locally. The Army was keener respectively. early failures and increase confidence before

47 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 48 Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY

fire was too small. The requirements stated Total Systems Approach in Project Teamwork previously for weight and traverse range Management were 12 tonnes and 60˚ respectively and both The FH88 gun development was an excellent requirements were deemed critical to the The project team comprising MINDEF and example of MINDEF, the SAF and our local SA. Several discussions were held with the ODE personnel concentrated most of its effort defence industry venturing into a programme Chief of Artillery and senior representatives on testing and meeting the performance of with moderately high development risks, and from ODE and MMO to work out possible the gun during the development phase. The despite the odds. The tripartite effort was not solutions, and to decide on the trade-offs. Ms logistic and performance requirements such without challenges, but these were eventually Ho Ching, then Senior Director of MMO, as reliability, availability and maintainability solved with the determination of MINDEF was instrumental in fostering the tripartite (RAM) were only looked into much later in leadership and the perseverance of the project FH88 Stealing the Thunder from the Big Guns working relationship, and with the active the development and production phases. team that saw to its successful completion. participation of Army senior representatives MINDEF engineers participated in the design elaborate field tests and live firing of the in the decision-making process, the final In 1986, MMO merged with Special Projects process, as well as qualification tests of the gun. An overseas range was secured for the configuration of the gun was more readily Organisation (SPO) to form the Defence gun. A dedicated project trial team from HQ testing of the engineering prototypes through accepted by the SA. This milestone was Materials Organisation (DMO). Under the SA was fully committed to test and evaluate political channels. This search for an overseas remembered by many in the project team as leadership of LTC Wesley D’aranjo then the prototype, carrying out trials at unearthly firing range was not easy, but for the first time, a significant breakthrough in the working Deputy Director (Armaments/Land Systems), hours to meet the tight project schedule. The the SA was able to fire at ranges beyond 8km relationship among the three parties. the project team took a total systems deep involvement of such a team facilitated from its 155mm guns. approach in the management of this project. timely feedback and important improvements The requirement of a burst-rate firing This was subsequently institutionalised in the human factor engineering aspects of the The design approach undertaken by ODE capability meant that the ammunition-loading and documented in MINDEF’s Life Cycle gun, while allowing the SA to concurrently was to first qualify a basic gun and then look (specifically, the projectile and primer loading) Management (LCM) Manual, which became formulate its operational and training drills. into add-ons and modifications to resolve had to be automated. A flick rammer and an MINDEF’s way of doing business7. The defence engineers from DMO and DSO performance and reliability requirements. automatic primer feeding mechanism were brought along their engineering expertise While the addition of features could be more key features of ODE’s gun that enabled its Failures and design reviews were systematically in ILS methodology, RAM assessments and readily accommodated, the design team at burst-rate firing capability. ODE, MMO and tracked and relentlessly followed through till ballistic range table generation to the project. ODE learnt through a painful process that the SA made significant contributions in terms every issue was resolved. Strict discipline in reliability must be planned for and designed of engineering effort and providing user input project management beyond the development Follow-On Gun Developments into the weapon system right from the start. to qualify and fine-tune the flick rammer that and production of the guns was enforced was designed by an Austrian sub-contractor. to ensure the delivery of a total operational With the technical know-how and the Within two years from the decision made to Our local gun became the first gun howitzer capability. Acquisition of ancillary equipment expertise built up from the successful proceed with the local design and production that was fielded with a flick rammer. such as trucks, artillery directors, collimators, development of the FH88 gun, ODE was of an artillery gun, two prototypes were camouflage nets and muzzle velocity radars, more confident and ready to embark on new completed. The first local firing was carried By early 1987, the final prototype gun was which were essential to the fighting capability gun developments. The company took on out in October 1984, and the first overseas successfully tested after close to four years of the gun battalions, was expedited to catch the upgrade of the M71 gun to automate the firing test was conducted in December 1984. of development and rigorous testing. The up with the delivery schedule of the guns. operations of the gun and resolve reliability Over the next two years, the project team gun, at 12.9 tonnes, although somewhat issues with its hydraulic and pneumatic spent most of the time in overseas firing heavy for a 39-calibre gun, was eventually This project pioneered the implementation of an systems. This cut down the number of men ranges to troubleshoot and qualify the gun delivered to the Army user. It had excellent Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) methodology required to deploy the gun from 12 to 8. The performance in range, accuracy and mobility, deployment features and firing accuracy. A in the Army to holistically include requirements upgraded gun was designated to the M71S and validate its structural integrity. crew of six men could easily deploy the gun of training, documentation, support and test and fielded in the SA in 1993. in less than one minute, which was the fastest equipment. This has since become a standard Being the first 155mm gun designed by ODE, deployment time achievable by any towed methodology for the acquisition of all weapon FH2000 – A Bigger and Longer Gun the designers took a conservative approach howitzer then. The gun was designated as systems and equipment. and opted for large safety factors when little the FH88 and the first battalion of 18 FH88 Following the commissioning of the FH88 was known of the dynamic performance of guns was commissioned in 1988. in 1988, the SA sought approval for the

critical parts. The prototype, with all the 7 The LCM manual was recently reviewed and designated as the acquisition of more 155mm guns to replace add-on features, was too heavy and its arc of Defence Capability Management Manual. the in-service M71 guns. MINDEF deliberated

49 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 50 Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY

and easier to maintain, with no increase in Safety Management and a Safety weight. Requirements such as commonality Journey of parts to the FH88 guns, and compatibility with existing in-service equipment such as The lessons learnt were painful but the resolve towing vehicles, ammunition and support of the engineers and senior management in equipment were specified upfront. The gun MINDEF and the SAF was to institutionalise was also equipped with an improved electronic the learning so that such an accident would system using programmable logic circuits that never happen again. From that dark moment were more reliable, and modular sub-systems of tragedy, the seed of a safety culture was for easy maintenance. sown. With unwavering support from senior management in MINDEF, the defence Since its introduction into service, the FH2000 engineers left no stone unturned in the years gun has been well-received by the soldiers. that followed as they systematically reviewed It was easy to use because many functions the design safety of weapon and ammunition had been automated. For the maintenance systems in the SAF inventory. They technicians, the modular design allowed for reviewed the processes and methodologies fast and easy servicing and maintenance. of qualification and acceptance of weapon and ammunition systems. They strengthened A Dark Moment, A New Dawn the management of contractors and sub- contractors, and surveillance management On 9th March 1997, a 155mm high-explosive of ammunition systems. They holistically round exploded prematurely, killing two and reviewed the training and operational drills injuring 12. The artillery accident happened with the Army and adopted a system safety in Waiouru, New Zealand, where 23SA was approach to ensure a high level of safety FH2000 155mm Gun Howitzer in the firing position training. When news of the artillery accident assurance in the operations and training with reached Singapore, the technical teams in Army weapon systems for our soldiers. It was if the acquisition should be for more FH88 or battalion of FH2000 guns which was the first DMO and ODE were quickly activated to a defining moment for the defence engineers for a longer calibre gun. From an operational 155mm gun howitzer with a 52-calibre barrel investigate and establish the root cause of the and the Army, as they collectively embraced perspective, a longer-calibre gun would give in the world to be fielded into operational accident. From the fault tree analysis of the the learning that “armament safety is written in it a longer maximum range, providing the service. The longer barrel of the FH2000 gun gun and ammunition, all plausible causes were blood”. There was a unanimous acceptance artillery with a greater stand-off distance. increased its maximum range to 40km with investigated. Within four days, the first sign of of the onerous safety responsibilities and the From a technological point, the development extended range ammunition, 10km above evidence pointing to a faulty fuse surfaced. From need for clear accountability for the safety of of a longer calibre 155mm gun was in line with that of the FH88 gun. Relative to the FH88 x-rays of the lot of fuses used in the artillery every agency in the value chain. This was the development of artillery weapon design gun, aside from the expected increase in exercise, a pre-armed fuse was discovered. the beginning of the system safety journey houses to provide longer ranges to 155mm range, the FH2000 gun was more reliable in MINDEF. artillery systems, by way of extended range ammunition and longer barrels. In view of PRIMUS – A New Era of Fighting ODE’s capability to develop and produce the Capability FH88 guns, and for reasons of interoperability and commonality of spares with FH88, ODE In the early 1990s, the Army conceived was engaged to develop and supply the new the requirement for a weapon system that 155mm, 52-calibre guns. Unlike the early combined the range, firepower and accuracy days of the FH88 development, this time, the of an artillery system with the ability to proponents pushing for local development keep pace with the high tempo of armoured of the longer range 155mm gun were from operations. The FH88 and FH2000 towed the Army. guns had neither the mobility to keep pace Damaged FH2000 Gun from with the armoured forces nor the protection In May 1995, the SA commissioned its first FH2000 155mm 52-calibre Gun Howitzer an in-bore explosion required to survive the threat environment. A

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The 155mm Gun Howitzer Chamber probable cause of the incident was a all types of ammunition and fuses used Explosion on 9th March 1997 in New defective fuse that was attached to the in the SAF are safe. MINDEF does so Zealand 155mm shell which was loaded into the by conducting acceptance testing of gun howitzer. The defective fuse resulted ammunition and fuses either by itself MINDEF’s release on 28th June 1997 on the in the premature explosion. After the or by reliable contractors. In this case, investigation outcome and mitigation measures incident, the lot of fuses from which the MINDEF had engaged CAI to provide taken to ensure soldier safety, shortly after the defective fuse came was X-rayed. 1.3% of the SAF with the fuses. In particular, 155mm Gun Howitzer Chamber Explosion in the fuses were found to be defective. CAI agreed to witness the acceptance New Zealand on 9th March 1997. tests for the fuses, on behalf of MINDEF. This defective lot of fuses was supplied However, CAI did not witness all the A 155mm SA round exploded in the barrel by the Chartered Ammunition Industries acceptance tests. CAI also did not check of a FH2000 gun howitzer on Sunday, 9th (CAI) to MINDEF under an agreement in whether the factory in the PRC was able March 1997 in Waiouru, New Zealand, 1992. CAI was to supply fuses manufactured to manufacture the fuses according to during a live firing exercise conducted by according to internationally accepted the required military specifications. the 23rd Battalion, SA. The incident resulted military specifications. These military in the death of two full-time national specifications require thorough inspections To prevent defective fuses from being servicemen, Third Sergeant Ronnie Tan and other quality control measures during introduced into the SAF inventory again Han Chong and Lance Corporal Low Yin and after the manufacturing process to in future, MINDEF will completely Tit. Another 12 servicemen, including eliminate all defects in the fuses. revamp the current acceptance process. a Staff Sergeant from the New Zealand MINDEF has also ceased using all Defence Force, were injured in the incident. CAI, in turn, contracted with a U.S. types of ammunition and fuses from PRIMUS 155mm Self-Propelled Gun-Howitzer company, Island Ordnance Systems (IOS), IOS. MINDEF will also not accept The Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) for the supply of these fuses. Without the ammunition and fuses manufactured FH2000 towed guns, the SPH was another convened a Committee of Inquiry on 17th knowledge of CAI, IOS obtained the fuses by Xian Dong Fang Machinery Factory. step towards building up a local capability March to investigate the circumstances from Xian Dong Fang Machinery Factory in ordnance engineering and development. leading to the incident. The Committee in the People's Republic of China (PRC). MINDEF will continue to use 155mm It involved the integration of on-board was chaired by Mr Tan Gee Paw, Permanent In October 1994, CAI discovered that the fuses of this type which have been computers and innovative automation to Secretary (Environment). The other five fuses were manufactured at the factory in made by a different manufacturer. As a turreted 155mm gun on a chassis. The members of the Committee included Mr the PRC rather than in the USA. However, an added precaution, all such fuses will original intent was to use the chassis of Andrew Renton-Green, a senior official CAI did not notify MINDEF of this be X-rayed. With these precautions in the Bionix infantry fighting vehicle from from the New Zealand Ministry of Defence, discovery. MINDEF only became aware place, the SAF resumed live firing with ST Kinetics. However, with the need for and representatives from the Ministry of that these fuses were manufactured in the 155mm guns in May. massive engineering changes to customise Health, Legal Services of MINDEF, and the the PRC during the Committee of Inquiry the Bionix chassis to integrate the SPH turret, Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). proceedings in March. Source: http://www.mindef.gov.sg:80/ the decision was made to acquire the modified content/imindef/press_room/official_ M109 chassis from United Defence instead. On 2nd May, the Committee submitted When the fuses were delivered to CAI, releases/nr/1997/jun/28jun97_nr.html Thus, the SPH was designed and built by its findings and recommendations to IOS issued a Certificate of Compliance and integrating local and foreign sub-systems, MINDEF. The Committee concluded that a Certificate of Conformance to confirm detailed market survey of both turreted and with significant leverage on electronics in its the correct procedures had been strictly that the required military specifications non-turreted self-propelled gun-howitzers fire control and drive systems. The first SPH, followed by the Singapore Artillery unit had been met. Sample testing of the fuses (SPHs) was carried out (which included the PRIMUS, was rolled out and commissioned involved, and there was no human error was also conducted by CAI during which US Paladin M109A6 and German PzH2000) by then Minister for Defence, Mr Teo Chee by any member of the unit. There was no defective fuses were found. Based on but none of the systems met the demands Hean in November 2003. also no breach of any SAF training safety these Certificates, MINDEF accepted the of the SAF’s tactical environment without regulations. fuses from CAI. substantial customisation; thus, a decision Given its greater responsiveness and flexibility, was made to develop the 155mm SPH locally. and compared to the FH88 and FH2000 guns, The Committee concluded that the most MINDEF is responsible for ensuring that the PRIMUS represented a quantum leap in Following the development of the FH88 and the Army firepower capability. Not only was

53 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 54 Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY Chapter 3 DEVELOPMENT OF 155MM ARTILLERY

had been under development for some time and were in competition to replace the M198 155mm towed gun used by the US Marines and Army.

The long recoil design of the ultra-lightweight field howitzer from VSEL8 was assessed to be more mature in its design and able to meet our requirement. ODE and VSEL were working towards an agreement for the supply of the titanium structure but the collaboration fell through, and in 1998, ODE decided to proceed with an indigenous design of the lightweight 155mm gun.

The Army took the opportunity to review their requirements and included an Auxiliary Power Unit to enable the gun to have limited mobility capability. The revised contract was signed with ODE in 1999. The use of aluminium and titanium for the design and PEGASUS 155mm Lightweight Howitzer manufacturing of the lightweight 155mm gun was a challenge for ODE. Under a weapon it able to respond with firepower support munitions effects and range, and the desire to offset programme, the assistance of Boeing to the frontline much faster than the field have a common calibre for logistics simplicity. was sought to provide training for titanium howitzers, it was able to do so without much design, welding and fabrication. Photonics ground preparation. Then CO of 21SA, MAJ The key challenge to move from a conventional of Austria was commissioned to design and Alex Tan said, “The PRIMUS was at the forefront 155mm gun to a heli-portable 155mm gun produce the sighting system and the sight in empowering our NSF commanders with greater was the significant weight reduction required mount. It took several rounds of Development autonomy and responsibilities given to them. This – at less than half that of the FH88 gun – Test & Evaluation (DT&E) firings and numerous is due to the PRIMUS’ higher system complexity while being able to withstand the same firing design changes before qualification trials and fighting capability, enabling more than 50% loads. This was to be achieved with the use were eventually completed. DT&E and reduction in the crew size compared to the FHs. of lightweight materials such as aluminium Operational Test & Evaluation (OT&E) trials The operationalisation journey of the PRIMUS and titanium. Although this might sound were completed in 2004 with the first gun within the Artillery formation was daunting given similar to the design approach in the aerospace delivered in early 2005. This new 155mm the steep learning curve but our NSFs stepped up industries but when used in gun structures, artillery gun, officially named the ‘Singapore to the plate and carried themselves commendably.” the high-impulse load was a different order Light Weight Howitzer (SLWH) Pegasus’, was of magnitude. The weight reduction efforts commissioned by then Minister for Defence, PEGASUS – A Lightweight Gun had to be finely balanced with the structural Mr Teo Chee Hean on 28th October 2005. strength required to withstand the recoil The Pegasus became the world’s first heli- In the late 1980s, the SAF acquired a fleet of forces during firing and the aerodynamic portable 155mm lightweight howitzer with 105mm Light Guns from GIAT Industries to loading when heli-lifted. a self-propelled capability. provide fire support for our heli-borne forces. By 1994, the Army had reviewed the roles of In 1996, the SAF, DMO and ODE embarked the heli-borne artillery and debated on the on a market survey to explore the lightweight merits of having 105mm guns versus 155mm 155mm guns from Lockheed Martin, Vickers 8 The ultra-lightweight developmental prototype from VSEL guns. The 155mm guns emerged as the Shipbuilding and Engineering Limited (VSEL), was subsequently developed for the US Army and designated preferred choice in view of its superiority in and Royal Ordnance. The respective guns as the M777 Howitzer.

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DEVELOPMENT OF maintenance before advancing to the ability Malaya therefore used light and medium Procurement of Armoured Fighting ARMOURED FIGHTING to upgrade armour. tanks and small armoured tracked carriers like Vehicle tankettes to spearhead its advance down the VEHICLES The leap to the next S-curve or higher level Malay Peninsula towards Singapore. Facing The 1966 plan for the SAF’s ORBAT of 12 of capability was achieved with projects to them were British armoured cars like the battalions included two recce battalions. These develop the Bionix infantry fighting vehicle Lanchester, Marmon Herrington and the two battalions would be equipped with the and the Bronco all-terrain tracked carrier. Indian Pattern, along with Bren gun carriers most sophisticated and lethal weapon system, Even without our own national car, Singapore’s These 1990s-era projects gave Singapore the – open-topped and lightly armoured tracked the armoured fighting vehicle. This fighting defence industry has led several homegrown expertise and experience to design, build carriers. unit would have the following operational projects to design and manufacture armoured and integrate automatic weapons and guided elements: reconnaissance, commando, armour fighting vehicles (AFVs) for the SAF. munitions aboard armoured platforms unique In his biography, The War in Malaya, LG and engineering. The following armoured to Singapore. Arthur Percival, the British general tasked fighting vehicles would be required: Singapore-made armour is now the dominant with defending Singapore, touched on the force in the SAF’s ORBAT, not just in numbers value of tanks. The general recalled how one • Armoured personnel carriers but the diversity of roles. The requirement for of the last convoys of reinforcements (the • Armoured cars with 90mm guns tracked and wheeled light armour of around ships arrived two weeks before Singapore • 81mm mortar carrier 30 tonnes has been fulfilled by Singaporean fell) included the only tanks to serve in the expertise through the defence company, Malaya campaign on the British side. These The General Staff Division conducted in 1966 Singapore Technologies Kinetics (ST Kinetics, were Vickers light tanks, whose heaviest a study of armoured cars under production earlier known as SAE). armament was a 0.5” machine gun. in different countries and shortlisted the following vehicles for further evaluation: Over the years, ST Kinetics has led projects to “In the same convoy as this division arrived upgrade AMX-13 light tanks, M113 armoured a light tank squadron from India. They were • Commander, Commando cars personnel carriers (APCs), V-200 armoured the only tanks ever to reach Malaya on our Bauer Ordnance (USA) cars and developed home-grown armoured The prototype New Armoured Fighting side. The tanks themselves, I fancy, had been • Commando V-100 vehicles such as the Bionix, Terrex, Bronco and Vehicle undergoing mobility trials collected from various training establishments Cadillac Gage (USA) Primus 155mm self-propelled howitzer. The and the squadron hastily formed. When they • Henschel HWR-42 ST Kinetics stable of AFVs continues to grow. The groundwork was laid in the late 1960s reached Singapore, some of them had to be Rheinstahl Henschel AG (Germany) when the SAF acquired its first armoured cars put straight into ordnance workshops before One of ST Kinetics’s latest projects, the New the V-200 Commando, and introduced the they were fit to take the road. Some never did The following vehicles were among those AFV for the Singapore Army, was started AMX-13 light tank as its first tank. take the road. considered, and rejected due to low power- jointly with DSTA in 2006 and has reached to-weight ratio and the lack of swimming final prototype stage. The New AFV, which Armoured vehicles had been fielded successfully An armoured brigade was due to arrive in capability: is built to optimise the use of integrated during the Battle for Singapore in World War II the Far East early in March. When asked for fires between combat platforms and fast, (WWII), with the Japanese proving the value of my views on the destination of this brigade • Mowag (Switzerland) secure exchanges of battlefield information, armour during the war of manoeuvre that led I recommended that the destination of one • Saladin (UK) represents a quantum leap in capability from to the capture of Singapore from the British. Cruiser regiment at least should be left in • Saracen (UK) the M113 Ultra APCs it will replace from 2019. abeyance until nearer the time of arrival, as Tanks in the Malaya Campaign I felt that it might prove extremely valuable Cadillac Gage and Rheinstahl responded to Such expertise was hard won. The track record but that it was too early as yet to say whether a technical questionnaire on the capabilities of Singapore’s defence industry shows a steep During WWII, the British and Japanese both it would be possible to bring it to Singapore.” of their vehicles in early 1967. On completion growth trajectory in the past 50 years. It was a realised that the supposedly impenetrable of the comparative study, the General Staff tough slog for defence engineers and scientists jungle terrain in Malaya was actually passable Light tanks could be employed similar to the Division asked Director Logistics to request tasked to sharpen the combat capability of to light and medium armour if they kept on assault gun concept pioneered by the Germans that Cadillac Gage send the Commando V-100 the SAF’s armoured vehicles. This chapter trunk roads and unpaved plantation tracks during WWII, accompanying the infantry as to Singapore for demonstration and field trials. traces key milestones that led to the capability that were on firm, dry ground. a mobile gun to take out hard targets and to jumps from the provision of basic vehicle provide covering fire for the assault. The Israeli advisors came to Singapore in 1967 maintenance which matured to depot level The Japanese invasion force that landed in to study and propose the build-up of our two

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recce battalions. At that time, MID considered A recommendation was then made to acquire Two-inch squares were drawn on the 18x18” On completion of the firing tests, the testing tanks to be a politically sensitive weapon the V-100 provided the manufacturer could test plate fitted on a stand which would team could certify that the thicker XAR- system and did not consider their purchase. upgrade the vehicle to meet the following allow the inclination of the test plate to 30 sample had met the specifications for The Israeli advisors were of the opinion that operational requirements: be varied. The test was to determine the protection against the 7.62mm AP rounds. the tank must be a central piece in the ideal protection against different types of small The hardness of the armour plate was model of the armoured forces where tanks • A gun that would defeat thick steel at 800m arms ammunition. The testing officer rested critical to its protective ability. The welding were used to take enemy positions head on. • A gun that would defeat armoured his rifle on a sand bag at the firing point, and of armour plates could create weakness, The build-up of the armoured forces for the personnel carriers tried to get as tight a grouping as possible to and technology and skills were needed to SAF would begin with armoured cars for • Infantry section to be able to observe and simulate the case of multiple hits on the same maintain the integrity of the monocoque hull the development of armour professionals, fire from inside the vehicle point of the armour. of the armoured vehicle. who could master the operation of tanks rapidly, once approval for their acquisition The protection of the crew from 7.62mm It was found that ball rounds with lead-filled Years later, when testing the aluminium was given. A company of tanks would then armour piercing rounds had already been bullets would be smashed flat like a postage armour of the M113, it was learnt that the be incorporated into the recce battalions, specified by the Israeli advisors in an earlier stamp on the surface of the test plate. Armour way aluminium armour defeated AP rounds and later to consolidate the tanks into a tank evaluation. The swimming capability was piercing rounds with a tungsten core would was different from that of steel armour. The battalion within an armoured brigade. considered to be a critical requirement. bounce off the armour at various angles of defeat mechanism of aluminium armour was inclination. The worst case for the armour absorption. The tungsten core of the AP round The Israeli advisors assessed the terrain, The first two requirements would need the would be at 90-degree inclination with the would penetrate the front of the armour plate, vegetation and climate of our area and development of a 90mm gun turret and a bullet striking perpendicular to the test plate. It but the resistance of the material would slow concluded similarly that wheeled armoured two-man 20mm gun turret respectively to be was found that the tungsten core would gouge it down and stop it before it could exit the rear vehicles would be suitable for our recce carried by the V-100. As Cadillac Gage was out bits of armour steel but did not penetrate face of the armour. battalions. They proposed to bring in the a specialist for turret controls – nearly all US the plate. There was also no spalling at the French AML to Singapore for evaluation as Army tanks were fitted with Cadillac Gage rear of the test plate. Development of the Commando well, in addition to the V-100. turret controls – their engineers would have V-200 no problem designing turrets for the 90mm After each round, the test plate was examined and 20mm guns. But, as these turrets had yet and the position of the round marked with The enhanced heavier hull and turret would to be developed, they would need time for paint. Half way through the firing test it was be too heavy for the axles of the V-100, product development and testing. discovered that the can of paint was empty. which now needed a capacity of five tons, The testing officer thought it was strange as up from 2.5 tons, thus adding more weight. The hull of the V-100 was designed to defeat the can was almost full when the last round The operational requirement for a 12” longer 7.62mm ball rounds. The XAR-30 armour was marked. A closer look at the can showed body and a wheelbase broader by 5” drove plates that were used to manufacture the that the tungsten core of the last bullet had the maximum gross vehicle weight up from hull were ¼” thick. To meet the operational penetrated it. The testing officer reported 16,250lb to 23,000lb. A new vehicle, the requirement for armour protection against that when he saw the hole in the paint can, V-200, would need to be developed as the 7.62mm AP rounds, the thickness of the a shiver went down his spine. The tungsten V-100 could not be stretched to meet all these armour plates would need to be increased. core had missed his head by two feet! requirements. The V-100 undergoing mobility trials, circa 1967 XAR-30 Armour Plate Testing To minimise the risk of ricochet, the testing The V-200 was conceived to be a basic vehicle could be done at 100m range but the velocity of with outstanding cross-country mobility and The conclusion of the evaluation was that the To verify that the thicker XAR-30 armour the bullet would not be close to the maximum. swimming capability. The vehicle could be Commando V-100, which had seen action in would defeat 7.62mm AP rounds, sample A decision was thus made to continue firing configured for different roles with minimal South Vietnam, was superior to the French armour plates were sent to Singapore for testing. at the 25m range but with all non-testing changes to the internal arrangement and no AML. It proved to be exceptionally mobile After checking for physical characteristics, like personnel away at a safe distance. The testing change to the components of the basic vehicle. for a wheeled vehicle and it had a swimming Brinell hardness of the steel, functional tests team would fire the rifle remotely with a As the mobility of the V-100 had been tested capability which was demonstrated in a swim were performed at the SAFTI 25m range. The string tied to the trigger from a protected and found to be outstanding, MID decided to from Seletar to Pulau Tekong. The mobility velocity of the bullet at 25m would be about position. The testing took twice as long use the mobility of the V-100 as the reference and swimming demonstrations were highly the same when it left the rifle’s muzzle, the because of these safety measures. standard for the V-200. successful and the audience was impressed. highest velocity of the bullet.

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In 1968, the IDF advisors proposed to the location of various “on-vehicle materials” During a demonstration of its ability where The V-200 vehicle was lying on its side and MID to build up an armoured brigade. The (OVMs) for the V-200. the prototype was to climb up Bukit Timah, could not be recovered by winching. A floating armoured brigade would have one AMX-13 it broke down and had to be recovered. crane was hired from SELCO, a marine battalion and two battalions of armoured CPT Nehemia Zohar was a meticulous support company, to lift it from the bottom personnel carriers for armoured infantry. ordnance engineer and called for all the of the river and to bring it back to shore. The The IDF advisers proposed that the M113 brackets for the OVMs to be mounted on vehicle was brought back to the Vehicle Repair would be more suitable than the V-200 for bosses welded to the hull of the vehicle. The Base for cleaning up. The sinking ended all the armoured infantry. They gave a number Cadillac Gage design team did not agree to demonstrations with this prototype. of reasons, which included better mobility, welding bosses on the hull as the heat during internal arrangement and less risk of delay welding would weaken the XAR-30 armour Production stopped as a result of the need in the build-up. in the areas around the weld. They counter- to make design changes to the vehicle. The proposed the use of tack welds to attach metal president of Cadillac Gage came to Singapore An M113 was brought to Singapore for strips to the hull and for straps to be used to in February 1970 to seek MID’s agreement to comparison trial with the V-100 in 1968. The hold the OVM in place. The Cadillac Gage the changes made by the company in order mobility of the M113 was found to be similar solution did not have a professional look. As it that production could continue. MID agreed to that of the V-100 on dry ground, but was was unthinkable to compromise the integrity First mobility trial of the V-200 prototype provided that the specified performance superior over wet ground. of the armour hull, CPT Lui accepted the which broke down climbing Bukit Timah Hill, requirements in the contract were met by Cadillac Gage solution proposed. CPT Zohar circa 1969 the production vehicles. The last demonstration on the swimming was very angry and did not speak with CPT capability of the M113 was scheduled on 10th Lui for three days. He eventually cooled down The prototype was loaded with the specified V-200 Mobility Trials July 1968. During the final full-dress rehearsal and accepted the decision. OVMs and simulated ammunition, and went just before the arrival of the Minister for for a swimming demonstration in Jurong In the mobility acceptance test, the V-200 was MID the M113 sank in shallow waters. The River. The driver was the Cadillac Gage test found to be slightly superior to the V-100 for demonstration was called off and MID made driver who had been doing all the mobility its cross-country capability and climbing of the decision to use the V-200 as the first SAF’s tests in the US. However, the vehicle was slopes as it had higher power-to-weight ratio APCs for the armoured brigade. never fully loaded in swimming tests before. and larger tires. However, both the V-200 and The standard procedure of Cadillac Gage V-100 were bogged down in wet ground. was to drive with the driver’s hatch open. Soon after the vehicle entered Jurong River it was observed that the vehicle had a nose- down trim with less than 20cm of freeboard. Soon after, the vehicle was swamped by a wave. The driver floated out of the driver’s CPT Nehemia Zohar, circa 1969 compartment. The vehicle mechanic on the top of the hull swam off. The testing officer The prototype was shipped in October 1969, was knocked unconscious for two minutes arriving dockside in Singapore on 20th November by the wave. When he woke up he found 1969 for test and evaluation. himself in the hull completely filled with Wooden mock-up of the V-200 at water. He found a door, opened it and swam Calillac Gage, Warren, Michigan for fitting of MID refused to conduct prototype trials on this to the surface. Mobility trial of the V-200 prototype On Vehicle Material (OVM) circa 1969 vehicle as it had not completed the 4,000 mile up Bukit Batok Hill, with MAJ Lui Pao Chuen endurance test that was specified in the contract. A safety boat was present but the crew could as the testing officer, circa 1969 In January 1969, a team from the Logistics Director Logistics ordered the vehicle to be issued not dive into the water that was about 20 feet Division comprising Head Technical for the training of officer instructors. A list of tasks deep. Since the sinking, the SAF Training Department, CPT Lui Pao Chuen, mechanical and schedule of tests were prepared and passed Safety Regulation mandates the requirement engineer 2LT Lee Huan Shiang and Logistics on to 41 SAB for review and implementation as for scuba divers to be on standby for testing Division ordnance advisor CPT Nehemia a part of the TEA programme for the V-200. and swimming training of land vehicles in Zohar were sent to Cadillac Gage to decide on the water.

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successful. The V-200 was a light-weight the armour advisor, and the loader was the armoured vehicle weighing 10 tons as testing officer from the Logistics Division. compared to 40-ton MBT. The 90mm gun was The testing officer had the shock of his life made by MECAR of Belgium. The competitor when he saw the barrel flying in front of his was the DEFA 90mm gun made by a French nose and smashing into the VRC 47 radio set company. The MECAR 90mm gun had softer mounted at the end of the turret. His heart recoil, making it more suited for the V-200. dropped when he saw a black beret between the gun barrel and the radio thinking that the The downside of low recoil forces was the head of the advisor was smashed. He was low velocity of the ammunition. Despite the greatly relieved a second later to hear the The V-200 prototype undergoing mobility Comparison mobility trials between short range of 800m, the gun required super- voice of the advisor over the intercom. Before trials at Sungei Gedong, circa 1969 the V-100 and V-200 at Sungei Gedong, elevation. Accurate estimate of range was the firing exercise, the advisor had placed his circa 1970 necessary. There was no laser range finder beret at the rear of the turret when he put on V-200 Weapon System Trials then for range finding. The gunner would the CVC (combat vehicle crewman’s) helmet. The V-200 20mm gun vehicle could not need to be trained to use the size of the target The fault was traced to an error made by the It was found during a firing trial of the 20mm play the role of tank killer but it was a in his weapon sight to determine the range. gun fitter in assembling the gun for the firing. gun production vehicles that the accuracy of fearsome predator to less well-armed and Operation research was done to determine the Testing of the 90mm gun was discontinued the gun was well within specifications, but less well-protected weapon platforms. Enemy reticle markings of the gun sight that would until arrival of the production gun. stoppages happened because of the design of objectives defended by infantry would be be best in assisting the gunner to determine the ammunition feed system. The GK 204 suppressed by GPMG fire at close range and the range in the shortest time, but not obscure The V-200 was found to be a stable platform 20mm gun from Oerlikon of Switzerland was have their machine gun posts taken out by targets further down range by the markings. for the 81mm mortar. The accuracy achieved one of the best 20mm guns in the world. It 20mm gun fire beyond the effective range of Test officers spent many hours at the firing was better than that when fired from the was widely used by many navies as primary the machine guns. range to check on the accuracy of the gun ground. Redeploying was very quick as the or secondary armament for their small ships. and its reliability. vehicle could be driven away immediately It was highly accurate with a high rate of fire The problem with ammunition feed was after firing. that could destroy the weapon sight of a tank finally resolved and the SAF had the best from the expected maximum engagement 20mm turret in the world. This turret was The V-200 was, however, too light for the range of 800m. subsequently sold by Cadillac Gage for 120mm mortar which the artillery had wanted upgrading of the V-100 and for the V-150 as mobile artillery in support of armour. The In the operational analyses of the weapon that the company built with the experience 120mm mortar prototype performed well at systems, it was found that the confidence acquired from the V-200 project. lower charges and its accuracy was good. But of the crew was critical to mission success. at the final test with the maximum charge of They must feel that they are well-protected The V-200 90mm gun vehicle was less 8, the recoil force was too high for the vehicle. from enemy threats and their weapon system would be ready for use during their mission. They must be able to find their targets and engage them before the targets disappear 90mm gun on the V-200 with rope to from sight. Thus the reaction time from target limit angle of traverse for live firing at Sungei appearing to target destruction was one key Gedong live firing range, circa 1970 parameter to optimise. Target detection and identification would be the responsibility of The armour penetration required by the SAF the vehicle commander and gunner. Weapon was achieved with the use of hollow-charge accuracy was important but the rate-of-fire ammunition. The penetrating power of the was just as important to deal with fleeting weapon was from the ammunition. During targets. Action could be sustained as long a confirmation firing trial of the 90mm gun as there was ammunition in the magazine Live firing trials with the V-200s vehicle at the Sungei Gedong range, the The V-200 with 81mm mortar at live but a weapon stoppage could be disastrous, with 20mm gun and 90mm gun at Sungei barrel of the MECAR 90mm gun disengaged firing trial, Sungei Gedong live-firing range especially when the enemy was returning fire. Gedong, circa 1970 from the recoil mechanism. The gunner was circa 1970

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The V-200 engine was dislodged from its support capability for the vehicle. Troops would dismount and charge up to Despite the inability of its 75mm gun then to mountings, together with a number of other capture the objective on foot. destroy MBTs with thicker armour, the AMX- vehicular components. Instead of drawing technical manpower from 13 was no pushover in combat particularly the limited resources available to the SAF, it While the M113 had better mobility, the new in an operating environment with no tanks The recoil force could be reduced to that of the was decided in 1971 that SAE be established APC represented a step backwards for the SAF to fight against. Its 75mm gun represented a 81mm mortar with a recoil mechanism. But to support the maintenance of the V-200. Armour in terms of protection, firepower, capability overmatch in the region. the Artillery did not want any modifications Cadillac Gage was contracted to provide the accuracy and weight of fire. The V-200s were to the 120mm mortar. The 120mm mortar initial technical leadership of the company. better armed with a 20mm gun and co-axial Once training began in earnest on home vehicle could also be reinforced to resist GPMG in an enclosed, power-operated turret ground, the pioneer batch of tankees grew the heavy loading of the firing at charge This was the beginning of leveraging the with optical sights. to appreciate the performance of the AMX- 8, but this would not have met the design expertise and technical manpower in our 13s in local terrain. With more tank battalions concept of the V-200, of having commonality defence industries for depot-level maintenance The M113 came with a gunshield kit with a raised as a result of the steady intake of NSFs of components across the entire fleet. The of army vehicles. cupola and front shield to protect the vehicle and the corresponding increase of NSmen General Staff Division thus decided to abandon commander manning a pintle-mounted 0.5” battalions, MINDEF and the SAF planners the development project. V-200 versus M113 machine gun. Aiming of the 0.5” machine gun realised that more AMX-13s would be needed was by hand using iron sights. The 7.62mm to accommodate the growth of the SAF The need for artillery support with 120mm MID decided to acquire the French AMX- GPMG mounts, fitted beside the rear troop ORBAT during the 1970s. mortar was subsequently met when M113 was 13 light tanks – the Singapore Army’s first compartment hatch, did not have shields. purchased for the second armoured brigade, tank - in 1968. With the tip of the spear, the The front shield for the M113 cupola was The tank gun’s versatility in firing different and a battalion modified with a kit developed AMX-13s, inducted into the SAF Armour, eventually removed as the additional armour types of ammunition, accuracy and rate of for the German Army for the 120mm mortar. the next crucial element was a vehicle for the was deemed too heavy for SAF servicemen fire (the AMX-13 was the first tank designed armoured infantry. to traverse. The removal of the front shield with an automatic loader and could fire one On completion of the test and evaluation degraded its armour protection, and resulted round every five seconds) was more than programme for mobility (including Despite the V-200 being a technical success in a watered-down version of the US Army enough to deal with light armoured vehicles swimming), weapon systems (firepower), meeting all the stated requirements, it was armoured cavalry’s M113 configuration that like armoured cars and enemy strongpoints armour protection and reliability, the project an operational failure as the Armour found recommended a gunshield kit for the 0.5” like bunkers. The AMX-13’s small size and team handed over the V-200 to HQ Armour. that it could not go through soft ground after machine gun and additional armoured shields ability to move cross-country quickly made rain and was left behind the AMX-13 during for the machine gunners firing from the troop the light tank ideal for supporting infantry Litton was then supporting the missile gun movement. compartment. assaults. boat (MGB) project with project management and engineering support, to deliver MGBs The Israeli advisors proposed that M113 Although the poorer firepower of the M113 By the early 1980s, however, technology had to the Singapore Maritime Command. would be more suitable a vehicle for the was later improved by the SAF with a 25mm caught up with the AMX-13 design. MINDEF Second Permanent Secretary of Defence (2PS) armoured infantry than the V-200. It would gun in a turret, the gap would not be closed and the SAF looked at alternatives to the proposed that Litton be engaged to provide be able to follow the AMX-13 through terrain for nearly 30 years till the SAF introduced long-serving AMX-13 because the tank was engineering and project management support with wet ground. Besides the former’s better the Bionix. unable to serve the needs of the SAF Armour for the V-200 production phase of the project. mobility, there would also be less risk of delay in its existing form. MINDEF sought a land A Litton team led by Col (Ret) Gregg McKee in building up the brigade because the M113 Projects Spider and Archer platform with more superior firepower, relocated to Singapore and provided support was ready for production and had seen combat mobility and survivability and intended to for the programme. during the Vietnam War. In the SAF of the 1970s and 1980s, the AMX-13 come to a decision point before the AMX- light tanks provided the mass, mobility and 13s (still a formidable opponent in the early Singapore Automotive Engineering Instead of buying another 250 V-200s for firepower. Already a credible war machine 1980s) became obsolete. formed to provide Maintenance the armoured brigade, Dr Goh Keng Swee when first unveiled to the public as part of the Support for the V-200 accepted the recommendation of HQ Armour 1969 National Day Parade Mobile Column, Due to the large number of AMX-13s that and the General Staff Division to buy the the Singapore Army’s AMX-13s packed a formed the spearhead of the Singapore There was a need to build up higher echelon M113 which was in service with the US Army punch right to the day these tanks were Armoured Regiments, time was of the essence. maintenance. As Cadillac Gage had designed and many armies in the West. The concept retired, with the last batch of full-time NSFs If the procurement process was delayed to and built the V-200, the company would have of the M113 was a battle taxi, and it could AMX-13 tankees trained around 2005. the point that the AMX-13 was outclassed the knowledge to develop the maintenance also screen tanks from enemy anti-tank units. by contemporary armour, then MINDEF

