A cultural semantics of string arrangement for recorded Popular music: A model for analysis and practice

Briony Margaret Luttrell

BMus, BMus(Hons)

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Creative Industries, Queensland University of Technology (2017)

Keywords

String arranging, string arrangement, string style, recorded Popular music, cultural semantics, Lemke, intertextual, metafunctions, analysis, praxis, mixed method research, corpus analysis, Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis, multimodal semiotics, social semiotics, aural analysis methods.

2 Abstract

This thesis contributes new knowledge about string arranging for recorded Popular music. Specifically it contributes a new model for understanding and writing string arrangements based on an aural analysis of 500 albums released between 1952 and 2011. I show that string arrangements for recorded Popular music can be categorised under one of seven distinct styles. Each style is given coherence and made meaningful by its relationship with social and cultural institutions. The thesis collects and structures the detail of each style at the level of metafunction (Lemke, 2009, pp. 283-297; 1995a) which for the purposes of this project I define as the combination of intertextual patterns in musical and sonic elements, intertextual patterns in semantic functions, and relevant intertexts and intertextual canons. In order to frame and treat the string arrangements as styles I propose a new methodology, Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis (IDAA), designed to facilitate analysis for praxis. To demonstrate the usefulness of the string styles I employ a practical component using them to inform the creation of nine new string arrangements.

The objective of this thesis is to establish an approach to string arranging for recorded Popular music that is derived from and situated in the cultural and historical canon of examples, and is thus informed by and tailored to the conditions of recorded Popular music. My contribution to knowledge is threefold and consists of methodological, theoretical, and empirical aspects. The first is an approach to analysis that uses intertextual patterns in aural data to inform and situate new creative practice. The second is a theory of style that helps describe instances of string arrangements and reframes the relationship between analysis and practice for string arrangers working in recorded Popular music. The third is an empirical analysis and categorisation of string arrangements in recorded Popular music between 1952 and 2011.

3 Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: QUT Verified Signature

Date: June 2017

4 Acknowledgements

Immeasurable thanks to my awe-inspiring, generous, and fiercely supportive supervisors. Phil, you are an intellectual powerhouse and an incredible role model. Thank you for motivating, inspiring, and challenging me to use all of my brains all of the time. Kiley, I am deeply grateful for your passion for the project, and your understanding and support of me as an academic, practitioner, and person. Thank you for your wisdom, insight, and helping me to keep a sense of perspective.

Thanks to my family for putting up with me. With special thanks to my mum Robyn, for cultivating my nerdish tendencies from a very young age and for her relentless support.

Thanks to my friends, especially Kira and James, for their encouragement, assistance, and having the decency to look interested when my only topic of conversation for over three years was this thesis.

5 Important Information for the Reader

To avoid cluttering the writing, and because I reference such a large number of songs and albums in the body of this thesis, I have not included year and track listing beside each in-text citations of song or album titles. For a complete discography of the songs that comprise the corpus see appendix B. For the original list of albums that comprise the corpus, see Rolling Stone (2012).

I have included appendices for this thesis as a dropbox link because of their collective size. The full list is available on page 159 of this thesis. https://www.dropbox.com/sh/91ea95yeaon79px/AAAvHYCQONTWjxSljjEYvE2 ea?dl=0

6 Table of Contents Keywords ...... 2

Abstract ...... 3

Statement of Original Authorship ...... 4

Acknowledgements ...... 5

Important Information for the Reader ...... 6

Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 9

Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 15 Overview ...... 15 Arranging and instructional literature ...... 15 In search of inclusivity ...... 20 Strings in the studio ...... 25 From universal laws to cultural and historical contextualisation ...... 29

Chapter 3: Theorising String Arrangement as Cultural Semantics ...... 33 Intertextuality ...... 38 Music as cultural semantics and creative practice ...... 39 String styles ...... 40 Rhetorical formations ...... 42 The Organisational metafunction as rhetoric ...... 47 Borderlines of style ...... 48

