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Home , Arthur Schopenhauer, Harmony

Invest Clin 57(4): 409 - 426, 2016

Psychotherapists: Should we meet Schopenhauer?.

Trino Baptista

Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela.

Key words: Schopenhauer; ; compassion; cognitive neurosciences; theory; psychoanalysis.

Abstract. (1788-1860) is known as the pessimist and the psychologist of the . He anticipated some features of cognitive neuroscience, psy- choanalysis and evolutionary , but he is relatively unfamiliar to most contemporary mental health professionals. Schopenhauer conceived the will as the universe’s ; pur- poseful human actions are a small part of it. We do not directly perceive the will, but only its phenomena through the ‘Veil of ’, which, in contemporary terms, refers to the cognitive and perceptual limits imposed by our own biological species. This is why Schopenhauer posits that we have a representation () of the . We have a direct access to the will by per- ceiving our body’s desires. The will is insatiable and selfish. Because of these will’s features, there is no possibility of or global salvation. However, or existential sal- vation may occur by denying the will through a path that includes: 1) an aesthetic particularly with the aid of , that allows contemplation of the ´Platonic ´, lessening desire and promoting knowledge through contemplation,; 2) the ethical experience refers to the about the unity of the universe, particularly by realizing the ubiquity of and neediness, and 3) the metaphysical step which promotes compassion and asceticism. The- se philosophical may add to specific psychotherapeutic techniques in expanding the individual’s awareness beyond herself/himself, and thus arise and improve the psychological outcome.

Corresponding author: Trino Baptista. Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela. Email: [email protected]. 410 Baptista Schopenhauer and psychotherapy 411

anticipated relevant features of psychoanalysis, 1803-4 Grand tour of Holland, England, Fran- Psicoterapeutas. ¿Deberíamos conocer a Arthur evolution theory and modern cognitive neuros- ce, , . Later in life, Schopen- Schopenhauer? ciences. hauer considered that this tour led him to have a I posit that the field of psychotherapy could profound insight about human suffering. Invest Clin 2016; 57(4): 409 - 426 very well be enriched -- both in its theoretical 1805 Apparent suicide of his father. foundations and its practical skills-- by explicit- 1813 Doctorate in (Ph.D), Jena Uni- Palabras Clave: Schopenhauer; asceticismo; compasión; neurociencias cognitivas; teoría de la ly incorporating some of Schopenhauer´s con- versity, with a dissertation entitled: On the Four- evolución; psicoanálisis. tributions. For that purpose, in this article I will fold of the of Sufficient Reason. firstly describe his biography, his theoretical phi- 1814 Schopenhauer´s final break with his mo- losophical foundations and then their relevance ther. Resumen. Arturo Schopenhauer (1788-1860) es conocido como el filósofo pesimista for mental health professionals. I will particu- 1815 Publication of On Seeing and Colors. y como el psicólogo de la voluntad. Schopenhauer anticipó algunos elementos de las neuro- larly emphasize the practical applications of his 1818 World as Will and Representation is pu- ciencias cognitivas, del psicoanálisis y de la psicología evolutiva, pero es poco conocido por work to psychotherapy and psycho-education. blished. la mayoría de los profesionales de la salud mental contemporáneos. Schopenhauer concibió la Throughout this article, Schopenhauer’s 1820 First and last attempt to become a univer- voluntad como la esencia del universo; la acción humana voluntaria es una pequeña parte de la original texts are transcribed in italics within sity professor. Dispute with Hegel. voluntad. No percibimos a la voluntad directamente sino a sus fenómenos a través del ‘Velo de double quotation marks. authors’ original 1833 Settles in where he will remain Maya’, el cual se refiere en términos presentes a los límites cognitivos y perceptuales impuestos writings are also transcribed within double quo- until the end of his life. por nuestra propia especie biológica. Es por esta razón que Schopenhauer afirmó que nos hace- tation marks but in standard format. 1851 is published. mos una representación (idea) del mundo. Tenemos un acceso directo a la voluntad al percibir 1860 Schopenhauer dies. los deseos de nuestro cuerpo. La voluntad es insaciable y egoísta. Dadas estas características Biography (chronology) de la voluntad, no existe la salvación colectiva o global. Sin embargo, es posible la salvación Schopenhauer´s biography is very popular, Here is a brief summary of Schopenhauer´s individual, mediante la negación de la voluntad, la cual ocurre a través de un camino que in- particularly those events related to his turbulent personality written by one of his modern biogra- cluye: 1) la experiencia estética, en particular con la ayuda del arte, que permite contemplar las relationship with his parents (Johanna Henriette phers and critic. “Schopenhauer was undoub- ´Ideas Platónicas´, aplacar el deseo y promover el conocimiento mediante la contemplación; 2) Trosiener and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer), tedly an often difficult person: rude, satirical, la experiencia ética, la cual se refiere a la toma de conciencia sobre la unidad del universo, en his at an early age with human su- quarrelsome, and sometimes depressed. On the especial al darse cuenta de la ubicuidad del sufrimiento y de la naturaleza menesterosa del ser ffering, his father´s suicide, his career selection, other hand he is observant, funny, original, wri- humano, y; 3) la experiencia metafísica, la cual promueve la compasión y el ascetismo. Estos his lifetime criticism and aversion towards aca- tes like an angel… He is, moreover, sharp-sigh- principios filosóficos pueden agregarse a las técnicas psicoterapéuticas específicas para expan- demic and Hegel´s philosophy, ted and honest, honest with the reader, honest dir la conciencia individual más allá de sí mismo (misma), y de esa manera estimular y mejorar his difficult relationship with women, his am- in particular about himself. Beneath the grim la evolución psicológica. bivalent relationship with Goethe, his love for exterior of man and philosophy is someone for and defense of animal , and his lonely, but whom a surprising number of people (including Recibido: 05-05-2016 . Aceptado: 28-07-2016 comfortable, life. The interested reader is refe- this writer) experience considerable affection” rred to well-known scholar biographies (1,2), (1). INTRODUCTION . His main philosophical proposal was that correspondence (3), and a popular novel (4). the world is our representation and that the will Here below is a selection of dates and events Publications Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was a is the closest knowledge to the thing-in-itself in Schopenhauer´s life, along with other dates Schopenhauer’s capital work is The World as German philosopher well known for his pessi- that we, humans, can have. Schopenhauer´s phi- that are important to contextualize his biogra- Will and Representation, also translated as The mistic view of life, for the criticisms he voiced losophy has influenced fields as diverse as bio- phy (adapted from 1-4). World as Will and Idea (5,6). The first edition to the academic philosophers of his , for logy, psychology, art, and . was published in 1818 when he was 30 years having pioneered the introduction of In spite of its contributions to psycholo- 1724 Kant is born. His old; the second edition, published in 1844, was and the respect for animal life in , for his gy, Schopenhauer´s is not mentioned is published in 1781. amplified by a second volume. The fundamental , and for his clear and precise writing either in psychiatric education programs or in 1770 Hegel is born. ideas of Schopenhauer are entirely contained in often depicted by original metaphors and emblematic psychology books, even though he 1788 Arthur Schopenhauer is born. the original edition (5). Schopenhauer praised