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risked allowing the SAF’s tank force to reach Led by engineers from CIS in the early 1980s, block obsolescence before a replacement was Project Spider led to the development of the The AMX-13 Light Tank Design There was a flip side to this 1950s-era found or before a new vehicle time reached world’s most powerful 75mm tank round – a design, which armies fielded as a tank full operational capability. This could have dart-shaped tank-killer that gave the 18-tonne From a technical standpoint, the AMX-13 destroyer and mobile gun. Armour In had serious implications for the operational AMX-13 SM1 tank the ability to destroy larger design had two noteworthy achievements Profile described the shortcomings of the readiness of the Army’s manoeuvre units and and better protected tanks many times its to its name: design: “The oscillating turret does suffer the deterrent effect of the SAF. size. The new munition was known by its full some basic disadvantages inherent in the name as the Armour-Piercing Fin-Stabilised • The AMX-13 was the first tank designed design which undoubtedly explain why the In 1984, a team was formed between Discarding Sabot Tracer (APFSDS-T) round. with an automatic loader. This gave it concept has not been more widely adopted. MINDEF and SAE to assess the viability Among those in the know, it was simply called the advantage of a high rate of fire, with More power is required for elevating and of either upgrading the AMX-13 tanks or Spider. The Spider round was innovative as one aimed round every five seconds. depressing the gun than in a conventional replacing them altogether. The project was it was one of the few sabot rounds in the • It was the first tank designed with an tank. Total armour weight is greater codenamed Project Archer. At the time, a light world that was fired from a tank gun with a oscillating turret. because of duplication of armour thickness tank replacement was said to cost around S$3 muzzle brake. where the two parts of the turret overlap. million. This compared to the projected cost A 1967 booklet, titled AMX-13 Armour The clearance between the top and bottom of upgrading the tank, which was estimated In Profile, described the light tank’s parts causes problems in sealing the turret to be around one-fifth that amount. design features. “The advantages of the in a chemical or nuclear environment and oscillating turret concept are principally in wading operations. There is also the The gun that armed the AMX-13 had an that it simplifies the design of an automatic hazard of the turret becoming jammed by impressive history that impressed the Israelis in loader because it allows this device to foreign matter, or even small arms fire on the 1950s. This was before the Israelis discovered be mounted in the turret, which moves the battlefield.” that the AMX-13 gun could not penetrate Soviet- with the gun. This means the gun breech, made T-54 and T-55 tanks used by Arab armies irrespective of its position, is always in the such as the Egyptians and Syrians. same relative position to the automatic loader, mounted behind the breech at the The book Chariots of the Desert described AMX-13 SM1 tankees with the Spider 75mm rear of the turret. If the gun in a normal why the gun impressed the Israeli army, “At APFSDS-T rounds turret is depressed, so the breech gets the time the French had developed a fast-firing closer to the turret roof and, unless the 75mm tank gun, which was a development of The success of Project Spider paved the way roof is made abnormally high, there is an the powerful German 7.5cm Kwk 42 (L/70). for MINDEF to approve Project Archer, the obvious limit to this movement which While this gun reached a muzzle velocity of full modernisation of the AMX-13 light tanks is even further restricted by the space over 900 m/sec for anti-tank ammunition, the to SM1 standard. MINDEF would not have required for loading. Alternatively, the gun French CN 75-50 gun topped 1,000 m/sec and, considered upgrading the AMX-13s if the can be mounted low in the turret to achieve in those days, was considered the best tank firepower of the tanks could not have been greater amplitude without having a high gun in the world. Mounted on the oscillating improved. The success of Project Spider was roof but, if this is done, the depression of turret of the air portable light AMX-13 tank, it therefore the start point for the fresh lease the gun is limited by fouling the hull front. fascinated the Israeli tankers; their own guns of life for SAF Armour’s ageing warhorses. With the oscillating turret, the gun can be still being obsolete short barrelled 75mm M3s Thanks to the new, more lethal munition, the mounted high in the turret, which means reaching a mere 600 m/sec.” 75mm main gun on AMX-13s could engage that the minimum area of turret is exposed and destroy bigger and better protected to the enemy when engaging a target from Project Spider, which was declassified for this armoured vehicles like MBTs. Generations a hull-down position. This also means book years after the AMX-13s were retired of SAF Armour tankees entrusted with this that because the gun is mounted high in by the SAF, was the codename for the project knowledge had kept their oath of secrecy and the turret the hull front should not be a that sought to develop an improved anti-tank this capability had remained secret past the limitation to the amount of depression of round. The project was started to leverage the tank’s retirement as it represented an advantage the gun. In a tank this is of vital importance 75mm gun’s high muzzle velocity to propel that could catch a potential opponent tanks tactically.” an armour-piercing dart right through thicker off guard in combat with no defence against armour plate. the armour-piercing rounds.

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Project Archer was a watershed for Singapore’s the project involved home-grown defence AMX-13 SM1 weapon systems. defence industry. It marked the largest and engineering know-how would give Singapore’s By Loh Heng Fong most complex AFV modernisation planned defence technology capabilities a significant As a Junior EE, I was assigned a number of and executed by Singapore’s defence science boost. With the upgrade in full swing, MG Mechanical Engineer Mr Loh Heng Fong gives a projects and AMX-13 dieselisation was one and engineering community. It involved a Choo noted that “our defence industries have first person account on the AMX-13 upgrading of them. My responsibility was to assist the near 100% rebuild of SAF AMX-13s at SAE’s grown in experience, capabilities, reliability programme. existing dieselisation team, which consisted Portsdown Road workshop. In short, each and are well-trained to help the SAF.” of a Senior EE who was the project engineer AMX-13 was taken apart and completely The AMX-13 was acquired by the SAF in the and four EAs reporting to the engineering rebuilt using state-of-the-art components. As 1960s. At the time, it had manual transmission manager. The main scope was to look for a traffic on the Ayer Rajah Expressway zipped that gave tank operators something extra to suitable diesel engine in the market and to past the workshop – tiny by American and worry about and a rudimentary suspension replace the obsolete petrol engine by a higher- European standards – SAE’s engineering staff design that did not give the soldiers a very power diesel engine. gave a new lease of life to the 1950s-era tanks comfortable ride. Our team had been given an by replacing ageing components like its engine, opportunity to modernise the AMX-13 fleet for The Challenge transmission, suspension, radio and weapon the SAF. The SM1 programme was to make sights with new components specially-picked the tank faster, safer and more economical to The challenge for the design team was to to improve the AFV’s combat capabilities. maintain. In giving the AMX-13 a new lease install a complete higher-power diesel engine Official Commissioning of the of life, we had fitted the vehicle with a diesel pack including radiator, fan and fan drive, air The MINDEF-SAE team modified two AMX- AMX-13 SM1 Tank by then CDF, MG Winston Choo engine, fully automatic transmission to improve cleaner, air induction system, exhaust system 13s in 1985 as test beds for the proposed on 15th June 1988 vehicle handling and a hydro-pneumatic and cross-flow radiator into the confined upgrades. By 1986, the Archer prototypes suspension system to provide soldiers with a engine compartment of the original AMX- were ready for field trials. Initial trials took After four years of effort which resulted in smoother ride. The refurbished AMX-13 SM1 13. In other words, the new requirement place from April to October 1986. Test results the AMX-13 SM1, MG Choo said the “the tanks were the first in its class of light tanks was to increase the engine power by 20% were analysed closely, modifications proposed outcome is a tank that is affordable and meets to have hydro-pneumatic suspension. Lifting a without increasing the size of the engine and refined and by the end of 1986, the design the operational requirements.” quote from the HQ Armour Heritage Centre, compartment. With all these challenges, the freeze for an upgrade package was finalised. “The AMX-13 project was a test of Stamina, most difficult task for the design team then Upgraded vehicles were known as the AMX- When the AMX-13s were retired, Singapore Teamwork and Cooperation between HQ was to design a suitable integrated cooling 13 SM1. This somewhat lengthy name was operated the most powerful AMX-13s in the Armour, DMO and ST Kinetics. We overcame system for the new diesel engine and the eventually shortened to simply SM1. world. The Singapore Army’s AMX-13 tank seemingly insurmountable problems on the existing control differentials which provided force was also the world’s largest. Credit journey together through unchartered terrain, the steering function for the AMX-13. On 15th June 1988, the AMX-13 SM1 for their operational readiness and hitherto and it was a huge success”. Commissioning Ceremony was held at unknown combat capabilities goes to the After talking to the project team, I was told SAE’s Portsdown Road plant. Speaking at the efforts of Singapore’s defence scientists and Humble Beginnings that a number of cooling system designs had ceremony, MG Winston Choo, then Chief of engineers, who exercised ingenuity in keeping been attempted but none of them seemed to the General Staff of the SAF, said, “The AMX- the 1950s-era French-made tanks lethal some I was working in an oil refinery industry as work. The radiator was under-sized, causing 13 upgrade project has shown that with imagination 50 years after they were manufactured. a project engineer and was introduced by my over-heating of the engine, and there was oil and innovativeness, much can be achieved with university classmate to join SAE in March leakage from hydraulic fittings of the cooling existing means. This possibility of adaptation and The AMX-13 modernisation provided the 1982. I was designated as an Engineering fan system due to vehicle vibration. upgrading must be constantly borne in mind, as Singapore’s defence engineers a valuable Executive (EE) in the Engineering Department. the maturing SAF grapples with the fast changing opportunity to learn first-hand the technology, There were only 30-odd staff with about As an inexperienced engineer, I did not undergo technology.” characteristics and trade-offs in protection, 10 draftsmen and draftswomen and 20 odd any formal training - everything was self- mobility and firepower. It also served as a engineers; most of them were Engineering driven. I learnt through reading magazines, MG Choo said two reasons underlined the springboard for more complex and ambitious Assistants (EAs). military articles and product brochures. To decision to upgrade rather than buy new tanks. projects by Singapore’s defence scientists learn more about the mechanical designs First, there existed “excellent possibilities to and engineers, with the development of the I was an Artillery NCO when I served my of every system and pick up some hands- upgrade the tank to meet our operational first AFV designed and built in Singapore the NS. I did not have any knowledge in military on experience, I worked most of the time requirements” at a fraction of the price of inevitable outcome. But success did not come vehicles. I should have joined ODE instead in the company workshop or army camp buying a new vehicle. Second, the fact that automatically or easily. of SAE; however I preferred automotives to workshop when vehicles broke down. To

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such as Airscrew Howden for cooling fans transmission systems) for the SAF to choose and Galley for radiators from the UK and the best. The SAE management understood Donaldson Company Inc. from the US for the technical challenges of the SAF’s new air filters and mufflers. This was the time requirement and the limited knowledge our during which I had opportunities to travel team had. In order not to overload our team, overseas and talk to experts and overseas an overseas partner was brought in as they designers directly. I took the opportunity to claimed they had a proven dieselisation kit visit their workshops and to understand their for the AMX-13. Its kit consisted of a two- design and manufacturing processes. It was stroke 6V-53T Detroit Diesel engine of a really an eye-opener for me. While so, it was different model from ours and its in-house not sufficient just to have all this knowledge developed semi-automatic transmission. The to size the engine’s associated systems. As company had had many experiences with mentioned earlier, the main challenge was to tank retrofitting projects, which ranged from assemble all these systems and house them the US M-series medium tanks through the into the very small and confined AMX-13 Soviet T-series and the British Centurion. SAE’s working team in front of the AMX-13 SM1 at its Portsdown’s test track. engine compartment. Mr Loh Heng Fong is in the front row second from the left For our existing kit, I had to look for a suitable My worry came true after all the systems were automatic transmission to match with the learn the function of the vehicles and get this engine? It so happened that Detroit Diesel sized up. The entire engine pack required a Detroit Diesel 6V-53T engine. After some field experience, I followed my senior to the Allison had developed a new generation of bigger engine compartment in order for all market research and literature search, we testing ground in Sungei Gedong Camp. turbocharged engines known as the Silver the systems to work accordingly as the design finally selected ZF. ZF was a German company During vehicle trials, I took the opportunity 53. This was a very compact engine which intended. During that time, we did not have producing thousands of transmissions per to learn to drive as well as learn about the improved engine performance, fuel economy, good knowledge to modify the original AMX- day, which they supplied to car and truck maintenance of the vehicle. Besides learning reliability and durability. I contacted the 13 chassis which concerned armoured steel companies. They also designed transmission from my senior at the time, there were very local agent, General Diesel Singapore (GDS). material. To gain more space, unavoidable hull for military applications. I started working experienced mechanics in the workshop I I worked very closely with its sales manager, modification was necessary. Our question was, very closely with ZF’s local office as well as learnt from. They would sometimes scold you its service manager and even its workshop could we cut and modify the original AMX-13 their HQ design office in Friedrichshafen, when they saw you doing something silly. technicians. They provided me with a lot of hull built in the 1950s? Germany. Eventually their chief design However, in order to make them feel good so technical data about the Silver Engine. From engineer, an experienced old man of 70 over, as to continue to learn from them, I tolerated! this data, I was able to learn more about the Turning Point recommended modifying one of their well- two-stroke diesel engine. I finally selected proven commercial transmissions ZF WG- Unexpectedly, after been working in the the 6V-53T engine. With all the knowledge I At last, the SAF put up its request for two 180. Mr Toh Beng Khoon was the engineer company for about a year, my senior suddenly learnt from GDS I was confident in calculating prototypes to select a suitable one. The in DMO (Defence Materials Organisation, resigned. I was appointed the project engineer design requirements for the associated requirement was to change the petrol engine now DSTA) who travelled with me to ZF with the responsibility of leading the four auxiliary systems such as cooling systems, and manual transmission to diesel engine with Germany and we worked with the Chief experienced EAs. At the time there were air filtration systems, exhaust systems and automatic transmission. It was very obvious Design Engineer in his office for almost one still many technical problems that needed fuel systems. that they needed an automatic transmission as month. The objective was to learn more resolving, such as engine over-heating, oil the original manual transmission was not easy about the ZF WG-180 transmission and to leakage due to vehicle vibration and some However, this was just a paper study and to operate by the SAF’s newly recruited drivers. discuss the necessary modification required reliability issues. I was telling myself, if the needed to be translated into hardware. My On some occasions the driver’s hand may get in order to reconfigure this transmission project team had been working hard for more next challenge was to size out the radiator injured because of the kick-back action of the to fit into the existing AMX-13. Both of us than two years and yet still could not find for the engine, coolers for the transmission gears during gear shifting. To fulfil the SAF’s learnt a lot about automatic transmission a workable solution, then there had to be and steering differentials, cooling fan for requirement to have two dieselisation kits for in terms of the matching of transmission something that they didn’t do right! the radiator and coolers, and air filters and them to evaluate and chose one, we first had with engine, torque convertors matching and exhaust mufflers. After many meetings and to look for a suitable automatic transmission selection and gear shift patterns. We also I knew the first thing I needed to do was to discussions with the sales manager at GDS, for our existing diesel engine kit and second, visited ZF’s transmission and steering system look for another engine which met all the he advised me to look for overseas suppliers. develop another completely different power manufacturing plant in Friedrichshafen as requirements set by the SAF, but what was I was recommended to contact suppliers pack (comprising complete engine and well as Passau office.

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As for the other kit, a separate team was set up contacted the local VDO office and they linked from people, you had to be humble and in there. When the test vehicle broke down, we to work with the overseas partner. They worked me up with their design office in Germany. return you would get all that you want as had to arrange transport to either tow the in another workshop led by a very experienced A new DIP was then designed for the SM1. well as respect. vehicle back to the camp workshop or back chief engineer. The project engineer from SAE to Portsdown workshop. Occasionally there was Mr Mah Chi Jui. The chief engineer knew With all these studies, the next challenge The Hardship and the Fun were ad hoc vehicle demonstration trials to that SAE was also developing a dieselisation was to do a complete mechanical system VIPs from the SAF, and we had to work over- kit. Instructions from the management given integration to link up the entire engine and Although I mentioned earlier that there night either in Sungei Gedong workshop or to us were not to copy their designs and also transmission associated systems, which was no experienced engineer to guide me Portsdown workshop to make sure the vehicle not to go near their work area. As a young and required calculations, design and preparation along, I did have two very experienced EAs, was in tip-top condition for the trial. curious engineer then, I just wanted to know of engineering drawings. We had to discuss Mr Anthony Leong and Mr Sunny Kang. how they actually did it? I had no intention to with local and overseas vendors for the Anthony was an experienced mechanical copy any of their designs. fabrication of all the sub-system parts such as EA and an experienced test driver. Sunny brackets, electrical harnesses and mechanical was experienced in electrical and electronics. Occasionally I met Chi Jui and tried to control linkages. In the early 1980s, we did not Both had no diploma qualifications but all understand a bit more about the kit he was have finite element method (FEM), computer- their experiences were learnt from years of working on. I did not get too much detail but aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) hand-on and field trials in Sungei Gedong tried to understand in general how the hull or any simulation design tools to help us, Camp or overseas testing grounds. We did not modification work was being carried out and everything was done in a conventional way have a big testing team during those days and the layout of the engine and its associated – hand calculation, hand sketch and then therefore everyone in the team had to take systems. While having more dialogues with drawing board. One thing I would like to turns to be the driver and vehicle commander. Chi Jui, I was inspired by two very important admit was that the overseas’ kit provided me For safety reasons, the SAF did not allow us pieces of information. The first was that the with some confidence. For instance, I was not to drive the AMX-13 without the SAF driving AMX-13 SM1 Towing Test chassis could be flame cut and modified to too sure sometimes if the size of a bracket was licence. Therefore we had to be trained by the increase space in the engine compartment. done correctly as I did not know the correct SAF driving instructors and finally took a test The Final SM1 Kit Secondly, the kit used mechanical means to design safety factors to adopt. Referring to in order to obtain a driving license issued by propel the cooling fan instead of hydraulic the similar bracket used on the kit, I could the SAF. Testing a vehicle in Sungei Gedong Finally SAF had to decide which dieselisation means. In other words, our problems of space counter-check and it became our reference was also not a fun thing to do! There was kit they would choose for production. The and hydraulic oil leakage due to vibration could guide in the future. no training shade in the field for you to rest two options were: Overseas’ kit with semi- be readily resolved. while you were waiting for your turn to be automatic transmission where the driver was Similarly during those days, we did not have the driver or commander. In order not to still required to upshift or downshift the The Solution proper design guides and design processes be exposed to the hot sun, we either rested gear selector while driving, or SAE’s kit with such as Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) under trees or hid inside the company truck fully automatic transmission where the driver With this information, we started working day and Work Instruction (WI) to guide us along. when it was raining. There was a coffee shop only needed to select a driving mode before and night to reconfigure a new layout. The first In other words, we had a very lean process outside the camp and very often we took our the vehicle moved out. The SAF eventually thing to do was to modify the existing engine and therefore things moved very fast. I was breakfast and packed our lunch and dinner selected the SAE kit but they wanted us to compartment by cutting out a portion of the allowed to do anything I thought was correct look into improving the suspension systems side hull and to create more space for the cooling and to make a final decision on my own as as well. fan. Concurrently we communicated with ZF, there was no better and experienced engineer Airscrew Howden, Galley and Donaldson or manager there to give me advice. For me, The original AMX-13 was designed with to change some of their proposed designs to this provided me with a good opportunity to torsion bars system for its suspension. The accommodate the space we allocated for their exercise my ability to deal with engineering disadvantage of the torsion bar suspension was systems. To change the hydraulic fan drive problems as well as my management skills. a lack of progressive spring rate and therefore system to a mechanical system, we contacted At times, I need to work in local vendors’ it offered less stability when travelling in a gearbox manufacturer to design and fabricate fabrication workshops with their workers and rough terrains. With the new diesel engine and a mechanical gearbox for the cooling fan. For technicians. There was a small SAE machine fully automatic transmission, SAF expected the new engine and transmission, we required shop at Portsdown and I often worked with the vehicle to travel faster in cross-country some of the information to be displayed in the machinist for minor modification works. terrains while providing good stability for the Driver Instrument Panel (DIP). Therefore I I understood that if you wanted to learn more Sungei Gedong Test Ground Condition the gunner and commander as they were

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operating the turret. Two suspension systems XV1 – Forerunner of Singapore’s The following year proved a busy one for the were evaluated. The first was GLS from first indigenous Infantry Fighting project team, codenamed Funby as it was a Germany which had proposed dual-action Vehicle “fun” vehicle project. The final test bed design hydraulic telescopic shock absorbers with review took place over four months from hydraulic bump stops, and the other one When defence engineers in Singapore assembled April to June 1994, with three final prototypes was Dunlop’s hydro-pneumatic suspension an experimental armoured vehicle in early 1990s rolled out from 1995 to 1996. system. Two systems were evaluated and to demonstrate their readiness to design and finally due to some reliability issues on GLS’s build an AFV, the home-made vehicle almost Extensive testing in Singapore and overseas, system, the winner was the Dunlop’s hydro- fell apart when taken for a test drive. which included mobility trials across thousands pneumatic suspension. The AMX-13 SM1 of kilometres, led to the pre-production model Bionix Infantry Fighting Vehicle in action thus became the first in its class of light tanks As the experimental vehicle, named XV1 roll-out in June 1996. By September that year, to have hydro-pneumatic suspension. (eXperimental Vehicle 1), was coaxed to the IFV that one would recognise as the Bionix It was their experience driving the move faster over rough terrain at the SAFTI was ready and the final design review was modernisation project for the Singapore With all the improvements mentioned above, live-firing area, a road wheel came off in a signed off in 1996. This led to the initial Army’s AMX-13 tanks. Accomplished in 1988, the crew liked the SM1 very much not only somewhat inelegant display of engineering production of the IFV on the new assembly which was the same year the SA introduced because of the improved suspension system, failure. The XV1 chassis moved ahead while line and the roll-out of the first production IFV the 155mm FH88 field howitzer – the first the automatic transmission and higher the loose road wheel rolled off sideways on in August 1997. heavy artillery gun designed and built in power of the diesel engine, but also the its own journey. the Lion City - Singapore’s defence planners way the cooling system was being arranged were in a buoyant mode. The question on in the vehicle. Most vehicles installed air Engineers from SAE could have called it quits everyone’s mind was what’s next? Why not conditioning or an air blower system to there and then. With so many AFV types to an indigenous AFV? improve crew comfort. However, for the SM1, choose from, Singapore could have bought a we made use of the engine cooling fan to foreign AFV off-the-shelf. The can-do spirit of Singapore’s defence provide cooling not only for the engine and scientists and engineers has contributed transmission but also to provide air circulation To their credit, the SAE team did not give immeasurably to the defence of the Lion City. for the driver, gunner and commander, thus up. XV1 was repaired and joined by a stable This was achieved by expanding the range of reducing the number of components used on mate, XV2, and the rigorous trials on these engineering capabilities to improve armoured the vehicle. This led to reduced production experimental vehicles eventually paved the war machines used by the Army and the cost, lower maintenance requirement and way for the development of the Infantry XV1 Prototype RSAF, which uses V-200 armoured cars armed lower overall life-circle cost. Fighting Vehicle (IFV) designed and built in with RBS-70 low-level air defence missiles. Singapore. This IFV was named the Bionix. More importantly, every defence professional who contributed to AFV projects helped to The evolution of the Bionix took place within nurture a new generation of Singaporean a few years. From 1988 to 1990, the SAF defence scientists and engineers with the and defence industry explored the possibility know-how, track record and managerial of fielding a successor to the M113. After expertise at delivering unique AFVs designed the paper studies, an Experimental Vehicle for the Singapore Army’s specific operational Programme started in 1990 led to a test bed requirements. design review in March 1992 which gave rise to the early Bionix prototype – a fully tracked For a small country with no national car armoured vehicle with a front-mounted engine XV2 Prototype and hence no legacy of deep expertise in and rear troop compartment that represented automotive technology, Singapore’s ability a rudimentary IFV concept. Despite the initial failure, what was the source to design, build, manufacture and maintain a of confidence that motivated SAE engineers growing list of indigenous armoured vehicles This was followed by the roll-out of three test to push on? has raised eyebrows amongst military beds for field trials in quick succession: XV1 analysts and defence companies worldwide. in January 1993, and XV2 and XV3 in the middle of 1993.

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The attention of defence analysts is heightened As more AFVs designed and built by The project to upgrade the whole fleet of AMX- Starting up a Singapore-made AFV takes just further when they better understand what Singaporean know-how, such as the Bronco, 13s for the Singapore Army nearly went by two easy steps. Activate the main electrical Singapore-made AFVs can do. This includes the Primus 155mm self-propelled howitzer default to a foreign company as MINDEF switch, then press a button to start the engine. the best-in-class cargo and cross-country and the Terrex 8-wheeled infantry carrier and the SAF had yet to be convinced the performance of vehicles like the Bronco all- vehicle, rolled off the ST Kinetics assembly work could be done in Singapore. By stepping Whether wheeled or tracked, Singapore-made terrain tracked carrier. The design features line, such scepticism were eventually silenced. forward with their proposal for modernising AFVs are designed to be easy to drive right of the Bionix have also attracted attention. the 1950s-era tank at a price and with from the design stage. Instead of wrestling The Bionix’s design strikes a balance between The creativity of Singapore’s AFV project capabilities no other company could offer, our with steering levers (one for each track) on protection, mobility in confined spaces like teams is seen in innovations such as the use defence scientists and SAE engineers forged a typical tracked vehicle, the driver moves rubber and oil palm plantations, and the of rubber tracks on the Bronco (this makes the trust and confidence with MINDEF and the the Bionix and Bronco using a small steering amount of integration aboard and between vehicle quieter and gives a more comfortable SAF Armour. wheel the same way civilians steer a car. The the AFV and other SAF assets that allow ride compared to steel tracks), the development floorboard has only two pedals: an accelerator information to be harnessed to gain the best of the world’s most powerful 75mm tank The XV1 capability demonstration may have to move forward and a brake to stop. This advantage during operations. gun ammunition and the adaptation of the had a modest start. But perseverance paid compares with older designs such as the basic Bronco design into some 30 specialised off as the Bionix that emerged is the world’s AMX-13 and M113 which had a clutch, an variants from troop transports, mortar carriers best-protected IFV that can manoeuvre in accelerator and a brake pedal. With no clutch, to missile-armed anti-tank platforms. plantations and confined areas in an urban an automatic transmission takes care of the battlefield. job of shifting gears. This means driving is Tough Customers made easier and less taxing. The benefit of Despite the competition from more having a vehicle that is simple to drive is seen Anyone who is looking at the growing list of established rivals, it was the ability of our during sustained operations at long range. armoured vehicles produced by ST Kinetics defence scientists and engineers not to lose The driver’s alertness is improved, which over the past decades might assume that heart too quickly and to bounce back quickly translates to a safety ride for those aboard Singapore’s defence industry has enjoyed a after engineering setbacks that set Singapore’s the vehicle. smooth, problem-free growth trajectory as AFV journey on the proverbial road to success. it delivered increasingly complex projects. For a city-state that relies on NSmen and NSFs The Bronco all-terrain track carrier deployed Singapore’s AFV development journey was Over time, Singapore’s defence engineering as the main sources of defence manpower, in action anything but an easy ride. community learned to build on modest quick it is critical that the time spent training wins and, more critically, adapt and learn and refreshing their combat skills is used Years after the Bionix was unveiled in 1997, Singapore’s defence scientists and engineers from engineering blind alleys. The latter productively. defence engineers and management from knew better than any of their counterparts includes failed attempts to install a 155mm its maker, by then known as ST Kinetics, that MINDEF and the SAF are tough customers gun onto a truck and the effort to modify the Designing AFVs to be simple to operate and continued to field queries – some asked who needed to be convinced that Singapore’s AMX-13 tank for swimming. maintain accelerates the learning for NSmen discretely, some less so – about which foreign defence industry is capable of far more than and the younger NSFs, and makes the vehicle company helped Singapore design the Bionix. just maintenance and final assembly of war Singapore’s AFV development journey more soldier-proof. But this is just one aspect of A follow-up query when ST Kinetics replied machines supervised by a foreign vendor. packs an inspiring storyline. But it is worth a wider, more holistic effort at revamping the that the design was done locally: Which AFV understanding why Singapore goes the extra training syllabus for AFV crews. This revamp “inspired” the Bionix design? The less subtle They have to fight hard to win the trust mile to customise AFVs. Why not simply buy has led the SAF Armour to introduce driving asked point blank which armoured vehicle and confidence of MINDEF and the SAF. off-the-shelf? and gunnery simulators to train Bionix and design was copied to make the Bionix. Their successes at overcoming technological Bronco crews. These simulators realistically and design challenges have seen Singapore Why Made in Singapore Matters immerse AFV crews in terrain and expose the The capability jump in AFV technology gradually expand its indigenous AFV family soldiers to threats and operational situations evidently caught many foreign defence to include tracked and wheeled armour, as If you can drive a car safely, it is likely an they may face in combat. watchers by surprise. The reply from ST well as specialised armoured vehicles such SAF instructor can teach you how to drive Kinetics that the Bionix was developed in as bridge-layers to span gaps like canals off in a Singapore-made armoured vehicle in Time spent training with the AFV can Singapore by Singaporeans was initially and mine-clearing vehicles for demining 15 minutes or less. therefore concentrate on the forging teamwork greeted with incredulity and scepticism. operations under fire. between the AFV crew and embarked armoured infantry. Higher order skills such

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as the coordination needed between armoured low. The last point is important as a vehicle’s The tank commander would typically be One feature unique to AFVs designed and vehicle commanders and their crew to fight as cross-country performance is determined furnished with a better view of the outside built in Singapore is a high level of armour a team as part of a platoon, which is part of a to a large extent by its weight and engine world with more periscopes on the cupola. protection packed into a relatively narrow company in a Singapore armoured regiment performance. However, battle experience has led many vehicle body – typically less than three are also regularly practised during war games. armies to train their tank commanders to metres wide. By deliberately designing to a Second, emphasis on mobility could result fight from an open hatch as the awareness certain size template, AFV commanders can During annual call ups, NSmen can quickly in making the AFV more survivable as a fast of the situation is deemed more critical to move their compact yet well-protected war familiarise themselves with war machines mover is harder to target and hit. An AFV the AFV’s survivability than simply going machines in restrictive terrain such as urban they were trained to use during their two that is highly mobile can also mean it can into battle with all hatches closed. Pictures of areas and plantations, which larger vehicles years of full-time NS. Once reacquainted, travel on rough ground or soft terrain which SAF tanks during war games that commonly could not bypass. Off-the-shelf AFV designs the NSmen can concentrate on refreshing is impassable to less-mobile designs. show the tank commander fighting from an designed for European battlefields or combat battle skills in their armoured battalion and open hatch indicate how SAF Armour trains in open deserts are unsuited for the SAF’s practise large-scale manoeuvres as part of an Third, the AFV crew could be armed with its tank crews to go into battle. operating environment because terrain such Armoured Battle Group (ABG). the firepower needed to address threats that as plantations will prove impassable to larger could be used against the vehicle. Should you It is counter-intuitive because one would and wider fighting vehicles. A war machine that is easy to operate and pick a gun, a missile or a mix of both? If a gun suppose that the tank crew is better protected maintain is invaluable for Singapore’s citizen is selected as the main armament, what size when all hatches are closed, as opposed to the The decisions that lead the SAF to introduce, armed forces and keeps maintenance costs of gun? A bigger calibre or size of the shell situation when the commander has his head renew or retire its armoured vehicles are low from the time the vehicle is put into means the vehicle can carry less ammunition. and shoulders exposed to enemy fire. classified to protect the operational or service till it is retired years later. A larger gun also tends to have a lower rate technological advantage that such war of fire, which means fewer shells on target Technological advancements have allowed machines offer the SAF. The process can, Singapore-made AFVs place heavy emphasis compared to a lighter weapon that can put Singaporean design teams to strike a however, be described in general terms because on protecting the crew because the life of more rounds on target faster. The SAF learned compromise. For example, by designing they follow principles for project management every Singaporean who serves the SAF in from experience with the V-200 armoured car AFVs with a locally designed Battlefield commonly practised for large-scale projects. peace and war is important. A high level of that a bigger gun does not necessarily mean Management System (BMS) that furnishes These include: crew protection can be accomplished with more firepower. The 90mm low pressure gun the commander and crews with information careful trade-offs in the three principal design in the V-200 has a poorer armour penetration on threats around the vehicle. The BMS is Statement of Needs: This document drills down considerations of protection, mobility and compared to the 75mm gun on AMX-13 light designed to enhance survivability by giving what the SAF needs in that capability in terms firepower faced by all AFV designers. tanks. them forewarning of areas to avoid, even of design and performance. when the AFV operates with hatches closed. Addressing one design consideration often In addition to careful considerations of Specific Operational Requirements: Complementing came at the expense of the others. This means trade-offs in protection-mobility-firepower, Aware of the decisive edge that information the Statement of Needs is the listing of all AFV designs must strike a balance between Singaporean AFV design teams identified an could deliver to warfighters networked to fight as operational requirements that further shape the war machine’s ability to destroy targets additional factor: information. a system rather than as individual platforms on the capability required. (firepower), move on the battlefield or in water the battlefield, MINDEF, the SAF and ST Kinetics (mobility) and safeguard its occupants and By design, the crews of an AFV fighting made a conscious decision to exploit advancements Concept of Operations (CONOPS): This states vital systems from enemy fire (protection). with hatches closed rely on their armoured in communications and information technology how the capability will be employed, for periscopes or radio communications with to wield information as a weapon. A gun or example, an ability to engage and destroy First, the level of protection for an AFV depends other vehicles to make sense of the unfolding missile is only lethal when the crew knows where enemy AFVs at long range, why it is required on its armour. In today’s context, stronger battle situation around their vehicle. The to aim. This push to allow AFV crews to see first, and what kind of existing and projected armour does not necessarily mean heavier number of periscopes on all armoured vehicles see more, understand better and act decisively threats it may have to address. The CONOPS armour. This is because composite armour is deliberately kept low as the breaks in the explains why new vehicles from Singapore’s will spell out whether the capability should has evolved to give AFV designers options cast or welded armour needed to fit the vision battle labs are wired up to a greater extent with be represented by attack helicopters (like the that do not come with a stiff weight penalty. port can compromise the level protection. datalinks, flat screen displays and even tiny AH-64D Apache) or in a new AFV. For example, the Bionix, Bronco and Terrex The periscopes provided for a tank driver electronic cameras that served as “eyes” around all leverage advancements in composites to can usually be counted on one hand. A tank the war machine compared to armoured vehicles Operational Master Plan: The SAF spells out protect their occupants with a higher level of gunner seldom has a 360-degree view of the the SAF had bought from overseas. Information how the capability will be introduced, and protection while keeping the vehicle’s weight outside world. is a force multiplier. timelines required.

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Engineering Master Plan: Technical aspects real world test before it is introduced on a EXPLORATORY Preamble of the capability, which will guide how the wide scale. DEVELOPMENT OF By Prof Lim Khiang Wee, Division capability is maintained throughout its service of Engineering and Technology with the SAF, are stated under this plan. A tiny city-state like Singapore, the smallest AUTONOMOUS AND Management, Faculty of country in ASEAN, can never be self- REMOTELY OPERATED Engineering, National University As CONOPS is articulated, debated and refined sufficient in AFVs, which means the country VEHICLE of Singapore by the weapons staff and the technical side of makes everything it needs. This is because the house represented by DSTA, the defence local demand is simply too small to justify 1999-2000 was a tumultuous period for industry and the defence science community manufacturing every type of armoured vehicle the GINTIC Institute of Manufacturing such as DSO, the project team relies on the the SAF needs to move and protect its people Technology. GINTIC had been corporatised SAF’s experience operating various weapon while engaging hostile forces. By Prof Lim Khiang Wee, Dr Javier Ibanez- in 1997 following which the then Director, platforms and DSTA’s expertise in testing Guzman, Dr Jake Toh and Mr Chan Chun Wah Dr Frans Carpay and its Board embarked many others to get a better feel of what is However, Singapore’s push to build self- on a growth strategy to position it as the required. reliance in AFV technology gives MINDEF In the 1980s, it was clear that the enormous “Fraunhofer-of-the-East”. and the SAF options unavailable had we been intellectual capacity of the staff and students By this stage, the capability would have been forced to rely solely on off-the-shelf choices. in our universities could make significant Instead of relying primarily on research defined more specifically. For example, the The ability to design AFVs indigenously means contributions in the development of from the universities, GINTIC started to weapons staff would have decided that the anti- new vehicles can be tailored-made to meet technological solutions for the SAF. Finding do longer-term upstream research in newly armour capability will come in the form of an the specific needs of the SAF and its operating a match between the research interests of formed research divisions and launched AFV instead of an attack helicopter with anti- environment. It is a strategic advantage that the staff and the needs of defence required a development division focussed on tank missiles or a special anti-armour artillery results in specialised designs that enables the investment of the time of defence technology technology transfer to industry with full- munition. SAF to achieve mission success. leaders and the leaders of engineering and cost recovery. It accelerated its headcount science in the universities to meet and find growth in the expectation that projects Along the way, the planning cycle will The Road Ahead areas of common interest. would follow. In the midst of this, it leverage on Operations Research, which refers received a call for research proposal for to the analysis of accumulated defence data Projects Spider and Archer were game- Grumman International NTI1 Computer Project Ulysses from DSTA. and field experience, to outline the capability changers. Experience leading these projects Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing that might suit the SAF. Computer modelling for the Singapore Army made Singaporean (CAD/CAM) Centre (GINTIC) was established Project Ulysses called for the development and simulation allows paperless design and defence scientists and engineers eager to do in 1985 with the support of Grumman of a vehicle system capable of operating speeds up the process for the project team more. Aerospace, the manufacturer of the USN autonomously and remotely, day and to get a better sense of the weapon being airborne early warning aircraft, the E-2C that night in natural environments. The vehicle developed. In time to come, ST Kinetics would earn a was becoming operational in the RSAF. Under system selected for the research was the reputation as a maker of light to medium the ambit of GINTIC, Prof Khoo Li Pheng was M113 APC. The goal was to convert the The validation and refinement of the various armoured fighting vehicles (below 40 tonnes one of the Nanyang Technological Institute APC into a drive-by-wire system, capable plans is also critical. The SAF uses computer- in weight) with performance, ease of use and faculty who had the opportunity to learn about of vehicle following as well as autonomous aided war gaming and field trials involving combat capabilities few could match. the latest use of CAD/CAM in the aerospace driving in natural environments in daylight two-sided (Blue team versus Red team) and industry from Grumman Aerospace. and for tele-operation day and night. multi-sided encounters involving the Army and RSAF units, to ensure these concepts go The grand challenge of developing the For the researchers at GINTIC, this was the through trial-by-fire. technologies for autonomous driving from opportunity of a lifetime. The project could 1999 with the M113 APC as the platform bring together competencies developed in Demonstration units such as 42 SAR that are created excitement that raised the level of the research divisions. It could draw upon equipped with an initial batch of the new research and development in GINTIC, and links already built up with university AFV provide valuable end-user feedback on provided our defence engineers with the collaborators in Singapore, Australia the comfort, ease of use and maintenance opportunity to learn from doing. and France. It could provide a focus for requirements. Such feedback ensures the research. The demonstrator would allow

technical manuals that guide how the AFV 1 Nanyang Technological Institute – predecessor of Nanyang the integration of ideas into a leading edge is operated and maintained goes through a Technology University (NTU) technologically advanced platform.