Chapter 4: Research Design ...... 51 Positioning the researcher in productive blind alleys ...... 51 Categorical clarification ...... 54 Theoretical framework and the logic of method selection ...... 55 Data and sample ...... 56 Data collection method ...... 60 Component 1: Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis ...... 62 Aural analysis methods ...... 65 Details of Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis (IDAA) ...... 68 An example of IDAA ...... 69 Aural analysis quantitative findings in brief ...... 71 Component 2: Metafunctional categorisation ...... 72

7 Component 3: Creative work and practice as a method ...... 72 Details of my personal workflow ...... 73 Proposed method for using string styles in practice ...... 76

Chapter 5: Four String Styles from Written Traditions ...... 79 Western Classical string style ...... 80 Broadcast string style ...... 88 Experimental string style ...... 98 World string style ...... 106

Chapter 6: Three String Styles from Aural Traditions ...... 113 Anglo Folk string style ...... 113 Euro Folk string style ...... 122 Eastern Classical string style ...... 128

Chapter 7: Praxis and Application ...... 137 Overview ...... 137 All American by Bandito Folk ...... 138 Mona Lisa by Bandito Folk ...... 139 Fall by Amela Duheric ...... 139 Never Said a Word by Amela Duheric ...... 141 The Joker by Amela Duheric ...... 143 The Hunter by Thomas Bryce ...... 145 Cruel by Audra McHugh ...... 147 The Least That You Can Do (Smile) by Brett Orr (for Vincent Perry)...... 148 Always by Kevin Suierveld, Travis Lee, and Vincent Perry (for Vincent Perry) ...... 149

Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusions ...... 152

Appendices List ...... 159

Reference List ...... 161

8 Chapter 1: Introduction

This thesis is motivated by two associated problems. The first is the absence of literature focusing on theory and method for string arrangement specifically in recorded Popular music (RPM). The second was my sense that, as a practicing arranger in that field, approaches to string arrangements were somehow typical and could be broadly categorised as such for the purpose of communicating with other professionals. Clear codification of those broad categories of arrangement have gone largely unnoticed or undocumented. This thesis addresses the question: How are string arrangements for recorded Popular music best theorised for analytical and practical purposes?

An arranger of strings for RPM has a number of ways to inform and develop their creative practice. There is a body of literature that deals with composition, arranging, instrumentation, and orchestration to varying depths and in a variety of ways. There is also a substantial history of recordings that feature string arrangements. In some rare instances, mentorship from a professional arranger in the field is an option. However, the opportunities for direct mentorship are very limited and so the onus of developing creative practice for a string arranger working in RPM lies predominantly with the arranger. A way of guiding this development is to use material aimed at DIY learning, which describes a wider trend in the music industry of self-taught professionals. However, there is a lack of material addressing the specific problems, conditions, and practices of string arrangement for RPM. This thesis therefore develops an approach to string arrangement that is explicitly designed for arrangers and other music professionals who need to communicate with arrangers.

I approach the problem using cultural semantics to analyse examples of string arrangements in the context of their use (Lemke, 1995a; 1995b). Key to observing patterns among all the instances I analyse is the conviction that all instances are inherently intertextual. I use the term intertextual to mean that any text instantiates a complex of relationships with other texts (Allen, 2000, p. 1; Lemke, 1995a, p. 10; 1995b). Some of those relationships are direct, such as “quoting” or reusing specific material. However, many relationships are indirect,

9 in that texts use techniques, structures, or formations that draw on relationships with other texts. In particular I use Lemke’s (1995a) definition of intertextuality: ‘[a]ll meaning is intertextual. No text is complete or autonomous in itself; it needs to be read, and is read, in relation to other texts’ (p. 41). Therefore, the thesis is designed to facilitate an analysis and theorisation of arrangements in context of their use.