Investigación Clínica 57(4): 2016 Vol. 57(4): 409 - 426, 2016 412 Baptista Schopenhauer and psychotherapy 413 himself for the unity of his work: of (objects’ placement), time (objects’ everything that is done, we ask for the motive the result of which is the of a pic- “When once the time comes for me to be succession) and (change in ’s why it is done, i.e. the ‘reason of acting’. ture there. Clearly the relation between such a read, it will be found that my philosophy is like ). The conceptual faculty allows the deve- In short, the principle of sufficient reason gi- picture and something entirely different from the Thebes with one hundred gates: one can enter lopment of , that is, representations of ves the the intellectual tools to interact animal in whose brain it exists can only be a from all sides and through each gate arrive at representations (1). Schopenhauer considered with the object in the process of knowing. Co- very indirect one. This is perhaps the simplest the direct path to the centre” (7). the perceptual branch as more important than llectively, the four reasons underlie any search and most comprehensible way of disclosing the Later on, Schopenhauer published three es- the conceptual one, but this is not supported by for causes and effects in the world, that is, the deep gulf between the and ” (6). says where he extended his reflections about is- current research in neurosciences (1). material cause in physical/chemical/statistical In summary, in philosophical terms, the sues related to freedom and (7,8 ). Schopenhauer furthermore organized the terms; the logical cause in reasoning terms; the universe is the will. It expresses itself in all the In 1851 he published Parerga and Paralipo- functioning of the according to the placement of the observed phenomena in space basic forces of (such as gravitation, elec- mena (9), which means ‘complementary works principle of sufficient reason. Rudiger Safrans- and time and its ethical/moral implications. The tricity, etc), in the unanimated objects and in and omitted’. It is a collection of essays ki, one prominent Schopenhauer’s biographer, relevance of these four reasons for Schopen- all the living , including humans. In his on topics as diverse as women, noise, ghosts, summarizes this issue as follows: “the principle hauer’s philosophy will be extended below. youth, Schopenhauer argued that the will was aging, suicide, and fame. Several chapters of of sufficient reason expresses the fact that with the thing-in-itself, this a that had Parerga and Paralipomena are now edited as regard to anything that can enter into our idea Schopenhauer’s philosophical eluded philosophers for centuries. Later on, he short essays for the general public. A popular we must always ask for reasons, for a connec- principles acknowledged that the thing-in-itself was unk- section of this book is entitled on the tion; we must ask for it not because the external Schopenhauer’s philosophy is often con- nowable, but that the will was its closest dimen- Wisdom of Life (10). world compels us to do so, but because our per- trasted with that of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich sion. In his will dated 26 June 1852, Schopen- ceptual and cognitive faculty compels us to so” Hegel (1770-1831). Young describes this The representation is how we, subjects, hauer left his handwritten notes, reflections and (2). According to the different objects one may contrast as follows (slightly modified by the au- know objects, including ourselves. One can- diaries to Julius Frauenstädt, his disciple and la- be dealing with, Schopenhauer distinguished thor in order to shorten the text): ‘Schopenhauer not know directly the objects in themselves, but ter editor, but some manuscripts were not reco- four kinds of asking for reasons, four kinds of rejected Hegel’s telling history of the West as we have a representation of them. This indirect vered. The preserved writings are published as establishing a connection. These are: an inexorable dialectical process of self educa- knowledge of objects is mediated by the specific four volumes entitled Manuscript Remains (11). 1)With regard to everything that happens in the tion whereby the Absolute Spirit proceeds from intellect of each species of living beings. An exhaustive list of Schopenhauer’s writings is corporeal world, we ask for the reason why it is the primitive to the perfect. In general, therefo- Schopenhauer acknowledged that his propo- presented elsewhere (2,7,12). happening. We therefore ask about a ‘reason for re, Hegel’s philosophy was well calculated to sals were based on Kant’s, ’s and Hindu’s becoming’. This is the question for causality in appeal to an age of authoritarian complacency. philosophy: Schopenhauer’s philosophy the narrow sense and is the kind of knowledge Schopenhauer, rather asserted that, in Hegel’s a)“Kant’s greatest merit is the distinction of the typically obtained through physics, mathema- sense, history does not exist, that life is –essen- from the thing in itself, based upon Background tics and chemistry. tially, always and equally- suffering and repla- the proof that between things and us there still In his doctoral dissertation On the Fourfold 2)In the case of judgments (cognitions, con- ced the Hegel’s intelligent spirit by a blind and always stands the intellect, so that they cannot Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (13), cepts), we ask for underlies that judg- irrational will’ (1). be known as they may be in themselves” (15). Schopenhauer intended to simplify Kant’s en- ment (its ). We ask why we maintain that it Schopenhauer’ philosophy has often been b)He (Kant) “found the same which Pla- tire complicated machinery of the faculty of is so. We therefore ask for the ‘reason of cogni- considered as a “single thought” ‘The world is to never wearies of repeating: this world which cognition (1). This represents a foundational tion’. will and representation (idea) (14): appears to the senses has no true being, but only part for his philosophical principles. Moreover, 3)The third kind of principle relates to the realm (a)The will is “the inmost nature, the kernel, of a ceaseless becoming; it is, and it is not, and Schopenhauer substituted the complex system of pure and arithmetic. These are is- every particular thing, and also of the whole. It its comprehension is not so much knowledge as of Kantian judgments, categories, schemes and sues that can be demonstrated by the being-so appears in every blind force of nature and also illusion. This is also what he expresses mythi- principles by a simplified model of the (in- in visual space (geometry) and by directly expe- in the pre-considered action of man” (5). cally; he says: Men, firmly chained in a dark tellect), thus comprising the Perceptual Faculty rienced time (counting, arithmetic). This is the (b)The world is my representation (idea): cave, see neither the true original light nor real (Understanding) and the Conceptual Faculty of principle of ‘reason of being’. “What is knowledge? It is primarily and essen- things, but only the meagre light of the fire in the Reason. The faculty provides crude 4)The fourth kind relates to human action, in- tially idea. What is idea? A very complicated cave and the shadows of real things which pass apprehension of objects and the innate notions cluding moral and ethical issues. With regard to physiological process in the brain of an animal, by the fire behind their backs; yet they think the