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There was a snag. The proposed project was Javier Ibanez-Guzman. His recollections and The Project Manager’s Perspective classify obstacles with a given height/volume not an obvious fit with the core mission of reflections follow. Dr Jake Toh provides a By Dr Javier Ibanez-Guzman criterion. GINTIC to support Singapore’s manufacturing perspective for this ground breaking project industry. The typical questions that would and its follow-up from his perspective as an Ulysses was a project sponsored by the Land Localisation, that is establishing the vehicle's have been asked: What would be the ST Kinetics engineer working on the project. Systems Division of DSTA between late 1999 position with respect to a reference frame, economic value-add of this project? Could From the funding agency, DSTA, the project and 2004. This is a personal perspective of was another challenge. The Global Navigation the young (and inexperienced) team deliver an officer, Mr Chan Chun Wah also provides the project that, with hindsight, demonstrated Satellite System (GNSS) as we know it was still integrative engineering project of this scale? a personal account. We conclude with some technological achievements that were well under consideration. In those days, Selected Would there be additional competencies reflections on lessons learnt. ahead of their time. Availability (SA) of the positioning signals developed? Where would these competencies from the US Global Positioning System (GPS) reside? Even more prosaic questions would Today, 12 years after the project concluded, was enabled so accuracies lower than 20m include: Was this to be a project under the many of the technologies, concepts and ideas were not easy to achieve with non-military wings of a research division or was this to that emerged from Ulysses can be found in equipment. Fortunately for Ulysses, the be a technology transfer project, in which the disruptive technology that autonomous higher- resolutions GPS signals were available case did the project meet GINTIC’s “full-cost vehicles, together with connectivity, and to the project team during the project. recovery” criteria? If this was to be a research electrical vehicles, represent for mobility and project, would the then funding agency that land transportation systems. In navigation which involves path planning and oversaw GINTIC, the National Science and obstacle avoidance to reach the destination, Technology Board (NSTB, the predecessor Autonomous Vehicles in Defence most of the prior work had been performed of the Agency for Science, Technology and Applications for indoor robotics, for example, in the Hilare Research (A*STAR)), approve of the project? robot in France. The figure below summarised In the 1990s there was considerable interest the technical challenges that were addressed To complicate matters, the project did not amongst the armed forces of the NATO on in Ulysses. have much visibility outside of the project the use of robotics technologies applied to land team in the early stage of its development. vehicles. The most notable was DEMO III in Discussions relating to the project were also the US where an unmanned ground vehicle confined to a select group and the project did demonstrated different autonomous capabilities not feature in formal Institute presentations. operating in temperate climates. Other NATO nations had similar programmes: Primus in The question of NSTB approval probably Germany, a light air-transportable armoured never arose. As the Director of NSTB vehicle with tele-operated and autonomous overseeing GINTIC then, I was not aware capabilities; Syrano in France, the same vehicle of the existence of Ulysses in its early stage showing advanced tele-operated technologies. and had found out about the project only after becoming the Executive Director of GINTIC In academia, the Robotics Institute at Carnegie (later renamed as the Singapore Institute of Mellon University in the US was famous for Manufacturing Technology (SIMTech)) when the NavLab family of vehicles. the project had already started. Nevertheless, the funds that came with the project were Technical Challenges for Autonomous most welcome. They helped GINTIC meet Vehicles the key performance indicators (KPIs) set Functions addressed by Ulysses for by NSTB! Thus was born a “Skunk Works” Whilst computer vision applied to mobile autonomous vehicle navigation project. The institute started the project as robotics could be traced back to the mid GINTIC and finished it as SIMTech. 1960s, acquiring an image in real-time using Information and Communications Technologies the early Pentium PCs available to Ulysses (ICT) were also limited in the early Pentium This article assembles the recollections of was a challenge. The resolution available PCs, with communications limited to the some of the key players. The driving force was sub-VGA and only in black-and-white. 430MHz frequency as used in infrastructure for the project within SIMTech was Dr It was a major task to measure range and to projects. It was in the period just preceding

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Ulysses that in the robotics community started by Mr Shen Jian and Dr Gong Zhiming. In the from Sim Lim Square. We assembled our Developing the Proposal to buzz about simultaneous localisation and area of vision there was substantial work on controller in an electrical distribution box, mapping (SLAM). This turned out to be inspection machines for the semiconductor cut using the water-jet cutting machine at Writing the proposal for Ulysses was a major important for robotics mobility. industry, bolstered by the arrival later of SIMTech. endeavour. It was a painstaking process. I had Dr Xu Jian. Ms Pooja Charturvedi provided to incorporate the vision and needs of the Before Project Ulysses – Project Diana programming capabilities for the detection Our colleagues from the mysterious Diana DSTA project officer and SAF officers. At the of faults using the Matrox libraries. There project, in particular Dr Andy Malcolm who same time I had to find, choose and persuade When I first joined GINTIC, there was a was also work on software development for was to lead the tele-operation part of Ulysses, not only the team members to join me, but also mysterious room in the second floor of the the optimisation of manufacturing processes began noticing our work. to seek the support of their group managers GINTIC building. Colleagues from that by Dr Alex Tay. All these colleagues, with to release them from what was considered room made visits to an exotically named capabilities honed on other projects, became Coming Together in Ulysses their core mission in manufacturing related military camp and were returning exhausted part of the Ulysses team. R&D. Budgets and schedules also needed to by the heat and humidity but exhilarated Early in 1999, my research division director, be discussed and estimated. by discussion on the difficulty of generating None had prior experience with large vehicles. Dr Fong Aik Meng told me to prepare a disparity maps to infer depth from stereo proposal for the automation of an M113 APC. At the same time I had to identify the technical camera pairs, getting these maps in real- At SIMTech, work on vehicles was triggered He wanted me to be the project manager gaps to be filled - we sought needed support of time at more than 2Hz, by non-linearities by one of the first seminars on Intelligent and to build a team. By then, almost the Dr Wang Han and others from NTU for the encountered by the vehicle controllers and the Transportation Systems in 2000 at the whole Diana team, with the exception of vision, perception and navigation functions, overall control stability. They were working Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Dr Malcolm, had left GINTIC. I took on the and Dr Sam Ge and colleagues from the NUS on Project Diana, a proof-of-principle project where I gave a presentation on my previous challenge with enthusiasm without quite for the localisation and control functions. The for autonomous technologies. Diana explored work and made contact with other speakers realising how important this project was to transformation of the tracked vehicle into a the feasibility of developing local technologies such as Prof Christian Laugier and Dr Michel be for me. computer-actuated platform or pseudo drive- for autonomous ground vehicles. Parent. I was given access to NTU's CyCabs by-wire was to be done by ST Kinetics. (today called autonomous pods) that came We had our small all-terrain vehicle from Competencies at GINTIC from a collaboration between INRIA (France) iRobot (in the days before its hit product, I read all I could on the subject, in particular and NTU. This was a vehicle advanced for its the Roomba) painted in SIMTech colours. the work from Carnegie Mellon, from INRIA My pre-Singapore experience was on time and its creators, Dr Parent and Prof Laugier We were exploring voice-controlled tele- and from the Australian Centre for Field construction robotics research, robotic-based are pioneers in the field. We tele-operated operation, laser rangers, cameras and radios Robotics (ACFR) at the University of Sydney. assistive technologies for the disabled and the CyCabs in GINTIC car park using a RF with the iRobot vehicle. This was used as our Their work had a strong influence on Ulysses the implementation of industrial robots in modem and a PIC micro controller purchased prototype for Ulysses. and on my career. the factory floor. I had built wheelchairs, including one for a tetraplegic person, voice- Several months elapsed after the early controlled and with a safety system. Elsewhere discussions. My prospective project members in GINTIC, the buzz in robotics was around were being moved to other projects. the Wing Inspection project, where a mobile Fortunately the contract arrived in the nick robotic platform had automated the inspection of time. Suddenly, I found myself with the of micro-cracks on the bottom part of wing of largest project in GINTIC for the next three a fighter aircraft stationed at the workshops. years, a young project officer and a 12-ton The lead engineer for that was Dr Lim vehicle. Ser Yong, today the Executive Director of SIMTech. Another high profile project was on R&D Process the deburring of aircraft engine blades using a robotic cell, led by Dr Chen XiaoQi who went Ulysses was a contract between the Land on to become a professor in New Zealand. Division of DSTA and GINTIC. The project officer from DSTA was Mr Chan Chun Wah. Other competencies that were to prove Tele-operated CyCab on trial in GINTIC valuable to Ulysses included work on carpark, circa 2000 Different configurations of the platform We had a team with experience across a range computer numerical control (CNC) machines used for tele-operation experiments of capabilities but not in autonomous vehicles.

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The approach we adopted can be summarised The active participation of the project SIMTech staff were trained to drive the The team improvised rapidly. Dr Malcolm as follows: sponsor in defining milestones in the vehicle and act as safety drivers. and Ms Jeanette Lim bought some aluminium form of conventional systems engineering profiles plus a drill. One day later, we had • The system was partitioned into a reviews such as the preliminary design a framework where we could mount our series of clearly defined sub-systems. review, the critical design review or the field sensors. We used homemade fixtures and Each subsystem had a leader. For those operational test were very important for lots of tape. It was simple and a far cry from subsystems that we contracted external project management. They contributed to the sensor platforms of today, built with CAD parties for, we had a SIMTech staff the discipline that yielded detailed reports tools and by suppliers. attached to the external party concerned that were used throughout the project and to ensure there was technology transfer later on the field demonstrations. The Design and increasing self-reliance as the project progressed. Throughout the project, the research team Each sub-system in Ulysses, comprising • The conversion of the research vehicle was able to publish work whilst preserving several modules, ran on a personal computer. into a computer control system by ST the confidentiality constraints associated with The whole setup had to be installed at the rear Kinetics was also followed closely, to the project. Several graduate students and of the M113 on a plate that reduced vibration. learn how systems could be installed in interns from the local universities had also During the design phase we had to specify an armoured vehicle. There were intensive worked with the various researchers in the shock absorbers. At one point, mistakes on brainstorming sessions during which SAF Ulysses team. whether these were represented in parallel officers and our project officer worked out or series led to the support plate oscillating the fundamental user expectations. The Armoured Personnel Carrier with the multiple computers on top. When Clockwise from top left: the vehicle was to be cleaned or maintained, SIMTech management recognised the need A M113 APC was not something that M113 CAD model including sensor details, all the computers and sensors had to be taken to support interactions with overseas centres manufacturing-oriented researchers used the APC with the sensors outfitted out. The technical challenges are described of excellence. In the late 1990s most robotics often. When we went to inspect and to and demonstration with the driver’s hands in the following sections. conferences were centred on manipulation and receive our unit, we began to appreciate the outside the vehicle to prove that indoor navigation. Attendance at conferences difficulties and constraints of operating such the vehicle was moving autonomously. Perception in field robotics, experimental robotics and a vehicle. Its size, its powerful engine and the SPIE series of conferences provided our its mechanical complexity were all at a scale The Pickup, Multipurpose Vehicle Prof Rodney Brooks, one of the fathers of researchers with the needed perspectives. beyond our prior experience. To help us get to modern robotics once said “perception is We accompanied SAF officers on visits to grip with the complexity, we bought ourselves Early in the project we needed an extra vehicle. a hard problem”. In Ulysses, we only had Germany and France, as well as centres of a couple of scale M113 models and built them Requesting this from our management was single-line laser rangers used at that time excellence in Australia and the US. From these over a weekend. This was very helpful! not easy. Upon authorisation, the whole team mainly for indoor applications. There were visits, close interactions emerged with INRIA, went out to buy the blue pickup. It was used three vision systems; a) stereo-vision based Carnegie Mellon University and ACFR. Our DSTA project officer and I signed the to mount sensors, power generator, PCs and on the trinocular cameras by Point Grey. temporary transfer document for the M113. to transport materials and people. Disparity maps were created and from From the data acquired on-site from the We were responsible for it! Learning to work these, obstacles were detected. When we initial trials using the perception sensors, it with this research platform was a whole wanted to detect trenches, it proved difficult, was clear that understanding of the physical new experience. There were considerable b) road segmentation using colour cameras. constraints in jungle conditions was critical, so constraints on how we could incorporate The results from Ulysses were subsequently was the availability of a more accessible test experimental fixtures on the platform. ST referred in the reference study for the US Army platform than the M113. The opportunity to Kinetics staff told us very patiently that we with regard to unmanned ground vehicle iterate between our theoretical models and the could not just drill where we needed to. An technologies2. Even as we worked on Ulysses, access to the physical systems was to prove army vehicle needed to be clean as it entered important for the successful completion of the the base compounds and for refuelling. It was Ulysses project. This iterative approach had a whole-team logistics issue to determine since then influenced most of our research. who in the research team was going to clean 2 Committee on Army Unmanned Ground Technology, The pickup configured with all the Ulysses National Research Council of the National Academies, the vehicle! Technology Development for Army Unmanned Ground Vehicles, The perception and localisation sensors National Academic Press, Washington D.C., 2002.

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TCS Wireless Version 3.5 an Extended Kalman Filter. This sub-system Links Teleoperation Teleoperation was developed by ACFR in Australia and (base) (vehicle) VCS integrated and tested by the Ulysses team. It Safety was an advanced system that taught us the difficulties of the localisation function and its VPS importance for vehicle navigation.

Navigation An interesting hiccup: one day, the system Visual Vehicle Vehicle Guidance Master Vehicle Actuators stopped receiving GPS when the tele- System Controller Controller operation system was switched on. This (vision- laser-radar) was a major issue as the vehicle could not be Positioning Local moved without knowing its pose (position Sensors and heading). We checked everything. When Slippage Sensors the problem persisted, the vendor for the GPS receivers asked the Ulysses team to look into Ulysses vehicle System Block diagram the harmonics of the signals transmitted.

Three weeks later, we discovered that our Navigation Module 3 Vehicle Position Sandia National Laboratories commissioned video transmitter for the tele-operation & Inertia

a report from one of our collaborators on the system was broadcasting at exactly the third Vehicle Heading Planner state-of-the-art technologies in autonomous harmonic of the GPS L1 frequency and had Following & Speed

land vehicles. Today interest in road interfered with the GPS signal reception. Road Segmentation Elevation Analysis for Speed segmentation is very strong as the use of Speed Vehicle Heading Control deep-learning techniques enables “semantic Today, SLAM is a well-recognised research StereoVision-Ladars Output System road segmentation” with much potential for challenge. My current research still addresses Sensor Fusion Local Map Global Map

facilitating situation understanding, c) the use this challenge in autonomous navigation and Vehicle Position & Inertia Heading Planner & Speed Master of one of the first bolometer based infrared when using low cost sensors. We, in Ulysses, Control cameras to segment roads from the near were early contributors to this research. Module environment at night and for tele-operation Ulysses’ visualisation path planner (top) and purposes. The results were very encouraging, modular navigation system and it was possible to segment roads with Accelerations Position, Velocity and Attitude ease using as differentiator the temperature Angular Rates Navigation IMU INS profiles. This was so effective that operators INS Position and Velocity Errors in Position, subsequently found that tele-operation of Velocity and Altitude The navigation system allowed for the vehicle the M113 at night was easier than in the day. (Errors in Accel and Gyros) to go to a waypoint location whilst avoiding

Results from the GPS Position and Velocity + z obstacles or following a preferred path. In a GPS Kalman After a visit to Dornier (today part of the passive perception systems: stereovision - Filter neat illustration of dual-use capability, Mr Airbus Industries) and the demonstration (top two), colour segmentation Shen Jian from the Ulysses team applied of the Primus (German army autonomous (middle left), slope analysis (middle right), his experience in path planning of CNC vehicle), we brought in a 3D laser, a column and infrared images (bottom two) machines for the implementation of the of 16 sensors to sweep the terrain at 4Hz to Ulysses navigation system! provide a 3D map. Today, there is renewed Localisation interest in these sensors. It provides the 3D Control map used for autonomous driving. Ulysses’ capabilities for localisation were based on waypoints given in WGS84 World Controlling the motion of a 12-ton tracked Coordinates. The system needed absolute The localisation system configuration (top) vehicle propelled by a combustion engine 3 Durrant-Whyte, H., A critical review of of the state-of-the- position. For this purpose, a GPS receiver, used and the results obtained (bottom left) having control levers that were entirely art in autonomous land vehicles, systems and technologies, on a vehicle that by its nature Sandia Report, SAND200I-3685, Sandia National Laboratories, an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and a mechanical was a major task. Turning the Albuquerque, 2001 vehicle odometry were loosely coupled using will vibrate very much during motion vehicle required brake force to be applied

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VCS - Vehicle Control System VCM - Vehicle Control Module each functional system a finite-state machine

MCM Setpoint was associated. This was controlled and Master Control Command Module State monitored by the supervisory controller. It Command Vehicle Model Status was possible to enable or disable the various

VPM functional systems, to reconfigure the system Vehicle IMU/GPS Speed & Positioning Estimator Orientation as it changed from manual to autonomous or Module Data Controller to tele-operated modes. Status Governor & Brake Commands VSM VAM Hardware The concept originated as part of the ‘joint Safety Controllers Hardwired architecture for unmanned systems’ (JAUS) CAN2.0B Quadrature Encoders TCP or UDP sponsored by a community for unmanned ground vehicles. Today this is part of the Vehicle controller configuration (left) and the non-linearity when Society of Automotive Engineers, USA one of the control levers was used to steer the vehicle St a n d a r d A S 6 0 5 7.

on the tracks via levers. It was necessary to would be completely different. The vehicle was The introduction of the supervisory controller Ulysses’ tele-operation console actuate the commands electro-mechanically. controllable where it belonged, on terra firma! proved to be very useful, as the integration and command post This had to be done by inserting features process was much facilitated as it was possible that could only be fixed through brackets, Supervisory Controller to control at will when the various systems The M113 could be tele-operated during the as we were not allowed to drill holes into were available and to monitor their operation day and at night. Surprisingly, operating at the APC hull! The supervisory controller was the system using different watchdogs. night was easier for the remote operators. The that integrated all the functional systems results were very encouraging. The vehicle The engineering of the electro-mechanical together. It was analogous to a programmable It is a matter of pride to the team that the could even be reversed. This part of the project actuation system was done by ST Kinetics logic controller (PLC) in the factory floor. To first Google patent on Autonomous Vehicles4 was implemented entirely by SIMTech staff. using a DOS-based PC, with algorithms referred to the SIMTech internal report5 on Most of the techniques were prototyped using implemented by Dr Jake Toh. the subject. the small skid-steer robotic vehicle, the ATRV.

Event triggered by MCM action

The vehicle controller was developed by Event triggered by operator action Tele-operation The console was to be single-man portable ACFR in two phases. Three academics from but only by Dr Malcolm. When transported ACFR arrived in Singapore from Sydney 7 1 Another challenge was in attaining tele- by other colleagues, its weight would require bringing sensors to characterise the vehicle 6 2 operation capabilities for Ulysses when two persons to carry. Shutdown Standby Ready dynamics and actuation systems. The controller 3 operating in tropical forests without the

algorithm was implemented bottom-up using 5 4 operator having a direct line-of-sight to the Today, there is renewed industry interest in a PC104 type computer. Even drivers for vehicle. The problem was compounded by tele-operation. Some vehicle OEMs have large Working the encoder cards had to be written. Whilst delays in the transmission of data, and vehicle projects in this area. advanced algorithms were first attempted, the and operator response. There was a limited team finally settled on an adaptive PID-based field of view for the camera that meant a pan Field Testing controller with very good results. and tilt unit to mount the camera was needed. Just locating the communications antennas The integration and testing of Ulysses When the controller arrived from Australia on the top of the APC together with the GPS was a challenge. The vehicle needed to be and was installed on the M113, we thought antenna was complex. loaded onto a special truck by a professional that it would be helpful to lift the M113 off the armoured vehicle driver. For each test we ground to test the controller. Despite our best needed a driver and a commander, fuel for our efforts at tuning the controller parameters, the power generators and fuel for the vehicle. We 4 L. Prada Gomez, et al. TRANSITIONING A MIXED-MODE system would remain unstable. We realised VEHICLE TO AUTONOMOUS MODE, google Inc., US Patent had to pre-arrange access to an army training later that when the vehicle was suspended and N°. US 8,078,349 B1, 13th December 2011. camp. The support from DSTA was essential 5 Simplified finite state machine and supervisor T.C. Ng, “Master Controller of an Unmanned Autonomous the tracks were running freely, there was no Ground Vehicle”, STIU03/040/MECH, Retrieved on 26th for this task. load upon them, and the system dynamics hardware configuration February 2011.

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On multiple occasions as we were struggling the vehicle’s progress but we were too excited We had some problems due to the was also made to then Chief Defence Scientist with some tests, we found a large column of to take pictures to record our achievement. idiosyncrasies of the lasers rangers. When Professor Lui Pao Chuen. army personnel in full kit, waiting for their the M113 was near the reservoir, it could turn in the test area. Towards the completion There were difficulties we discovered in the suddenly turn towards it thinking that it was The Ulysses team also gave demonstrations of the project we had the SARS epidemic, field. Occasionally, slope would look like an empty space, to the horror of everyone in of Ulysses’ capabilities to several overseas which complicated our work. an obstacle to the vehicle such that when it the research team. groups. These included a French delegation approached the slope it would grind to a halt. of officers from the Direction Générale de The integration of sensors and tests were When the M113 moved in open space at close Towards the completion of the project, we l’Armement (DGA). Staff from the Thales done at the site at high temperatures and to 30 km/h, the gear-box would automatically had to address vehicle-following capabilities group came to a workshop on the technologies. 90% humidity. Computers did not like the shift. It was thus a challenge to compensate for as part of the contract. This was done in They were very impressed by the capabilities environment. Neither did we. A typical day the sudden change in dynamics. Delays in the a very short period, and it proved that the developed with the budget available. As a would start very early. We left SIMTech for overall system had to be considered carefully. system architecture was designed well. follow-up, the DGA invited a delegation from each field test looking as if we were going At times, the vehicle would attempt to turn A new capability was incorporated using Singapore to a demonstration of Syrano, a for a picnic. By three o’clock in the afternoon too close to trees, resulting in close encounters only software. The leading vehicle was the light armoured vehicle under tele-operation everybody would be exhausted. We had to with the fauna. On another occasion, the SIMTech van and the following vehicle was which was developed by Thales6. At the calibrate, characterise, configure and test accelerator got stuck and the vehicle went in the 12-ton M113. By general consensus, I as the demonstration, researchers from SIMTech the perception systems. The pitching of the circles until the actuating computer could be project manager had to demonstrate my faith were the only civilian guests. vehicle as it moved, caused phantom obstacles reset. Another challenge was the intensity of in our work by driving the van. to appear and disappear (known as pimples). rain that was typical in Singapore. Officers and staff from Dornier came to visit The calibration of sensors and their alignment us. Given the strong electro-mechanical nature to a single reference frame was difficult given of our M113, they were very surprised by what the vehicle configuration. Initially the vehicle was achieved with our vehicle. We were also was moved inside a triangle-shape trajectory invited to a demonstration of Primus, another to verify the operation of the software. light armoured vehicle built by Dornier/ This changed later to a test area with dense Daimler7. This was a vehicle guided mainly vegetation. At times our allocated trial space by laser rangers at high speeds operating in was changed due to army operational needs central European conditions. so we had to tune the algorithms again. A US Army Officer and the Military attaché were hosted by our sponsors. We demonstrated the vehicle operating under tele-operation control even in heavy rain.

Ulysses was also featured at an SAF Army event. The project was presented successfully to a full amphitheatre of dignitaries from Ulysses in vehicle following mode the SAF. Ulysses in autonomous operation, and system prototyping vehicle trajectories The Demonstrations Tele-operation functionalities worked very well. The vehicle could be controlled without The Ulysses team conducted several Logistics setup for trials and demonstrations direct line-of-sight, and could move close to demonstrations to MINDEF, the SAF and the lake and climb slopes, etc. At one point DSTA. These included a demonstration on 6 Morillon, J. G., et al. (September 2003). SYRANO: a ground robotic system for target acquisition and neutralization. In It was a proud moment for us that during the we even had a trailer being towed under tele- Ulysses’ tele-operation capabilities in a very AeroSense 2003 (pp. 38-51). International Society for Optics and last tour, the vehicle went into an unknown operation. This was done successfully though tight compound to then Chief of Army. A Photonics. 7 Schwartz, I. (2000, July). PRIMUS: autonomous driving robot zone and just via the waypoints found its reversing was not that easy. full demonstration of Ulysses’ capabilities for military applications. In AeroSense 2000 (pp. 313-323). way around the jungle. Everybody could see in tele-operation and autonomous operation International Society for Optics and Photonics.

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A Perspective from the Partners in technologies behind the vision and navigation, I was in charge of “robotising” the vehicle So, the answer was to do enough, but how Ulysses and engineers from ST Kinetics who provided in the Ulysses project. I had to create a much is enough? Nobody knew the answer the control and adaptation to the mechanics Vehicle Actuation Module (VAM); essentially and we embarked on a journey of discovery. Mr Chan Chun Wah, then Project Officer of the platform. The sponsors from the Army a drive-by-wire (DBW) kit to overlay the We started with a best guess effort and slowly from DSTA Weapon Staff provided the operational input. vehicle’s existing manual controls, as the iterated towards an appropriate level of This was a typical ops-tech co-operation vehicle manufacturer did not allow access ruggedisation. It was an exciting time for me I was a fresh graduate just starting my career which succeeded. to the actual vehicle subsystems we needed personally as we were pushing the boundary with the Civil Service in the year 2000, after to control. of existing know-how, even with something serving my remaining NS obligation. I was Ulysses laid the ground work for technological as basic as the VAM. The knowledge acquired looking forward to starting work in the then focus for future developments, as well as While the design of the DBW system was was carried over to subsequent unmanned DMO, where I had been placed. I had wanted helped the users to see where operational relatively straight forward, ensuring system ground vehicle (UGV) projects that ST a career which had technical content, as well pay-offs could be reaped immediately, and safety was the real challenge. Even as a young Kinetics worked on. as significant managerial responsibilities. It where further technological developments engineer, it was immediately apparent to me was a lucky break that the Civil Service placed were required. It was an important step that the DBW kit is a critical safety component Twelve years after the conclusion of the some of its returning scholars in statutory in learning how to harness unmanned for any unmanned vehicle. This is because it Ulysses project, the genetic makeup of Ulysses boards and not just in the ministries. The technologies. Because of Ulysses, future is the only mechanism by which the vehicle still lives on the UGVs being developed by icing on the cake? There was a small project projects had considered aspects of unmanned can be brought to a stop electronically. In ST Kinetics. After the project, I served as group in Land Systems, DMO, specialising technologies in manned vehicles. my view, this was the true value ST Kinetics the chief systems engineer to ST Kinetics’s in robotics. It was probably the only group brought to the project. I was able to tap into first in-house UGV project. In addition, I also outside of academia in Singapore who engaged Working on Ulysses was fun, to say the the expertise within the company in designing designed its DBW kit. Over the years, ST in this topic. This, by itself, was exciting and least. It started from computer modelling, safety critical systems, accumulated from Kinetics has developed into an integral part appealed to the child in me. How about that, to conducting trials in the field (sometimes developing the Bionix and Bronco AFVs. In of Singapore’s self-driving vehicle eco-system. playing with “big boy toys” as a career? at night in Lim Chu Kang training area), addition to expert opinions, the framework Looking at the UGVs it has created, the link testing the vision and control algorithms, and procedures that the company had were to Ulysses is clearly evident to those of us Mobile robotics (with some form of autonomy) and culminating in the final acceptance test invaluable resources to the project. who were part of the Ulysses team. was still relatively new in the military, not where the vehicle navigated by itself and considering the remote controlled explosive avoided obstacles in the field. One of the objectives of the Ulysses project Postscript and Reflections ordnance disposal (EOD) robots which have was to use commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) served the Singapore Combat Engineers well. All in all, we achieved a lot with a small team, products to develop a proof-of-concept Ulysses was completed with many technical The technologies concerned were mainly still in modest budget and good team work. While demonstrator. The intent was noble, but it achievements. These are summarised in Annex exploratory stage. The community was trying we did not manage to enrol in the first DARPA added complexity to my work. I had to take B. SIMTech submitted a follow-up proposal for to find a structure to the solution. Therefore, Grand Challenge, due to participation rules, equipment designed for use in a static factory a Ulysses 2 project. This was not successful. funding was modest, for exploratory projects, based on the achieved outcome we theorised environment and adapt them for use in a Nevertheless SIMTech pursued some of the and required efficient use of resources and that Ulysses would not have fared too badly! tracked vehicle operating in rugged terrain. technologies, participating in an R&D project finding the right partners. with NTU on the feasibility of deploying an Dr Jake Toh, then from ST Kinetics An example of how harsh the operating autonomous golf cart and in a collaborative Small budgets, however, did not mean that conditions were was that an amplifier failed project with NUS and Prof Oussama Khatib we did not think big. It was as big as a M113 The Ulysses project is a first in many aspects during one of the trials when one of its of Stanford University aimed at applications APC, which we managed to borrow for this for ST Kinetics and me. During that time, capacitor’s legs snapped. This was due to the in healthcare and rehabilitation. With the project with the help of our colleagues in the ST Kinetics was not known for undertaking constant vibration it was subjected to while conclusion of Ulysses, team members were Army Weapon Staff Plans. R&D projects. As the SAF was transforming the vehicle was in motion. ST Kinetics had redeployed to other projects. itself into a 3G fighting force, the company a lot of experience ruggedising electronics This was the beginning of Ulysses – an knew it needed to keep pace with the changes to MIL-SPEC, the gold standard for military Reflections by Dr Javier Ibanez Guzman unmanned M113 with remote control and and started to look beyond the traditional grade equipment. However, to apply that to autonomous capabilities. disciplines of mechanical, electrical and every piece of equipment would not have The results obtained in Ulysses were beyond electronics engineering for its engineers. Fresh been economically viable for the project expectations. The whole team bonded well The A-team consisted of researchers from out of university, I was the first mechatronics and defeated the purpose of using COTS and was very focused on the project even GINTIC and NTU, who provided the engineer to be recruited. equipment in the first place. though we were all working within an

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environment whose centre of interest was Reflections by Prof Lim Khiang Wee manufacturing. A strong ethos of cooperation emerged rapidly during the project. The Project Ulysses offers lessons for managing a rigour of thorough process reviews and the research enterprise. documentation mandated by our sponsors, DSTA, whilst unpopular with the researchers, The conversations that led to Ulysses were was fundamental to the project progress. possible only because SIMTech had already invested in individuals and in projects that Ulysses demonstrated the importance of a developed the enabling capabilities, well “man on the moon” type project. It allowed before the idea of Ulysses was mooted. These the team at SIMTech to make a technological were generic capabilities – as important to leap in addition to yielding a high number of aircraft wing inspection or to turbine blade publications and new skillsets. One regret was repair as they were to prove important for that we could have capitalised on the results realising an autonomous APC. It illustrates better - we should have submitted a higher a role of a research institute to nurture and number of patents. sustain a spectrum of capabilities that can be brought to bear on emergent challenges. It was difficult at that time to imagine the current interest in autonomous vehicles and It was equally important that the Ulysses the potential benefits to society. Singapore, team was ready to draw from a network Group photograph of the Ulysses Team and its given its topography, road networks, beyond SIMTech – from the NTU research overseas visitors and collaborators after a field demonstration of the prototype; impeccable communications infrastructure community in particular, with which the Dr Javier Ibañez-Guzmán and Mr Chan Chun Wah are the first and second, respectively, and population, is in a unique position for Ulysses team was most familiar, from NUS, from the left in the first row. Dr Jake Toh is the ninth from the left in the second row. the successful deployment of intelligent as well as from international researchers in vehicle solutions. Even now, there is a strong Sydney, Paris and Palo Alto. This network the project was a local decision at SIMTech ahead of its time. Following Ulysses, there link between the technologies developed in enabled important gaps in SIMTech's level, rather than at the corporate level. While was no compelling economic or societal value Ulysses and the applications that are emerging capability to be filled. In turn, the existence it could be argued that the project was not case for the SIMTech to continue development in intelligent mobility today, in particular with of a project such as Ulysses reinforced the central to the core mission of SIMTech, it was of the technologies after Ulysses ended. It regard to vehicle safety, driving assistance engagement of the Singapore universities a great tool for demonstrating capabilities and was not possible to participate in the DARPA systems for the elderly and autonomous and international research communities with for motivating staff. There was potential for Grand Challenge. It was only in October vehicles. Ulysses can be counted as one of SIMTech and Singapore. It is no accident that the glory within circumscribed boundaries and 2010, some six years after Ulysses ended the pioneering efforts in urban mobility international collaborators such as Dr Michel there were no obvious penalising trade-offs. and a decade after it was conceived that the worldwide. Parent from INRIA, Prof Oussama Khatib It was easy to excite the researchers and to demonstration of the Google autonomous car from Stanford University and Prof Hugh have the management team exercise a light started to change international perspectives. I remember Prof Lui Pao Chuen, ex-Chief Durrant-Whyte from Sydney University, all touch in keeping an eye on the project. Defence Scientist, expressing support for eminent in the field of autonomous systems, Fortunately, the ideas from Ulysses were not Singapore to participate in the DARPA Grand are all still involved in one way or another in Having DSTA as a deeply engaged lead lost. Some resurfaced in ST Kinetics (see Dr Challenge. Unfortunately, this was difficult Singapore research. user was critical. From the project sponsor’s Jake Toh’s story). The architecture of Ulysses due to the participation rules then. It must be perspective, it was easy to measure success lives on in the work of the project manager Dr recalled that the DARPA Grand Challenge in The requirement to build a demonstrator in in a project like Ulysses. Nevertheless, DSTA Javier Ibanez-Guzman at a large vehicle OEM, 2004 was a disaster as all robots broke down Ulysses provided a clear focus for integrating set challenging specifications, facilitated trials while in Singapore, there is still a direct line after only 12km out of the expected 240km. skills and technologies. Initially by accident and mandated a disciplined approach to of researcher connections to the recent work By contrast the 2006 event was a success and and later by design, SIMTech management documentation and project management. In of Assoc Prof Marcelo Ang in the SMART car. the rest is history. Today all vehicle OEMs are provided benign support to the project. At that Ulysses, it was a smart buyer with the ability Meanwhile SIMTech continued to invest in working on related technologies. time, there was no clear idea on how the nexus to tap into a broad and latent talent pool. developing related capabilities and these will between civilian and military research could now prove their value in new application or should be managed. So the decision to start The result was a project that delivered world areas such as logistics fulfilment and assistive leading technical outcomes that were a little robotics in healthcare.