I use Lemke’s (2009; 1998; 1995a; 1989) metafunctions to develop theoretical and analytical perspectives for the thesis. Lemke’s metafunctions interrogate phenomena by starting from the level of culture, intertexts, and semantics rather than attempting to begin with textual analysis and scaffold analysis into cultural context after the fact (Graham, 2016). In that sense, the thesis is situated in cultural practice. Lemke’s metafunctional perspective allows me to step back from the specific musical and sonic elements of string arrangements and look for patterns in and across multiple texts and the functions they perform as they relate specifically to culture, context, and use. The main benefit of the approach is that it allows me to analyse and identify organising cultural principles across the corpus rather than forcing the focus of analysis to be on one dimension of style, such as melody, harmony, rhythm, ornamentation, or production, for example.

Chapter two begins with a review of the current approaches of string arranging and instructional literature to identify gaps in knowledge. Chapter three theorises string arrangements as cultural semantics. Chapter four addresses the research design as three main components. First is an aural analysis of a large Popular song corpus to identify sonic, cultural, and intertextual patterns as the predicates of style. Second is the metafunctional categorization of string arrangements as styles. Third is a creative component to test and exemplify the practical functionality of the style analysis and theorisation.

The corpus for the aural analysis is Rolling Stone’s updated 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (Rolling Stone, 2012). The Rolling Stone list was derived through a combination of two polls and I draw on it here as it is the most recent

10 internationally-focused, multi-year list of albums explicitly compiled by Popular music industry professionals:

In 2003, Rolling Stone asked a panel of 271 artists, producers, industry executives and journalists to pick the greatest albums of all time. In 2009, we asked a similar group of 100 experts to pick the best albums of the 2000s. From those results, Rolling Stone created this new list of the greatest albums of all time. (Rolling Stone, 2012)

The corpus is constructed by the audience for whom this thesis is designed, that is, producers, professional musicians, and other music making experts in the field of RPM.

To conduct the aural analysis I developed a new analytical methodology, Inter- Dimensional Aural Analysis (IDAA). IDAA uses an intertextual approach to analysing audio, one that facilitates concurrent, iterative, and contextualised aural analysis of the composition, performance, production, and semantic elements of audio. It brings Western tonal aural analysis methods into contact with recording studio practices and their associated aural analytical approaches. Effectively, IDAA treats string arrangements not just as arrangements but specifically as arrangements in RPM. It looks for relationships among string arrangements, not just in terms of how they sound but also how they function, and how they are used in culture to mean. By approaching analysis from this integrated perspective, IDAA is able to approach the analysis of string arranging as a cultural semantics.

The two main findings of the thesis are: first, that string arrangements can be categorised within seven styles; and second, that those styles can take part in any genre of RPM. The second finding is somewhat puzzling in categorical terms: styles appear to be “larger” or more broad than any specific genre, yet they can take part in any given genre. That raises questions about how a given style can be both “inside” and “outside” the level of genre. I approach the paradox through Lemke’s Organisational metafunction which effectively treats such phenomena as ‘rhetorical formations’ (Lemke, 1987/1999). A style can function as a ‘rhetoric of identification’ (Burke, 1969) that provides coherence for texts by identifying

11 stylistically with broader social and cultural institutions, for example, religious organisations, monarchy, specific ethnicities, or industrialised mass entertainment. Thus, in the formulation I present here, “style” is representative not of any particular musical genre as such, but of some social or cultural institution or institutions. That means there is a broadness and plasticity of style in respect of meaning “levels”, and explains the general unpredictability of any given string style turning up in any particular genre.

I use Burke’s (1969) notion of rhetoric as “identification” to describe how an arranger’s decisions result in a text that is given coherence by intertextual reference to a cultural institution.

Any specialized activity participates in a larger unit of action. “Identification” is a word for the autonomous activity’s place in this wider context, a place with which the agent may be unconcerned… [W]e are clearly in the region of rhetoric when considering the identifications whereby a specialized activity makes one a participant in some social or economic class. “Belonging” in this sense is rhetorical. (Burke, 1969, pp. 27-28)

In other words my argument is that string styles use intertextuality to claim a sense of “belonging” to particular social and cultural institutions and that gives each style its coherence and rhetorical force.