Investigación Clínica 57(4): 2016 Vol. 57(4): 409 - 426, 2016 414 Baptista Schopenhauer and psychotherapy 415 shadows are the , and the determining of and causality. talk about his ‘ontological ’. Young A.The aesthetic experience, which in philoso- the succession of these shadows is true wisdom” 6)The world as representation suddenly appears (1) conceived this as an ‘evaluative pessimism’ phical terms refers to the contemplation of the (15). when the will originates the phenomena (inani- -- for example “ is certainly to be re- platonic ‘ideas’. One fundamental psychologi- c)“The same truth, again quite differently pre- mate objects and living beings) which are inhe- garded as an erring (error), to return from cal correlate of the aesthetic experience is sto- sented, is also a leading doctrine of the rently in space and in time and under the rules which is salvation” (6): -- and he contrasts it pping the desire. In Schopenhauer´s terms this and Puranas, the doctrine of Maya, by which of causality. Schopenhauer names the appearan- with a ‘descriptive pessimism’, such as “every refers to know instead of will. Contemplation, really nothing else is understood than what Kant ce of objects as “the principle of ” biography is the history of suffering” (5) (see in general, and art in particular, are ways to calls the phenomenon in opposition to the thing (principium individuationis) of the will. Stating below for a further discussion). As regards eva- reach this goal: “The comprehension of an Idea, in itself; for the work of Maya is said to be just it differently, we can say: the shapeless will be- luative pessimism, Schopenhauer profoundly the entrance of it into our consciousness, is only this visible world in which we are, a summoned come individual objects, that is, phenomena. differed from Hegel who envisaged an possible by means of a change in us, which mi- enchantment, an inconstant appearance without 7)With the phenomena, particularly the living between the ‘being and the ’. As a conse- ght also be regarded as an act of self-denial; for true being, like an optical illusion or a dream, a beings, appears ‘knowledge’. This knowledge quence, Hegel was optimistic about the future it consists in this, that knowledge turns away al- veil which surrounds human consciousness, so- shows itself as ‘causes’ at the inanimate level, of humanity in general, whereas Schopenhauer together from our own will, thus now leaves out mething of which it is equally false and true to as ‘stimuli’ at the vegetal level, and as ‘motives’ only conceived an individual salvation through of sight entirely the valuable pledge intrusted say that it is and that it is not” (15). in animals, notably in us, humans. the denial of the will. to it, and considers things as if they could ne- 8)Each phenomenon is selfish: “Everywhere in 9)In humans, as in all the living beings, the in- ver concern the will at all. For thus alone does Philosophical and psychological im- nature we see strife, conflict, and alternation tellect is secondary, subordinate and conditio- knowledge become a pure mirror of the objec- plications of Schopenhauer single of victory. Every grade of the objectification ned by the will. Hence, Schopenhauer concei- tive nature of things. Knowledge conditioned thought of will fights for the matter, the space, and the ves the “true being of men as more willing than in this way must lie at the foundation of every time of the others. The permanent matter must knowing” (6). genuine as its origin”. In this state, Philosophical implications constantly change its form; for under the gui- 10)The will is free because it is not under the ru- “the object separates itself ever more from the 1)Schopenhauer used a strong statement to refer dance of causality, mechanical, physical, che- les of time, space or causality. By contrast, phe- subject, and finally introduces the state of pure to the limits of his thought: mical, and organic phenomena, eagerly striving nomena are not free because they are absolutely objectivity of perception, which of itself elimi- “My philosophy, at least, does not by any means to appear, wrest the matter from each other, for determined by the causality chain within space nates the will from consciousness, and in which seek to know whence or wherefore the world each desires to reveal its own Idea. This uni- and time (5). all things stand before us with increased clear- exists, but merely what the world is” (5). versal conflict becomes most distinctly visible in 11)The philosophical and existential salvation ness and distinctness, so that we are conscious 2)The entire universe is an expression of the the animal kingdom. For animals have the who- requires the denial or renunciation of the will. almost only of them and scarcely at all of our- will. le of the vegetable kingdom for their food, and What does Schopenhauer mean when he refers selves” (6). 3)The will is not either God or the . even within the animal kingdom every beast is to salvation? Given the insatiability and selfish- To exemplify this, Schopenhauer quotes 4)At its basic level, the will is amorphous and is the prey and the food of another; that is, the ma- ness of the will, the philosopher does not ex- Goethe: “Why has the sight of the full moon not under the principle of sufficient reason. That tter in which its Idea expresses itself must yield pect a global, and durable such a beneficent, quieting, and exalting effect? is, at this foundational level, the will does not itself to the expression of another Idea, for each and peace. At the individual level, we humans, Because the moon is an object of perception, but follow causal pathways (reason of becoming); animal can only maintain its existence by the oscillate between the frantic search of desire never of desire”: “The stars we yearn not after, it is not placed either in space or in time (reason constant destruction of some other” (5). satisfaction and , without a stable and delight us with their glory” (6). of being); it does not follow the rules of logic Regarding us, humans, Schopenhauer quoted satisfactory middle point. In this context, indivi- Even though Schopenhauer considered all (reason of cognition), and it is amoral (reason Plauto (254-184 BC): “Lupus est homo homini, dual salvation means escaping from the struggle as a pathway to awareness, he placed spe- of acting). non homo, quom qualis sit non novit”, which between unlimited desire and boredom by den- cial emphasis on music and . For exam- 5)At a higher level, the will becomes ‘ideas’ has been translated as follows: “A man is a ying the will (stopping desire) and turning into ple, he stated that the “records the most (in the Platonic sense) that present themselves wolf rather than a man to another man, when he compassion and asceticism. secret history of this intellectually-enlightened as the basic forces of matter, such as electricity, hasn’t yet found out what he’s like” (5). Schopenhauer conceived the denial or renuncia- will, pictures every excitement, every effort, magnetism, chemical interaction, etc. The ideas Given the selfish tendency of the will, Schopen- tion of the will as a path (6) where the individual every movement of it” (5). or prototypes are the first level of objectification hauer is pessimistic about nature and about hu- human being goes through three experiences: Regarding tragedy, Schopenhauer asserts: “…it of the will, but, still, they are out of time, space man beings in particular; in this sense one can is to be regarded, and is recognized as the sum-