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Annex A. The Team and issues could be solved. The documents systems. Developments were done overseas was attained is similar to what current Partnerships were excellent. He was responsible for with the complete integration done by local research proposes. Vehicle-to-vehicle all the demonstrations involving the tele- staff. Prof Hugh Durrant-Whyte was the main (V2V) communications is having a major A.1 The Team operation capabilities. partner in cooperation with senior academics push. Ulysses in this sense combined the • Dr Jake Toh, a young engineer at ST Prof Eduardo Nebot, Dr Graham Brooker, etc. technologies beyond what several vehicle The following paragraphs include information Kinetics. He applied himself thoroughly OEM demonstrators can do. on a colourful cast of team members: and succeeded by implementing the Annex B. Summary of Technical • Supervisory Controller. This is a unique actuation control system. At the conclusion Achievements achievement which facilitates integration • Ms Jeannette Lim, was the technical of the project, ACFR invited him to join and also ensures the reconfiguration of the support officer at SIMTech, our right hand them to pursue a PhD degree in related • An M113 APC was operated autonomously vehicle operation. Similar configurations for all the electronics considerations and areas at the University of Sydney. Jake and remotely in daytime and at night in exist in different driving assistance developer of the tele-operation system. today is with the Ministry of Transport natural environments. systems and autonomous vehicles. Jeanette after Ulysses, despite being a working on autonomous vehicles. • The vehicle demonstrated autonomous • Tele-operation. Capabilities included young mother of three boys, went to • Mr Leong Yew Kong the manager at ST cross-country, road following and vehicle camera control, remote monitoring and obtain her Engineering degree from NTU. Kinetics was fundamental for ensuring following functions, as well as non-line- waypoint navigation using off-the-shelf • Mr Andrew Ng (Little Andy), a young the transformation of the vehicle into of-sight tele-operation. components. A modular system which is support technician that ensured the a robotics platform. He is today very • Perception. Stereovision using a commercial similar to what can be found in similar logistics. The refuelling of the power much involved in innovation projects at trinocular worked well, and the concept is defence vehicles. The knowledge was generator was a spectacle; we needed ST Engineering. still being used. Issues like auto-calibration applied to a robotic water jet cutting to remind him that petrol is flammable. • Ms Pooja Chaturvedi at SIMTech today remain a challenge. What was demonstrator at SIMTech and a patrolling Andy went on to the police force. implemented the road segmentation missing was object classification. There robot for homeland security applications. • Dr Ng Teck Chew, development engineer software. During the project she became a was a full understanding on the use of at SIMTech, a very pragmatic person, mum. We needed to remind her often that laser rangers. Today, this technology developed the laser scanner and the in her state, the installation of hardware is coming in force and shall challenge supervisory controller. Our expert on laser was outside her scope. many computer vision applications. Road sensors, designing one of the early forms • Dr Andy Shacklock entered late into segmentation was the result of follow- of the Velodyne. Following Ulysses, I had the project. He had worked on the IR up work of an MSc thesis. This is of the pleasure to co-supervise his PhD on camera for autonomous navigation, He much interest as it is possible to perform vehicle-following at NTU in cooperation has built his own company, Projective semantic road segmentation to facilitate with Martin Adams. Space, working today in related areas. machine situation understanding. • Dr Alex Tay, an ex-SIMTech staff who • Dr Peter Chen an ex-SIMTech staff who • Localisation. The combination of signals joined NTU, formulated the theoretical moved to the NUS was responsible for from odometer, GPS and IMU in a loosely framework for the path planner. He had a the supervisory control system. coupled manner was the state-of-the- good understanding of the physics of the • Dr Gong Zhiming, Mr Thomas Thng, art at the time. It demonstrated how system. Whilst a computer scientist he Mr Eddy Lim and Mr Jiang Ting Ying are technologies can be jointly developed was able to provide the navigation system other colleagues that also worked in the with a team overseas. Similar solutions with the necessary flexibility. He worked project whose contributions were very are found today in industrial products. with Prof Wang Han, also of NTU. valuable. • Navigation – Vehicle Guidance. A • Mr Shen Jian, was the SIMTech engineer unique achievement was its modularity; who did the final tuning of the navigation All the team members took particular delight the planner could be used for different capabilities. Later on he moved to work in wearing our coveted bright Blue Polo with operating modes, and it included the on shared control. the Ulysses name and DSTA/SIMTECH elevation analysis to ensure the vehicle • Dr Andy Malcolm was originally from written on it. will not tilt. The main difference to what the Diana project at SIMTech. The tele- can be found today is that it does not use operation system he developed was A.2 Overseas Partners a priori information in the form of maps. always fully operational. His knowledge • Vehicle Following. By combining tracking, of optics was very valuable as with the ACFR at the University of Sydney was obstacle detection, localisation information proper lenses many image processing responsible for the localisation and control and inter-vehicle communications, what

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INNOVATION IN This chapter first describes the evolution of COMMAND, CONTROL, large-scale C4 systems in the Army, and in the later sections, the integrated C4 systems COMMUNICATIONS AND for the networked SAF. It seeks to illustrate COMPUTERS SYSTEMS the innovative spirit of the SAF’s commanders and defence engineers to harness state- of-the-art technologies available to meet demanding operational challenges. In the area of C4, the supply of technologies and "The Army can make you an officer but only resources alone would never be sufficient, C&E Department and 1st Signal Corps on Parade in 1966 Signals can make you a commander since without and this was especially evident in the early communications, you cannot control; and without days. The pressing need to build up a credible (C&E) Department, one of the departments pioneer Signal officers and non-commissioned control, you cannot command." and capable force with technology amidst in the General Staff Division to build and officers rose up to the challenges. Recounting resource constraints inculcated a strong provide the communications and electronics the challenges faced by the General Staff LG (Ret) Winston Choo, former Chief of spirit of innovation and improvisation in capabilities for the SAF. The first Chief of C&E Division and HQ C&E on the development Defence Force and a Signal officer the commanders, defence engineers and the Department was then Superintendent Michael of SAF C4 operational doctrines and systems, Signal people. The Signal Formation with its Thoo, who was in charge of the Police Radio former chief C&E Officer COL (Ret) Chew The development of command, control, people played a pivotal role in enabling closer Division. He reported directly to the Director Bak Khoon said, “All of us were no experts. When communications and computers (C4) systems ops-tech integration between the operational of General Staff Division, Mr Tan Teck Khim, the advisor gave us advice, we did not know whether was a critical component in the evolution of communities and the defence engineers, and and was tasked to lay the foundation for the it was applicable to the SAF. So we used to have the SAF’s fighting capabilities. Starting with was responsible in developing and operating Signal Formation. In this early stage, it was long marathon discussion sessions thinking and limited electronic technologies left behind by the C4 systems in the field. realised that a formal training system was studying other countries' doctrines, as we had no the British and those procured from overseas, urgently needed to support the growth of experience. Nobody could tell us what to do. In the DTC had, over the decades, built up an To succeed in the development of these the SAF. Thus, the SAFTI Signal Wing was the end, we took a leap of faith and conducted array of impressive high-end C4 capabilities. complex systems that involved many sub- quickly established in the same year. operational and technical trials so that we could Many of these capabilities eventually became systems and people across military arms, learn and determine what was most suitable for indigenous technologies and competencies in the commitment of commanders during the the SAF.” the DTC that have enhanced and will sustain project deployment stage was paramount, the SAF's fighting capabilities into the future. without which the project would have halted Like most of the SAF’s equipment then, the at the slightest technical glitches. Developing radio equipment initially used by 1 SIR and The engineering capabilities acquired in and sustaining C4 capabilities required long- 2 SIR was from the UK. Many of them were the early years laid the foundation that term commitment by the senior leadership bulky and heavy, and thus unsuitable for enabled the SAF’s tech-savvy operational in MINDEF and the SAF. The stories and smaller-built Asians. While they served the commanders to customise C4 systems to statements made by the SAF commanders SAF’s basic needs well, they did not meet best meet their unique operational challenges at various important occasions illustrated many of the SAF’s operations requirements. and requirements. It has enabled them to within this chapter served to demonstrate their Official opening of SAFTI Signal Wing by The equipment also had many limitations efficiently organise their forces, to effectively vision, resolve and willingness to learn new Dr Goh Keng Swee, then Minister for Interior such as reliability, and the small number train their regular and national servicemen, technologies, and push ahead with challenging and Defence, in 1967 of Signal people who operated them often and to multiply combat power by swift initiatives. This continual commitment by had to improvise electronic components to orchestration and concentration of forces successive generations of SAF commanders In 1970, recognising the need to deal with overcome the limitations. To support this to where it counts most, when it is needed. over the decades was the most critical success complex command and control (C2) issues in effort, COL Chew Bak Khoon established an To a great extent, this approach of iterative factor in this journey. a fast expanding SAF, the C&E Department electronics laboratory in HQ C&E to conduct operation-technology integration achieved was re-designated as Headquarters C&E technical trials of new gadgets produced by through the evolution of C4 systems has Laying the Foundation (1965 – 1980) (HQ C&E). in-house technicians. Reminiscing the joy he enabled a truly technologically advanced, had trialling the newly developed gadgets, integrated and networked 3rd Generation SAF. The history of the SAF C4 began in 1966 This was a trying period of limited equipment he shared, “In those days, I personally spent long with the formation of the 1st Signal Corps and manpower. A tremendous amount of hours in the lab and it was a fun and meaningful and the Communications and Electronics initiative and courage was required and the time of learning with my C&E technical engineers.

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Often, we would go downtown to buy electronics deployed in Vietnam in 1965. in Vietnam in people and C&E engineers worked hand- That being said, the R/R system was components and fabricate “boxes” for operational 1965 ad some 33, 000 AN/PRC 25 radios were in-hand to install the systems on Unimog not without teething issues. MWO use. This period lasted for about a decade until deployed in 1968. This radio was selected by vehicles with shelters that were well-suited (Ret) Christopher Noel recalled that the such time where the more state-of-the-art radios the SAF. With the increase in the number of for the local terrain. The R/R system worked systems were prone to over-heating due to were available to us.” combat units following the UK’s decision to in the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band, and Singapore’s tropical climate and the lack of withdraw all troops from Singapore by 1971, with proper siting, could communicate with effective ventilation when installed in the The “Big Brother” – PRC 6 Combat Radio local manufacture of combat radios became other stations up to 50km away. Unimog vehicles, which resulted in frequent economically justifiable. An improved solid- communications breakages. This issue was The first handheld and short-range Very state version, the PRC 77, was introduced into so severe in an overseas exercise that he and High Frequency (VHF) combat radio used in service in 1975. Approval was obtained from his teams had to remove the radio systems’ the SAF to provide communication between the US for the production of combat radios in air filters and use wet sponges to cool the forward elements at the battalion level was Singapore in a joint venture between Tadiran systems continuously, just like taking care of the US-made PRC 6. In those days, as there and CIS. On completion of the production kids when they have a fever! Such an issue were no mobile phones, the PRC 6 was a of radios for the Army, Tadiran pulled out of and solution would be unthinkable by today’s useful mobile communications solution and the partnership and CIS began indigenous standards. was thus widely used for administrative and development and production of electronics security purposes. As the need for a longer equipment for the SAF. In addition, for any large-scale exercise, the range and more secure radio set became communications challenges and obstacles apparent, the PRC 6, fondly known as the that the Signal people had to overcome were “futuristic” mobile phone, was phased out in always real – the communications system was the late 1970s. LTC (Ret) Foo Jong Ai, former either working or not. The pressure to deliver Chief Signal Officer recalled, “While the radios was often intensified as the exercise typically served us well, we recognised the need to enhance involved a large number of “reservists” (now the security of our radio communications. Hence, known as NSmen) in the command posts, and advanced combat radios with electronic counter- AN/GRC 103 multi-channel radio relay system entailed the testing of new army operational counter measures were phased in to prevent people concepts. Through this, signallers were from eavesdropping on our conversations.” 12 Series Radio In the mid 1980s, the fleet of Unimog vehicles forced to prepare for possible failures and was upgraded by the defence engineers to be develop mitigating solutions beforehand. The build-up of higher level headquarters capable of supporting 30 communications The challenges faced then were further and armoured units led to the need for channels between the brigade HQ and the exacerbated by the rapid introduction of new vehicle mounted radios with longer ranges division HQ. The R/R Unimog vehicles were technologies in the 1970s. than the PRC 77. Thus, the VRC 46/47/48 connected to the Mobile Patching Centre radios were selected for infantry units and the (MPC) that was operated by signallers, and it Many a time, the Signal people had to VRC43/12/44 radios were fitted in armoured served as a switching centre connecting line attune and assimilate themselves to the fighting vehicles. callers to their destinations manually. Due to new technologies quickly to support the the large number of patching cables the MPC exercises successfully. It was through these The Radio Relay had, it was jokingly referred to by signallers as challenges that signallers developed a range the “big sotong1”. The successful deployment of improvisations - a set of “doctrines and To support the increased communications of the R/R system was accredited to the standard operating procedures” to think out- needs to command and control larger forces, defence engineers who integrated the wide of-the-box during routine training sessions. PRC 6 Combat Radio single channel radios were insufficient. The range of equipment from various vendors to This inculcated an innovative spirit in AN/GRC 103 multi-channel radio relay (R/R) fulfil the SAF’s philosophy of integrating the signallers, and allowed them to bring the AN/PRC 25 (Army/Navy Portable Radio system was introduced to the SAF in the late best combination of equipment from different lessons learnt back to the planning room to Communication 25) 1960s. The R/R system enabled multiple users vendors to meet our unique needs at the least co-innovate solutions with defence engineers, from one location to talk to multiple users cost. and forge a strong symbiotic relationship The most advanced man-portable radio used at the higher headquarters simultaneously. between the operations and technology by the US Army then was the AN/PRC 25, To enhance the R/R system’s mobility in communities. This is just one of the many which weighed less than 10kg and was supporting the manoeuvring forces, the Signal 1 Sotong: Malay word for squid. stories on how the ingenuity and adaptability

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of the Signal people and defence engineers Meshed Trunk Communications System users. The meshed web of inter-nodal links resolved system issues that arose in the field. Network also added redundancy through switching and provided alternate pathways between HQs. The Evolution Begins (1980 – 2005) One of the most notable advances in the This remained a key principle for subsequent – From Analogue to Digital 1980s was the conception, development and C4 developments, to ensure reliability and operation of the Trunk Communications resiliency of the SAF’s C4 systems. Building on the firm foundation laid by the System (TCS). The meshed TCS network pioneers in the early years, the next generation replaced the point-to-point R/R system, and The Innovation in the TCS and the Split- of Signal leaders and defence technologists radically altered the landscape of tactical Nodes guided C4 developments with courage and communications. It provided the necessary C4 ingenuity to phase out analogue and phase in infrastructure support for the new operational COL (Ret) Yun Ta Chun, former Chief Signal digital communications and C2 information doctrines of the Combined Arms Division. It Then Chief of Army, BG Ng Jui Ping Officer, recalled that when the TCS was first systems (CCIS), and elevate the command, was also a time where the Signal Formation, at the inauguration of the Meshed Trunk introduced, there were four trunk nodes. In control and communications (C3) systems in particular the Signal battalions, underwent Communications System an advancing scenario, one or two trunk to C4 systems. transformation in organisational structure, nodes were always in transition to the new operating doctrine, procedure and training It was a significant achievement by the location, leaving two to three trunk nodes to In 1977, HQ C&E was awarded the State to better operate the new system. Signal people and the defence engineers who provide the backbone connectivity between Colours and Regimental Colours, and in 1982, implemented the complex C4 systems, which the Division and Brigade HQs. The limited it was renamed as HQ Signals. In 1986, the Joint Developments for the TCS were initiated in comprised numerous sub-systems that were number of nodes presented a challenge in Communications and Electronics Department 1982 under the leadership of COL (Ret) Lai supplied by different vendors. It was an era the TCS as the node locations were not able (JCED) was also created to strengthen the Seck Khui, former Chief Signal Officer, who where systems integration capability was built to support the dynamic nature of Division’s SAF's capability in engendering cross-service organised a team to look into the feasibility up. Through the project, defence technology manoeuvres and the rapid deployment of C4 developments. The first Head of JCED of upgrading the R/R system with the latest departments and agencies gained valuable Brigade HQs. To create more nodes would was Dr Tan Kim Siew. This was a period advanced technology to support the Army’s learning experiences. This enabled them to mean more cost for the SAF; ingenuity was where the commitment and innovative spirit new operational concepts. He recalled, “The later develop and grow into a critical part of therefore required to work within resource of the commanders, Signal people and defence TCS came about when the SAF decided to modernise the DSTA that we have today. After much constraints. engineers were called upon to overcome more itself. There was a change of emphasis from jungle detailed planning and many trials, the TCS complex challenges. Exercising large-scale training to conventional warfare, and a big shift from was fielded for the first time by therd 3 Signal To overcome these constraints, COL (Ret) Yun C4 systems became a norm, and it enabled close combat to large scale manoeuvre operations Battalion to support an overseas exercise in led extensive discussions with the supplier, swift and effective implementation of CCIS, with masses of soldiers equipped with hundreds April 1989. With its success, the TCS was and their hard work finally paid off when eventually making possible the integration at of radios, all communicating with one another on officially commissioned in July 1990 by then they found an out-of-the-box solution. By the SAF-level across the Services. a single integrated network. The TCS acted like a Chief of Army, Brigadier General (BG) Boey reorganising existing TCS nodes with the central nervous system, conveying vital information Tak Hap. employment of the split node concept, and through its communications channels to synchronise by adding an additional switch in the node all war-fighting elements into one cohesive force, With the TCS, mobility increased. Like a to support more radio links, the four nodes and allowing the use of facsimile when the rest of mobile cellular network, it provided tactical expanded to become eight nodes. This was the world was still using telex machines." users with communications in the field a major low-cost innovation that greatly through the nodes (base stations). In the contributed to solving one of the critical In 1987, then LTC Ng Eng Ho took over the process, new signal doctrines and processes issues in the system reconfiguration. Even reins from COL (Ret) Lai and saw through were developed and trialled on-the-fly. In up till today, this operational concept is still the procurement of the new equipment such many exercises, two C4 support groups were being utilised as it is resource-efficient and as the GRC406 Radios. The system was later formed for different purposes. One was tasked operationally effective. At the same time, the successfully fielded by rd3 Signal Battalion in to operate the system designed for supporting defence engineers also worked with the Signal an overseas exercise in 1989. In the following the exercise, and the other to analyse the people to derive the theoretical basis for TCS year, under the leadership of LTC (Ret) Foo system’s technical performance with the network connectivity and redundancy using Jong Ai, then Chief Signal Officer, the TCS defence engineers. Together, the groups network flow and graph theories to better HQ C&E awarded the State Colours and was inaugurated during the Signal Silver sought to optimise the system for increased assess the impact of communications failures. Regimental Colours in 1977 Jubilee parade on 1st March 1991. performance and efficiency, to better serve the

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the antenna on the Land Rover, and doing to design the CCIS system, it also allowed could read and conduct preliminary analysis away with the traditional mast. One week the system to go further than the mere beforehand. The time required to complete later, he demonstrated his team’s new creation automation of existing processes through the the decision cycle was also reduced. The to BG Choy. BG Choy was so impressed that usage of computer software. It also provided experiences gained and lessons learnt laid a he wanted the new creation to be fielded in a platform for the various project managers firm foundation for future developments. Most the next overseas exercise, and it continued to understand the operational requirements importantly, it sparked changes in mindsets to be used in subsequent exercises. better, and to ensure that the projects did not and seeded new ideas for the future. It was in go off-tangent during development. view of these new ideas that then Commander Sparking a Mindset Change - Command and 3rd Division, BG Ng Yat Chung said, "The arena Control Information System Implementation of the CCIS of war has changed exponentially since the dawn of the information age. Information is the enabler of Trunk Communications System on The beginning of the CCIS in the Army was In 1994, the Signal Formation was handed the new warfighting system. Whether one likes it or parade in 1991 an initiative mooted back in 1983. At first, the responsibility of implementing the not, the information age is already underway. The there were discussions on whether this should CCIS systems for the Army. Led by then new CCIS would revolutionalise the C2 systems The split-node concept represented the be developed by the Signal Formation, since Commander 3rd Division, BG Han Eng Juan, in the Army." resourcefulness and tenacity of our people they were the subject matter expert in the field and supported by the G3, LTC Tan Huck to overcome the odds to get the job done. of communications and electronics, or G4, the Gim, and then CO 3rd Signal Battalion, then With the strong support from Commander Then MAJ Lee Shiang Long, CO 3rd Signal Logistics Formation, being the most advanced MAJ Wong Meng Keh, they developed the 3rd Division, the Division Chief-of-Staff, then Battalion said, “The development would not at the time with their computerisation operating procedure for the first CCIS system COL Lee Ee Bek, and the then G3, LTC Yeo be possible without the very strong support given programmes for many logistics functions. for the Divisions. With CCIS, the commanders Eidik, as well as the ops users in the Division by the operational commanders at various force However, it was finally decided that a new adapted to the new technology and developed HQ were brought together with the defence echelons, and the commitment from the Command, branch be set up in G5, the Plans Department new operational processes and doctrines to engineers from CSO led by Mr Teo Chin Control, Communications and Computers Systems of the Army, to oversee the development of this better harness the CCIS as a force multiplier. Hock, and the Signal people. SSG Toh Cheng Organisation (CSO), and its technical leaders and new capability where the experiences could They started using electronic overlays to draw Seng, a CCIS system administrator then, engineers. The engineers worked tirelessly, day subsequently be applied across the Army. It on digitised maps. remembered that two 21-inch monitors that and night in the fields with us (Signals). In many was placed directly under the watchful eyes of looked more like televisions were necessary situations, they continued to work hard despite the then Assistant Chief of General Staff for Plans to enable digital maps to be viewed at a high lack of rest, and had to sleep where they could in (ACGS (Plans)), COL Lim Neo Chien. He also resolution, which were displayed on large the field, especially during overseas exercises.” oversaw the development of the General Staff ruggedised monitors. Then LTC Yeo Eidik Office Automation (GSOA) System, involving jokingly said, “We needed cranes to move the 1st Five-Minute Land-Rover the first transition from manual typewriters and generation CCIS computers as they were so heavy physical dispatches to the computer keyboard and huge. Today, we have laptops and notebooks The five-minute Land Rover was another and instant email transmission. carried by hand.” product of ingenuity by the Signal people. It was a result of unorthodox improvisation The CCIS Operational Masterplan by then MAJ Yun Ta Chun, during his tenure as S3, 3rd Signal Battalion. He was chided by Later in 1985, a major CCIS project, the Traditional way of operational planning using then Division Commander, BG Patrick Choy, CCIS Operational Master Plan (OMP), was hardcopy maps and overlays for the inability of the Division’s tactical developed under the guidance of then COL Unimog to keep up with the Land Rovers. Lui Pao Chuen and COL Lim Neo Chien, and The introduction of CCIS in the Army He decided to prepare a vehicle that could then Chief of the General Staff, LG Winston transformed the way it operated. Information keep up with the Land Rovers and set up Choo. A full enterprise architecture study exchanges between the division and brigade communications in five minutes (instead of was used to completely break down and HQ were made more efficient and effective 30 minutes). The notion was preposterous at understand all the processes and data entities with the exploitation of digital dissemination. that time but then MAJ Yun meant his words. that weaved through the entire fighting force, Face-to-face briefings were conducted With his S4 and OC, they worked on the and reorganise them efficiently in order to more expediently and effectively since the The 1st Generation CCIS being improvisations: transferring equipment from attain shortest decision cycle time at all levels. operations order by the division HQ could transported by crane the Unimog to the Land Rover, remounting The study not only provided clarity on how be sent to brigade HQ, and the brigade staff

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Improving the CCIS about two years after the decision was BG (Ret) Lee Shiang Long remembered that the made, the WINDOWS operating system commitment of the division HQ and its then To enable digital transmission for the CCIS, gained faster speed and wider acceptance. commander, BG Ng Yat Chung, to the goal of the digital packet switching technology was As such, BG Ng Yat Chung opined that a deploying the CCIS was instrumental to its introduced into the TCS to make it data parallel experiment should be run for the successful deployment. There were occasions capable. Then MAJ Lee Shiang Long, CO WINDOWS system. Then MAJ Lee Shiang where the entire division HQ was not able to 3rd Signal Battalion, recalled that a series Long initially feared that it would further thin function due to the longer time needed to set of DIGILINK exercises were conducted by down the already stretched resources from up the servers, leading to tremendous pressure 3rd Signal Battalion and a group of defence implementing the UNIX system. However, he to go back to the old paper map. However, engineers across Singapore prior to an could not refute the fact that the WINDOWS the Division Commander insisted on waiting important overseas exercise to evaluate the system was becoming more user-friendly and for the servers to be configured by the system performance of the digital packet switching was beginning to dominate the market, and it administrators before conducting planning system. The exercises were designed in would be easier for NSmen who had limited on CCIS. With the deployment of the CCIS, 1997 to systematically test and measure training time to assimilate the new system. it was necessary for the Signal people to the system performance with respect to all be trained to keep up with the technology. kinds of data transmission parameters such Again, the success of the experiment was Some regular Signal specialists such as then as packet sizes, transmission protocols, and accredited to the defence engineers who 1SG Joseph Lim, then 1SG Lim Chong Han database and transmission delays. Through accepted the challenge and improvised a parallel and then 1SG Chan Guan Seng went on this, engineering graphs were plotted to derive WINDOWS-based CCIS using the same to attend diploma courses in engineering. the optimal system configuration. The 1st Generation CCIS servers, networks and cables for the UNIX- Among them, then 1SG Joseph Lim received based CCIS. In parallel, 3rd Signal Battalion was the top graduate award in his cohort, and While the multi-channel radios in the TCS Involvement of the National Servicemen reorganised to support the parallel experiment. subsequently pursued a degree part-time. In were enhanced to enable data transmission, With the two systems operating side-by-side, addition, operational commanders at all levels the challenge of transmitting large data Supplementing the efforts by the defence a meaningful comparison of the technical were keen to learn new technologies while and graphic files across the division and engineers and Signal people in overcoming performance and user-friendliness could be the project was being implemented. It was a brigade HQs via wireless communications the bandwidth limitation were the NSmen. done. Through this, it showed that the ops-tech time where commanders, defence engineers of limited bandwidth persisted. During that COL Fong Yat Beng, who was former S3, 3rd project team was capable of understanding the and Signal people learnt together. time, the operation orders were written using Signal Battalion recalled how the NSmen were technology trends, and adapting and managing commercial software that was designed for able to contribute in a significant way as they complex projects in the challenging operational Operational Challenges of the CCIS transmission in wired communications using were tech-savvy and many were polytechnic environment. TCP/IP protocol, and were not bandwidth- graduates with electrical and electronics One of the operational challenges when efficient. To transmit a text document, the diplomas. There was a team of NSmen who Operationalisation and Deployment of deploying new systems in overseas exercise software would require three to five times the developed a new File-Transfer-Protocol, which the CCIS was the potential of frequency interference actual bandwidth to capture the formatting of enhanced the speed and reliability of file with the host country’s frequency usage. In the texts. Furthermore, large graphic files of transfer. This made the CCIS significantly Although there were limited opportunities to some countries, the rural areas were served the picture of the operational plan comprising more effective in transferring digital test, evaluate and adjust the new operational by microwave radios, and these transmissions various military symbols were also required information over wireless communications, concepts and systems of the CCIS, the were powerful as they were required to to be sent. The Signal people, familiar with even though the communications was commanders, defence engineers and Signal traverse long distances and overcome terrain the operational content, and the defence designed for relatively static command posts. people worked vigorously to operationalise the obstacles. When the signal nodes were engineers came together to meticulously filter CCIS, and their efforts prevailed. BG Milton Ong deployed, these pre-existing transmissions out the essential information and remove Besides the challenge to overcome bandwidth recounted his experience when he was formerly frequently interfered with the signals and the text formatting, and even created a new limitations, there were also two competing an OC in 3rd Signal Battalion, "We only had nine caused communications failures. Eventually, way to represent the military symbols more technologies in the market at that time - the months before a major overseas exercise. We had so the defence engineers and Signal people came efficiently in digital forms. Through their UNIX operating system and the WINDOWS many exercises – almost once a week. The schedule up with an improvised solution. Before major painstaking efforts, the transmission of operating system. The original decision was was extremely tight. We needed to operationalise CCIS overseas exercises, the Signal people would operation orders and operational plans across to exploit the more matured UNIX operating equipment within a few months of their delivery and conduct communications trials to test parts the HQs was eventually made feasible. system during the procurement process. get them ready for one of the biggest overseas exercises. of the plan and check the accessibility of the However, during the project implementation, It was a tremendous challenge but we made it." locations. Beyond the normal tasks, the Signal

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nodes were asked to do “frequency scanning” equipment was a mammoth task due to the Group and Defence Administration Group, during trials. Scanning was done using limited manpower for the preparation. He under the leadership of Professor Su Guaning. radios, antennas were rotated 360º and the stated that his most fulfilling moment was signal interferences were recorded at various when then Commander 9th Division, BG Likewise, the introduction of new software frequencies. This makeshift solution enabled Lim Chuan Poh patted him on the back and and hardware had also created a strong need the signal planning to consider pre-existing congratulated him for a job well done at the for more system administrators to operate transmissions and thus minimise interference end of the exercise. them in the Signal Formation. BG Desmond during exercises. Defence engineers also helped Kuek supported beefing up the nodes’ to develop frequency interference software for 2nd Generation CCIS manpower with an officer-in-charge for each planning purposes, which involved calculations spilt node. Moreover, then Chief of Army, on the range of possible interferences such as Rapid advancements in information 2nd Generation CCIS in the late 1990s MG Lim Chuan Poh advocated a new COL multi-path, harmonics, inter-modulation, and technology at the dawn of the new establishment for the Signal Formation, which RF noise. millennium led to commercial IT hardware Ops users on the ground and the systems eventually became the COL establishment for developing at an unprecedented pace, spurring integrators from Signals had to constantly the Signal Institute to undertake the important The scale of the exercises also imposed the development of the 2nd generation CCIS. adapt, learn and make improvements to the role of conducting training on C4 technology. severe constraints on the radio frequency Led by Mr Teo Chin Hock, CSO tapped into system on-the-fly. It was a constant race As such, a review of the manpower structure management. Then SSG Seah Chiong Lok, the new commercial technologies to overcome against time to ensure that our technology and training was undertaken by then CO 3rd who operated in the Systems Control many limitations of the 1st generation remained up-to-date but the people triumphed Signal Battalion, MAJ Chia Shee Wai. COL (SYSCON), 3rd Signal Battalion, shared their CCIS. Equipment procurement cycles were against the odds, and the 2nd generation (NS) Low Jin Phang recalled that, as he saw satisfaction gained despite the challenges shortened and the latest hardware was fielded CCIS was operationalised. Spearheading through the whole implementation of the new faced, “The allocated frequencies were minimal and to provide higher technical performance. The this effort was then BG Desmond Kuek who structure to meet the new tasks, the COTS close to one another. It was tricky because we had use of COTS IT hardware also meant that the was Commander 3rd Division, and it was server experienced technical difficulties in to reuse frequencies. A lot of demands were also on equipment was much less bulky resulting in a his unwavering support that gave strength supporting the increasing demands of the the nodes because any slight node displacement on quicker deployment. It also enabled the rapid to the ground to push on despite seemingly ops users. the ground would result in a frequency interference assimilation of NSmen during their annual insurmountable challenges that could affect the entire network. Eventually, we in-camp trainings to learn the new CCIS The arrival of the high availability servers later managed to achieve “green” status (comms through) and operate it more effectively. Recalling his provided more bandwidth and more software for all the radio links!” experience with the new CCIS system when modules. The fully enclosed casing designed he was the Company Sergeant Major, 8 SAB by DSTA also ensured that the servers would BG (NS) David Koh, former Chief Signal Signal Company from 1999 to 2002, MWO not be crippled by any dust trapped in the Officer and Head, Joint Communications and Ng Hoe Lee said, “Developed by DSTA with system. This was particularly important for Information Systems Department (JCISD), inputs from both the operational commanders and overseas exercises in Australia to support the also recalled, "Every Signals exercise has a very the Signal people, the 2nd generation CCIS was a armoured brigades. In addition, to quicken the high degree of reality because the terrain challenges marked improvement from its predecessor in terms of set-up time of the division HQ in the field, and obstacles faced are always real. The most start-up time, ease of configuration, user friendliness a new generation of expandable container challenging nature of our work is that every exercise and new capabilities such as planning modules.” command posts were trialled and fielded. of ours is akin to a live firing. And our live firing is public. If there’s no communications, there’s no The Chief of Army then, Major General (MG) Operational planning using the Towards the 3rd Generation Army communications. You can’t bluff it. So, the nature Lim Chuan Poh said, “The 2nd generation CCIS 2nd Generation CCIS and SAF (2000 Onwards) of our work is that people see our real capabilities, adopted a new paradigm in system development and it is very, very public." in response to the rapid advancements of COTS Spurring Changes The 1st generation SAF C4 was about building technologies. The design-field-design approach up our force readiness to meet Singapore’s Besides 3rd Signal Battalion, 9th Signal Battalion was adopted so as to provide the ability to test, During this period, recognising the need basic defence. The 2nd generation SAF C4 was which comprised mostly NSmen, also brought validate, exercise with and field the system in stages for more flexibility and responsiveness in about evolving its capabilities systematically and deployed the CCIS for overseas exercises and deliver the latest capability to the users at the the face of rapid technological changes, and as rapidly as possible to modernise to operationalise it across the whole Army. earliest opportunity.” DSTA was established as a statutory board our Army, Navy and Air Force. While this MWO (Ret) Eddie Foo reminisced that filling under MINDEF with defence technology served well in making the Army a respected many containers with communications organisations from the Defence Technology organisation, having painstakingly built up

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shooters and communication nets across the battlespace. Then Chief of Defence Force (CDF), LG Lim Chuan Poh, articulated to the SAF commanders that the possibilities with IKC2 were tremendous. It was a journey that would lead us towards a stronger SAF that would be able to deal effectively with threats across the entire spectrum of conflict. He also advocated investing more human resources in IKC2 and the Signal Formation. Three-Ton Command Post in the 1990s IKC2 enabled the SAF to achieve greater IKC2 Framework (left) and members of the IKC2 Special Project Office (from left to right) its systems and capabilities through judicious force optimisation through the networking then MAJ Andy Tay, CPT Melvyn Ong, LTC Ng Chee Meng and CPT Tan Ying Kiat. Member not use of the resources made available by and sharing of tri-Service assets to better pictured is then CPT Jacqueline Lee political commitment, the SAF’s strategic achieve mission and targeting requirements environment had begun to change. New across the Service lines. Through the ability a System-of-Systems was established. This a new, more flexible and capable structure to operational challenges, such as the need to of the SAF to synchronise its actions, there was complemented with a "bottom-up" better handle the full spectrum of operations. counter transnational terrorism, and new was greater flexibility and efficiency of experimentation approach to enable the resource challenges had emerged, and new action. At the tactical level, this resulted Services to conceptualise and experiment with The new RSAF structure saw the amalgamation opportunities arose through technological in rapidly configurable, deployable and new technologies and war-fighting concepts to of six formations into five commands: the advancements. The Army pondered over the survivable, mobile and lethal forces that realise IKC2. This was where defence engineers, Air Defence and Operations Command, the implications of these changes, whether it were able to operate autonomously within a commanders and C4 people came together to Air Combat Command, the Participation would remain relevant and successful through netted environment across the spectrum of learn and deliberate with global thinkers such as Command, the Air Power Generation these changes, and whether a fundamental operations. In terms of decision-making, IKC2 Dr Gary Klein on “Recognition-prime Decision Command and the UAV Command. These change was required for it to remain a enhanced the quality of decisions through Making”, and Dr Dave Snowdon on “Sense- five new commands enabled a greater level successful organisation. This served to initiate new knowledge that was created through making in Complexities.” These interactions of integration with the Army, the RSN and the transformation journey towards a 3rd collaboration in the information domain. This between strategic thinking and engineering Joint Staff. Similarly, the RSN moved towards generation force. reduced uncertainties in the battlefield and considerations were key to develop systems the creation of Warfare Centres by integrating gave rise to better decisions. The speed of that were pragmatic and yet future proof. resources from various communities within The conceptual underpinning of the decision making also increased, enabling a the RSN. This enabled the RSN to achieve transformation was in Integrated Knowledge- higher tempo of operations. Organisation Re-Structuring a knowledge-centric warfare approach to based Command and Control (IKC2), enhance the warfighting effectiveness of its conceptualised in 2004 in JCISD by then Creating Capacity IKC2 contributed to force transformation platforms and combat systems. Similarly, the COL Ravinder Singh and the IKC2 Special by enabling a more flexible and flatter C2 structures at the Joint Staff were reorganised to Project Office, and then Director of Joint Ops To better support integrated operations structure. Study teams from FSD and Services achieve a truly integrated and mission-oriented Planning, BG Jimmy Khoo. IKC2 would enable planning for the SAF and to build up IKC2- were formed to perform business process SAF. LG (NS) Neo Kian Hong, former CDF, the SAF to be a network-enabled, knowledge- enabled system capabilities, JCISD was reviews to embrace IKC2. As a result, recalled, “Information has truly flattened the SAF. based warfighting force, predicated on the significantly enhanced under the leadership operationalising IKC2 was not just about The creation of C4I battalions and JTFs2 changed Observe, Orient, Decide and Act (OODA) loop. of COL Ravinder Singh. Moreover, the Future the information communications system, the C3 systems through Command Post of the Future Systems Directorate (FSD) was set up and but, more importantly, it transformed the (CPoF). This was not a technology issue but a By exploiting C4 and information technologies led by then BG Jimmy Khoo, who played an command and control construct of the SAF transformation of the command and control concept.” (C4IT) and leveraging its tech-savvy people instrumental role in the transformation effort. to a task-organised command organisation. and systems approach to all aspects of its Together with the Services’ C4, the networking These were possible because of the maturing work, IKC2 enabled the SAF to operate requirements to enable information flow were of IKC2 concept, the resolve of the Services with an accelerated OODA loop for decisive streamlined across the Services. At the SAF and their commanders to fully exploit outcomes. IKC2 therefore served as a force level, a "top-down" strategy and governance information communications technology,

multiplier that enabled the SAF to do more to build interoperable communications and and the tremendous effort put in by defence 2 Joint task forces, with units from across the three services of with less through the overlapping of sensors, CCIS systems and a framework for integrating engineers. For example, the RSAF undertook the SAF.

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The DSTA system architects also contributed systems such as information collection, commented that the operations had validated the significantly by sharing ideas such as the fusion, analysis, content dissemination and training, and NSmen were ready to contribute concept for robust and mobile ad hoc database management, there was much ease with speed through skill. High bandwidth network, automated network management, in bringing the two communities together to commercial satellite communications systems multi-tier communications architecture, build common skillsets and competency. This were deployed on board the Landing Ship image compression, and information-on- also allowed greater interactions between Tanks (LST) and in different locations in Aceh. demand. DSTA engineers introduced user- the defence technology, C4 and intelligence The system was the result of engineering efforts friendly man-machine interactions that communities, resulting in more cross-sharing by DSTA and ST Engineering. The links enabled helped to improve thinking processes of the of engineering capabilities. Moreover, there daily video conferencing between the Mission commanders. Software features such as “drag was a greater need for process integration Commander, then BG Goh Kee Nguan and Container command post in the 2000s and drop C2 system”, and a cognitive study so that limited communications bandwidth Task Force Commander, then BG Tan Chuan- on how to maximise the natural field of vision could support the flow of large amounts of Jin, and the SAF ops room back in Singapore. Establishment of Enterprise Architecture with horizontally-tiled displays optimised the intelligence. Additionally, communications were provided by DSTA integration of C4 systems into the command to non-governmental organisations (NGOs) posts. As such, the C4I Community was established deployed in Aceh. A significant achievement by the defence to operationalise the information domain. LG engineers in DSTA was the establishment Recognising the growing threat of cyber- (NS) Neo Kian Hong said, “At the beginning, we of IKC2 Technical Enterprise Architecture attacks, the 3rd generation CCIS was designed only had the Army, while the other Services were (EA). Its development was led by DSTA’s then to be modular such that in the event that branches. It was much later on that the other Services Deputy Chief Executives, Mr Sin Boon Wah one component is compromised, the users were developed for the three domains (Air, Land, and Mr Teo Chin Hock, and system architects could continue to operate the system and and Sea). Now we have established a community Dr Yeoh Lean Weng, Mr Tan Yang How, Mr fight through the attack. The development of for the fourth domain – the information domain. Pang Chung Kiang and a team of engineering this new generation of CCIS was certainly in Although it is not referred to as a Service but a architects. Enterprise architecture defined the uncharted waters. LG (NS) Desmond Kuek, community, it has the same function: to raise, to interoperability standards across the MINDEF former CDF said, “We find ourselves in a unique train and to sustain a full capability and to open and SAF systems and its implementation was situation where there are not many others ahead of up new areas of development.” well executed. A central library of software us to follow. The wisdom to forge ahead is something modules at the SAF level was established we will increasingly have to gain for ourselves.” While we continue to learn from the advanced Satellite antennae deployed to provide which enabled software sharing at the SAF militaries, there were many uncertainties as communications links between Singapore level, minimising duplication of programming the SAF was among the first movers in this and Aceh effort and thus resulted in a 30% cost- area of transformation. The transformation reduction of the new CCIS development. was closely guided and supported by MINDEF Besides HADR operations, IKC2 also played leadership. An example of this was how a critical role in the aftermath of the 9/11 Deputy Prime Minister (DPM) and former terrorist attack on the New York World Trade Minister for Defence, Mr Teo Chee Hean, Centre. The Army placed a renewed emphasis and former Permanent Secretary for Defence on local security operations to ensure the Development, Dr Tan Kim Siew guided the safety of Singaporeans and visitors in the SAF’s cross-domain network development to country. The Signal Formation and DSTA enable new warfighting concepts. put in place a robust C4 system, and links between police stations and army camps, to 3rd Generation CCIS Value in Peace support protection of key installations such as the Changi Airport and Jurong Island. Achieving greater integration of C4 systems The benefit of operationalising IKC2 was with intelligence systems was the next critical obvious during the humanitarian assistance step in the evolution of IKC2. This effort was and disaster relief (HADR) operations “Plug and play” characteristics of the driven by then CDF, LG Neo Kian Hong. As to tsunami struck Indonesia Aceh. There Enterprise Architecture to enable different the C4 people and intelligence people were was only a lean seven staff in the Network devices and applications to be connected. both working on information management Management Centre. MAJ (NS) Yeo Siok Hock

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and enhance survivability. By leveraging to conceptualise and implement new war COTS 802.16 technology for the baseline fighting concepts and C2 doctrines. To support communications infrastructure, coupled with the 24/7 C4 operations demand, the 8th Signal video conferencing and collaborative planning Battalion was raised and subsequently evolved software, the command post functioned just into the current day 10th C4I Battalion, which as effectively, despite the physically divided has integrated C4ISR capabilities for High structure of the Brigade HQ. Defence engineers Readiness operations. It also served as the and Signal people systematically measured the knowledge proliferation engine for the effectiveness of the new wireless capabilities, SAF to enable continuous learning through and were able to quantify the benefits in an experimentation and spiral development. Our soldiers patrolling Changi Airport The SAF Centre for Military Experimentation operational context.