I identify seven string styles through the analysis: Western Classical, Broadcast, Experimental, World, Anglo Folk, Euro Folk, and Eastern Classical. They are members of two broader style groups: aural and written styles. The two broader groupings describe stylistic similarities that are linked to the methods of communicating the specifics of each style over time: written notation and aural / oral modes of learning and teaching. The four styles that I argue emphasise written traditions are: Western Classical, Broadcast, Experimental, and World. Those four styles identify in some way with institutions, values, and intertextual canons of Western Art music. In broad terms, Western Classical style identifies with the Baroque and Classical eras (1600-1820); Broadcast style with the Romantic era (1780-1910), early (sometimes called “Traditional Pop”) Popular music (mid 1940s-early 1960s), and orchestral cinematic music (1927-present);

12 Experimental style with practices and movements from the twentieth Century; and World style with standardised forms and structural principles of Western Art music. The three styles that emphasise aural traditions are: Anglo Folk, Euro Folk, and Eastern Classical. Those three styles identify in some way with techniques, values, and intertextual canons of specific geo-cultural aural traditions. In broad terms, Anglo Folk style identifies with Celtic Folk and American fiddle traditions; Euro Folk style with Eastern European Folk traditions; and Eastern Classical style with Indian Classical music traditions.

In chapters five and six, I identify the seven string styles using Lemke’s metafunctions to categorise the features of each style. Lemke names his metafunctions as: Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational (Lemke, 1995a, pp. 39-44). The Presentational features expose the compositional, performance, and production aspects of the style (what notes are played, in what manner are they played, and how are they presented in the recording?). The Orientational features theorise “attitudinal” functions of style based on the arrangement’s “stance” towards the historical and cultural usage of the style and its institutional provenances (Is it an ironic reference? Is it a reverent reference? Is it an irreverent reference?). To theorise the Orientational features I refer to aspects including the role of the institution in society; the people involved in creating and consuming the style in terms of the workforce and audience; money, in terms of finance being a literal illustration of value, status, and purpose of style (making something sound “expensive”, for example); and the typical historical locations of creation and consumption of the style that illustrate status, purpose, and cultural value through connection with physical or abstract locations, such as a concert hall or a plate reverb. Organisational features allow us to see how texts claim coherence by identifying with others “of their kind”: relevant intertexts, intertextual canons, and institutional norms, literally, any cultural elements that are called into the service of coherence in a given stylistic instance. The combination of Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational perspectives permits a meaningful definition of stylistic categories situated in their cultural and historical contexts, and it provides insight into the rhetorical and semantic aspects of style.

13 My approach to the problem also includes a creative practical component. Accompanying the written part of this thesis is a collection of nine recordings that include arrangements commissioned by local artists. I use them to trial and demonstrate the usefulness of the stylistic theorisation developed here, both musically and in terms of communicating with artists about style for string arrangement.

To summarise: I have developed a new model for understanding string arrangement practices for RPM. The model includes new theoretical and methodological approaches to analysing instances of practice in order to inform and situate new creative practice. I categorise string styles based on their observable features, recognizing that issues of audience interpretation stand outside the scope of this thesis. I focus on “what is said” by arrangers, treating their arrangements as utterances and cultural events, and understanding the actual “event” as a meaning made intertextually. Chapters five and six present and organize those observations into seven distinct string styles by identifying the common patterns of intertextuality among arrangements in the corpus. The string styles function as cultural histories that identify and reference specific social and cultural institutions, or more accurately institutions that also use similar patterns of intertextuality. The result is a mapped history of string arrangements as institutionally grounded acts of meaning that draw from shared sociocultural contexts and which can be categorised as such. In practical terms, the string styles defined here offer a new way for arrangers to communicate with musicians, songwriters, and producers about string arranging.