Investigación Clínica 57(4): 2016 Vol. 57(4): 409 - 426, 2016 416 Baptista Schopenhauer and psychotherapy 417 mit of poetical art, both on account of the great- thing-in-itself but the phenomenon in time and psychological relevance of this postulate will be this way exhibits the phenomena of holiness and ness of its effect and the difficulty of its achieve- space, ‘the principium individuationis’, and in discussed below. self-renunciation” (5). ment. It is very significant for our whole system, the other forms of the principle of sufficient re- C.The metaphysical experience denies the will Schopenhauer acknowledges that the per- and well worthy of observation, that the end of ason. And in this form of his limited knowledge by turning to compassion and asceticism: “… ception of suffering in others and in oneself is this highest poetical achievement is the repre- he sees not the inner nature of things, which is but, on the other hand, that knowledge of the often a pathway for denying the will: “For to sentation of the terrible side of life. The uns- one, but its phenomena as separated, disunited, whole, of the nature of the thing-in-itself which him who does works of love the veil of Maya has peakable pain, the wail of humanity, the triumph innumerable, very different, and indeed oppo- has been described, becomes a quieter of all and become transparent, the illusion of the princi- of , the scornful mastery of chance, and the sed. He sees the ills and he sees the wickedness every volition. The will now turns away from pium individuationis has left him. He recogni- irretrievable fall of the just and innocent, is here in the world, but far from knowing that both of life; it now shudders at the in which it zes himself, his will, in every being, and conse- presented to us; and in this lies a significant hint these are but different sides of the manifestation recognizes the assertion of life. Man now attains quently also in the sufferer (5) “… but suffering of the nature of the world and of existence” (5). of the one , he regards them as very to the state of voluntary renunciation, resigna- in general, as it is inflicted by fate, is a second Schopenhauer further discusses how the who- different, and indeed quite opposed, and often tion, true indifference, and perfect will-lessens” way of attaining to that denial” (5). le artistic field of can be classified in seeks to escape from ills by wickedness, i.e., by (5). three types. “It may happen by means of a cha- causing the suffering of another” (5). For Schopenhauer, compassion appears Psychological implications racter of extraordinary wickedness, touching For Schopenhauer, the ethic experience when one “takes as much interest in the suffe- 1)In Schopenhauer I could not find any formal the utmost limits of possibility, who becomes the allows one to be aware of ‘eternal ’. This rings of other as in his own, and attempt to explore the causes of mental illnes- author of the misfortune. Secondly, it may ha- is a very abstract concept in itself that is better therefore is not only benevolent in the highest ses. What he did in his own way was to describe ppen through blind fate, i.e., chance and error. understood when it is contrasted to ‘temporal degree, but even ready to sacrifice his own indi- what the ill mind does, but not why and how the Lastly, the misfortune may be brought about by justice’. The latter “has its seat in the state, as viduality whenever such a sacrifice will save a mind becomes ill (5). the mere position of the dramatis persona with requiting and punishing, and has seen that this number of other persons” (5). Regarding asce- 2)The well-being is ‘negative’ in the sense that it regard to each other, through their ; only becomes justice through a reference to the ticism, the philosopher asserted “Voluntary and is imperceptible and runs unnoticed. Only when so that there is no need either for a tremendous future… and requires time in order to triumph, complete chastity is the first step in asceticism we have an unsatisfied desire does a ‘positive’ error or an unheard-of accident, nor yet for a equalizing the evil deed by the evil consequen- or the denial of the will to live”. He also added experience arise. It is positive in the sense that character whose wickedness reaches the limits ces only by means of time” (5). “Asceticism then shows itself further in volun- is perceptible, salient, and one tries to put an end of human possibility; but characters of ordinary Eternal justice, having its seat in the will, is tary and intentional poverty…Since he himself to it. Therefore, one does not realize well-being , under circumstances such as often oc- not tied to time. Moreover, as the will is a uni- denies the will which appears in his own person, except when an unsatisfied desire appears. cur, are so situated with regard to each other ty, there is no essential separation between the he will not resist if another does the same, i.e., 3)The will is insatiable: “The satisfaction of a that their position compels them, knowingly aggressor and the victim in a horizon without inflicts wrongs upon him. Therefore he bears wish ends it; yet for one wish that is satisfied and with their eyes open, to do each other the space or time. Therefore, the moral responsibi- such ignominy and suffering with inexhaustible there remain at least ten which are denied. greatest injury, without any one of them being lity is for both. patience and meekness, returns good for evil wi- Further, the desire lasts long, the demands are entirely in the wrong. This last kind of tragedy The principle of “eternal justice” rests upon thout ostentation, and allows the fire of anger to infinite; the satisfaction is short and scantily seems to me far to surpass the other two, for a fundamental metaphysical postulate: “The li- rise within him just as little as that of the desires measured out. But even the final satisfaction is it shows us the greatest misfortune, not as an ving knowledge of eternal justice, demands the “(5). itself only apparent; every satisfied wish at once exception, not as something occasioned by rare complete transcendence of individuality and The denial of the will is an exclusively hu- makes room for a new on; both are illusions; circumstances or monstrous characters, but as the principle of its possibility. In the Vedas it man action where the phenomenon (a human the one is known to be so, the other not yet (5). arising easily and of itself out of the actions and is expressed in various ways, but especially by being) behaves freely: “So that the freedom Introspection always shows us to ourselves as characters of men, indeed almost as essential to making all the beings in the world, living and which otherwise, as belonging to the thing-in-it- willing”, stated Schopenhauer in his doctoral them, and thus brings it terribly near to us” (5). lifeless, pass successively before the view of the self, can never show itself in the phenomenon, in dissertation (13). B.The ethical experience refers to perceiving student, and pronouncing over every one of them such a case does also appear in it, and, by abo- 4)This willing is endless and incomprehensible. the unity of the universe, by penetration of the that word which has become a formula, and as lishing the nature which lies at the foundation One can know what one wants in that precise principium individuationis: “But the sight of the such has been called the «Mahavakya: Tatou- of the phenomenon, while the latter itself still moment, but not what one wants in general. uncultured individual is clouded, as the Hin- mes», more correctly, ‘Tat twam asi’, which continues to exist in time, it brings about a con- 5)The will is free, because it does not follow any dus say, by the veil of Maya. He sees not the means, ‘This thou art’ (You are That)” (5). The tradiction of the phenomenon with itself, and in of the principles of sufficient reason. By con-