Army C4I Experiment Centre and Testing The SCME approach enabled a more flexible DPM and then Minister for Defence, Mr Teo of IKC2 and less manpower-intensive method Chee Hean shared, “You can see that the strength of experimentation as compared to the of the 3rd Generation SAF is not from superior As part of the Signals initiative to transform traditional field trials. In Ex Wallaby 2003, platform numbers or specific platform capabilities the system development and technology the brigade CPoF experiment was conducted alone. Rather, the strength of the 3rd Generation testing process, the Army C4I Centre was in Australia. A group of competent defence will be multiplied by the ability to network our established as part of the SAF Centre for engineers joined the exercise to validate the various systems and capabilities together to achieve Military Experimentation (SCME) under technical aspects of the system performance. a quantum leap in total capability. For example, FSD, and coordinated closely with HQ With IKC2, the experiment was designed the way to counter combat tanks is no longer by Signals. Under the leadership of then Future to enable a brigade to dominate a larger fielding more and bigger tanks. These are necessary System Architect BG Jimmy Khoo, and battlespace with superior operational tempo but this is not the only way to solve the problem. supported by defence engineers, a wide and enhanced survivability. Our anti-tank capability will comprise a network range of experiments were conducted such of unmanned sensors, precision missiles delivered by as collaborative command post, new wireless The Experimental Brigade had successfully Apache attack helicopters, smart bombs delivered by communications technology and man- adopted a new C2 planning structure, which fighter aircraft, and armoured forces on the ground. machine interface to study the information was found to enable increased situation The whole, as the saying goes, will be greater than communications technology’s impact on force awareness, improve collective knowledge- the sum of the parts.” structure and design. FSD also helped to raise building and enhance decision making. After DPM and then Minister for Defence, the level of IKC2 discussions in MINDEF the exercise, Signal people came together The IKC2 Corridor Mr Teo Chee Hean trying our new IKC2 and the SAF, to the point that IKC2 became with defence engineers to work on the issues capabilities a key topic in the Island Forum 2004, where encountered during the exercise and very To string the whole range of experimentations, strategic thinkers in the world were engaged soon started to prepare a new experiment in the IKC2 Corridor, a System-of-Systems The introduction of the spiral development in extensive dialogue on the topic with senior the subsequent year to explore the concept approach to provide integrated development approach to the manner C4 systems were MINDEF and SAF leadership. of distributed hubbing. It was clear that the focus for C4 systems and quickly translate developed was a significant shift from the evolution and experimentation of new IKC2 positive experimentation outcomes into earlier large-scale equipping of common Then LTA Baey Chwee Leng Don, an NSF would never end. Today, the defence engineers operational capabilities was mooted. It enabled communications system for the purposes of officer with SCME in 2005, recounted, “I could and Signal people constantly assimilate the implementation of a robust C4 system interoperability. Professor Lui had guided the not reconcile the thought of a soldier using his flashy the latest information communications for peacetime operations in protecting key Signal Formation to develop this strategy so PDA with the sweat, mud and rain that I frequently technologies and find ways to exploit them installations. Its centres of excellence brought that we could avoid block-obsolescence and encountered during my field training in OCS. As a full- in the operational environment. operational users and defence engineers bring in the latest technologies for smaller time national serviceman, I was privileged to participate together to collaborate and transform war- scale pilot deployment for testing and in the various IKC2 projects and experiments, and In Ex Wallaby 2004, the Armoured Brigade fighting concepts and C2 doctrines. experimentation. As a result, NSmen could explore COTS products together with DSTA engineers. HQ, led by then Brigade Commander adapt quickly to the latest technologies that Witnessing all the new systems being experimented LTC Benedict Lim, was decentralised to Professor Lui Pao Chuen, then Chief Defence were commonly used outside and they were before my eyes, I realised that I had been mistaken.” reduce the footprint of the command post Scientist, played a pivotal role in guiding familiar with. so as to increase operations flexibility the Signal Formation and defence engineers

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Research and Development by DSO BMS and Advanced Combat Man System silos in the knowledge realm. A knowledge (ACMS) were also developed to allow soldiers management system was envisaged by then As the C4 systems became increasingly and fighting platforms to receive orders from LG Neo Kian Hong that would not only act integrated and new operational demands their HQ. It provided an electronic map and as a repository, but also a platform where were constantly evolving, significant efforts global positioning capabilities to show the knowledge could be synthesised through in research and development (R&D) were locations of friendly and enemy forces. BMS strong collaboration of our people across also conducted by DSO. Mr Quek Gim Pew, and ACMS enabled soldiers to call on the the SAF. Central to the creation of this Mr Wong Yue Kah and Dr How Khee Yin capabilities of other fighting forces such as organisational knowledge was knowledge from DSO recalled that the partnership artillery and sensors to fight and see better. communities such as the OCS (Officer Cadet between HQ Signal and DSO had grown in But this would not have been possible without School) Community of Practice led by then breadth and depth, as the Signal people and the effort of C4 professionals and defence Commandant OCS, COL Png Bee Hin. To commanders engaged in R&D initiatives and engineers that were proficient in the range of this end, formal knowledge communications experimentation efforts to harness the latest information communications technologies. Dr were created based on physical organisations. networking, data communications, data fusion Ng Eng Hen, Minister for Defence, envisioned These formal communities served as the main and artificial intelligence technologies. There that in the near future, the increased network centre for knowledge sharing and synthesis. were many challenges on the ground to get connectivity would allow individual soldiers On the other hand, self-forming communities the right algorithms, and there were systems to call upon an F-15, an F-16, or even navy and virtual knowledge hubs were also formed integration issues with COTS components. ships to strike with pinpoint accuracy. based on common professional interests. However, by working together with DSTA These informal, unstructured communities and Signals, the SAF and DTC successfully served to enrich the knowledge landscape fielded many cutting-edge technologies, The Advanced Combat Man System of the SAF. pushed ops-tech integration using advanced technologies and built indigenous R&D contributed in a big way to develop capabilities To support these knowledge communities capabilities. such as mobile ad hoc network and software and virtual hubs, the SAF implemented features such as publish-and-subscribe enterprise System for Innovation, Learning that were useful to implement on-demand and Knowledge (eSILK). It is a searchable download based on geographical location. online enterprise repository where legacy files are stored. eSILK also enabled some These software features allowed the troops of the administrative processes such as the The Battlefield Management System and ground commanders to determine what document registry and meeting processes kind of information they needed and how to be reengineered and streamlined. This The genesis of BMS could be traced to a the information should be presented to them. enabled a reduction in the number of registry wired-up brigade experiment in 2000 by These changes sparked an innovative culture personnel required, and improved decision then Commander of 2nd Singapore Infantry amongst the NSFs that participated and helped making for meetings as the information Brigade, COL Ravinder Singh. The experiment to create a positive perception of the usage was conducted focusing on two key tenets of technology in the SAF. By participating in of terrain planning and tracking of ground the development and thinking for themselves, forces digitally. Although the technology they not only helped to revolutionise tactical was not fully mature at that time, and many capabilities, but also owned the solutions and improvisations were made, the experiment enriched their NS experience. DSO engineers conducting project trial demonstrated the prospect of information with Signal users technology and mobile data networking in Organising Knowledge – Integrating enhancing the Brigade’s ability to plan and Administrative IT Systems with IKC2 Battlefield Management System and fight. In 2004, the Signal Formation started Systems with Computer Security Advanced Combat Man System to work with DSO on developing a tactical information grid. In this project, besides Mr Besides building up IKC2 capabilities for In addition to the CCIS that operated in Wong Yue Kah and his DSO team, Mr Yao the SAF, efforts were also invested to create Community of Practice in the Enterprise command posts of divisions and brigades, Shih Jih and Dr Henry Lee from ST Electronics "organisational knowledge" in a bid to banish System for Innovation, Learning & Knowledge

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required was more readily accessible. then Minister for Defence who sowed the DEFENCE seeds of our defence ecosystem. CONSTRUCTION AND The next step in systems integration was to integrate the IKC2 systems with the logistics, This closed ops-tech relationship enabled PASSIVE DEFENCE manpower and training systems. Given that setting of clear strategic directions for the full integration would require substantial capability development of the SAF, and resources, and the amount of effort to sustain identified the priority systems and technology the integration across a wide range of systems areas to guide defence R&D. Mr Peter Ho, Defence Construction was not sustainable, a decision was made to former Permanent Secretary (Defence), Bedok Camp, circa 1976 integrate those administrative systems that said, "The exploitation of technology for strategic In July 1967, the first two SAF National Service would contribute data to the IKC2 systems. advantage was best achieved in an environment battalions 3 and 4 SIR with 900 NSFs were The development of camps, operational This was the work done by the MINDEF where experience was tapped, and knowledge was raised. Some of the recent graduates from the facilities and training facilities kept pace Chief Information Officer (CIO) and SAF shared vertically and horizontally throughout the first OCT course became platoon commanders with the accelerated rate of growth of the CIO, supported by defence engineers. This organisation." or instructors in these battalions. SAF ORBAT. Our engineers learnt from each project brought IKC2 engineers together with project, to build facilities that were more engineers working on Administrative IT The close ops-tech partnership also allowed As it was not possible to complete the efficient in the use of land and to meet users’ Enterprise Systems, led by Ms Pang Poh Cheng. relevant stakeholders from DSO and DSTA construction of two infantry battalion requirements better. to sit in key MINDEF/SAF meetings and camps in time for the July 1967 intake, they The integration across systems, especially seminars to sharpen the SAF's ops-tech edge. were temporarily accommodated in four- The military camps handed over by the integrating sensitive IKC2 systems with the This empowered MINDEF/SAF to conduct storey Housing Development Board (HDB) departing British forces were designed and less secure administrative systems, introduced their own R&D to build up local defence flats which had been hastily converted into built in the days when land was cheap and computer security threats. The Security technology capability in areas of strategic barracks at Taman Jurong. plentiful, thus the plot ratio (a measure of Division in DSTA was led by Mr Tan Ah Tuan, importance to Singapore, become a smart the ratio of built-up area to the land area) and the Division was enhanced to support defence equipment buyer, and to work with Three camps were then under construction for was extremely low. Many of these camps the integration effort. A new computer and local and international R&D partners to 1, 3 and 4 SIR. These were at Guillemard Road were used to house newly formed SAF units. network security architecture was developed augment the SAF’s technological capabilities. and at the newly reclaimed land at Bedok. The Over time, this became impractical for land- and overlaid on the enterprise architecture to camps were completed between 1968 and scarce Singapore and many of these old British provide the necessary connectivity and, at the 1969, and the happy battalion commanders camps were torn down for re-development same time, put security measures in place. and their men moved into their new homes. into modern camp complexes. These new As all the engineers were under DSTA, the complexes maximised the sharing of living integration went on efficiently. This was yet space, with logistics, training and recreational another benefit of including the former CSO facilities of units located within the same and SCO under the integrated DSTA, and the camp complex. SAF had benefited from it. With the announcement of the withdrawal of Close Ops-Tech Integration UK troops, new plans were prepared for the build-up of the Air Force and Navy, to attain Through the stories above, it was clear that an initial operational capability by December at the heart of all the IKC2 developments 1971. These new units required barracks and was the close ops-tech partnership between offices, and logistics, operational and training MINDEF/SAF, C4 people, the DTC and Guillemard Camp, circa 1969 facilities. It was not possible to build so many Singapore Technologies. It was through this camps in three years, so camps like Seletar close partnership that ideas were able to There was no time to wait for the reclaimed Air Base that the UK troops vacated provided be quickly translated to capabilities while land to settle before building Bedok Camp. housing for many of our newly formed units meeting operational demands at the same The administration block of the camp soon after some minor renovations and a fresh time. This partnership did not happen started sinking, bit by bit. Due to safety coat of paint. by chance. It was through the visionary concerns, the building was soon demolished! leadership of the late Dr Goh Keng Swee,

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In 1970, the UK had 36,685 troops in Singapore developed as a tourist resort island. Part occupied by ammunition depots were not completed in 1986. Such complexes allowed and employed many workers. They were of the large Pasir Panjang Army Complex as large as compared to our airfields, about the pooling of common facilities and resources occupying camps and facilities on 6,507ha was developed into the NUS, Singapore 100ha for a depot, but the amount of land more effectively so as to free up more land of prime land, in 72 locations all over the Polytechnic, Institute of Technical Education that needed to be sterilised from development and resources for other purposes. island. Many of these facilities, like the and for light industrial use. The Normanton to create a safety buffer was about 300ha. Sembawang Naval Base and the Pasir Panjang Oil Depot was developed into a condominium. The development of an ammunition depot Army Complex, had higher economic value Some of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical therefore required a total of about 400ha of to the country than military value to the SAF. Engineers workshops at Ayer Rajah Road land. Therefore, there was a need to convert these became Singapore Automotive Engineering facilities for economic use and to redeploy (now part of ST Kinetics). The remaining Our air defence weapons needed to be the workers made redundant by the UK’s workshops were then taken over by our Army. deployed on hills but these were rapidly withdrawal. being cut down for reclamation of land for Then Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew summed industrial use in Jurong. The remaining hills The Bases Economic Conversion Department up the base conversion exercise in his book had to be preserved and this was done after (BECD) was set up in February 1968 to ‘From Third World to First’ as follows, “The the Singapore Cabinet approved of the need. perform this vital transitional task, with withdrawal was carried out with goodwill With this decision to save our hills, land Permanent Secretary (Finance) Mr Hon Sui on both sides. The 30,000 retrenched workers reclamation had to depend on imported sand. Sen in charge. Then Prime Minister (PM) Lee were absorbed by industries we attracted from Kuan Yew stated in his memoirs that he had abroad. When the withdrawal was completed The integrated SAF command, control, placed BECD under the PM’s Office to give in 1971 our people were quietly confident. communications and intelligence system Mr Hon Sui Sen more clout when dealing There was no unemployment, and no land required many sites for sensors, communication with other ministries. or building was left idle or derelict”. systems and operation centres. The land use masterplan of MINDEF therefore needed Sembawang Naval Base was converted into a Just as important for us was the build-up of to balance all demands of the SAF and to commercial company, Sembawang Shipyard, the SAF to take over the responsibility for optimise the use of land at the global level. SAFTI Military Institute (top) with the assistance of British company, Swan the defence of our own country. and Pulau Tekong (bottom) – Inspiring & Hunter, while Sembawang Wharves and Camps occupying prime land were returned a New Generation of Soldiers some warehouses were retained by the SAF Masterplanning for Defence to the state in exchange for less valuable land for visiting naval ships. Construction in rural areas. An example in point was the In the 1990s, MINDEF and the SAF focused exchange of Tanglin Camp for the farm on inspiring a new generation of soldiers The weapons and electronics workshop of Masterplanning for defence construction to land at Bukit Gombak to build the MINDEF with the development of SAFTI Military the naval base was spun off as Singapore support the growing SAF ORBAT began in Complex. Institute, the Basic Military Training Centre Electronics and Engineering Limited the early 1970s, soon after the completion of at Pulau Tekong to train our NSFs and the (SEEL), the forerunner of today’s Singapore the complex base conversion exercise. The Singapore Discovery Centre to enable our Technologies Electronics. biggest challenge for us, however, was not in younger generation to better appreciate how the development of camps but in optimising Singapore has developed to become the nation The airfield at Seletar Air Base was used for the use of land in Singapore. Our need for it is today. general aviation and the base was partitioned army training land was more than all the into two parts, East Camp for military use lands occupied by the British forces. In fact, MINDEF Complex The Army Museum was built close to the and West Camp for commercial use. Tengah training land for the Army accounted for Singapore Discovery Centre, as a facility Air Base became the first fighter airbase about two-thirds of the land allocated to Masterplanning the use of our lands and to preserve the heritage of the Singapore of the RSAF and parts of Changi Air Base MINDEF. facilities has continued over the years as a Army, as well as honour the contributions were redeveloped into Changi Airport, after major area of focus by our planning staff. To and celebrate the experiences of our soldiers. MINDEF agreed to exchange it for Paya Lebar Airfields were the second largest user of land, better utilise land resources, it was important Airport which was to be developed for the followed by ammunition depots. Not only to intensify land use by grouping different The evolution of our armed forces into RSAF’s use. did airfields require large areas, some 700ha units at the same location as and when feasible the third generation SAF required custom each, they also imposed height constraints on to form camp complexes. The first of such solutions for specialised needs. Our architects Blakang Mati, now called Sentosa, was developments surrounding them. The land camp complexes was the Ayer Rajah Camp and engineers adopted a design thinking

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approach to develop facilities that were Masterplanning our Air Bases Air Force to house the A-4S Skyhawk fighter functional, prudent and user-centred. This aircraft that we had bought from the US entailed considerations on the broad spectrum During the development of the OMP of our Navy and refurbished and upgraded. The of user behaviours and expectations, which air bases, we found that the amount of land first few aircraft were completely rebuilt by would consequently determine how they will used by the UK RAF for Tengah Air Base was Lockheed in their California plant in the US, experience the built environment. An example about half of that needed for a modern fighter while the rest were built in Singapore by was the Multi-Mission Range Complex which air base. The reason was that Tengah Air Base Lockheed Aircraft Services Singapore (LASS). No. 3 was developed to ensure that servicemen was designed by the RAF for the operation Mr Chinniah Manohara, a young mechanical have a one-stop centre for all-weather arms of fighter aircraft lined up in a straight row engineer from SMG, was the project director training in an urban environment. to maximise maintenance efficiency. The with the responsibility for planning, design war in Vietnam and the Six Day War in the and construction of the air base. No. 2 Middle East had shown the vulnerability of fighter aircraft to artillery bombardment and air strikes. That being said, the survivability of our fighter force could be improved through No. 1 dispersed ground operations. To implement the dispersed aircraft concept of operations, Changi Air Base, circa 1954 our Air Force would need to double the land area of Tengah Air Base. This was done by The effectiveness of our fighter aircraft is a closing down the nine-hole golf course of function of the number of missions it can the air base. Many trees were also planted to perform each day. The number of missions Army Museum provide cover for our aircraft from observation. would depend on the availability of pilots and the speed at which the engineers and In planning and designing building and We were paranoid about the closure of our Lim Chu Kang Road Emergency Runway logistics staff can refuel, repair and rearm infrastructure development, the utilisation runway system for operations. Should this the fighter aircraft. The most efficient way to of Singapore’s scarce land, energy and water happen when most of our fighter aircraft Operational facilities like squadron refuel a fighter aircraft would be to have fuel resources must be optimised. Design and were on the ground, they could not takeoff headquarters and operations post and aircraft on tap. The speed of repair would depend on construction needed to be sustainable, until a runway strip could be cleared. We parking sheds were completed and the A-4S the experience and skill of the engineers and and features like renewable energy, water could lose precious hours of fighter operations Skyhawks started operating from Changi Air technical workforce, and the availability of conservation and recycling, and rain water which could be critical for our nation. On the Base. Meanwhile, MINDEF agreed with the spare parts. The storage, supply and loading of usage were incorporated wherever feasible. other hand if most of our fighter aircraft were Ministry of Communications (MINCOMM) armament is a critical function. The challenge airborne and our runway system was closed to exchange Changi Air Base for Paya Lebar working with armament is safety. If a fighter Our building and infrastructure design for a few hours we could lose the fighter force Airport in 1975. This decision resulted in aircraft can carry 7 tons of armament and it was based on the four tenets of operations, when they ran out of fuel. Hence, we created a the abortion of all air base construction flew five sorties, 35 tons of armament would security, user experience and sustainability. runway system that could not be closed, using projects under development in Changi Air have to be transported from the armament long runways and multiple taxiways in each Base. As Paya Lebar Airport would still be depot in the base to the hangar to rearm one airfield and multiple airfields in Singapore that in full operation until all commercial flights fighter. could support fighter aircraft operations. All were successfully moved to the new Changi our expressways were studied and suitable Airport in 1980, the RSAF could not construct The large quantity of bombs and weapons stretches were developed as emergency any operational facilities in Paya Lebar. In that modern fighter aircraft can carry makes runways. An island, Pulau Sudong south of the meantime, the RSAF would have to storage and transportation of ammunition the Singapore island was found suitable for operate their Skyhawks in Changi while the in an Air Base a very complex problem. The use as an emergency airfield. An emergency airport was being constructed. The mutual safety distance required for different elements runway was built there. interference between the airport construction of an armament system is a major design and fighter aircraft operations from the same driver of an Air Base. The development of our first airbase for airfield grew with time; eventually, the RSAF fighter operations began in 1971 when the made the decision to move the Skyhawk The project team for the development of Multi-Mission Range Complex RAF handed over Changi Air Base to the squadrons to Tengah Air Base. RSAF air bases required engineers from many

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disciplines. PWD Airport Branch was leading with multiple levels of redundancy down to mechanical engineers. So did the electrical overseas were also engaged to assist in the the development of Changi Airport and had generators for individual fighter aircraft, was supply and distribution system which had development of the OMP. built up a strong team for the planning and implemented. to continue functioning in the event of design of airport infrastructure systems. PWD battle damages. Furthermore, the extensive responded to the request by MINDEF to lead A rapid runway repair capability was built up use of fibre optic cables for many systems in the planning and development of Tengah to repair the part of runways that could be and facilities, and networking them securely Air Base by assigning their most promising made unusable by enemy attacks. together also posed engineering challenges. engineer, Mr Liew Mun Leong to lead the PWD team that was named Air Base Redevelopment Plans for Paya Lebar Air Base were made We projected future threats to our air bases like Team (ART). The operational expertise was at the same time as that for Tengah Air chemical and biological agents and precision provided by the RSAF with COL Gary Yeo Base by the same team. To accelerate the guided weapons with sizable warheads. The as the leader of the operations team. The conversion of Paya Lebar Airport for military protective system of our air bases took such operations team used the experience gained use, MINCOMM accepted the request from future threats into consideration in their by the Israelis in developing their own air MINDEF for the construction of a parallel design. bases to develop the OMP for Tengah Air Base. taxiway east of the runway while it was still being use as a civilian airport. PWD Airport Over the years, with the development of four The Engineering team, led by one of the Branch was very helpful in the planning, air bases, our engineers had the opportunity promising air engineering officer of the design and construction of this taxiway and to continuously learn and improve to be better RSAF, MAJ Tay Kok Khiang, developed the others in the land east of the runway. designers and project managers. Engineering Master Plan (EMP) which was a translation of the OMP into an engineering After Changi Airport was officially declared Masterplanning our Naval Bases plan, taking into consideration engineering open on 29th December 1981, the RSAF was practices and constraints. ART then used the able to move into Paya Lebar and begin the In the early 1970s, the Navy needed a naval EMP to guide the planning of the taxiway construction of operational facilities located base for their missile gun boats (MGB), patrol system to connect the hangars to the runway. in the east of the runway. The hangars and craft and LST. Pulau Brani, located in the airport facilities once used by commercial Keppel Harbour, was found to be the ideal As a fighter aircraft was most vulnerable flights were converted for military aviation site in 1971. It was a naturally sheltered island, when taxiing, the time taken for taxiing and use. Singapore Aerospace took over the SIA with an area of 122ha. A British consulting waiting for take-off was designed to be as hangars in Apron C. company, Sir Bruce White, Wolfe Barry and short as possible. A second taxiway was built Partners was commissioned to plan, design to contribute to the reduction of exposure There was a concern that MINDEF could not and supervise the construction of the Pulau time. Hangars were also used to reduce the use all the space in the passenger terminals. Brani Naval Base. vulnerability of the fighter aircraft during Air Logistics Department and SPO managed to refuelling and rearming for the next sortie. make maximum use of the space in Terminal It was completed at the end of 1973 and was Opening of Pulau Brani Naval Base by The nine-hole golf course around the Tengah A while HQ Singapore Air Defence Artillery declared open by then PM Mr Lee Kuan Yew then PM Mr Lee Kuan Yew on 26th January 1974 Officers Mess was redeveloped to house a (SADA), the School of SADA and Central on 26th January 1974. Through this project, (Photos credit: Ministry of Information fighter squadron. Arrangement was made Missile Support Base occupied Terminal C. the young engineers learnt the business of and the Arts Collection, courtesy of National with Raffles Country Club for the staff of planning and designing a naval base. Archives of Singapore) Tengah Air Base to play golf there. Within a decade, the RSAF was operating their fighter force from Tengah Air Base and Soon, a second naval base was required to The key of the naval base was quick turnaround Besides protecting the fighter aircraft, the Paya Lebar Air Base to achieve their concept of accommodate the growing ORBAT of the time for refuelling and rearming, maximum project team identified all the operational operations of providing maximum protection RSN. Tuas, at the western tip of the island, wharfage, and storage of ready-to-use missiles systems that would be needed to support and minimum turnaround time, to maximise was an ideal site. At that time, our engineers and ammunition in a site which was not large operations despite enemy actions. An example the fighting potential of our fighter force. had just completed Phase 1 of the development enough for the standard safety distances to was the electricity generation and distribution of Tengah Air Base and Paya Lebar Air Base be applied. It also had to accommodate the system. As electricity was needed for almost Dispersed fighter operations made the fuel and were eager to transfer their experience in commercialisation of storage and maintenance every air base operations, a very resilient storage and distribution system through a masterplanning, design and project management facilities. The subsequent EMP was formulated electricity generation and distribution system, network of pipes a major challenge for our to this new project. Specialist consultants from by our engineers.

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Local consultants were engaged on the design and so it had to proceed as quickly as possible level up quickly on new technologies that by available explosive storage standards. of large-scale maritime structures, and also in order that the base could be completed could reduce hazards arising from accidental Specially designed and constructed magazines undertook the detailed design of some of the by 2000, to make way for PSA container explosions in ammunition storage facilities. had to be built for our naval bases. conventional facilities. terminal development. Land reclamation work commenced in 1992, just two years We began the planning and design of the SAF It was a constant challenge to find and Tuas Naval Base was officially opened by then after the base was conceptualised. With stockpile as a large-scale system in the 1970s. develop new technologies for the storage of PM, Mr Goh Chok Tong in September 1994. the experience gained from the Tuas Naval The ammunition stockpile system would ammunition that would reduce the amount Speaking to the Navy servicemen and women Base development, the OMP and EMP were include production, storage, distribution and of land that would be sterilised. Urban gathered at the function, he said, “It is the formulated in-house using integrated project maintenance. Redevelopment Authority's (URA) plan to people, who will make the Tuas Naval Base design teams comprising operations staff, redevelop Seletar Air Base in 1994 for the outstanding and the RSN’s fleet fighting fit. engineers from DSTA, local consultants A major component of the ammunition Seletar Aerospace Park compelled us to take It is your foresight, heart and spirit that will and experts from our local universities. The stockpile system was the ammunition store the next significant step in the development decide the reputation of the Tuas Naval Base.” main challenge was in providing dynamic houses. We discovered that the basic load of of ammunition depot through the use of rock engineering solutions that were able to meet ammunition of our Army units included high caverns. This alternative was first studied Meanwhile, Brani Naval Base was found to be the operational requirements of the RSN in explosive items which were kept in their unit in the 1970s during the system study of our incompatible with the revised national land an optimal and cost-effective manner. magazines. The safety distance required for ammunition stockpile storage system but was use masterplan as the site would be needed for the storage of these high explosives items rejected due to the high cost of construction. the future expansion of the Port of Singapore Changi Naval Base was completed a few extended in many cases outside the fence line Authority’s (PSA) shipping container terminal. months behind schedule as the project was of our camps. Compliance with our explosive The explosives safety standards of the UK that The construction of the causeway connecting more complex than anticipated, with changes safety regulations would require the high we had adopted were very conservative with Sentosa to the mainland and the busy traffic in operational and technical requirements explosive items to be removed from our unit regard to underground storage. The amount in the Keppel Harbour were additional push during the course of the project. The ceremony magazines. But the units needed these high of land that would be sterilised would remain factors for the Navy to look for a replacement to mark the berthing of the first deep draft explosive items to be operationally ready. the same as that for above ground storage. site for Brani Naval Base. vessel, the USN carrier, USS Kitty Hawk at The conflicting needs of operational readiness As the construction cost of underground Changi Naval Base on 23rd March 2001 was a and public safety were finally resolved by ammunition facility would be considerably The conceptualisation of the Changi Naval major milestone for the completion of seaward developing ammunition store houses for the higher, there was no economic case for an Base started in 1990. The location of the base facilities of the base. basic loads of battalions in the ammunition underground ammunition storage facility, would be in a patch of the sea off Changi depot located closest to their camp. despite our intuition telling us that there was. that would not be affected by the height Our Ammunition Storage constraints of Changi Airport. The site was Challenges However, the main issue – to determine the Learning About Explosives Safety chosen to be between the planned third and optimal number of ammunition depots that from Overseas Experts fourth runways. Land reclamation would be Storing ammunition safely was one of the we could locate in Singapore, at a minimal needed, and the area had to be large enough challenges that the SAF faced. Large amounts of cost to the nation while meeting the storage, We had been attending seminars on explosives to accommodate more and bigger warships, valuable land around each of our ammunition readiness and survivability requirements of safety since the 1980s to learn from experts logistics, recreational and sporting facilities. storage facilities had to be sterilised for the SAF, remained. Each depot would require in the field and to get to know them. One of explosives safety reasons. With Singapore’s an area of about 100ha for the construction the best known seminars was the biennial The long lead-time item for the development land scarcity, there was a push to free up this of the storage facility, and an area of 300ha Department of Defense (DoD) Explosives of Changi Naval Base was land reclamation land for other developments. We needed to to be sterilised as safety buffer. Safety Seminar, where the world's experts gathered. We became friends with some of The main ammunition depot of the Army was the experts and were invited to visit their in the nature reserve. As the surrounding land laboratories and tests. had been protected by the Nature Reserve Board from development, there was no cost In one DoD Explosives Safety Seminar, the to the land sterilised by the explosives safety US Defense Nuclear Agency (which evolved buffer. The Navy required some of their into the Defense Threat Reduction Agency missiles and ammunition to be stored in their (DTRA)) presented a paper on Distant Runner, naval bases for operational readiness. No land a test for the US Air Force on the effects of Changi Naval Base Berthing Facilities was available for safety buffer as prescribed bombs stored inside a third generation concrete

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aircraft shelter. The test would be done at the development and certification. This project be obtained sooner than two years. As we had White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. was the use of low density concrete walls or expected this we had made arrangements to non-propagation walls to prevent sympathetic call on the officers in the Department of Navy, We received an invitation and a team of eight explosion of explosives stored in different identified by Defence Attache then COL Lee engineers were sent to attend the test. chambers in an explosives storehouse. This Sing Kong, after our visit to NFESC. technology was one of the pillars of the High The tests showed that the explosion of 48 Performance Magazine that they had been We briefed the meeting that the shortage units of 500-pound MK 82 bombs each with developing to minimise the land needed for of land in Singapore had motivated us to 87kg of Tritonal explosives would destroy safety around magazines in US naval bases. develop an ammunition facility that would the aircraft shelter and everything inside We told Mr Bill Keenan that his two proposals be excavated in rocks. This facility would except the underground chamber that was were of great value to us and that we would help us achieve our goal of reducing 90% of designed for storage of nuclear weapon visit NFESC to follow up. We sent a request the amount of land needed to be sterilised by bombs. The overpressure generated and debris to our Defence Attache in Washington then the storage of ammunition in conventional throw distances were as predicted by the COL Lee Sing Kong to seek support from bunkers built on the surface. calculations. the technical agencies at the Department of Defense and Department of Navy for Water mitigation and non-propagation walls Singapore to collaborate with NFESC on the could thus be keys to the achievement of this Explosion with 4176kg two projects. goal. As the phenomenon of ground shock of Tritonal destroyed the shelter completely of an explosion, and its effect on modern as the door of the shelter In August 1994, COL Lui Pao Chuen led a team apartment buildings of reinforced concrete had prevented venting of the blast comprising Mr Lim Chee Hiong and Mr Ong were not well studied, we sought their advice Yew Hing to Port Hueneme, the largest US on their approach to such research. International Collaborations in Navy port in the West Coast, where NFESC Explosives Storage Safety was located. The purpose of their visit was Mr Robert Odello shared he had done a to draft a Memorandum of Understanding for literature survey some years ago on all the Team of engineers (fourth from the left) Following our meeting at White Sands Missile collaboration in research and development on work that had been done in the US on the and ammunition specialists (fourth from the Range, Mr Bill Keenan had progressed up these two projects. storage of ammunition in stores that were right) studying the effects of explosion the ranks in NFESC and was appointed the built underground. He showed us a copy of his on aircraft shelters at Distance Runner tests Head of the Explosives Safety Group. In 1994, We were surprised not to find Mr Bill report which he had brought with him. COL at White Sands Missile Range he came to Singapore with a proposal for Keenan when we arrived to the meeting at Lui Pao Chuen promptly asked for the release on 18th November 1981 collaboration in the research and development NFESC. We were told that Mr Bill Keenan of this report which Mr Robert Odello could of the use of water to mitigate the effects of had just retired and had moved his home not accede to without authorisation from the Distant Runner marked the first explosives blasts. He told us that laboratory tests done by away from Port Hueneme. His successor, Mr Department of the Navy. safety test attended by engineers and NFESC had shown that a reduction of the peak Jim Tancreto, co-hosted the visit with the ammunition experts from Singapore. pressure by 80% to 90% was achievable. They Head of the Water Front Structures Division, We requested for him to lend us the report for had not yet performed simulation studies with Mr Robert Odello. All the NFESC experts a night for bedtime reading in the hotel room. The US Navy had a small group of experts high performance computers or gone beyond appeared at the welcome session. US Navy He agreed and we spent the night reading the located at the US Naval Facilities Engineering laboratory-scale testing. The proposal was Lieutenant Linda Lancaster told us that interesting report. The part that intrigued us Services Centre (NFESC) responsible for exciting as the search for ways to minimise she represented the Department of Navy was that there were two formulae to calculate specifying safety distances for all US Navy the use of land for explosives safety had been to facilitate the paperwork that would be ground shock safety distances that had found shore-based ammunition facilities and one of our major preoccupations since the needed for information exchange. When we their way into the DoD Explosives Safety determining their designs. This group had 1970s. Besides the need for land for safety asked how long the paperwork would take, Standards. Using one formula would yield been active in the development of explosives around our ammunition depots, we also she replied that it was typically a two-year a required safety distance of 60m which storage technology and their results were needed to find a solution for the storage of process for staffing. She advised us that we would be really great for us but using the frequently presented at the Explosives Safety 155mm shells in the field for our Army. would need a champion to navigate through other would yield a required safety distance Seminars. One of the leading experts of NFESC the bureaucracy of the Department of Navy. of 300m which was bad news. We asked was Mr Bill Keenan. We met at the Distant Mr Bill Keenan also proposed to collaborate on Our champion would have to go from office to Mr Robert Odello the following morning Runner Tests and later became good friends. a project that NFESC had gone into full-scale office to garner support so that approval could whether he had found an explanation for this

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discrepancy. He replied that he could not and motivation to explore new technologies and structures, Mr Ong Yew Hing also learned for them to grow and excel in their respective speculated that there could be a typo error in solutions that could meet our unique needs. that the ability to carry out explosive tests and areas, while contributing to the build-up of the formulae. numerical modelling were two critical factors in-country capability to enhance defence Building Our Local Capabilities in in the build-up of protective engineering building and infrastructure. COL Lui Pao Chuen led a team to visit the Passive Defence capabilities. They were essential enablers DoD Explosives Safety Board in Washington for new protective concepts and designs to In the early 1990s, we set up a long-term in 1995 to brief them on our Underground Passive defence complements the active be studied and validated. technology development programme to Ammunition Facility project, and to be defence provided by the SAF. It has been an develop in-country capability in protective an observer at the meeting in which the important component of Singapore’s defence In our effort to build up our in-country technology. Protective technology is a niche results from the Joint US-ROK Technology and has seen steady growth over the last capabilities in protective engineering for the area that entails understanding the effects Development programme were deliberated. 40 years. development of the UAF, we were on the of weapons on buildings and infrastructure, We were the first foreigners to be allowed into lookout for people with the right skill sets. and then developing protection systems such meetings. When COL Lui Pao Chuen We had therefore been working steadily We came across Dr Karen Chong, a PhD in against such effects. We knew that there broached the subject of the two formulae since the 1970s to build up our technology nuclear engineering who was finishing a was a need for fundamental research to close for ground shock to Dr Chester E. Canada, a in passive defence and protection. In the early research project at NUS in blast modelling and technology gaps in protective technology. member of the Board, he told us that there was 1980s, we were smart buyers and users of offered her a job in LEO (Lands and Estates In his speech in 1997, then second Minister nothing that the Explosives Safety Board could foreign technologies. We engaged specialist Organisation, which later became part of for Defence, RADM (NS) Teo Chee Hean do about the uncertainties in the formulae. consultants from different countries and DSTA). She eventually became our expert said, “LEO needs to collaborate with overseas We could not get any resolution from the tapped on their experiences and knowhow in modelling and simulation, and explosive institutions, as well as leverage the research Board and would have to decide which one to help us develop our operations facilities. testing. We also hired Dr Zhou Yingxin, a and development potential of NUS and to use. This cemented our resolve to do our In the mid 1980s, we started collaborations mining engineer who built up our capability NTU to develop indigenous know-how and own research on ground shock. The meeting with our local universities and began to carry in rock engineering for the UAF project. Dr technology which best suits our needs and also opened the door to our add-on tests to out in-house design of protective facilities Zhou and Dr Chong were the first two PhDs circumstances.” The Centre for Protective US-ROK tests at Magdalena, and these add- using existing design codes. We needed to employed by LEO. Both had pursued their Technology was set up at NUS and the on tests were known as the 1996 Singapore build up our indigenous protective building PhDs in fields of their respective interest but Protective Technology Research Centre was Ground Shock Tests. and infrastructure engineering capabilities to could not find jobs in Singapore that required set up at NTU a year later. The two centres enhance the survivability of personnel, assets their expertise acquired through years of PhD were set up to spearhead research efforts to and critical operational functions. In 1989, Mr studies and research. The UAF project and provide scientific and engineering solutions Ong Yew Hing was sent to the Royal Military the associated technology development that to meet the national need in weapons and College of Science (RMCS) in the UK to study LEO ventured into provided the opportunity defence systems, and address emerging for his Masters of Science in Weapons Effects national protective technology challenges on Structures under the Defence Technology for the government and industry. We also Training Award. MINDEF had been sending leveraged expertise in our research institutes, engineers to the RMCS for other courses such as the Agency for Science, Technology before and this was a new course that had and Research’s (A*STAR) Institute of just started in 1987. Another seven engineers High Performance Computing and DSO, Ground Shock Tests in were sent by MINDEF for the course until it for integrated efforts to fill protective Magdalena, New Mexico, USA, 1996 was discontinued. technology gaps.