14 Chapter 2: Literature Review

Overview

This literature review establishes a gap in knowledge about string arranging for RPM. I demonstrate that the arranging and instructional literature does not systematically address the context, conditions, and canon of practice relevant to string arranging for RPM. Where issues related to RPM are concerned, the arrangement literature is piecemeal, focusing largely on what would be the equivalent of “lexis” in language, that is: tonality, harmony, rhythm, meter, chord voicing, and playing techniques. The majority of the literature is concerned with Common Practice Era (CPE) ideas about fundamental units of music and their universal facility for arrangers. Literature dealing with the recorded medium provides a suggestion that arrangement is better understood as culturally, historically, and technologically shaped practices.

Arranging and instructional literature

The arranging and instructional literature I survey here is largely unscholarly and almost entirely focused on developing practice. Its relevance to this thesis is that the literature is broadly influential in the formal training of music arrangers. The literature is dominated, in the West1, by ideas and rules of music that have their basis in the CPE (1600-1900). Better known authorities include Adler (2002), Berlioz and Strauss (1991), Blatter (1997), Burton (1982), Lovelock (1968), Piston (1955), Rauscher (1963), Rimsky-Korsakov (2013), and Sevsay (2013). The literature has in common an almost mathematical approach to presenting arrangement as a self-contained and inviolable area of “essential” and “universal” musical knowledge.

As such there is no substantial literature, either theoretical or practical, specifically for string arrangement for RPM. The “mathematical” approach of CPE string arrangement manuals assume a universality for what might be termed

1 I define ‘the West’ as North American, Western European, and English speaking countries.

15 “lexical elements” (notes, timings, harmonies, techniques) and the “proper” logical relations among them, whether writing or improvising, regardless of where or what a given arrangement might be used for. There are elements of RPM arrangements addressed throughout the literature. However, even in as historically and culturally rich an account as Timm’s (2014), the “rules” are taken for granted and form an unmarked part of description. In what follows I survey a range of literature that speaks to the practice of string arranging. I include arranging and instructional literature.

By arranging literature I mean that which aims to instruct arrangers, orchestrators, and composers. By instructional literature I mean that which aims to instruct other practitioners, for example performers or music producers. The definition of the literature I use here deliberately extends beyond arrangement to identify those aspects of the instructional literature that are of direct relevance to arranging for RPM. A clear example of an overlooked aspect of arrangement is its role in the recorded music production process, the recorded medium, and the impact they both have on the compositional and performance aspects of string arranging. By addressing the context of RPM I establish a more culturally grounded understanding of the field and its practices.

Significant parts of the arranging literature are written by master arrangers or composers, for example Berlioz and Strauss (1991), Henry Mancini (1986), Sammy Nestico (1993), and Nelson Riddle (1985). This literature represents the expertise of the professional community; especially those trained in CPE or Jazz techniques. Much of the arranging literature deals with CPE-based musical elements and techniques in great detail, which makes them effective reference materials for understanding how to craft the micro textual aspects of arrangements. This approach is highlighted by Adler (2002); Blatter (1997); Grove (1985); Kennan and Grantham (2002); Piston (1955); and Sevsay (2013).

Although not specifically written for arrangers, instructional literature provides alternate perspectives on arranging in the context of RPM. Examples include texts for string educators (Lieberman, 2004); string players (Haigh, 2010; 2009; Harbar, 2007; 1997; Sanchez, 2014); and people working in the area of music

16 production (Becka, 2007; Zager, 2011). Instructional literature is typically motivated by practice, and therefore is typically structured in ways that provide quick and easy access to information that can be “looked up” and applied immediately. Lieberman points out that:

the sheer number of materials available to would-be fiddlers or jazzers has multiplied so rapidly that the alternative string community simply cannot be ignored. […] My intention in writing this book is to provide you with a resource that will help you stay up-to-date both as a player and as an educator, and to encourage you to honor and include all musical traditions as well as the art of improvisation. (Lieberman, 2004, p. 3)