Investigación Clínica 57(4): 2016 Vol. 57(4): 409 - 426, 2016 418 Baptista Schopenhauer and psychotherapy 419 trast, phenomena, therefore human beings are observing one´s behavior and emotions (the em- Literature review This sends them back in search of each other, not free; “The phenomena, on the other hand, pirical character) along time. This self-knowle- A PubMed and PsyINFO search conducted and the cycle repeats as they struggle to find we recognize as absolutely subordinate to the dge may change behavior by modifying the mo- in January 20, 2016 with the following entries a comfortable distance between entanglement principle of sufficient reason in its four forms. tives that the will pursues. This is the acquired ‘Arthur Schopenhauer and/or psychiatry’ and and freezing” (9). The whole content of nature, the collective sum character. ‘Arthur Schopenhauer and/or psychology and In his 2005 novel The Schopenhauer Cure, of its phenomena, is thus throughout necessary, Schopenhauer provides the following exam- ‘Arthur Schopenhauer and/or psychotherapy’ Irvin Yalom (4) explained how and why and the necessity of every part, of every pheno- ple. “Thus, for example it is immaterial whether did not find any published article. Schopenhauer thought helped one patient in his menon, of every event, can always be proved, a man plays for nuts or for crown; but whether As previously stated, Schopenhauer is not group therapy: 1) the Kantian proposal that time, because it must be possible to find the reason a man cheats or plays fairly, that is the real ma- mentioned in emblematic contemporary texts of space and causality are innate knowledge; 2) the from which it follows as a consequent.” “…all tter; the latter is determined by the intelligible psychiatry & philosophy (16), psychoanalysis insight that the perception of our body desires that is object for the knowing subject as indi- character, the former by outward circumstances (17), psychology (18-20) and cognitive neuros- is a direct path way in knowing the will; 3) the vidual, is in one aspect reason, and in another (the empirical character) (5). cience (21,22). He is not mentioned either in Dr. prominent role of sexuality in human life that aspect consequence; and in this last capacity Through self-knowledge I can direct my Robert Cloninger’s writings about well-being, was endlessly emphasized by Schopenhauer; 4) is determined with absolute necessity, and can, “cheating” tendency to obtain resources to aid where this author extensively discusses modern the insatiability of the will that leads to the in- therefore, in no respect be other than it is” (5). people in need; this would be my ‘acquired cha- research about the quantum aspects of the mind sight that egoism is a natural predisposition in Accordingly, every single human act, except the racter’. (23). This absence of reference to Schopen- most of us, and how individual salvation may will denial, can be analyzed through one or se- hauer in Cloninger’s texts is surprising because be achieved by cultivating compassion, charity, veral of the four forms of that principle. Applications in psychotherapy and Schopenhauer’s analysis of the originating will empathy and asceticism; 5) living the individual 6)Given the insatiability of the will and that psychoeducation may be considered as a quantum analysis of life with a ‘’; 6) to be surrounded by the “every grade of the objectification of will fi- Schopenhauer`s thought could be used as a some psychic phenomena (5). Finally, Schopen- thought of the great thinkers of the world, and, ghts for the matter, the space, and the time of of meta-therapy principles to be discussed hauer is barely mentioned in an iconic text of last but not least, 7) the insight that pain and su- the others” (5), selfishness is our most natural once symptoms have been controlled with the philosophical counseling (24). ffering are inevitable, inescapable, and essential tendency. specific technique at play, and once a space is I therefore strongly believe that it is not an to life. 7)The will is guided by ‘motives’, which for set for discussing and checking topics for relap- overstatement to assert that Schopenhauer is ne- More recently, Alonso (26) in his autobio- Schopenhauer are mental events related to phe- se prevention, of life improvement and glected by American contemporary authors in graphical essay described how Schopenhauer’s nomena. As a general consequence, phenomena communication with relevant fellows. psychiatry and psychology. Since in 2018 we writings helped him overcome his mid-life cri- are always trying to use other phenomena for Schopenhauer’s pathways to salvation (con- will commemorate two hundred years of the pu- sis. The author emphasized how his reading their own benefit. templation, insight of the unity of the univer- blication of his capital work (The World as Will improved his self-acceptance, and how his ex- 8)Based on Kant, Schopenhauer describes three se, compassion and asceticism) are at the core and Representation), it is perhaps high time to tremely high expectations clouded and distorted character dimensions. The intelligible character of many (atheistic or God-centered), consider the relevance of his thought for mental his actual achievements. Alonso quoted a fine “is the will as thing-in-itself so far as it appears practical philosophy, well-being movements, health professionals. expression of Schopenhauer: “…for to measure in a definite individual in a definite grade, out- techniques, ecology, etc. In 2002, Deborah Anna Luepnitz, a psychoa- a man´s only by what he gets, and not side time, and therefore indivisible and unchan- What is, then, the expected originality of nalyst, described how she used the Schopen- by what he expects to get, is as futile as to try to geable”. The empirical character, also unchan- Schopenhauer’s proposal for psychotherapy hauer’s well-known fable of the porcupines to express a fraction which shall have a numerator geable, is named that way because one does not and psycho-education? In broad terms which work on the important issue of ambivalence in but not denominator” (10). know it a priori but a posteriori by observing will be extended below, I would say that his phi- personal relationships (25). Here is the fable: I shall now synthesize the Schopenhauer’s one’s own behavior along time. The empirical losophically-derived critical reflections about “A troop of porcupines is milling about on a theoretical contributions to the broad mental character is “the manifestation of this act of our emotions, , behavior and creations cold winter’s day. In order to keep from freezing, health field. Regarding the practice of psycho- will, developed and broken up in time and space (particularly art), by being clearly expressed in the animals move closer together. Just as they therapy, I shall focus on his ontological pessi- and all the forms of the principle of sufficient a non-technical style, may allow an otherwise are close enough to huddle, however, they start mism and on his proposed pathway to existential reason, as it exhibits itself for experience in the elusive insight about some deep human motiva- to poke each other with their quills. In order to salvation. Additional reflections and detailed whole conduct and life of this man” (5). tions operating in inner life and in interpersonal stop the pain, they spread out, lose the advan- bibliographical sources are published elsewhere 9)Self-knowledge is the insight one develops by relationships. tage of commingling, and again begin to shiver. (27).