Passive Defence The RMCS campus at Shrivenham had a We had many projects that would help to small explosives test range where up to 430g build up our engineering capability, and Passive defence covers measures in building of TNT or its equivalent could be tested. As needed a long term view of capability or infrastructure design and construction part of the course, students were required to building. Instead of taking the easy way out taken to resist in-place and minimise damages do a project involving either explosive tests of employing consultants to get the project caused by hostile actions such as bombing. or numerical modelling using computational Our first engineer at the done, we continued to pursue opportunities The critical need of Singapore for passive fluid dynamics. During his studies in RMCS, Royal Military College of Science, Weapons to train our engineers in the specialised area defences was self-evident. The high value of besides acquiring the theoretical knowledge Effect, Mr Ong Yew Hing, on of protective technology to undertake these land in our small country gave us additional and learning how to design protective Structures Masters Programme in the UK 1989 projects. Today, we send our engineers to

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handling, transportation, storage and usage to our troops that their family members at of explosives. home would be protected.

Following 9/11, the coverage of the committee Following the government’s decision to was extended to include fire and chemicals proceed with the construction of the Mass Explosive Testing at Pulau Senang in 1998 hazards and the committee was renamed Rapid Transit (MRT) in 1982, then Minister as Explosive, Fire and Chemical Safety for Defence, Mr Goh Chok Tong tasked the train under renowned experts in the US1, the our large-scale explosive test programmes on Committee (EFCSC). One of the hazards SPO to study the use of the MRT system as Netherlands2, Norway3, Switzerland4, Canada5 structural components that have continued identified then was the transportation of bomb shelters, as was done in London during and the UK6. When our engineers come back, up till today. Data from such large-scale tests chemicals by tanker trucks from the container World War II. we will provide them with exciting project are difficult to come by as they are usually port terminals in the city to Jurong Island. opportunities such as the development of classified. The tests give us the confidence Though the transportation would meet The study concluded that our MRT new explosive storage concepts and facilities that our protective designs will withstand international transportation requirements underground stations could be used for and new bases, to hone their engineering the threats concerned. for hazardous chemicals, the requirements civil defence but the tunnels would not be capabilities. did not consider an attack by terrorists. The suitable as the temperature and humidity There was still a limit to the amount of committee considered that any leakage of would be too high for comfort. The MRT Local Large-Scale Explosive Testing explosives we could detonate on Pulau hazardous chemical when the tanker trucks system would be underground in the city Senang. For safety reasons, we could only test passed through populated areas was not area with 15 underground stations, while There was a critical need to validate our single rounds of cased charge on the island. acceptable and recommended that the tanker the rest would be on elevated tracks. The protective design against actual explosions. To study the effects of accidental explosion trucks be transported by sea in a barge to 15 underground stations could be developed We needed to build up the confidence and in ammunition storage, we needed access Jurong Island instead. The company involved for use as large CD shelters to be operated capability to do the tests ourselves. On his to larger test sites that could detonate up was not pleased with this recommendation but during air raids. The roof and walls of the return from the MSc course in RMCS, Mr to tens of tons of explosives, which could complied as it respected the recommendation underground MRT station would, however, Ong Yew Hing and a group of engineers only be found overseas. Our international from the committee. need to be reinforced to resist the effects of began planning to carry out explosive tests collaborations allowed us to participate in joint a direct hit of an aerial bomb. in Singapore. The first test was conducted in large-scale explosive testing programmes. As Civil Defence Shelters 1990 at the Sungei Gedong live firing area to large-scale explosive tests are very costly, such MINDEF argued that the case to harden investigate the effects of contact explosions collaboration allows countries to share costs In the early 1970s, preparation for the nation underground MRT stations was compelling. on reinforced concrete slabs. The test was as well as test results and findings. Since 2000, to operate during wartime conditions was In the event of an air raid, people would run carried out using 81mm mortar as this was we have participated in overseas large-scale identified as an important task that planners into these stations believing that it would the largest ordnance allowed to be detonated explosive tests in Australia, Sweden and the in MINDEF should address. MINDEF engaged be safer than being above ground. If a bomb at the range. US. Some of the test sites in these countries an expert from the UK Ministry of Defence to should hit an MRT station and penetrate the are a few times the size of Singapore. learn from them their experience in preparing roof or wall and explode within, the number We had to look for alternative sites to test the nation to operate in wartime. One of the of casualties would be large. ordnances with larger explosive payloads. Sharing our Knowledge with Other subjects was the protection of civilians from We performed our next explosive tests in Government Agencies the effects of weapons. In fact, the London The Singapore Government eventually 1992 in Pulau Senang, an island south of the subway had served as bomb shelters for many decided that 9 out of the 15 MRT stations Singapore island. The tests were to study The knowledge and experience gained by Londoners. (Braddell, Newton, Somerset, Raffles Place, the effects of 155mm artillery rounds on our engineers in armaments, and building City Hall, Marina Bay, Lavender, Bugis and concrete slabs. The Sungei Gedong tests and and infrastructure, were shared with other In a period of tension, our NSmen will be Tiong Bahru) would proceed to be developed Pulau Senang tests were the predecessors of government agencies through collaboration mobilised for operations, which means that for use as CD shelters. in various projects, and in the Explosive their families will not have them at home to Safety Committee, that was co-chaired by lead and provide comfort. The safety of their As the nine CD shelters in MRT stations could 1 University of Florida, Center for Infrastructure Protection and the Deputy Commissioner of Police and family members is of paramount importance only accommodate about 100,000 people, Physical Security, Colorado School of Mines 2 Delft University of Technology Chief Defence Scientist. The committee to our NSmen, and thus, the protection of our there was a need to build shelters in HDB 3 Norwegian University of Science and Technology was set up by the MHA and MINDEF to civilian population from weapon threats in new towns to provide as many shelters as 4 EPFL Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Switzerland 5 University of Toronto, Canada provide the Singapore Government with civil defence (CD) shelters is very important. possible in the shortest time. MHA developed 6 Imperial College and Leeds University in the UK professional advice on safety matters in the CD shelters would also provide reassurance a comprehensive plan to protect the entire

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civilian population. The plan was approved served as provisional shelters in the interim as people was evident when the HDB public resilient from the effects of bomb blasts. In by the Singapore Government in September their intrinsic qualities offered some degree shelters were down-scaled to match the the 1982 Lebanon War, the Israeli Air Force 1986, and shortly after the National Shelter of protection. anticipated peacetime usage. This shortfall found that reinforced concrete buildings in Bureau (later renamed as the Civil Defence in HDB public shelters was somewhat Beirut took multiple hits from bombs dropped Shelter Bureau) was established in MHA to compensated by the construction of public by the Israeli Air Force fighter aircraft and oversee the implementation of the CD shelter shelters in schools, community centres and remained standing. The inhabitants of the programme. The MRT CD shelter was the other public developments. Such trade-offs in rooms destroyed by the effects of the bomb first element in a comprehensive national balancing the costs of constructing shelters, would be injured or killed, but the walls would CD shelter programme which included the the practical concerns of peacetime usage shield and limit injuries to inhabitants in the installation of a network of public warning of CD shelters and having adequate shelter other parts of the building. The shielding effect systems (sirens) placed at strategic points protection berths for the population would of walls was an important protection measure. across Singapore to warn the public of continue into the 1990s. imminent threats such as military attacks Studies on the effects of various weapons on and disasters, both natural and man-made, 1990 Kuwait War an apartment with a household shelter, and that may endanger lives and property. Engaging Students on Civil Defence household shelter modules were done. The in an MRT Civil Defence Shelter In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The effects of an explosion with a minimum of Israel Defence Force knew that Iraq had 1kg to beyond 1,000kg of explosives were In 1990, three years into the five-year Russian-made SCUD tactical ballistic missiles assessed via full-scale tests. The effect of programme, the first few batches of CD which could be fitted with chemical weapon overpressure arising from the explosion was shelters under the apartments of new towns warheads. The Iraqis had about 100 SCUD-B well understood by the professionals. The were completed and ready for use. A mid-term missiles and locally developed variants. standard formula to determine the distances review of the project found that the cost of at which different types of facilities could constructing basements beneath HDB flats The Israeli Civil Defence Authority was faced be built was established in the explosives to be not cost effective. On the other hand, with a dilemma. They had been building safety standards of the UK, the US and NATO building the CD shelters in the void deck would communal shelters since their Civil Defence countries. The maximum pressure generated take up space allocated for social needs of the Law was legislated in 1951. The law requires the in an explosion is proportional to the cube Civil Defence Public Warning System residents. There was also no rental demand building of CD shelters in all homes, commercial root of the net explosive quantity (NEQ) for the space for economic activities, with and industrial buildings. These CD shelters of a warhead. This would mean that for a The Singapore Government decided on only about 20% of these spaces being rented. were designed to provide shelter in the event of warhead with NEQ of 1kg, the lethal range a comprehensive shelter construction an air attack over the populated areas of Israel. from overpressure of blast is 2.3m. As the programme, starting with the incorporation Following this review, the Singapore The short warning time of minutes from the maximum pressure was proportional to the of shelters in future HDB developments. The Government decided to delink the shelter alarm of missile attack was not sufficient for cube root of the NEQ, the lethal distance for CD shelters would be the most visible and programme from the public housing people to run to CD shelters for protection. The a warhead with 1,000kg NEQ is 23m, that effective way to protect civilians from the construction programme. Instead of providing population was instructed to prepare a room is, only ten times that of an explosion with effects of air attacks and artillery shelling. one shelter for every new block of flats, in their home and to seal it up with masking 1kg NEQ. They would also provide our people with HDB would provide sufficient shelter space tape for the protection of their family members. psychological assurance. based on its anticipated peacetime usage. The secondary effect of an explosion had The decision was also taken to extend the Household Shelters proven to be much more dangerous than the From 1987, all new HDB developments would shelter programme to other new government primary effect of overpressure on humans. be built with CD shelters. Then, the plan was developments such as schools and community The multi-ministry Shelter Review Committee Normal glass windows will shatter at a range that approximately 1,000 apartment blocks centres built in existing residential estates. was set up in 1992 to review the effectiveness of 33.3m from the explosion of 1kg NEQ. would be constructed with CD shelters that of our CD shelters and the basic shelter design This is increased to 333m for a warhead would provide places for 489,000 people at The 1980s thus marked a period where public and planning parameters, taking into account with 1,000kg NEQ. Large-scale testings were the end of the five-year programme. “communal” shelters were built in new HDB lessons learnt from the 1990-1991 Gulf War. performed in Singapore at Pulau Senang with estates, and in new public developments up to 100kg explosive, and in joint testing People living in existing homes did not have such as the nine underground MRT stations, There was empirical evidence from conflicts programmes with Australia on the effect of access to the shelter programme in new when the opportunities arose. The trade-off in the Middle East, that modern buildings the explosion of up to 40,000kg on buildings towns. Basements and underground carparks between being pragmatic and in protecting with reinforced concrete structures were very and glass windows at various distances.

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Computer models were developed to simulate solution for our country. The validation of the effect of blasts and these models were the design of the household shelter began then validated through large-scale testing. with computer simulation, finite element modelling, laboratory testing, small-scale The Shelter Review Committee recommended testing and finally full-scale testing. The first that shelters should be built to cater to a full-scale testing of structural elements and wide range of threat scenarios, including the glass windows took place in 1994 at Pulau need to consider chemical and other threats Senang. Complete units of household shelters such as missiles, as the possibility of such were built and tested at Pulau Senang in 1996, weapons being available in the region in the 1998 and 2004. future could not be excluded. To cater for an emergency scenario of very short warning time, household shelters would be the most effective form of sheltering protection as they are deemed as “scenario-free” and are readily accessible by the residents.

Our requirement would be to provide The Straits Times report on full-scale explosive testing, 9th October 1998 protection to our population that could deal Source: The Straits Times © Singapore Press Holdings Limited. Permission required with threats from a small number of SCUD- for reproduction type of tactical ballistic missiles to a much larger number of cheap pipe rockets at the Explosive Testing in 1998 Witnessed for “normal” glazing. lowest cost. This would complement active by then DPM Dr Tony Tan Keng Yam air defence cover that would be provided by (second from left) On completion of the household shelter the RSAF. design, test and evaluation programme, The UK Explosive Storage and Transport our engineers were able to assess that the The methodology used in the determination Committee and the Australian Defence Science occupants would be completely protected of operational requirements was operations and Technology Organisation were planning from shattering glass and shrapnel from the analysis. We studied all the published reports to do a full-scale explosion with 40 tons of warheads of bombs and missiles that the of recent wars and conflicts to be kept up to explosives in 1999 and invited Singapore to shelters were designed against. The shelters date on how threats were evolving. Dumb participate. Other nations participating were were also able to fully protect civilians from aerial bombs might still be used in large Norway and the Netherlands. This was a the hazardous effects of artillery shells and numbers on targets that were well hidden great opportunity to collect data on the blast rockets, and partial protection from the over Explosion trial in Australia involving from observation. Precision-guided munitions pressure and the amount of debris at different pressure from 1,000kg of high explosive at 40 tonnes of TNT in 1999 with circular error probable (CEP) of 2m, like distances to the centre of the explosion. A varying distances. laser-guided bombs, would be expected to representative dwelling was built and fitted be used against military targets. This would with windows of different sizes and type The Singapore Government accepted the mean less collateral damage on civilians. of glazing. By participating in the trial, we recommendation of the Shelter Review Tactical ballistic missiles could be used but also gained insights on the explosion effects Committee to require the construction of the number would not be large. Unguided from the experiments that the other countries household shelters in all new HDB apartments. rockets launched from cheap PVC pipes by performed. The construction of communal shelters at the the Hezbollah in Lebanon on the towns in the foot of HDB blocks was thus discontinued. It north of Israel and by the Hamas from Gaza Our tests confirmed that the greatest hazard to also decided to introduce legislation to require are threats that are very difficult to eliminate. our people from weapons to be the secondary similar shelters to be provided in new private effects of glass fragments. The tests also houses and flats. The Civil Defence Shelter The concept to decentralise protection confirmed that with proper “hardening”, Act (CDSA) came into effect on 1st May 1998 to every home instead of having large glazing would not shatter at a range of 33.3m requiring compulsory provision of shelters in communal CD shelters would be a robust from the explosion of 1kg NEQ, as observed all new residential developments.

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ROCK CAVERNS FOR space creation in land-scarce Singapore by of its strategic dispersion locations for the of the recent development in both research in AMMUNITION FACILITY achieving land savings of more than 300ha. Army's ammunition stockpile. The need underground ammunition storage safety and In the process, DSTA set new standards on to relocate SEAD became one of the major rock cavern construction technology. A Swiss ground shock for underground ammunition considerations in the planning of ammunition consulting firm, Heierli Consulting Engineers, storage safety which have been accepted by storage facilities. was engaged by MINDEF to carry out a study the NATO. NATO’s standards on ammunition on the existing state-of-the-art technologies Turning Dream into Reality storage guide the development of such storage Looking Underground then for the development of the underground by its member countries, including established ammunition depot. The study also aimed to “Because they dared to dream, think deep and break militaries such as the US, the UK, and France. The search for a new ammunition depot explore the technical and economic feasibility new ground, we have created more space for our We also developed a new competency in site in Singapore was not a simple task as a of developing underground ammunition defence, while freeing up more land for Singapore.” cavern facility development that has been new depot would not only physically occupy storage depot at three quarry sites. put to great use to serve MINDEF and major a large area of land, the explosion hazard Mr Teo Chee Hean, then Minister for national initiatives in underground space zones (yellow and purple circles) imposed The joint study by MINDEF and the Defence, at the Commissioning Ceremony development. by it would also constrain the surrounding consultant, completed in early 1995, gathered of the Underground Ammunition Facility on developments. SEAD occupied a footprint that the knowledge base for underground 7th March 2008. Background of 109ha then and imposed a yellow circle storage had significantly increased over the (sterilised land) of 310ha and a purple previous 5 to 10 years. The study concluded The Underground Ammunition Facility (UAF) Seletar East Ammunition Depot (SEAD) circle (requiring glazing control) of 830ha. that it was technically and economically viable is a story of dreaming, daring and doing. As a replacement, the new site must meet to construct an underground ammunition The Seletar East Ammunition Depot (SEAD) MINDEF’s strategic considerations such as storage depot at the disused quarry sites. The DSTA and MINDEF team envisaged was one of the Army’s ammunition stockpile strategic dispersion in relation to the other a bold solution to build a first-class UAF in depots. It was an ex-British depot located existing depots, and it should also have the In addition to reduced land use, underground Singapore in an effort to find a solution to our within the Seletar Camp. The depot was same potential capacity as SEAD to meet storage also offered many other advantages land constraints. The team dared to challenge not optimally designed in terms of land use, MINDEF’s long-term storage requirement. over aboveground storage such as improved the norm, overcame many engineering and had the potential to be developed into a safety, better security and protection against challenges and became a first mover in the depot with much greater capacity. This could From 1991 to 1993, NTU and PWD jointly external threats, and lower maintenance cost. use of rock cavern space in Singapore. The be done without increasing the hazard circles carried out a project to study the feasibility of Given these added advantages and with the result is state-of-the-art UAF. sterilised by the original depot. constructing rock caverns in the Bukit Timah conclusion of the consultant’s study, the Granite. This study provided very positive Mandai quarry site appeared to be the best The UAF provides superior protection for the In line with the national development input on the feasibility of cavern construction. option as the replacement site for SEAD. SAF’s war assets, and greatly improves safety plan, the Seletar Camp was earmarked for With this, URA in 1994 suggested to MINDEF and operational readiness. The development residential development by the year 2010. to consider siting the new depot underground In February 1995, MINDEF approved the of the UAF opened up a new frontier in This would result in MINDEF losing one at one of the disused quarries. exploratory development of the UAF, and thus began the planning and technical studies The feasibility of developing underground that subsequently led to MINDEF’s approval ammunition depot was in fact studied by for the full-scale development of the UAF in MINDEF in the 1970s. However, the explosives 1998. The groundbreaking ceremony on 12th safety standards of the UK that were adopted August officiated by then Minister of State then were very conservative with regard to for Defence, Mr David Lim, marked a major underground storage. As the construction cost milestone in UAF development and a new for an underground ammunition facility was approach to land use in Singapore. On 27th thought to be considerably higher, there was July 2001, MINDEF celebrated the completion no economic advantage for constructing an of Phase 1 of the UAF excavation works. The underground ammunition facility, despite the completion blast ceremony was officiated by intuition that we should have one. Dr Tony Tan Keng Yam, then Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence. In March MINDEF, however, agreed to URA’s suggestion 2008, after more than 10 years of planning The UAF was commissioned by then Minister for Defence, Mr Teo Chee Hean, on 7th March 2008 to reconsider the underground option in view and development, the UAF was completed

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and officially commissioned by Mr Teo Chee The most common practice in addressing these in air blast reduction. This programme then form the safe distances for ground shock. Most Hean, then Minister for Defence. hazards is by the use of land, keeping a safe represented the state-of-the art in underground experts agreed that these criteria were based distance from the source of explosion. This ammunition safety. However, many problems on data from the mining industry for claims Identifying the Technology Gap distance is defined largely based on empirical still remained unsolved, in particular the issue against damage to wooden and masonry relationships between the maximum possible of ground shock which was not addressed in houses, whereas typical residential buildings The design of an ammunition facility is largely quantity of explosives in an explosion and the the US-ROK joint R&D programme. in Singapore were of reinforced concrete. based on safety requirements in case of an level of acceptable damage. These distances Finally, it was also realised that the ground accidental explosion, in addition to meeting and air blast pressures form the basis of the Given the high population density and shock equations and damage criteria were not user and operational requirements. The effects safety criteria. extremely high land cost in Singapore, there adequate for applications in Singapore, due to associated with an accidental explosion was a need to design the UAF to minimise our unique geological conditions. include ground shock, air blast, debris, and Safety and design codes existing in the land use through technology. As such, we fire and heat at the tunnel exit. western countries then were typically embarked on a major technology review effort Technology Development Programme represented by those from the US DoD which included reviewing the most commonly Explosives Safety Board, the UK Explosive used codes, visits to and discussions with In order to resolve these critical issues related Storage and Transport Committee (ESTC), and various government agencies and research to underground ammunition safety, we NATO. These codes specified the necessary organisations in the US, Norway, Sweden embarked on a comprehensive technology safe distances and other requirements such and Switzerland. Information related to development (TD) programme to minimise as overburden thickness, storage chamber underground ammunition safety was collected land sterilisation required while achieving a separation and basic tunnel design. However, and analysed. The main objectives were to safe and economic design for underground because of the highly uncertain nature of an identify predictive measures that might be ammunition facilities. The main objectives accidental explosion which might involve applicable to Singapore, to identify technology were to develop a set of safety and design Illustration of the effects of an tens or hundreds of tons of explosives, and gaps, and to make recommendations for criteria for such facilities and new technologies underground explosion (section view) partly because of the lack of data on such further R&D that would help remove these that could significantly reduce land use. This large explosions, these codes tended to be technology gaps. decision was made because there were no conservative. While these codes might be existing codes that would allow an efficient acceptable in other countries, they were The main conclusion from this effort was and economic design for our facilities, and too conservative for some, especially land- that significant technology gaps did exist no one else could decide the safety criteria scarce Singapore. An enormous amount of for underground ammunition storage safety. for Singapore as these involve the safety of land would have to be sterilised in order to There were also significant discrepancies our people. We had to decide for ourselves. satisfy these safety requirements. among the existing codes, with many of the codes’ specifications overly conservative for The TD programme comprised three Motivated by the political issue of the US application in Singapore’s context. main components. The first concerned the Illustration of the effects of military storing ammunition in ROK without development of more accurate prediction underground explosion (plan view) meeting the safety distances specified in the Ground shock remained the most uncertain equations for ground shock, and revision of DoD Explosives Safety Manuals, the US aspect. Some of the reasons were actually existing damage criteria. This component Ground shock refers to the shock waves and the ROK in 1991 started a five-year joint pointed out in a paper by Mr Robert Odello of was mainly to resolve and remove the transmitting through the ground, in a way R&D programme to develop new technology the US Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory in uncertainties and conservatism in the existing similar to an earthquake, which may cause for underground ammunition storage. This 1980, which referred to the possibly erroneous codes. More accurate prediction would allow nearby buildings to crack or even collapse. Air programme, costing a total of US$13 million, data source that was used for the equations for less conservatism and give us more blast refers to the shock waves propagating was undertaken in an effort to reduce the vast for ground shock distance adopted by all of confidence in our design. This would involve through the air, which may break glass amount of land that was being sterilised in US the four codes reviewed. Even if we accepted the development of computer models for the windows and damage surface structures. ammunition facilities in the ROK, with special the data used for deriving the ground shock accurate prediction of ground shock based Debris hazards are usually associated with the emphasis on air blast reduction. Methods that prediction equations, the classification on Singapore’s unique geological conditions air blast, and refer to high-velocity fragments had been studied included mainly geometric of all soil and rock types into three broad and in-situ ground shock measurements, and from the explosion, including fragments from features (expansion chambers and sharp categories by these codes were just too the introduction of new damage criteria for the exploding ammunition and other fragments turns) and a closure device for the storage general and necessarily entailed additional modern buildings in Singapore. such as concrete and rocks from the venting chamber (a concrete plug). The results had conservatism. The problem was compounded tunnel and possibly rupturing rock cover. shown these methods to be highly effective by the damage criteria which were used to The second concerned the reduction of

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more realistic for ammunition storage and would developing the technology and expertise in result in a lower blast pressure compared to a the local defence eco-system. These projects single charge of the same mass. were mainly undertaken in co-operation with NUS and NTU. The involvement of DSTA Small-scale tests were used extensively to engineers was an essential part of these obtain data to calibrate numerical models projects. Projects undertaken in collaboration based on actual design layout. They were with foreign agencies took advantage of also used for parametric studies and design expertise developed in major R&D efforts verification of large-scale tests. over many years and sophisticated testing facilities available. They provided MINDEF Large-scale tests were conducted for key and DSTA exposure and access to worldwide safety components and design layout to expertise and existing knowhow. They also validate blast loading and performance of allowed us to enter into large development structures and safety features in the tunnel projects with reduced risks through parallel system. These tests served to provide the final research efforts and cost-sharing for large- validation and large-scale data for validation scale tests. Specialist studies were used when of our numerical models. the requirements for specific information or data (such as feasibility studies, computer Calibration modelling to verify a particular design) could be obtained from commercial organisations. Numerical Modelling Prediction Small Scale Testing Such studies, which could be conducted in Significantly lower chamber blast pressure on blast doors from distributed charges compared to a a short period of time, would have taken a single charge of the same mass, resulting in significant savings in blast door design. long time if we had done it ourselves as we needed to develop the necessary capability

maximum quantity in an explosion. Existing water mitigation. The use of water would Prediction first. While executing the TD programme, codes stipulated the use of the maximum also help solve another major safety and specialist studies were sometime conducted Calibration possible NEQ in calculating the safe operational problem – heat and fire. Large Scale Testing before deciding on the subsequent R&D distances. This would entail two sources of activities.

conservatism. First, from experience, only a The TD programme was implemented using a Validation portion of the maximum NEQ would go off feedback loop consisting of the following three Prediction in an accident. Second, because of the way components, namely numerical modelling, ammunition are cased and stored, the total small-scale and large-scale tests. energy imparted to the surrounding medium from this NEQ would be less than that from The rapid advances in computing technology Systematic approach to technology development following a feedback loop explosions of bare charges. Therefore, the in hydro-dynamics have made it possible EARTH main objectives of this component were to to realistically model complex problems. for numerical modelling, BACKFILL reduce the maximum NEQ that could actually Calibrated numerical models could be used small-scale testing and large-scale testing CONNECTION BARRICADE QUARRY explode in an accident, and the NEQ that to perform parametric studies without having TO TEST STRUCTURE WALL would enter into the equation to calculate to conduct expensive tests, and provide final In designing this TD programme, a three- TYPE 'A'

the safe distances. prediction of the explosion effects with pronged approach was used, depending on the TEST STRUCTURE 'A' better accuracy and ability to account for objectives, availability of resource and time, and Concentrated charges The last part of the programme aimed to many design factors which simple empirical our desire to maintain MINDEF’s technology further reduce land use by reducing the formulas could not. One major concept in edge. The three approaches were to conduct Layout for small-scale tests effects of an explosion. The main objectives explosion modelling introduced by the team joint R&D with local universities and foreign including key features of the tunnel system were to develop innovative technologies was modelling the explosions in distributed agencies, as well as to procure specialist studies. and external barricade and quarry walls that could be used to reduce air blast and charges compared to the traditional approach ground shock propagation, including the use of modelling explosives as a single charge. A Local R&D projects took advantage of local of decoupling material for ground shock and configuration of distributed charges would be expertise and lower costs, with the aim of

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Large-scale Tunnel Testing by ensuring that the length of the detonation cord from each cube to the booster charge A series of five large-scale tests for the UAF was equal. tunnel system was carried out as part of a joint work programme between MINDEF and the Swedish Defence Research Establishment (FOI) between 2000 and 2002. The tests were designed to validate the safety design concept and explosion loading parameters for the UAF. Pressure measurements were obtained inside and outside the tunnel to characterise the blast environment, and ground shock Setup for the bare charge tests to Setup for cased charges measurements were made to study ground serve as the reference for comparison of with 155mm artillery rounds to shock propagation and to examine the explosion effects in air blast, represent the worst response of the adjacent chamber. ground shock and debris hazards case scenario for debris hazards Fireball at the entrance tunnel The test facility in Sweden was excavated in of the large-scale test in Sweden The large-scale tests enabled us to successfully The first of the series of tests conducted in hard rock with similar rock mass properties as validate the design of the UAF. Results of Sweden in 2000 also achieved another first – the UAF granite rock. The layout for the tests the validation tests were used in the final the first such test to be conducted in the cold was based on a simplified layout of a typical design of the UAF and helped achieved a cost winter month of December. Luckily for the storage cluster of multiple chambers and savings of more than S$10 million. The tests test team, it was also the warmest winter in tunnels. It consisted of a detonating chamber, also provided the necessary and very valuable Sweden in more than 240 years. Our Swedish branch tunnel, two dummy branch tunnels, ground shock data for the validation of our partner strongly advised postponing the tests a main tunnel and an access tunnel. There predictive model for ground shock, which as they, based on past weather pattern, had were two 90°-turns in the tunnel system. were subsequently used in developing the expected the test site to be covered with snow Debris traps were constructed opposite ground shock safety criteria. and hence not suitable for test. We decided the chamber and at every sharp turn. In addition, a slot tunnel of about 2m-wide Total=273.4 kg parallel to the chamber was constructed at 2 Total=681 kg Mass/area= 0.73 kg/m criteria chamber separation distance from the Mass/area= 18.5 kg/m2 Percentage=0.53 % Percentage=1.3 % Total=8486.5 kg Total=0.19 kg 2 explosion chamber. This slot tunnel was used 2 Mass/area= 372 kg/m Mass/area= 0.00165 kg/m Percentage=16.5 % for monitoring the response of an adjacent Percentage=0.00036 % Total=10.9 kg chamber. Mass/area= 0.051 kg/m2 Layout of the test facility based on a Percentage=0.021 % A total of five tests were carried out with simplified storage cluster with the key tunnel various test objectives and storage conditions, and safety features Total=1626.2kg

2 including bare TNT charges as reference and Total=1.43 kg Mass/area= 19.0 kg/m 2 Mass/area= 0.0046 kg/m Percentage=3.1 % for calibration, cased munition as worst-case Explosive Percentage=0.0028 % scenario in debris hazards, and mixed cased Charges

munitions and propellants as typical storage Total=3.24 kg Total=83 kg 2 Mass/area= 4.15 kg/m2 conditions. Mass/area= 0.0009 kg/m Total=40217.4 kg Percentage=0.0063 % Percentage=0.29 % 2 Mass/area= 133 kg/m Percentage=78.2 % The explosive setup for the three bare charge Section tests with charge weights of 500kg, 2,500kg View Total=18.7 kg Mass/area= 0.09 kg/m2 and 10,000kg TNT were evenly distributed Percentage=0.036 % Plan View into 10 cubes and placed with its centre of charge 900mm from the chamber floor. All Setup for explosives with distributed charges Large scale test results from case charge test showing the distribution of debris mass inside the the 10 cubes were detonated simultaneously to simulate realistic storage conditions tunnel and the effectiveness of debris traps in reducing debris hazards

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Shot Load Objective Test 1 Calibration Calibration Bare Charge 2 Under load Verify elastic HEST behaviour 3 Design load Verify structural HEST response at design load 4 Over load Verify structural HEST response at close to failure load

*HEST – High Explosive Simulation Test

Validation of chamber blast door at half-scale using HEST, conducted in New Mexico, USA

Large-scale test results showing the effects of decoupling on ground shock. subsequent planning, design and technology Second, there were two significantly different These results provided major input in the development of the revised ground shock criteria development work. The final concept that types of safety criteria for underground for underground explosives storage safety would be adopted for the UAF must be ammunition storage, each having its the product of the best thinking and best advantages and disadvantages. The first type against their advice and proceeded with the test was carried out in collaboration with the practices among the international community, was the conventional deterministic method test preparations as the postponement would DTRA of the US DoD. The test prototype tailored to Singapore’s unique conditions and which specified a safety distance based on have caused several months of delay to the was a one-half scale door element. The High constraints. To do this, we decided to conduct a certain quantity of explosives (Quantity entire test programme. Miraculously, the Explosives Simulation Test (HEST) was used three different conceptual studies. Distance, or Q-D) as safety measures, and weather had worked to our favour! Heavy to simulate the required blast loading. The was simple to implement. Usually storage by snow fall only arrived the day after the door was tested to half the design load, the Getting the Best Practices compatible groups would be required although completion of the test. full design load and two times the design load. some countries would allow varying degrees The objective of the test was to verify the In order to provide MINDEF with the most of mixed storage in underground facilities. Blast Door Testing design and response of the door at various load comprehensive input, we conducted three This was what we had adopted so far for all cases, to verify the door design methodology separate conceptual studies to obtain the our surface storage facilities. The second type While some tests in Sweden were conducted including numerical simulation assumptions, best practices from around the world. The was the risk-based method which provided in cold winter, the validation test for the and to identify any shortcomings in the design rationale for this approach is described below. more flexibility and allowed mixed storage, chamber blast door was carried out in the and failure modes. The test results were then thereby enhancing operational readiness and warm desert of New Mexico, USA. used as input for the final design and analysis First, although we were gradually building space utilisation. of the chamber blast door. up our capability and expertise, we still did The chamber blast door was the key to the not have the experience or the expertise in Although the risk-based method was gaining safety design to limit any accidental explosion Developing a Robust Concept the development of a large underground popularity in other countries, full conversion to a single event by preventing propagation. ammunition storage complex. Inputs from to risk-based approach was seen as difficult It was designed to protect the contents of The planning of the UAF development experienced consultants were considered and would probably take a very long time to adjacent chambers from the effects of an placed great emphasis on the development essential to develop our conceptual design. implement. As a result, most countries who explosion in another chamber. The blast door of a robust concept which would guide all were adopting the risk-based approach were

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only using it to supplement their existing Three Conceptual Studies engineering and protective design. With its synthesised from the best ideas from the three Q-D based criteria, to exploit the benefits of wide experience and expertise, the solutions concept studies and our internal studies. This both methods. Switzerland was the first country to introduce it proposed would most likely be feasible was based on an elaborate set of evaluation and fully adopt the risk-based approach for from an engineering point of view. As an criteria involving safety, operations, land use, Finally, different countries seemed to adopt explosives safety. BK&P was the leading expert engineering consultant, Sycon would also be cost and technology risks. One innovative different engineering solutions based on in ammunition safety risk management and better able to advise us on cavern construction approach in the AHP was the development of their unique conditions and experience. For was responsible for developing the Swiss risk- and technical installations. Additionally, the criteria and their weight ranking through a example, while Switzerland used the Klotz based approach. They had wide experience Sycon was completing a comprehensive study series of workshops involving both the safety Device1 extensively in its underground ammo in safety planning and operations concepts for adopting the Swiss risk-based method and operations people from MINDEF, the facilities, Sweden did not use the Klotz in ammo facilities. Their solutions for the for application in Sweden. It had developed licensing authority, the various subject matter Device at all although it had more than 50 conceptual master plan based on the Swiss individual modules for specific conditions experts in DSTA, and the design consultant. underground ammunition facilities. This methodology and operations concept based in Sweden to supplement its existing significant difference was very much related on mixed storage represented a system that deterministic safety code. Therefore, Sycon Development and Implementation to the safety management concept. In the was very different from our practice then, but was uniquely qualified to provide some link Swiss risk-approach, a closure device that was was the basis for many new approaches in between the risk-based approach and the In addition to technology development, one normally in a closed position would result in ammunition safety management worldwide. deterministic approach, and to present the of the most critical issues was the user’s much lower risk calculations than one that most complete picture that we needed in requirements, i.e., Specific Operations was normally in an open position. In the The main objective of the study by ERDC finally deciding on the optimum solution for Requirements (SOR). In conventional Q-D approach, a fixed reduction of the safety was to tap on the state-of-the-art technology Singapore. development projects, the SOR is often distance would be given, and it would make research and safety approach, consistent supplied by the user in the beginning, with no difference in the Q-D distance whether with our practice in ammunition storage. Selecting the Final Concept some interactions with the project team the closure device was normally in a closed The ERDC solution, through its involvement during the planning and design process. It (e.g. Klotz Device) or open position (e.g. US/ in the five-year (1991-1996) US/ROK One challenge faced by the project team was, however, difficult for the user to develop ROK Block). programme to develop new technologies then was how to evaluate and select from the SOR for the UAF as it was a technology- for underground ammunition storage, and the various possible conceptual layouts push project where the user had no previous Such differences in concepts and safety access to the latest R&D results and new developed through three conceptual studies experience in its operations. practice would have a significant impact on technologies, represented the cutting edge done internally by DSTA. This had to satisfy the operations of the proposed UAF, the safety of the deterministic approach. The US/ROK the need to minimise land use and, at the This situation called for a collaborative management, and indeed the engineering programme resulted in major revisions to same time, provide the most economical and effort between the designer and user to solutions and cost of construction. In order DoD 6055.9-STD, the US Military Standards efficient solution while meeting the safety develop the SOR. In this case, the project for us to develop the most economical and for underground ammunition storage. New objectives. team initiated the process by presenting efficient solutions for the UAF, we needed the technologies were also developed which to the user the necessary information for, best thinking from both “camps” and the most helped reduce the hazard areas for air blast Of great importance in the evaluation was and the effects of these SOR parameters updated R&D information and technologies. and debris. However, as there were no safety, which was the governing factor and on the design. In turn, the user responded underground ammunition facilities in the US, utmost concern. This was also directly related positively by implementing studies aimed Three specialist consultants, Bienz, Kummer & ERDC’s engineering experience in this area to land use. Solutions that improved safety at answering these questions. Subsequently, Partner of Switzerland (BK&P), Sycon (formerly was limited, and most of it had come from usually seemed to reduce operational efficiency various conceptual layouts were developed by Confortia) of Sweden, and Engineering the US/ROK programme. Also, as ERDC is and probably cost more. On the other hand, DSTA for simulation studies by the user. It Research and Development Center (ERDC) primarily a research organisation, its ability more reliable and efficient solutions may is worth noting that the development of the (formerly Waterways Experiment Station) to provide complete engineering consultancy require large land sterilisation for the safety SOR and the final concept for the UAF was of the US Army, were identified to represent services was limited. of people and facilities in the surrounding developed in parallel and approved almost the best thinking in their respective fields, to area. Ultimately, we had to find a solution at the same time. This interactive process help us achieve these objectives through three Finally, Sycon of Sweden was the strongest in that would balance the various seemingly and parallel development of the SOR and independent conceptual studies. terms of engineering experience in planning conflicting requirements for safety, land use, conceptual design was made possible by the and design of underground installations in rock. operational readiness, and cost. early involvement of all key stakeholders. The team assembled by Sycon represented the The interaction matrix developed for the UAF

1 Refers to a device such as blast door or concrete plug for entire spectrum of underground ammunition The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) planning provided early application of some containing explosion effects. storage, namely ammunition safety, rock was used to select the final concept design, systems engineering tools. It allowed us to see

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how the rest of the UAF system was affected decision imposed some constraints on the because of the project complexity, no single to aboveground, and the chambers can be when an important parameter was changed facility layout as the project team would not consultant could undertake the project on his spaced closer together, giving rise to a smaller and was very useful in many of our trade-off have the flexibility in choosing the location own. He must rely on other consultants to footprint for the same quantity of explosives studies and evaluation of alternative options. and orientation of the storage chambers. carry out the specialised tasks. In other words, stored. there was a need for a prime consultant; all At the early stage of the UAF planning, it was Finally, a project of this magnitude required other specialist consultancy services could Technology-Enhanced Benefits realised that the underground rock cavern external expertise in the specialised areas of then be done through this prime consultant would become an important resource for rock engineering, ammunition storage safety on the basis of need. In the UAF project, additional efforts were space creation in land-scarce Singapore. A and protective design, among others. This was put into developing advanced technologies decision was then made to maximise the partly because we did not have the required Due to security considerations and the need and innovative designs that further enhanced potential storage capacity while minimising expertise, and partly due to limitations in to build up local capability, Sembcorp Design land savings. land use, and plan for future growth. This manpower and time. It was also clear that and Construction Pte Ltd (SDC), formerly Sembcorp Construction and MINDEF’s • More accurate prediction of the physical strategic partner in construction was chosen effects of an accidental explosion and to develop the facility. As SDC did not have response of structures allowed more any expertise or experience in this area, precise definition of safety zones, thus arrangement was made for it to build up its avoiding unnecessarily conservative capability in the design and construction of design. This was done through extensive underground rock cavern facilities through numerical modelling and large-scale active involvement in the entire project. validation tests. • Engineering safety designs that limited the A key strategy in the competency build-up damage in case of an accidental explosion. was a pilot phase of the project involving For example, interlocking chamber blast the key technology areas and included doors would limit an explosion to a single determining the most likely geological chamber. conditions at the site. For this phase, both • Engineering design features that would the design consultant and contractor from mitigate the external effects. One example SDC were teamed up with specialists from is how multiple debris traps would overseas in joint ventures, for training and minimise external debris hazards and technology transfer. reduce the air blast exit pressure - each debris trap would reduce debris amount Achieving Land Use Savings for the by 90% and blast pressure by 20%. UAF • Expansion chambers in the tunnel system would reduce air blast exit pressure. The UAF achieved direct land savings of more • A continuous portal barricade carved out than 300ha as compared to the SEAD. The from the granite would reflect air blast significant land savings was achieved through backwards and stop any remaining debris a combination of three key factors. that might exit the tunnel system, thus further reducing the air blast circle and Inherent benefits of underground storage external debris hazard.