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Theoretical contributions of mind. This is coherent with Schopenhauer’s previously discussed, ‘salvation’ is individually win interaction style, for example the tit for tat Schopenhauer anticipated and popularized that the intellect is secondary to the will. reached by developing contemplation, a view of model of game theory (30). Malice is in general some features of psychoanalysis, evolution To my standpoint, what is particularly rele- universal unity, compassion and asceticism. inacceptable. Am I training myself in ‘knowing theory, and cognitive neuroscience. vant is Schopenhaeur’s description of our body I will describe a hypothetical set of statements instead of willing’ through art, contemplation, Regarding psychoanalysis, Schopenhauer’s as a direct expression of the will, like any other and self-questions that in a mindfully-reflective meditation and the realization of the inevitabi- concept of the will contains the foundations of phenomenon. The following quote may be con- state, our ideal patient keeps as an accompan- lity suffering in all beings, including myself ?. what in Freud became the concepts of the un- sidered as an anticipation of the concept of em- ying ‘inner voice’ once she/he has finished her/ 2)What I think of me, particularly my selfish conscious and the id (28) and described mental bodied mind: “And thus his willing which de- his conventional therapy. tendency, also applies to other humans and li- processes that are analog to some defense me- velops itself in time is, as it were, a paraphrase 1)My wishes are endless: for one that is satis- ving beings. We are all equal in general. chanisms, such as and displacement of his body, an elucidation of the significance fied, ten more may show up. 3)As I know myself by seeing me at play, I can (5). He also anticipated the significance of slips of the whole and its parts; it is another way of My natural state is egoistic. In my whole life, I change the motives that my will desires, and of the tongue and the interpretation of dreams exhibiting the same thing-in-itself, of which the will oscillate between three states: selfishness, make my actions less damaging and more use- (25). body is already the phenomenon. Therefore, ins- malice (wickedness) and compassion (Fig. 1). I ful to me and to others. This is my ‘acquired As for evolution theory, the struggle for sur- tead of saying assertion of the will, we may say will constantly check in which state I am. Com- character’. vival may be considered as a common ground assertion of the body” (5). passion is my ideal attitude, but it is a rare psy- 4)Human suffering can be caused by extre- with Schopenhauer’s will. Besides, his discus- chological state that does not depend on my rea- me wickedness and/or extremely unfortunate sion about the Metaphysic of Romantic Love, Practical contributions son and is not easily arisen, but I will constantly events, but more often it comes from the day to by emphasizing reproduction as an unconscious At the practical level, I will focus on remind myself about it. Art, contemplation, day and ordinary human interactions. Hence, I ultimate goal, anticipatess the metaphor of Ri- Schopenhauer pessimism, which could be re- meditation and my open eyes for the suffering will be more careful with the apparently trivial chard Dawkins’ selfish gene (29). framed as ‘ontological’ pessimism. By ‘ontolo- of all creatures, including myself, can lead my events of everyday life and about my role in my However, Schopenhauer did not anticipate gical’ I refer to the ‘beings in general as long mind to compassion. Egoism is not necessarily own suffering and that of others. Have I learned either Darwin’s proposal of the continual evolu- as they exist’. Schopenhauer conceived all li- bad if I live with it in the context of the win- from the art of tragedy? tion of the species or his approach to ving beings (including human beings) in their (1). Specifically, Schopenhauer conceived the ordinary life as needy, insatiable and, therefore, will as blind. Hence, living beings were created selfish in general. Within this ontological fra- as replications of the ideas. Not a single kind of mework, there is no room for global hope or op- knowledge was involved, and the ultimate goal timism. This is why Schopenhauer did not have of life was to materialize the ideas. Darwin re- a social project. In fact, this is one of the most volution posited that species’ ultimate goal was severe criticisms he received (see below). to survive and reproduce as long as they were As stated before, Schopenhauer’s pessimism successfully adapted to a given environment; has also been labeled as ‘evaluative’ instead of otherwise, they would extinguish. ‘descriptive’ (1). The former emphasizes the Finally, by stating that our body desires preeminence of suffering over happiness in the provide direct access to the will, Schopenhauer world, thus providing a quantitative and objec- thought is connected to modern cognitive scien- tive global pessimism, whereas the latter offers ce, particularly to the notion of the ‘embodied a space for individual optimism by allowing a mind’ (21,22). This concept states that the most place for a meaningful life in spite of the scarce important philosophical concepts, such as the moments of durable well-being in an individual self, moral, time, causality and events are con- lifetime. ceptualized as metaphors or metonymies related For Schopenhauer, such a meaningful life to our bodily functioning. This so-called second must be conceived within the general context of generation cognitive movement challen- and of a world where suffering is always present and unavoidable. In such a world, as ges the role of reason as a transcendent instance Fig.1. The three fundamental springs of human actions (7)