In addition to the excellent protection it The following table provides a summary provides, the effects of an explosion in an comparison of the land use and benefits of underground facility can be better contained. underground storage and use of innovative These provide great potential for land savings. engineering safety designs for the UAF. As such, a much larger amount of explosives Using a systems engineering approach, an interaction matrix was developed for the planning of can be stored in every chamber compared the UAF that allowed the project team to perform trade-off studies in a holistic manner

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Storage / Technology Land to the local context. The use and transfer of and rock mass quality. These activities formed establishing a mutual understanding or a Options Sterilisation NTT was an essential part of the strategy an integral part of the engineering design common “tunnelling language” among the to build local capability in rock tunnelling. process, which considered aspects such as project team, consultant, and contractor. It UAF 100ha While adopting the NTT, the project team the layout plan, rock support design, cost was also critical because local regulations did implemented innovative approaches to and construction safety. Complementary not have any design code for rock tunnelling. Underground storage rock cavern management, as well as risk methods were used in combination in order One key challenge of designing using the with existing safety 240ha management and contracting practice. to minimise uncertainty in the data obtained. Q method was the statutory approval for manual structural design. Traditionally, the final The NTT is a system of tunnelling practices A three-stage approach was employed for the structural designs for civil engineering projects Aboveground storage of 1,000ha and processes that encompasses a complete UAF project: must be approved before construction can similar capacity2 set of techniques for site investigations, begin. However, in the Q method, the final design, construction and rock support. It • Preliminary site investigations to establish rock support design can only be decided after adopts a systematic approach to the different overall feasibility the rock tunnel is excavated, the exposed rock phases of tunnelling, and follows principles • Main phase investigations based on mapped and the appropriate rock support of the observational method which include selected method of tunnelling prescribed based on this mapping. The Above Ground assessment of the variations in ground • Supplementary investigations during project team worked with the Building and Storage (1,000 ha) conditions, observations during construction design and construction Construction Authority (BCA) to adopt the

Underground FOOTPRINT and modification of design to suit actual site Q method for rock tunnel design. Storage with Existing =100 ha Explosives Safety Manuals (240 ha) conditions. The success of this method also The Use of Q-system for Tunnel depends on close collaboration among the Design Innovations in Rock Engineering

Underground Storage client, contractors, design engineers and with Technology Development (100 ha) engineering geologists. A key component of the NTT is the Q-system While adopting the NTT to the local context, used for tunnel design. The Q-system is a design the project team had to address several unique Achieving land savings for Some of the key processes and techniques in method based on the tunnelling quality index, challenges through innovation. the UAF through underground storage, rock tunnelling applied in the UAF project are Q. The index, developed by the Norwegian technology development, discussed in the following sections. Geotechnical Institute in the 1970s, is based The lack of local expertise in hard rock and innovative engineering design on the stability evaluation of a large number tunnelling meant that the project team Site Investigations of case histories of underground excavations. had to rely on foreign expertise and the Innovative Approaches to Rock The Q-system has gone through many rounds subsequent transfer of technology, and Tunnelling Unlike the construction of buildings, rock of update, and is the most commonly used establish collaboration with the contractor excavation involves working with uncertain method in the world for rock engineering to manage these risks innovatively. Stringent Due to the limited land space in Singapore, ground conditions as the quality of rock mass design based on rock mass classification. regulations and control in Singapore on the use of underground space has to be cannot be determined until it is excavated. explosives posed challenges related to storage optimised. This means that there is less room Moreover, cavern construction was relatively Based on the site investigation results, the rock and transport of explosives for the blasting for flexibility when planning the tunnel and new in Singapore. To ensure that the site was mass is classified according to the Q-system works in rock excavation. To ensure that cavern layout. Hence, rock engineering was suitable for construction and to obtain reliable for the preliminary support design. The safety requirements were met, the project a key part of the development of the UAF. data for design, site investigations had to actual support design is determined during team searched for new technologies in the be carried out. Site investigations were also construction, after the excavated tunnel market. The limited resources in Singapore The UAF was the first hard-rock cavern essential to establish the three-dimensional surfaces are mapped and a final rock mass spurred the project team to come up with project in Singapore. A mature tunnelling (3D) geological model of the cavern, which classification is done based on the tunnel sustainable initiatives that addressed the technology known as the Norwegian included the rock head elevation, major mapping data. need for environmental protection. Thus, Tunnelling Technology (NTT) was adapted geologicial features and the distribution of the innovative re-use of excavated rocks and rock mass properties. For the UAF project, the project team and pond water was explored. The project team the contractor agreed to adopt the NTT also challenged the conventional methods in

2 The UAF was designed to replace the SEAD, but it could Extensive site investigations were carried out based on the Q-system as a guideline for rock engineering design to maximise land use store much more when fully developed within the same land using a combination of modern geophysical estimating rock mass conditions and rock for the UAF development. boundary. The 1,000ha is an estimate based on the assumption that at least two above-ground sites would be needed to develop methods, diamond core drilling, laboratory support requirements. This arrangement a total NEQ capacity equivalent to the UAF master plan. and in-situ testing to assess the site conditions was considered a very important basis for

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technology transfer and provided the basis excavation of the barricade driveway and to determine the excavation work charges use of controlled blasting to minimise rock in the main phase. Using a cost-plus contract damage for the final quarry walls. This inter- required very tight management and deep agency collaboration was a win-win approach technical involvement by DSTA, as well as that helped the project to save more than close collaboration among all parties working S$2 million in rock excavation and quarry on the project. wall protection works, as well as reduce the construction lead time. Upon completion of the pilot phase, the client and contractor established a common Norwegian concept of risk sharing for different contracts understanding of the expected geological (Norwegian Tunnelling Society, 2008). Appropriate sharing of geological risks makes conditions and references for the various it possible to achieve the most realistic contract price cost components. The main phase of the excavation was based on a lump sum Design- Winning Through Collaboration From a risk management point of view, there Bid-Build3 contract with unit rates established were two main aspects for the project team during the pilot phase. The advantage of Risk Management and Contracting to consider in the contractual arrangement. the high flexibility was fully realised with Combining aggregate mining by HDB and Practice The parties involved in the contract had to corresponding contracts that specified a quarry shaping for the UAF decide how the geological risks would be fair risk sharing between the client and the The management of geological risks was given shared, and to plan how the design and rock contractor. As a result, the rock excavation Excavating More for Higher Productivity high priority for the UAF project. This included excavation would be managed. work went smoothly without any disputes a comprehensive site investigation programme while achieving very competitive cost rates The drill-and-blast method is cyclical in and various contractual arrangements aimed The key concept adopted for addressing for rock excavation. nature and it is a slow process with the at minimising geological risks. Emphasis geological risks was contractual risk sharing. average blasting cycle advancing at a rate was also placed on facilitating technology Under the Norwegian risk sharing concept, the Combining Aggregate Mining and Quarry of a few metres in tunnel length per blast. transfer, as competency build-up within the client is responsible for the ground conditions, Shaping For resources to be used optimally and the local community was essential to minimise the site investigation results and the overall overall excavation time to be shortened, it is geological and security risks. design concept while the contractor is Shaping the Mandai quarry was an essential advantageous to excavate concurrently on responsible for the construction performance part of the design to ensure facility protection multiple working faces. The rock excavation work was divided into in accordance with specifications. and external safety while providing access a pilot phase and a main phase. The pilot to the UAF. With nearly 30ha of surface area Based on the facility layout, the contractor had phase was a small portion of the overall For the pilot phase and the main phase of covering the quarry site, shaping the Mandai to excavate the long access tunnel leading to rock excavation work, but the site chosen the excavation work, the traditional Design- quarry required substantial rock excavation. the storage area where multiple faces could for this phase represented the worst expected Bid-Build contract was adopted for the UAF be opened for excavating a major volume of geological conditions. The pilot phase was project. This type of contract allowed more During the early stages of the UAF planning, rock. However, this approach would result in conducted with the following objectives: flexibility in dealing with the geological the HDB was operating within the existing longer excavation time and lower productivity. uncertainties during excavation. In this quarry to provide supply of aggregates for its • Facilitate technology transfer and arrangement, the selection of consultants, housing projects. It wanted to continue its To gain direct and faster access to the storage competency build-up approval of design and specifications, and the quarrying operations for as long as possible. area and open up multiple working faces, • Understand geological conditions and rock overall control of the project remained with The project team worked with the HDB the project team instructed the contractor to mass quality DSTA (client), while the consultant carried Quarry Office to devise a plan that would excavate a separate construction access tunnel • Evaluate effectiveness of excavation out the detailed design. allow quarrying operations to continue, with a steeper gradient. This construction method and rock support while the quarry was shaped according to access tunnel required the project team to • Collate data on cost, unit rates and time Unlike the main phase, the pilot phase was the requirements of the UAF project, including work around the tight tunnel layout. • Verify design assumptions and cavern based on a cost-plus or cost-reimbursement performance through instrumentation contract. The cost-plus contract was used due With the excavation of the construction access 3 Design-Bid-Build is a project delivery method in which the • Gather feedback for improving the design to the lack of local expertise and experience. agency or owner contracts with separate entities for the design tunnel, the contractor was able to reach the and technical specifications of the tunnel This form of contracting also facilitated and construction of a project. caverns in half the time required and ramped

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up the production rate by opening multiple blasting. The total estimated cost savings was excavation of the tunnels at close proximity working faces early. The time for clearing about S$10 million compared to the use of would be safe and stable. the excavated rocks away was also reduced traditional explosives and commercial storage. because of the shorter transportation distance The introduction of bulk emulsion to the UAF For the UAF project, there was a tunnel involved. This solution helped the project project was such a success that the Norwegian directly above another tunnel. The specialist saved four months of construction time and Road Authority requested a visit to the UAF consultant had proposed a minimum resulted in overall savings of more than S$1 site to learn more about this new technology separation of 15m between the two tunnels million although more excavation works were for their own evaluation process. based on the traditional guidelines. However, done. This shorter construction access was also On-site storage of bulk emulsion this separation would require deeper storage used for excavation in the main phase work. which goes “live” only after it is mixed Turning Waste into Assets chambers, a larger footprint, and longer access with an oxidising agent tunnels resulting in higher construction costs The excavation work at the UAF generated and longer vehicle travel time for operations. With the use of bulk emulsion, the only high about several million tons of excavated rocks, explosives required for the blasting work were also known as muck or waste material. This Through a research project with NTU, and the detonators and the booster charges. To large volume of excavated material had to be working closely with the consultant, the address the safety and logistic issues, approval disposed of at a cost. project team was able to reduce the tunnel was sought from the licensing authority to separation distance to 8m by taking advantage construct and operate a temporary on-site The project team came up with the idea to re- of the relatively high horizontal stress, resulting magazine to house the detonators and booster use the granite muck as a material replacement in cost savings of more than S$9 million and a charges within the construction site, in a for graded stones in constructing pavements. shorter transport distance for user operations. The shorter construction access tunnel rock cavern excavated specifically for this The granite muck from the rock excavation This solution was made possible through allowed faster access to the storage area to purpose. This on-site magazine was the first was sieved on site to obtain a material extensive numerical modelling of the tunnel open up multiple working faces of its kind to be built locally in a rock cavern similar to graded stones for use in road base configuration, supported by instrumentation and improved tunneling resource usage to store construction explosives. As a result, construction. The recycling of sieved muck to make on-site measurements. and productivity transportation of high explosives on public for road base construction achieved an overall roads was reduced from a daily to a monthly cost savings of S$860,000 for muck transport Harnessing New Technologies activity. Explosives could be drawn as and and buying of road base materials used in the when required for the blasting work. UAF development. The blasting work for the UAF excavation required thousands of tons of explosives. Due Through an open tender, the majority of the to the stringent safety regulation with regard excavated rock was sold to a contractor which to the use of explosives in Singapore, storing processed the excavated rocks into various and handling the necessary explosives posed building and road construction products. The major challenges during the construction rock disposal contract generated revenue of planning stage. The daily transportation of S$17 million for the government, while saving explosives for blasting work would also mean the UAF project the cost of rock disposal. additional risks to public safety. Challenging the Norm Numerical modelling of one tunnel A new commercial explosive product called directly above another bulk emulsion was selected for use in the On-site storage magazine in a rock cavern With the need to minimise land use project. Through this project, this product was for detonators and booster charges for underground ammunition facility International Collaboration introduced for the first time in Singapore. The development, one of the challenges faced bulk emulsion is classified as a Class 5.1 Hazard The combined use of bulk emulsion and on- during the planning stage of the UAF was Since the implementation of the TD Division chemical (non-explosive) and could be site storage of detonators and booster charges to configure the underground space within programme, we have continued research stored safely on site. The emulsion would become solved a major safety issue, and resulted in a very compact footprint. To minimise the to improve the accuracy of predicting the "live" after being mixed with an oxidising agent better productivity. The use of bulk emulsion overall land use, it was important to obtain the intensity of ground shocks resulting from before it was pumped into the drill-hole. also helped to reduce ventilation time and optimal separation distance between tunnels. an accidental underground explosion, and air pollution due to its less toxic fumes from There was also the challenge to ensure that the structural response to the shock waves

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on the ground surface. Our work in this sponsorship of Norway, and was appointed Despite his standing in the international area has captured great interest amongst the the secretary of the Working Group and the community, Mr Jenssen was always willing international community of explosives safety lead nation for the area of ground shock with to share his knowledge and teach our young experts. Since July 2000, DSTA has represented Norway as the supporting nation. engineers. He was also very open-minded Singapore as a member and secretary of the and ready to listen to our ideas. His personal NATO AC/258 Underground Storage Working stories were always fascinating to us, such as Group (UGSWG) to review the Manual of how he was captured by the Germans during NATO Safety Principles for Underground World War II and later escaped, or when he Ammunition Storage. Singapore is also a had to carry loads of cash on his flight to pay member of the Klotz Group, an international for explosive testing in the USA. In 1997, we The UAF team, comprising members from body of explosives safety experts working invited him to Singapore as the first MINDEF MINDEF, DSTA and Sembcorp Design and on safety issues associated with the storage, Visiting Scientist and accorded him the Construction, won the Defence processing and transport of ammunition Singapore delegates attending a special honour, hospitality and access to MINDEF top Technology Prize 2007 (Engineering) and explosives. Today, results of our work meeting of the NATO Underground Storage management. He worked the ground for us on ground shock have been incorporated into Working Group in Huntsville, USA in 1998 in Norway and among the UGSWG member The UAF has won several prestigious national the Manual of NATO Safety Principles for nations, leading to the signing of the Letter awards, including the Defence Technology Underground Ammunition Storage, AASTP-1 Our membership in the UGSWG was made of Intent in 1998 between the then LEO and Prize 2007 (Engineering) and the Institute of and the NATO Manual on Explosives Safety possible by our state-of-the-art research in NDEA that started the fruitful collaboration Engineers Singapore Prestigious Engineering Risk Analysis, AASTP-4. ground shock safety criteria for underground between our two countries in the areas of Achievement Award 2004. ammunition storage and our excellent protective technology, explosive storage Membership with NATO AC/258 collaboration with Norway. One of the safety, and rock cavern technology. Underground Storage Working Group leading experts in NATO at the time was the late Mr Arnfinn Jenssen of Norway, The large-scale tests (LST) in Sweden and Our first direct interaction with the NATO who played an instrumental role in fostering validation test of the chamber door in New AC/258 UGSWG began when Singapore was close collaboration between Singapore and Mexico, USA also involved collaboration with invited to participate in a joint meeting it Norway, and in our membership with the several foreign government agencies. The LST had with the Klotz Group in August 1998, UGSWG. We first met Mr Jenssen in 1995 programme was carried out in collaboration at the 28th US DoD Defence Explosives during our technology acquisition activity with Sweden’s FOI, the Swedish Armed Safety Seminar in Orlando, USA. At the for the UAF. Mr Ong and Dr Zhou visited Forces HQ and the Swedish Fortifications time, Singapore had been applying for him at his office at the Norwegian Defence Administration, and was supported by the membership with the Klotz Group, which Estates Agency (NDEA, then known as the Norwegian’ NDEA and the US’ DTRA. The The joint DSTA and NTU team won the IES often held joint meetings with the UGSWG Norwegian Defence Construction Service) Klotz Group also contributed by providing Prestigious Engineering Achievement Award due to their common interest in ammunition to learn from his experience in underground technical advice during the planning and in 2004 with the project on storage safety. At the seminar, we presented explosive storage. After a few encounters with design, conduct of the tests and analysis of “Maximising Land Use in Singapore” preliminary results of our work on ground him, he became a good friend of ours and other the test results. The validation test of the shock prediction and damage criteria which Singaporeans who had worked with him. chamber blast door was done in collaboration Contributing to Underground Space attracted the attention of the UGSWG as the with the DTRA. Singapore also collaborated Development in Singapore latter was looking for updated research on with the Waterways Experiment Station of ground shock. We held informal discussions the US Army in conducting additional ground In response to the need to co-ordinate the about the possibility of Singapore participating shock tests as part of the US-ROK testing national efforts in the use of underground in the UGSWG. At its invitation, Mr Ong Yew programme. space, URA formed a taskforce in May 1996 to Hing and Dr Zhou Yingxin attended a special explore possible uses of underground caverns meeting of the UGSWG held in October 1998 From learners in the 1980s, we have gained and related implementation issues. The in Huntsville, USA, to discuss safety criteria international recognition for the good work taskforce was led by URA, and consisted of for underground storage with a focus on Former CE DSTA, RADM (Ret) Richard Lim done through the UAF TD programme. Today, representatives from MINDEF, the Ministry of ground shock and the latest work done by (eighth from left), with the project team DSTA is a recognised expert in the area of the Environment (ENV) and MND, Housing Singapore. Singapore successfully became a and Swedish FOI partners at the tunnel site underground ammunition storage and a leader & Development Board (HDB), Public Utility member of the UGSWG in July 2000 under the of the large scale tests in Sweden in the innovative use of rock cavern space. Board (PUB), Jurong Town Corporation (JTC),

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Construction Industry Development Board underground, equivalent to half of the Pasir Ris Significant Milestones in the Development of the UAF and PWD. DSTA represented MINDEF in New Town. The UAF also represented a major the taskforce. The taskforce completed its breakthrough in overcoming a psychological Date Development / Milestone report in 1997. The report recommended a barrier on the use of underground space by pilot project in view of the inadequacy of many government agencies and provided 1991 – 1993 First feasibility study by NTU and PWD on constructing rock local experiences and support framework many good learning opportunities. caverns in the Bukit Timah Granite. NTU and PWD organised for underground caverns. As MINDEF was a public seminar in October 1993 to disseminate findings of working on developing the UAF, the UAF In 2009, DSTA published the updated Geology the feasibility study. A briefing to the Ministry of Finance was project was identified as the pilot project. of Singapore (2nd Edition) in collaboration with conducted in September 1994. BCA and NTU, which was spurred in part Throughout the development stages of UAF, by the development of UAF. This publication 1993-1994 MINDEF conducted a series of studies that established MINDEF, together with DSTA, actively represents a major contribution by DSTA to the technical and economic feasibility of constructing an promoted the use of underground space in the construction industry and geo-sciences underground ammunition facility in Singapore. rock caverns by organising visits to the UAF to community in Singapore. share our experiences with other government Feb 1995 MINDEF approved planning studies for the UAF. The planning and public organisations. These organisations studies included conceptual studies, site investigations, small- included the Singapore Parliament, the scale testing, ground shock testing in the US, and initial R&D Parliamentary Committee (Defence), the projects with NTU and NUS. Pyramid Club, JTC, PUB, ENV, Powergrid, the Land Transport Authority (LTA), Ministry May 1996 Formation of a taskforce on Underground Rock Caverns led of National Development (MND), URA, the by URA. The taskforce produced the “Report on the Use of SCDF and the SPF. A technical session was Underground Rock Caverns” in 1997. In this report, the MINDEF even held in the UAF during the International UAF was identified as a pilot project. Symposium on Defence Construction in 2002. June 1996 A large-scale ground shock test was jointly conducted with the Waterways Experiment Station in the Linchburg Mine in Socorro Country in New Mexico. Data obtained from the test were used to calibrate numerical models that were being developed for ground shock prediction in complex geology.

1997 Singapore – Norway Workshop on Cavern Technology jointly organised by then NSTB and the Norwegian Research Council.

April 1998 MINDEF approved the development of the UAF.

Technical session on underground The launch of Geology of Singapore 1998 Mr Arnfinn Jenssen of the Norwegian Defence Estates Agency, facilities held in a rock cavern of the UAF (2nd edition) by then PS (DD) Dr Tan Kim Siew on behalf of the NATO Underground Storage Working Group, during the International Symposium (5th from left) in 2009 requested to use DSTA papers presented at the 1998 US DoD on Defence Construction organised by DSTA Explosives Safety Seminar as informal working papers for the in 2002 Working Group.

The successful development of the UAF was 12th August 1999 Ground breaking for the UAF, officiated by the then Minister significant for Singapore from a land use of State for Defence, Mr David Lim. point of view. It demonstrated the feasibility and many benefits of rock cavern use and opened up a new frontier for space creation in land-scarce Singapore. The UAF achieved land savings of more than 300ha by going

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Date Development / Milestone Personal Reflections on UAF construction while working as a research Chapter fellow there. We started some R&D projects 1999 Singapore was invited by Dr Chester Canada of the US DoD By Zhou YingXin with the NTU team with the requirements Explosives Safety Board to join a special meeting of the NATO to provide technical support for the project. Underground Storage Working Group, where our proposal for The opportunity to be involved in the UAF In LEO, we started recruiting and training new ground shock criteria was first discussed. project was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. our engineers and getting them involved in Not the least because it was the very first the R&D projects as part of the capability 1999 – 2001 NTU and JTC conducted feasibility study of the Underground large-scale rock cavern project in Singapore, build-up. We also linked up with experienced Science City in rock caverns at the Kent Ridge Park. and an underground ammunition storage consultants and contractors from Sweden and facility built in a highly urbanised city state. Norway, and brought SDC engineers in early 2000 – 2003 Singapore constructed a tunnel test facility and conducted in our study trips and overseas testing. a series of large-scale tests in Sweden which successfully I grew up in China and was trained as a mining contributed to the final validation of the UAF design. engineer. When I first came to Singapore in I remember personally briefing the top 1991 after completing my PhD in mining management of SDC on our plans and the 2000 Singapore joined the NATO Underground Storage Working engineering in the USA, Singapore seemed need for building up the technical competency Group under the NATO AC 258 Storage Sub-group, became like the most unlikely place for a mining in rock engineering design and construction. the Secretary of the Working Group and led the group’s work engineer. Yet it is in Singapore that I have Through this project, we introduced the in the area of ground shock. found an area where I can put my training Norwegian Tunneling Technology to in mining engineering to good use. Here we Singapore, and introduced many innovations 2000 Singapore joined the Klotz Group, an international body of do not have gold or diamonds to mine, but that helped MINDEF achieve improved explosives safety experts working on safety issues associated we mine something equally precious – space. productivity, improved safety, and cost with the storage, processing, and transport of ammunition After completing my three-year contract with savings despite having started the project and explosives. Current members in the Klotz Group include NTU as a research follow, I wrote to the then with little experience. All these eventually Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, LEO about job possibilities. Soon I realised propelled MINDEF to become a technical Singapore, UK, and USA. that LEO did not need PhDs for its work, much leader in Singapore in the innovative use of less a PhD in mining engineering. When Mr rock cavern space. Our technical expertise has 27th July 2001 UAF Phase 1 (pilot phase) Completion Blast Ceremony. Then Lim Chee Hiong and Mr Ong Yew Hing from also been put to good use in providing critical DPM and Minister for Defence, Dr Tony Tan Keng Yam, was LEO met me earlier, they were only interested technical support to various government the Guest of Honour. in discussing possible consultancy work. So, agencies in recent years. when I was asked to interview for a job later, 7th March 2008 Commissioning of the UAF by then Minister for Defence, Mr I was surprised. At the interview, they told In our technology development programme Teo Chee Hean. me about the plan to study underground designed to address the critical technological ammunition storage. This turned out to be gaps, I had the opportunity to work with 18th March 2009 Publication of “Geology of Singapore (2nd Edition)” by DSTA, a perfect match for both sides. The final round many experts from Singapore and overseas. I launched by then PS(DD), MINDEF, Dr Tan Kim Siew. of my job interview was with the then CDS travelled to many parts of the world to discuss Prof Lui Pao Chuen. Thus began my very collaborations and large-scale testing overseas, enriching career. and made many friends. I remember bringing my “portable office” for my overseas visits My involvement in the UAF project was indeed with Mr Lim Chee Hiong, with a colour very challenging and enriching. I was put in printer and stacks of plastic transparency charge of the rock engineering and technology sheets to prepare slides for overhead projection development. As the UAF was the first rock to make many presentations on our plans, and cavern facility in Singapore, we had to build for discussions with NATO’s UGSWG and up local capabilities in rock engineering almost the Klotz Group about possible membership from scratch. From the early planning stage, for Singapore. we worked with SDC and NTU, where I took part in a feasibility study on rock cavern The spirit of collaboration was really incredible, both locally and internationally.

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With my mining engineering background, also learned that converting research results Personal Reflections and Account period. We commenced working the next day I was appointed the Test Commander into safety standards involved many other less of Explosive Testing in Sweden with our Swedish counterparts, performing pre- when we did our ground shock testing (we technical input and decisions (some called it By Dr Karen Chong Oi Yin test recording in the wet, cold tunnels. We were invented GST!) in Singapore in 1997. It was committee decisions) that were required to later joined by another three engineers, Mr still a steep learning curve for me, having cater to different cultures, backgrounds, and Large Scale Validation Tests Guah Eng Hock, Dr Seah Chong Chiang and no prior experience in explosives testing but unique conditions of the member countries. Dr Zhou Yingxin. my job was made easy with the support and Sometimes trade-offs were required in order I was responsible for numerical modelling contributions of all parties involved, including to satisfy all member nations. So our direct of air blast effects in the UAF, and needed to The tests were an international collaboration. LEO, the SAF, NTU, SDC and ST Kinetics. involvement in the NATO Working Group had validate our models. I was put in charge of the Prior to the tests, we had worked hard to not only contributed to their work, but also explosive validation testing and analysis in interest the international community in We partnered experts from the US Army to allowed us to write the new safety standards Sweden for the UAF programme from 2000 to participating in the tests. A challenge we provide specialist support in ground shock that included our unique local conditions 2002. Our first series of tests was performed in had was how to obtain good instrumentation instrumentation and data analysis. The such as our flat terrain, mixed geology and December of 2000. As the tests took place in data sets, bearing in mind the very harsh SAF provided explosives for our testing and reinforced concrete buildings. winter, our Swedish counterparts commented blast environment that the instrumentation medics team standing by to respond to any that we were crazy to even contemplate doing gauges would be subjected to. We knew emergencies. the test then. However, it was imperative for that relying on only a single source for us to do the tests or risk delays in constructing instrumentation would put us at risk not In our large-scale testing in Sweden, we the UAF back home. We went ahead with it. getting any data should it fail. The Norwegian worked with various teams from the Swedish Defence Construction Agency (NDCS) and defence agencies and the consultant Carlbro I arrived at Alvdalen in the late afternoon with US DTRA fielded additional gauges for the and Castrum, and the contractor PEAB. The my colleague Mr Yew Chor Shuen, and it was tests, with the understanding that all the Swedish Armed Forces HQ provided the already pitch dark, and very cold. Alvdalen test data would be shared. In addition to explosives and very nice Swedish 155mm was to be our home for the three-week test obtaining electronic data, we worked with rounds for our testing. In the first major test in the cold winter in December 2000, they even had their army snowmobiles standing Debris Collected in Tunnel Branch Tunnel Fragments by. And in the hot summer in 2001, they had military helicopters standing by to provide any emergency assistance and to put down possible forest fires. The Norwegian’ NDEA and the US’ DTRA provided support in instrumentation. Members from both the Klotz Group and NATO’s UGSWG also provided technical advice and took part in the tests.

One very important lesson that I learned through the UAF project was that safety standards could be changed if we could produce good research work to support the change! This might sound so logical but at the time we were merely followers of international standards. When we were invited to attend a special meeting of the NATO Working Group working on the NATO Safety Manual on Underground Storage, we Fragment Cleaning and Separation felt a great sense of achievement and validation of the quality of research work we did. But we Fragment Collection Process (2001)

167 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 168 Chapter 8 ROCK CAVERNS FOR AMMUNITION FACILITY Chapter 8 ROCK CAVERNS FOR AMMUNITION FACILITY

the late Mr Arnfinn Jenssen (from the NDCS) much this equivalent TNT would be. Also, do it again in 2002 for mixed storage of cased to install cantilevers to collect physical effects we needed to understand how much fragment ammunitions and propellants. This time, data. These cantilevers were aluminium transport would be reduced by engineered we were better prepared and FOI engaged poles of different heights, and would bend features in our tunnels, namely, the bends contractors for the work. at different angles when the blast wave hit and debris traps. The only data available in them, providing additional information on the explosives safety manuals were vague allusions blast environment. These would be invaluable to reductions that were unquantified. The test if the electronic instrumentation were to fail. was conducted on 5th July 2001.

Mr Arnfinn Jenssen was our first MINDEF In August of 2001, I returned to the site Visiting Scientist in 1997, he shared with us his with two engineers, Mr Lim Heng Soon and tremendous experience in protective structure Mr S Santhirasekar to perform debris data design. During the Large Scale Tests, he took analysis. It soon became clear that this was a us (five young engineers) under his wing, mammoth task, as our Swedish counterparts spending hours with us discussing the results had clearly underestimated the effort required of the tests. Mr Arnfinn Jenssen went on to to do this fragment mapping. There were join us for each of our subsequent tests that only three people from the Swedish Defence we conducted at Alvdalen. Research Agency assigned to work with us. Fragment Mapping for Mixed Storage (2002) The fragment collection process comprised We were extremely lucky with the weather dividing the 350m long tunnel into sectors, and on the morning of 13th December 2000, collecting the debris which comprised sand the tests involving 10,000kg of TNT went and gravel mixed with metallic casing off without a hitch. We got the data that we fragments, washing and sieving the metal needed to validate the numerical models. fragments from the sand and gravel, and using As the tests had implications on explosive small hand held magnets to separate out the storage safety, we invited engineers and metal. The fragments from each sector in scientists from the international explosive the tunnel were weighed. The process was safety community including the NATO A/C manual and back-breaking. 258 UGSWG, the Klotz Group and US defence agencies to witness the tests. We worked into As the team leader, I had to make sure that the night analysing the data and presented our Swedish counterparts knew that we the preliminary results of the tests to the were serious about the debris mapping and international community the next day. The would complete the work after we had left. data we collected was rich, and provided By the time we left Sweden on 29th August us and the international community with 2001, we had collected and mapped a total a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of 2,700kg of steel fragments from the entire and allowed us to validate our UAF design. tunnel, except for the debris trap directly opposite the test chamber. Our Swedish Cased Charge Tests and Debris Mapping colleagues collected an additional 3,086kg of steel fragments in a strip in the debris trap. In 2001, we went on to perform the tests We used volume extrapolation, to estimate with real ordnance, in this case, 1,450 155mm the total amount of debris in the debris trap. artillery rounds, with a total amount of TNT I was extremely proud of our team work; equivalent to 10,000kg. We understood then together, we established the effectiveness of that the equivalent TNT for cased ammunitions the debris traps in reducing debris hazards. would be less than bare explosives as energy This was important for the validation of our would have to be used to break up the casing safety design for the UAF. With the success into fragments; we needed to establish how of our fragment data analysis, we went on to

169 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 170 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS at SIMTech, where he spearheaded pioneering Mr Kenneth Quek Keng Ngak He was appointed President of CIS in 1989. In work on autonomous ground vehicle. He was graduated from Queen’s 1993, he moved to head Sembawang Industrial Engineering Land Systems would not have also adjunct Associate Professor at NTU. University Belfast, UK in 1990 Pte Ltd, serving as its Deputy Chairman and been possible without the hard work, support He has several publications and patents in with an Honours (Second President. He was the founding Chairman of and encouragement of many people. General the robotics and automotive domains. He Upper) degree in Mechanical the Vietnam-Singapore Industrial Park (VSIP) thanks are also due to the teams at DSO is a CEng and a Fellow of the Institute of Engineering and an MSc (Gun System Design) in 1996 and assisted to bring foreign direct National Laboratories (including the Creative Engineering Technology (UK). from Royal Military College of Science, investments into VSIP and other business Media Branch and Corporate Communications UK in 1995 under the Defence Technology sectors in Vietnam. For his contributions to Branch), Army Information Services, MINDEF BG (Ret) Jimmy Khoo is Training Award. In 1991, he joined then Vietnam, he was awarded the Friendship Medal Communications Organisation, Defence the Managing Director of DMO, MINDEF as a Defence Engineer and by the President of Vietnam in 2006. Mr Lai Industry and Systems Office, ST Kinetics Singapore District Cooling, a began work on artillery and naval weapon served in numerous community positions over and many others – too numerous to name – key subsidiary of the Singapore systems. In 2006 to 2010, he served as the the past 35 years and is currently a Patron of who have assisted us in one way or another, Power group. He is a Senior First Secretary in the Singapore Embassy in Clementi Constituency. He served as a member in the production of this book. Vice President who has held various senior Washington DC, USA as the Assistant Head of the Management Council of the German- appointments in the group. Prior to joining of Defence Technology Office, responsible for Singapore Institute from 1982 to 1989, and Authors the Singapore Power group in 2007, he was technology collaboration with US DoD and a member of the Board of Governors of the with the SAF and held the post of the SAF’s DoE agencies. He is the manager responsible for Singapore Polytechnic from 1983 to 1992. He Mr David Boey Meng-Whye is a Future Systems Architect (FSA) from 2003 the acquisition and development management was awarded a Public Service Medal (PBM) in former Defence Correspondent to 2007. He was the first FSA to head the of the Pegasus Lightweight Gun Howitzer, 1992. Mr Lai graduated with a BEng (Mech) at The Straits Times newspaper Future Systems Directorate (FSD) and was High Mobility Artillery Rocket System and from the University of Auckland under a and long-time observer of the concurrently a board member of DSTA and Peacekeeper Protected Response Vehicle. He Colombo Plan Scholarship in 1967. He holds an SAF. He holds a Masters in DSO. As FSA, he played a crucial role in is currently serving in DSTA as a Programme MBA degree from the University of California, Security Studies and wrote a dissertation on championing and catalysing the 3rd Generation Manager. Los Angeles in 1980 and completed the the SAF, supervised by defence analyst Dr Tim SAF’s transformation effort through concept Advanced Management Program at Harvard Huxley. David has written widely on the SAF exploration and experimentation. He holds Mr Koh Weng Kin graduated University in fall 1987. and regional armed forces. He accompanied a BA (2nd Class Hons) in Philosophy, Politics from University of Singapore the SAF on four overseas missions and has and Economics from Oxford University in 1988 with a degree in Er Lee Chuen Fei PBM graduated reported on live-fire exercises in Australia, and an MSc in Management from Stanford Mechanical Engineering. In from the University of Singapore the US and in the South China Sea. His University. that same year, he joined then in 1976 with BEng (Mech). book on Operation Flying Eagle profiles the DMO, MINDEF as a Defence Engineer and He joined CIS in 1978 after SAF’s Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Dr Karen Chong Oi Yin is Head began work on artillery and naval weapon completing his full-time NS and Relief mission in the aftermath of the 2004 Engineering (Protective Systems systems. He further obtained a MSc (Gun was responsible for Engineering Design and Boxing Day earthquake and tsunami. David Engineering) at DSTA. She System Design) from the Royal Military Development of ammunition products till sits on the MINDEF Advisory Council on drives R&D efforts in Protective College of Science, UK in 1992 under the 1997. When ST Engineering was established, Community Relations in Defence. Engineering for buildings and Defence Technology Training Award. He he progressively served in various capacities infrastructure, and has extensive experience in was the Programme Manager for the local (ST Kinetics - including General Manager that Dr Javier Ibañez-Guzmán explosives testing, protective systems design development of the Singapore Self-Propelled established the JV Company – SMART Systems graduated from the University and blast modelling and analysis. She was a Howitzer. He is currently serving in DSTA Pte Ltd, Vice President with ST Dynamics, ST of Pennsylvania with a MSEE recipient of the Defence Technology Prize as Head Capability Development. Engineering Corporate and ST Marine). He also on a Fulbright Scholarship. Team (Engineering) Award in 1999, 2006, obtained MSc (Industrial Engineering) and MSc He obtained his PhD from 2007 and 2011. She graduated with a BSc Mr Lai Chun Loong is currently (Management of Technology) from NUS. In the University of Reading on a SERC-UK (Nuclear Engineering) from Queen Mary Corporate Advisor to Temasek 2014, he retired to pursue his own interest and Fellowship. In 2011, he was Visiting Scholar College, University of London, UK in 1986. International Advisor Pte Ltd. is currently providing consultancy services and with the University of California, Berkeley, She obtained a PhD (Nuclear Engineering) He started his career at CIS training related to Enterprise Risk Management working on connected vehicle applications. from Queen Mary and Westfield College, in 1968 and rose to become and BCM. He is currently technical manager at Renault University of London, UK in 1991. its Managing Director from 1983 to 1989. S.A., leading work on autonomous vehicle Concurrently he was Managing Director of technologies. Formerly, he was Senior Scientist Singapore Technology Corporation Pte Ltd.

171 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 172 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Mr Lee Kah Hoo graduated Mr Loh Heng Fong graduated Mr Ong Yew Hing is Director for full-time NS shortly. After 12 months of with a MEng in 1977 from the from London South Bank (Building and Infrastructure) in military training, he was posted to MINDEF University of Singapore. He University with 1st class Honours DSTA. He started his career in Technical Department as Technical Officer. joined CIS in December 1979 as in Mechanical Engineering in 1984 with then LEO, MINDEF, On completion of 3 years of NS, he returned a product development engineer 1979. He is the Vice President in and has played key roles in the to SISIR in 1971. He joined Esso Singapore and subsequently took on manufacturing and ST Kinetics, Head of Tracked Mobility Centre masterplanning, design and development of (now ExxonMobil Singapore) in 1972 and held corporate positions in CIS over the next 20 and Tracked Vehicle Chief Engineer. He has operational bases and defence infrastructure various posts including managerial positions years. In 1990 he attended the PMD program been instrumental in building up Singapore’s facilities, as well as in the build-up of protective in Information Systems and Controller’s until in Harvard. He left the defence business in tracked vehicle capabilities over the last 34 technology capability within MINDEF. his retirement in 2007. He has since served in 2006 when he was then Director of Corporate years. Under his leadership, ST Kinetics has He graduated from Universität Essen various voluntary organisations including as Affairs of ST Kinetics. Currently, he sits as developed highly capable tracked vehicles and Gesamthochschule, Germany in 1982 with a a chairman of a school advisory board. an independent director in a company on the armoured defence capabilities for MINDEF degree in Civil Engineering; and obtained MSc Catalist board. and the SAF. As Chief Engineer, he has lent (Civil Engineering) from NUS in 1988 and Mr Tham Mow Siang graduated his leadership and technical expertise to the MSc (Weapons Effects on Structures) from in 1965 from the University of BG (Ret) Lee Shiang Long was the development of platforms such as the AMX- the Royal Military College of Science, UK, Singapore with an Honours Head of Joint Communications 13 SM1, Bionix Infantry Fighting Vehicle, in 1989. He is the key delegate representing degree in Physics. He joined and Information Systems (HJCIS)/ Trailblazer Mine-Clearing Vehicle and Singapore in the NATO Underground the Civil Service and was SAF's Chief Information Officer Warthog (UK). For his outstanding leadership Ammunition Storage Custodian Group and appointed Administration Assistant and (CIO) from 2006-2013. Before and contributions to Singapore’s defence, in the Klotz Group, an international expert began his service in the newly established that he was Chief Signal Officer/Army CIO. Mr Loh was awarded the 2010 Defence group in explosives storage safety. People’s Association. He was posted to MID He was responsible for system architecting, Technology Prize Individual (Engineering). in 1966. He was given the assignment to plan masterplanning and operationalising Ms Rosemary Yeo graduated for the establishment of a factory to produce Integrated Knowledge-based Command and Prof Lui Pao Chuen graduated with a BEng (Mech) from NUS bullets for the SAF. He did the planning for Control (IKC2) for the network-enabled 3rd in 1965 from the University and joined MINDEF in 1983. the establishment of CIS and subsequently Generation SAF. He holds a PhD in Mechanical of Singapore with an Honours She obtained an MSc in Gun became its Company Secretary. He had played Engineering from Nanyang Technological degree in Physics. He worked Systems Design from the Royal a central role in the setting up and management University, and an MBA from Cambridge as a Scientific Officer of the UK Military College of Science, UK in 1991. She of the company. He started Unicorn to University. Science Research Council’s Radio and Space started her career working on development market defence products to overseas. He Research Station in Singapore. In November of the FH88 guns and subsequently oversaw also founded a company, Weichern, in 1974 Dr Lim Khiang-Wee is the 1966 he enlisted in the SAF as a Captain on the development of other armament systems specialising in steel fabrication, formwork, Executive Director of CREATE a Short Service Commission and served as such as the Primus 155mm Self-Propelled design and manufacture of conveyors and (Campus for Research Excellence Officer-in-Charge of the Test and Evaluation Howitzer, the Pegasus 155mm Lightweight project management. and Technological Enterprise) in Section, Logistics Division, MID. He became Gun Howitzer, the SAR21 Singapore Assault Singapore. He graduated from head of Technical Department when it was Rifle and the Matador Anti-tank weapon COL (Ret) Yun Ta Chun, the University of Malaya and obtained his established in 1968. He was posted to be Head system. She is Director of the Engineering graduated from the Royal doctorate from Oxford in 1982. He has held Organisation and Control Department in 1969 Programme Office in the Public Service Military College – Duntroon, academic appointments at NUS and UNSW, and soon after to be deputy of 2PS in SMG. Division, spearheading the building of Australia in 1981 with a degree Australia. In recent assignments, he has been He was the first SAF Postgraduate Fellow engineering capabilities in the Public Service. in Physics and Computer the Executive Director of SIMTech, IMRE and graduated with an MSc in Operations Science. In 1989, he completed his MSc in and the Graduate Academy at A*STAR. Research and Systems Analysis from the Mr Sia Chong Hean graduated Computer Science and Information System He set up IPI-Singapore in 2011 to catalyse US Naval Postgraduate School in 1973 and from Singapore University in from NUS. He served as Chief Signal Officer intellectual property intermediation activities appointed Director Logistics Division in 1974 1967 with an Honours degree in for 7 years, where most of his tenure was that support and enhance the innovation and Special Projects Director in 1975. Physics. He joined the Economic focused on modernising the Army in C4I capacity of Singapore enterprises. He is a Development Board after capabilities. After 25 years of service, he member of the Engineering Accreditation graduation as a Senior Officer and was posted founded C3S, bringing to the private sector Board of Singapore, the Board of Governors of to the Industrial Research Unit (subsequently a wealth of C4I perspectives for real-time, NUS High School and of the Board of Trustees renamed as Singapore Institute of Standards mission-critical businesses. He develops of Singapore Institute of Technology. and Industrial Research, SISIR). He was enlisted transformational info-comm technology

173 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 174 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

strategy identifying disruptive technologies to Contributors significantly leap frog current operations. This approach addresses more than just improving Mrs Agnes Tham the efficiency of information management, Mr Alfred Tan Boon Thong achieving higher-value functions to attain LTC Anthony Toh corporate mission and objectives. Mr Chan Chun Wah LTC Chan Keen Mun Dr Zhou Yingxin is Head Mr Chua Poh Kian Engineering (Underground Mr Fong Saik Hay Facilities) with DSTA, and COL (Ret) Goh Lye Choon Adjunct Associate Professor at Mr Henry Cheong Yue Pui NTU. He graduated from the Dr Jake Toh Geok Phuay Central South University, China, in 1982 as a Er Lim Chee Hiong mining engineer and obtained his PhD from Mr Mah Chi Jui Virginia Tech, USA in 1988. He joined then Mr Peter Seow Tiang Keng LEO, MINDEF in 1994 and played key roles in MAJ Png Yan Da rock engineering and technology development MG (Ret) Ravinder Singh for the UAF and has been involved in several Dr Richard Kwok Sitting (left to right) national initiatives in underground space use. LG (Ret) Winston Choo COL (Ret) Yun Ta Chun, BG (Ret) Jimmy Khoo, Er Lee Chuen Fei, BG (Ret) Lee Shiang Long, He has also served in various professional Mr Wu Tzu Chien LG (Ret) Winston Choo, Prof Lui Pao Chuen, leadership positions in local and international Ms Yap Lay Hoon Mr Peter Seow Tiang Keng, Mr Koh Weng Kin, Ms Rosemary Yeo, Mr Kenneth Quek Keng Ngak, societies related to rock engineering and Standing (left to right) underground space. He is a member of the Editor Mr Chua Poh Kian, Mr Loh Heng Fong, Mr Richard Kwok, Mr Sia Chong Hean, Editorial Board for the International Journal of Mr Ong Yew Hing, Er Lim Chee Hiong, LTC Chan Keen Mun, Tunnelling & Underground Space Technology. Prof Lui Pao Chuen Dr Karen Chong Oi Yin, COL (Ret) Goh Lye Choon, Mr Wu Tzu Chien, Dr Lim Khiang Wee, Mr David Boey Meng-Whye, Mr Fong Saik Hay Editorial Support Team Not in picture Mrs Agnes Tham, Mr Alfred Tan Boon Thong, LTC Anthony Toh, Mr Chan Chun Wah, Mr Chua Poh Kian Mr Henry Cheong Yue Pui, Dr Jake Toh Geok Phuay, Dr Javier Ibañez-Guzmán, Ms Surine Ng Pei Gek Mr Lai Chun Loong, Mr Lee Kah Hoo, Mr Mah Chi Jui, MAJ Png Yan Da, MG (Ret) Ravinder Singh, Mr Yeo Song Meng Mr Tham Mow Siang, Ms Yap Lay Hoon, Dr Zhou Yingxin

175 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 176 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS GLOSSARY

Photo/Chart/Diagram Credit: GLOSSARY

1. Defence Science and Technology Agency: page 2, 45-46, 52, 124-125, 129, 133-135, Acronym Description 140, 141, 143, 145-150, 153, 155, 157-163, 168, 170 A*STAR Agency for Science, Technology and Research 2. DSO National Laboratories: page 44, 119 ABMS Air Bursting Munition System 3. SGT Gerald Francis Pinto: page 59, 61-64 ACGS Assistant Chief of General Staff 4. Dr Javier Ibañez-Guzmán: page 84-86, 88-94 ACMI Air Combat Manoeuvring Instrumentation 5. JTC: page 20 ACMS Advanced Combat Man System 6. Prof Lui Pao Chuen: page 4, 6, 28, 131 ACFR Australian Centre for Field Robotics 7. MINDEF Centre for Heritage Services: page 122, 124, 126 AFV Armoured fighting vehicle 8. MINDEF Communications Organisation: page 57 AGL Automatic grenade launcher 9. MINDEF Defence Media Centre: page 55, 117, 126 AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process 10. Ministry of Home Affairs: page 1 AP Anti-personnel 11. National Archives of Singapore: page 128 APC Armoured personnel carrier 12. Operational Research Society of Singapore: page 117 APFSDS Armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot 13. Singapore Technologies Kinetics: page 40–42, 49, 51, 54, 69, 71, 74, 76 APFSDS-T Armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot - tracer 14. The Singapore Armed Forces: page 2-3, 55 ART Air Base Redevelopment Team 15. The Singapore Armed Forces, Armour: page 67 ASP Assistant Superintendent of Police 16. The Singapore Armed Forces, Army Information Centre: page 21, 74, 76-77 AT Anti-tank 17. The Singapore Armed Forces, Joint Communications and Information Systems Department: BBU Base bleed unit page 114, 115, 120 BECD Bases Economic Conversion Department 18. The Singapore Armed Forces, Signals: page 102-109, 112-113, 115-116, 119-120 BG Brigadier General 19. The Singapore Civil Defence Force: page 137 BK&P Bienz, Kummer & Partner of Switzerland 20. The Straits’ Times: page 140 BMS Battlefield Management System CAD/CAM Computer-aided Design and Manufacturing CAI Chartered Ammunition Industries C&E Communications and Electronics CCIS Command and control information system CD Civil defence CDF Chief of Defence Force CDSA Civil Defence Shelter Act CEP Circular error probable CG Centre of gravity CID Criminal Investigation Department CIO Chief Information Officer CIS Chartered Industries of Singapore CNC Computer numerical control CMPB Central Manpower Base CO Commanding Officer COL Colonel CONOPS Concept of operations COTS Commercial-off-the-shelf CPoF Command Post of the Future CPT Captain CSO Computer Systems Organisation CVC Combat vehicle crewman C2 Command and control C3 Command, control and communications

177 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 178 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

C4 Command, control, communications and computers IOS Island Ordnance Systems C4IT C4 and information technologies JAUS Joint Architecture for Unmanned Systems DBW Drive-by-wire JCED Joint Communications and Electronics Department DIP Driver instrument panel JCISD Joint Communications and Information Systems Department DMO Defence Materials Organisation (1986 to 1996), Defence Materiel Organisation JTC Jurong Town Corporation (1996 to 2000) KPI Key performance indicator DoD Department of Defense, USA LASS Lockheed Aircraft Services Singapore DPM Deputy Prime Minister LAW Light anti-tank weapon DSO Defence Science Organisation (pre 1997, now known as DSO National LEO Lands and Estates Organisation Laboratories) LCM Life Cycle Management DSP Deputy Superintendent of Police LG Lieutenant General DSTA Defence Science and Technology Agency LTA Lieutenant DTC Defence Technology Community LTC Lieutenant Colonel DT&E Development Test & Evaluation LST Landing Ship Tanks DTRA Defense Threat Reduction Agency, USA MAJ Major EA Engineering assistant MBT Main battle tank ED Engineering Department, CIS MC Maritime Command EE Engineering executive MG Major General EFCSC Explosives, Fire and Chemical Safety Committee MGB Missile gun boat EMP Engineering Master Plan MHA Ministry of Home Affairs ENV Ministry of the Environment MINCOMM Ministry of Communications EOD Explosive ordnance disposal MID Ministry of Interior and Defence ER Extended-range MND Ministry of National Development ERDC Engineering Research and Development Center, USA MINDEF Ministry of Defence ERFB-BB Extended Range Full Bore with Base Bleed MMO Materials Management Organisation ERFB-HB Extended Range Full Bore with Hollow Base MoD Ministry of Defence, the UK eSILK enterprise System for Innovation, Learning and Knowledge MPC Mobile Patching Centre ESTC Explosives Storage and Transport Committee MRT Mass Rapid Transit FCS Fire control system MWO Master Warrant Officer FEM Finite Element Methods NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation FOI Swedish Defence Research Establishment NEQ Net explosive quantity FSD Future Systems Directorate NCO Non-commissioned officer GDS General Diesel Singapore NDEA Norwegian Defence Estates Agency (previously known as the Norwegian GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System Defence Construction Service) GPMG General purpose machine gun NFESC Naval Facilities Engineering Services Centre, USA GPS Global Positioning System NGO Non-governmental organisation GSOA General Staff Office Automation NS National Service HADR Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief NSF Full-time National Serviceman HEAT High Explosive Anti-Tank NSTB National Science and Technology Board (the predecessor of A*STAR) HEDP High Explosive Dual-Purpose NTT Norwegian Tunnelling Technology HEST High Explosives Simulation Test NTU Nanyang Technological University HDB Housing Development Board NUS National University of Singapore IA Immediate Action OC Officer-in-Command ICT Information and Communications Technologies OCS Officer Cadet School IKC2 Integrated Knowledge-based Command and Control ODE Ordnance Development and Engineering of Singapore (now part of ST Kinetics) IFV Infantry fighting vehicle OMP Operational Master Plan ILS Integrated Logistics Support OODA Observe, Orient, Decide and Act IMU Inertial measurement unit OR Operations Research

179 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 180 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

ORBAT Order of battle SYSCON Systems control OT&E Operational Test & Evaluation TCS Trunk Communications System OVM On-vehicle material TD Technology development PC Platoon Commander TEA Section Test, Evaluation and Acceptance Section PDF Peoples’ Defence Force TiO2 Titanium Dioxide PM Prime Minister UAF Underground Ammunition Facility PLC Programmable logic controller UHF Ultra High Frequency PP&P Plans, Provisioning & Procurement UGSWG Underground Storage Working Group PRC Portable Radio Communication UGV Unmanned ground vehicle PSA Port of Singapore Authority URA Urban Redevelopment Authority PUB Public Utility Board UK United Kingdom PWD Public Works Department VAM Vehicle Actuation Module Q-D Quantity-Distance VHF Very High Frequency RAF Royal Air Force, UK VSEL Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Limited R&D Research and development V2V Vehicle-to-vehicle R/R Radio relay WAOB Weapons, Ammunition and Optics Base RAM Reliability, availability and maintainability WI Work instruction RMCS Royal Military College of Science, UK WWII World War Two, also referred to as Second World War ROK Republic of Korea XV1, XV2 eXperimental Vehicle 1, eXperimental Vehicle 2 RSAF Republic of Singapore Air Force 2LT Second Lieutenant SA Singapore Artillery 2PS 2nd Permanent Secretary SADA Singapore Air Defence Artillery SADC Singapore Air Defence Command SAE Singapore Automotive Engineering SAFTI Singapore Armed Forces Training Institute SAF Singapore Armed Forces SAFTECH SAF Technical School SAW Section automatic weapon SEAD Seletar East Ammunition Depot SEEL Singapore Electronics and Engineering Limited SCME SAF Centre for Military Experimentation SDC Sembcorp Design and Construction Pte Ltd SFI Singapore Food Industries SIMTech Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology SLAM Simultaneous localisation and mapping SLWH Singapore Light Weight Howitzer SMG Science and Management Group SOP Standard operating procedure SOR Specific Operations Requirements SP Self-propelled SPF Singapore Police Force SPH Self-propelled gun-howitzer SPO Special Projects Organisation SSC Short Service Commission SSSO Senior Specialist Staff Officer ST Kinetics Singapore Technologies Kinetics SVA Singapore Volunteer Artillery SVC Singapore Volunteer Corps

181 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 182 INDEX INDEX

INDEX Basic Military Training Centre 124 Command, Control, Communications and Fire control system (FCS) 38 Battlefield Management System (BMS) Computers Systems Organisation (CSO) Fong Aik Meng 86 80, 119 107, 108, 111, 121 Foo Jong Ai 103, 105 A Bedok Camp 122 Communications and Electronics (C&E) France 12, 25, 35, 47, 82, 84, 85, 87, 141 A-4B Skyhawks 37 Benedict Lim 117 Department 4, 14, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107 Frans Carpay 82 Aceh 116 Bienz, Kummer & Partner of Switzerland Criminal Investigation Department (CID) 1 Full-time National Serviceman (NSF) 3, 9, Advanced Combat Man System (ACMS) (BK&P) 151 10, 19, 20, 24, 53, 54, 66, 79, 80, 102, 110, 119, 120 Bill Keenan 131, 132 D 118, 121, 123, 125 Agency for Science, Technology and Bionix 54, 57, 66, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 96 David Koh 111 Future Systems Directorate (FSD) 113, 114, Research (A*STAR) 83, 134 Bronco 57, 77, 78, 79, 96 David Lim 142, 164 117 Air Bursting Munition System (ABMS) 42 Bukit Timah 16, 30, 62, 142, 164 Defence Materials Organisation (DMO) Air Combat Manoeuvring Instrumentation 50, 51, 56, 70, 72, 95 G (ACMI) 39 C Defence Science and Technology Agency Gary Klein 114 Airbase Redevelopment Team (ART) 127 Cadillac Gage 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65 (DSTA) 32, 57, 72, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, Gary Yeo 127 Alex Tan 55 Canada 133, 134, 135, 165 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99,106, 111, 112, 115, 116, General Diesel Singapore (GDS) 71 Alex Tay 85, 99 Carnegie Mellon University 84, 86, 87 117, 119, 121, 129, 134, 141, 146, 152, 157, 158, General Staff Division 4, 5, 7, 13, 25, 58, Andrew Ng 99 Cecil Cooke 4 161, 162, 163, 164, 165 65, 102 Andrew Renton-Green 53 Central Manpower Base (DSTA) 3, 27 Defence Technology Group 32, 112 Gerald Bull 34 Andy Malcolm 86, 88, 92, 99 Chan Chun Wah 82, 83, 86, 95 Defence Technology Community (DTC) Germany 58, 72, 73, 75, 84, 87, 165 Andy Shacklock 99 Chan Guan Seng 110 43, 101, 119, 121 Global Positioning System (GPS) 84, 89, Andy Tay 114 Changi Airport 116, 117, 123, 126, 127, 129 Defense Threat Reduction Agency, USA 90, 91, 92, 100 Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) 152 Changi Air Base 123, 126 (DTRA) 130, 149, 162, 167, 168 General purpose machine gun (GPMG) Anthony Leong 74 Changi Naval Base 129 Department of Defense, USA (DoD) 130, 10, 16, 63, 66 AMX 13, AMX 13 SM1 35, 57, 61, 65, 66, 67, Chartered Ammunition Industries (CAI) 132, 133, 143, 149, 151, 161, 164, 165 George Bogaars 2, 13 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 78, 79 53, 54 Derrick De Souza 4 GINTIC 82, 83, 85, 86, 95 AR-15 10, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24, 26, 40 Chartered Industries of Singapore (CIS) Desmond Kuek 113, 115 Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) Arnfinn Jenssen 161, 162, 164, 169 5, 10, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, DF Collins 4 84 Armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) 17, 57, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, Direction Générale de l’Armement (DGA) Goh Chok Tong 49, 129, 136 58, 69, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81 41, 42, 43, 48, 67, 103 94 Goh Kee Nguan 116 Armoured personnel carrier (APC) Chen XiaoQi 85 DSO National Laboratories (DSO) 33, 50, Goh Keng Swee 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 19, 20, 24, 45, 66, 82, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 95, 97, 100 Chester E 133 81, 119, 121, 134 30, 46, 65, 102, 121 Armour-piercing, fin-stabilised, Chew Bak Khoon 102 Goh Lye Choon 2 discarding sabot (APFSDS) 36 Chia Mow Chick 40 E Gong Zhiming 85, 99 Armour-piercing, fin-stabilised, discarding Chia Shee Wai 112 Eddie Foo 111 Graham Brooker 100 sabot-tracer (APFSDS-T) 37, 67 Chin Chee Chean 2 Eddy Lim 99 Gregg McKee 65 Arthur Percival 58 Chinniah Manohara 126 Eduardo Nebot 100 Guah Eng Hock 168 Automatic grenade launcher (AGL) 41, 42 Christian Laugier 85 Electronics Supply and Maintenance Guillemard Camp 122 Australia 24, 82, 87, 90, 91, 112, 117, 135, Christopher Noel 104 Base 1 138, 140 Civil Defence Shelter Act (CDSA) 140 Engineering Research and Development H Australian Centre for Field Robotics Colt 15, 20, 24, 26 Center, USA (ERDC) 151 Hamid Khan 5 (ACFR) 86, 87, 90, 91, 99 Command, control, communications and Explosives, Fire and Chemical Safety Han Eng Juan 108 Ayer Rajah Camp 124 computers (C4) 101, 102, 105, 106, 107, 112, Committee (EFCSC) 136 Harvard Interiors 38 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121 Explosives Storage and Transport Henry Cheong 4, 12, 28, 33, 37, 38, 40, 43 B Command and control information Committee (ESTC) 143 Henry Lee 119 Baey Chwee Leng Don 117 system (CCIS) 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, Henschel HWR-42 58 Bases Economic Conversion Department 112, 114, 115, 119 F High Explosives Simulation Test (HEST) (BECD) 123 FH2000 51, 52, 53, 54, 44 149, 150 Base Bleed Unit (BBU) 35 FH88 46, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 76 Ho Ching 49

183 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 184 INDEX INDEX

Hon Sui Sen 123 L Michel Parent 58, 97 Norwegian Defence Estates Agency Housing Development Board (HDB) 122, Lai Seck Khui 105 Michael Thoo 4, 103 (NDEA) 161, 162, 164, 167 136, 137, 138, 140, 158, 162 Lands and Estates Organisation (LEO) Milton Ong 110 Norwegian Tunnelling Technology (NTT) How Khee Yin 119 134, 162, 166, 167 Minjoot 5 155, 156 HQ Armour 65, 70 Large-scale test 147, 149 Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) 11, 53 Hugh Durrant-Whyte 89, 97, 100 Laurence Hartnett 24 Ministry of Defence, New Zealand 53 O Hui Tee Jong 35 Lim Chee Hiong 132, 166 Ministry of Defence, UK 4, 136 Observe, Orient, Decide and Act (OODA) Hunter Mark 6 7 Lee Chuen Fei 33, 35, 36, 37, 43 Ministry of Communications (MINCOMM) 113 Humanitarian assistance and disaster Lee Huan Shiang 61 126, 127 Oerlikon 18, 27, 28, 32, 33, 38, 63 relief (HADR) 116 Lee Kah Hoo 37, 38, 43 Ministry of Health 53 Officer Cadet School (OCS) 117, 120 Lee Sing Kong 132 Ministry of Home Affairs 3, 11 Ong Kah Kok 5, 12, 27 I Lee Shiang Long 107, 109, 110 Ministry of Interior and Defence (MID) 1, Ong Yew Hing 132, 133, 134, 135, 161, 166 INRIA 85, 86, 87, 97 Leong Yew Kong 99 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 20, 25, 59, 60, Operational Master Plan (OMP) 80, 107, Information and communications Lai Chun Loong 25, 27, 31, 42 61, 62, 65 125, 127, 128, 129 technologies (ICT) 84 Lee Ee Bek 108 Ministry of National Development (MND) Operations Research (OR) 4, 12, 28, 43, 81 Integrated Knowledge-based Command Lee Kuan Yew 25, 123, 128 162, 163 Ordnance Development and Engineering and Control (IKC2) 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, Liew Mun Leong 12, 127 Ministry of the Environment (ENV) 162, of Singapore (ODE) 10, 16, 47, 48, 49, 50, 118, 120, 121 Life Cycle Management (LCM) 50 163 51, 56, 70 Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) 50 Lim Chong Han 110 Mobile Patching Centre (MPC) 104 Organisation and Control Department 6, Island Ordnance Systems (IOS) 53, 54 Lim Choon Mong 4 12, 13 Israel 2, 9, 45, 47, 139, 140 Lim Chuan Poh 111, 112, 113 N Oussama Khatib 96, 97 Israeli 3, 58, 59, 65, 67, 128, 139 Lim Khiang Wee 82, 97 Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Lim Heng Soon 169 82, 85, 86, 95, 96, 97, 99, 134, 142, 146, P J Lim Liat 33 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 Pang Chung Kiang 115 Jacqueline Lee 114 Lim Neo Chien 107 National Service (NS) 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, Pang Poh Cheng 121 Jake Toh 82, 83, 91, 95, 99 Lim Ser Yong 85 12, 21, 24, 27, 123 Pasir Laba 2, 30 James Sullivan 40 Lim Soon Chye 3 National Science and Technology Board Patrick Choy 36, 107 Javier Ibañez-Guzmán 82, 84, 84, 98 Linda Lancaster 132 (NSTB) 83, 164 Pasir Panjang Army Complex 123 Jeanette Lim 88 Lockheed Aircraft Services Singapore National University of Singapore (NUS) Paya Lebar Airport 123, 126, 127 Jiang Ting Ying 99 (LASS) 126 33, 35, 82, 86, 96, 97, 99, 123, 134, 146, 164 Pearl’s Hill 1, 11 Jim Tancreto 132 Logistics Division 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) 136, 137 Pegasus 55, 56 Jimmy Khoo 113, 117 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 45, 46, 47, 48, 61, 64 Naval Facilities Engineering Services People’s Association 5, 20 John Morrice 2 Loh Heng Fong 70, 71 Centre, USA (NFESC) 131, 132 Peter Ho 121 Joint Architecture for Unmanned Loh Chuk Yam 47 Nehemia Zohar 61 Philip Yeo 12, 13, 29, 48 Systems (JAUS) 92 Low Jin Phang 112 New Zealand 51, 53, 85 Png Bee Hin 120 Joint Communications and Electronics Low Yin Tit 53 Neo Kian Hong 114, 115, 116, 120 Police Reserve Units 1 Department (JCED) 105 Lui Pao Chuen 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 31, 45, 61, Ng Chee Meng 114 Pooja Charturvedi 85, 99 Joint Communications and Information 62, 94, 97, 107, 118, 132, 133, 166 Ng Eng Hen 119 Port of Singapore Authority (PSA) 129 Systems Department (JCISD) 111, 113 Ng Eng Ho 105 PRIMUS 54, 55, 57, 77, 84, 89, 94 Joseph Lim 110 M Ng Hoe Lee 111 Project Archer 66, 67, 69, 81 Jurong Town Corporation (JTC) 162, 163, M-16, M-16S1 15, 21, 22, 29, 31, 32, 40 Ng Jui Ping 106 Project Spider 66, 67, 81 165 Mah Chi Jui 73 Ng Teck Chew 99 Project Ulysses 82, 85, 97 Marcelo Ang 98 Ng Yat Chung 108, 110 Pulau Brani Naval Base 128 K Maritime Command (MC) 12, 32, 65 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Pulau Senang 135, 138, 139 Karen Chong 134, 168 Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) 136, 137 (NATO) 14, 15, 24, 25, 27, 84, 138, 141, 143, Pulau Tekong 59, 124 KC Oei 31 Materials Management Organisation 161, 164, 165, 167 Public Utility Board (PUB) 162, 163 Kirpa Ram Vij 2, 3 (MMO) 48, 49, 50 Norway 139, 144, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166 Public Works Department (PWD) 3, 11, 27, Khoo Li Pheng 82 Melvyn Ong 114 128, 143, 164, 165

185 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 186 INDEX INDEX

Q Short Service Commission (SSC) 8, 9, 10, Split-nodes 106, 107 Tuas Naval Base 129 Quek Gim Pew 119 11, 14 Stanford University 96, 97 Signal Formation 101, 102, 105, 107, 112, Sterling’s Light Automatic Rifle (LAR) 32 U R 113, 116, 118, 119 Su Guaning 112 Ultimax 100 22, 29, 40 R.A. Lawrence 2 Sin Boon Wah 115 Sungei Gedong 40, 63, 64, 71, 74, 135 Underground Ammunition Facility (UAF) Ravinder Singh 113, 119 Singapore Air Defence Artillery (SADA) Sunny Kang 74 130, 133, 141, 142, 160, 164 Reggi Sandosham 4 127 Sweden 18, 45, 47, 135, 144, 147, 148, 149, Underground Storage Working Group Republic of Korea (ROK) 31, 133, 143, 144, Singapore Air Defence Command 151, 152, 161, 162, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 (UGSWG) 161, 164, 165, 169 151, 162 (SADC) 11, 12, 32 Swedish Defence Research Establishment United Kingdom (UK) 4, 6, 7, 11, 14, 43, Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) 1, 2, 3, 4, (FOI) 147, 161, 162, 169, 170 45, 47, 58, 71, 102, 122, 123, 125, 130, 133, 38, 39, 76, 81, 82, 114, 123, 126, 127, 139 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, Switzerland 27, 58, 63, 135, 144, 151, 165 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 165 Richard Jambu 3 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, Sydney University 97 University of Auckland 27 Richard Tay 2 36, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 52, 53, Unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) 96 Robert Lee Bee Kow 25 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, T Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) Robert Odello 132, 133, 144 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, Tadiran 103 130, 142, 162, 163, 164 Robert Waterfield 40 82, 83, 87, 88, 95, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105, Tan Ah Tuan 121 Rodney Brooks 88 106, 107, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, Tan Chin Hwee 4 V Ronnie Tan Han Chong 53 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 130, 131, 134, 142, 168 Tan Chuan-Jin 116 V-100 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 Royal Air Force, UK (RAF) 4, 7, 11, 37, 43, Singapore Armed Forces Training Tan Gee Paw 53 V-200 10, 45, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 125, 126 Institute (SAFTI) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 13, 16, Tan Huck Gim 108 76, 79 Royal Military College of Science, UK 34, 59, 76, 103, 125 Tan Hup Seng 3 Vehicle Repair Base 1, 62 (RMCS) 133, 134 Singapore Artillery (SA) 13, 45, 46, 47, Tan Kim Siew 105, 116, 163, 165 Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Royal Navy 4, 43 49, 50, 51, 53, 76 Tan Teck Khim 4, 102 Limited (VSEL) 56 Singapore Electronics and Engineering Tan Yang How 115 Vietnam 15, 16, 59, 103, 125 S Limited (SEEL) 123 Tan Ying Kiat 114 Vietnam War 18, 65 S Santhirasekar 169 Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Tay Kok Khiang 127 SAF Technical School (SAFTECH) 8 Technology (SIMTech) 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, Tay Seow Wah 4 W SAR-21 16, 21, 22, 32 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 T.E. Ricketts 2, 3 Wan Siew Kay 3, 10 SAR-80 32, 40, 48 Singapore Food Industries (SFI) 20 Teng Ngai Huat 33 Wang Han 86, 99 Sahari 4 Singapore Mint 26 Tengah Air Base 123, 125, 126, 127, 128 Weapons, Ammunition and Optics Base Sam Ge 86 Singapore Technologies Kinetics Teo Chee Hean 55, 56, 116, 118, 134, 141, (WAOB) 1, 4, 14, 19, 26 Science and Management Group (SMG) (ST Kinetics) 16, 24, 40, 41, 42, 43, 54, 57, 143, 165 Wesley D’aranjo 50 11, 12, 126 70, 77, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 91, 95, 96, 98, Teo Chin Hock 108, 111, 115 Wilfred Skinner 2 Seah Chiong Lok 111 99, 123, 167 Teo Ming Kian 46, 47, 48 Winston Choo 41, 48, 69, 101, 107 Seah Chong Chiang 168 Singapore Police Force (SPF) 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, Terrex 57, 77, 79 Wong Meng Keh 108 Seletar Camp 141 9, 164 Test, Evaluation and Acceptance (TEA) Wong Yue Kah 119 Seletar Air Base 122 Singapore Volunteer Artillery (SVA) 45 Section 5, 6, 7, 10, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 30, 61 World War Two, Second World War Seletar East Ammunition Depot (SEAD) Singapore Volunteer Corps (SVC) 2, 3, 45 Thailand 39 (WWII) 57, 58 141, 142, 154, 155 Singapore Automotive Engineering Thales 94 Self-loading rifle 2, 14 (SAE) 12, 13, 57, 65,67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, Tham Mow Siang 20, 25 X Self-propelled gun-howitzer (SPH) 54, 55 75, 76, 78 Thomas Thng 99 XAR-30 59, 60, 61 Sembawang Naval Base 123 Simultaneous localisation and mapping Toh Cheng Seng 108 Xian Dong Fang Machinery Factory 53, Sembcorp Design and Construction Pte (SLAM) 85, 90 Tony Tan Keng Yam 139, 142, 165 54 Ltd (SDC) 154, 166, 167 South Africa 35 Toh Beng Khoon 71 Xu Jian 85 Seow Tiang Keng 5, 7, 10, 14 South Korea 26, 31 Trunk Communications System (TCS) 89, XV1, XV2 75, 78 Shang Huai Meng 33 Space Research Corporation 34 105, 106, 107, 109 Shen Jian 85, 90, 99 Special Projects Organisation (SPO) 50, T.S. Zain 4 Y 127, 136 TV-guided bomb 44 Yao Shih Jih 119

187 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS 188 INDEX

Yeo Eidik 108 Yeo Siok Hock 116 Yeoh Lean Weng 115 Yew Chor Shuen 168 Yun Ta Chun 106, 107

Z Zhou Yingxin 134, 161, 168

123 70mm rocket 37, 38

189 ENGINEERING LAND SYSTEMS DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY COMMUNITY

“ENGINEERING SINGAPORE’S DEFENCE – THE EARLY YEARS” Book Series

Editorial Panel Co-Chief Editors of Series : Prof Quek Tong Boon Prof Lui Pao Chuen

Editor, Engineering Land Systems : Prof Lui Pao Chuen Editor, Aviation Engineering : Mr Tay Kok Khiang Editor, Engineering Our Navy : RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih Editor, Engineering System-of-Systems : RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih

Panel Members : Prof Su Guaning RADM (Ret) James Leo Er. BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo Mr Quek Gim Pew Mr Tan Yang How Mr Chua Poh Kian Ms Surine Ng Pei Gek

Unless otherwise stated, all pictures, tables, graphs and charts are the property of the Ministry of Defence, Singapore.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission of the copyright owner.

© 2016, Ministry of Defence, Singapore Published by Ministry of Defence, Singapore 303, Gombak Drive Singapore 669645

Designed by Advalanche Integrated Advertising Pte Ltd 114 Lavender Street #03-64 Sitting left to right: Mr Tan Yang How, Prof Su Guaning, Singapore 338729 Prof Quek Tong Boon, Prof Lui Pao Chuen, Mr Quek Gim Pew ISBN 978-981-11-1490-8

Standing left to right: RADM (Ret) James Leo, Printed by RADM (Ret) Richard Lim Cherng Yih, Ms Surine Ng Pei Gek, Mr Tay Kok Khiang, First Printers Pte Ltd 203 Henderson Industrial Park Er.BG (Ret) Wesley D’aranjo, Mr Chua Poh Kian #07-09 Singapore 159546