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Ontologically optimistic (pitiless) model: 1)This is a 63 year-old college professor who, that is satisfied there remain at least ten which while preparing his retirement, sought therapy are denied” was very compelling. She identi- Patient: I feel depressed today. to address his defensive attitude and the need fied herself with that thought and adopted it as Therapist: ¡Look at this beautiful and good world that was made by God for your happiness! he felt for being the center of attention in so- an emphatic inner voice that now assists her in Why you don’t enjoy it? Why are you so ungrateful? Look at as everybody is happy. Look at as cial encounters. Both features strongly deprived counterbalancing her negative evaluation of her they are different from you. Why you are not happy? Why are you so bad? him from enjoying otherwise pleasurable activi- achievements. ties. Therapy focused on assessing his cogniti- 4)After a very difficult divorce, a 50 year-old ve distortions and rehearsing copying strategies lady became obsessed about why things in her Ontologically pessimistic model before social interactions. He was particularly life happened the way they did. I introduced her impressed by Schopenhauer’s aesthetic step to to Schopenhauer’s approach to the art of tra- Patient: I feel depressed today. salvation (see page 456 above) of knowing wi- gedy (see page 457). Tragedies may arise from: Therapist: ¡Look at this world of suffering! ¡It rather seems made by a devil! Look at some thout desiring and felt that by practicing con- extraordinary wickedness…, blind fate… but much pain around, including yours, which in fact, I validate and feel as genuine. Look at how templation, he could control his excessive need more commonly by the mere position of the dra- many unhappy people around. Look at as they are equal to you. Let´s do something for you and for attention, and thus, enjoy the present mo- matis persona with regard to each other, through for the world. ment. He constantly remembers Goethe‘s ex- their relations… (5). She found it very relevant pression: “The stars we yearn not after delight when assessing her externalizing-prone attribu- 5)Am I cultivating asceticism? selfishness in the ill. Indeed, the impairment of us with their glory” (6). tion style. This reflection opened a door for her How asceticism by conceived in contemporary cooperative behavior in people with psychia- 2)This refers to a 46 year-old prosperous physi- personal growth in such an important time in terms? For our average fellow with emotional tric disorders has been well documented (31). cian with a severe disorder. In spite of her life. suffering, asceticism does not refer to the extre- Schopenhauer psychological (the insa- significant symptom reduction obtained throu- me self-denial and privations of worldly plea- tiability of the will, selfishness as a natural state, gh cognitive therapy and medication, he had a An evaluative overview of Schopen- sures as depicted in some religious traditions. A the healing power of contemplation [instead of pervasive feeling of emptiness. He did an in- hauer thought parsimonious, but meaningful, asceticism can willing], openness to compassion and asceti- sightful reflection about the selfish and insa- It cannot be expected that the average patient logically arise from recognizing the insatiability cism) enhance awareness and mindfulness. tiable features of the will that he compared to in psychotherapy would read Schopenhauer’s of the will and the restless that derives After emotional symptom intensity has been his self-centered disposition, itself aggravated main work. However, it could be interesting to from such insatiability. Hence, asceticism can be lessened by the specific psychotherapeutic pro- by the anxiety disorder. As an additional co- write a user friendly text whose psychological reframed as a healthy state of mind that includes cedures, the patient´s awareness expansion (32) ping strategy during his anxiety crisis, he now impact could be empirically assessed. some degree of austerity and detachment. facilitated by these philosophical reflections sympathetically reflects about his families and Schopenhauer has been either commended I will now illustrate the overall spirit of a may redirect his/her existential interest beyond friends’ unmet needs and how he can help them. or severely criticized. I shall now draw a selecti- Schopenhauer-inspired psychotherapeutic en- himself. This may enhance resilience and quali- He is thus developing compassion. ve list of some of the positive and negative eva- vironment by describing an imaginary dialogue ty of life and improve the global outcome of the 3)This is a 24-year old girl with mild attention luations relevant for the present discussion. between a patient and his/her therapist. This dia- specific mental disorder. The psychological be- deficit and hyperactivity disorder, non-incapa- logue contrasts a hypothetical ontologically-op- nefits of art, particularly of music, are a scienti- citating phobias, moderate irritability and per- Commendations timistic world’s vision -- which Schopenhauer fic fact (33). The positive psychological impact forming anxiety. She came to therapy asking 1) “Schopenhauer exposes the motive for soli- actually described as ‘wicked or pitiless’ (5) of training in self-compassion and compassion for help to face a critical step in her university darity shared by men and all beings” (Max Hor- -- with a hypothetical ontologically-pessimis- to others is currently being investigated (34). career and to treat vaginism and dyspareunia in kheimer [1895-1973] cited by (1). tic Schopenhauerian view. I purposefully copy a long-awaited romantic relationship. She was 2) Schopenhauer is the most elegant and attrac- shocked to find out that, after having successfu- tive modern philosopher, even though one has Schopenhauer’s strong and ironic style in the Clinical vignettes dialogue. In this section I briefly describe how I used lly passed her exams and overcoming her sexual to acknowledge how unpleasant and heartbrea- Schopenhauer’s thought with four patients in dysfunctions, she became even more anxious king his doctrine can sometimes be (Marcelino and worried. When discussing the pervasive Menéndez-Pelayo [1856-1912]) translated by Why Schopenhauer’s thought could my own clinical practice. Permission was ob- feature of the insatiability of the will, she thou- Trino Baptista and Françoise Salager-Meyer improve psychotherapy outcome? tained from these patients, and their identity is Disease, by inflicting suffering, promotes here concealed. ght Schopenhauer’ expression “yet for one wish from (35).

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3) Thanks for Schopenhauer, who, perhaps de- by art in all its expressions, promote a unitary therefore comes suddenly, as if spontaneously 9. Schopenhauer A. Parerga and Paralipóme- ciphered the universe ( [1899- perception of the world. Compassion (to oneself from without” (5). That is why Schopenhauer’s na. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 2000. 1986]) translated by Trino Baptista and Françoi- and to others) and a healthy asceticism may thus ethic is descriptive and not normative. It does 10. Schopenhauer A. The Wisdom of Life. se Salayer-Meyer from (36). arise and improve the psychological outcome. not make futile the present endeavor, but rather Available from: URL:https://ebooks.ade- 4) “It may be that his doctrine of the resignation 4)Schopenhauer’s atheism and misogyny may reminds the psychotherapists how challenging laide.edu.au/s/schopenhauer/arthur/wis- of the Will must sound even stranger to the hun- be shocking to some readers. The former is the it may be to translate abstract philosophical is- dom/. ger for life among the inhabitants of the First groundwork of his philosophical thought. The sues into practical and useful psychotherapeutic 11. Schopenhauer A. Manuscripts Remains World today than it would have to Schopen- latter is unacceptable in most contemporary so- tools. (Vols. 1-4). Edited by Arthur Hübscher; hauer’s contemporaries, the progressive posi- cieties that reject sexual discrimination and may Translated by E.F.J. Payne. Oxford, UK: tivists and the world revolutionaries with their reflect the irony by which Schopenhauer’s faced ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Berg; 1988. faith in humanity; yet today, as well, it reminds his own personal experiences. However, I stron- 12. Aramayo R.R. Para leer a Schopenhauer. us that the unbounded hunger for life will not gly believe that these features are compensa- The author is grateful to Françoise Salager-Me- Madrid: Alianza Editorial, S.A; 2001. be able to solve the problems created by its free ted and surpassed by the humanitarian of yer for her editorial assistance. 13. Schopenhauer A. On the Fourfold Root exercise by intensifying itself even more” (37). Schopenhauer emphasis on contemplation as a of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. New way to calm the will down, on the sense of uni- REFERENCES York: NY Cosimo, Inc; 2007. Criticisms ty with other beings, compassion, and a healthy 14. Aramayo R.R. Arthur Schopenhauer: El 1)“Schopenhauer was superficial and insincere” asceticism. These existential principles may be 1. Young J. Schopenhauer. New York: Rout- Mundo como Voluntad y Representación. (, [1872-1970] cited by Young powerful enough psychological skills to assist ledge; 2005. Introducción. 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