Instructional literature tends to be communicated in terms that are simplified (for educators), practical and situated (for players), or that use language from other technical disciplines (for production). Concerns about musical arrangement are often backgrounded or implicit in instructional literature. Instructional literature typically approaches the material with a perspective that is not impenetrable to a reader who lacks extensive CPE training. Haigh (2009) allows for different approaches to learning but emphasises the need to learn “the rules” regardless of how the performer learns to play:

As a violinist there is no question that you have to become musically literate at the same time as learning to play. For a fiddle player there’s more of a choice; many traditional players manage perfectly well playing by ear and relying on good memory. … Many people switch to fiddle after having learned the classical violin. In this case you’re faced with quite a different set of challenges. You will find you have to “unlearn” a lot of the techniques that came with the classical discipline. (Haigh, 2009, p. 28)

Post-digital examples of arranging and instructional literature make use of multimodal communication facilitated by technological advances in the publishing industry, such as multiple short score excerpts interspersed throughout the written text, and audio examples on accompanying CD (see Blair, 2011; Corozine, 2002; Haigh, 2009; Mancini, 1986; Rooksby, 2007; Turkel and Smith-Eisenhower, 1988; Zager, 2011). Literature with audio examples tends to

17 highlight aspects of arranging that are more effectively demonstrated as audio rather than as written words and notation.

Following the score along with the recording of a piece of music has long been a major part of the “serious” music student’s method of study. Unfortunately, the young “popular” music student who hopes to become a professional composer- arranger in the commercial field has no wealth of material to aid him. Printed scores of commercial recordings are rare. The basic purpose of this book is to remedy this situation by giving the budding professional a means of comparing the recorded sounds with the printed illustrations. (Mancini, 1986, foreword)

Corozine is concerned to emphasise the role of the aural in the written tradition.

The precepts set forth in this book become meaningful only if the reader can hear how each musical example sounds. …This author believes that the fundamental method of directed listening validates the sound educational objective of the visual and auditory approach to learning music. Simultaneously studying and listening to musical scores will reinforce the learning experience and help musicians bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. (Corozine, 2002, p. xi)

Arranging and instructional literature typically provides some degree of contextualization within the canons of Western Art music, Popular music, or non-Western musical traditions. The more recent literature is more likely to combine CPE knowledge with that of more recent Art music and Popular music approaches. Corozine (2002) is again instructive. He cites examples of work from the CPE as well as twentieth century Art music and Blues. He also provides a conceptually structured bibliography that combines approaches from different arranging contexts, thereby recognising the non-universality of arrangement. Some of Corozine’s (2002) bibliographic subheadings include: ‘ORCHESTRATION / ARRANGING Traditional Texts’, ‘ORCHESTRATION / ARRANGING Commercial Texts’, and ‘Composing for Film’ (pp. 197-198). Even in cases such as Corozine’s, the approach is in CPE terms and assumptions which emphasise a universal set of rules to be followed. He notes that great composers and arrangers:

18 understood how to combine instruments and voices and provided each player or singer with an appropriate music part. They acquired a grasp of the fundamental principles of musical organization that resulted in clear, transparent music that is worthy of in-depth analysis. When one has grasped the basic principles of clear, uncluttered organization of sounds, one may write effectively and with confidence for both small and large groups of instruments or for voices. (Corozine, 2002, p. 5)

In Corozine’s (2002) approach it is clear that the “basic principles” he refers to are from the CPE tradition but are also appropriate to the contemporary context of RPM. He notes, for example, open position voicing, unison doubling, harmony, two-part writing, contrary motion, and counter-melody. He aims:

to present basic concepts or principles of arranging and orchestration, to show how composers have used them in the past and to demonstrate the ways in which they might be effectively used today to achieve a fresh, contemporary sound. (Corozine, 2002, p. ix)

Corozine thus aims to ‘bridge the gap between common practice (concert music) and commercial music styles’ by finding ‘a balance between these two approaches’ (2002, p. x). It is also clear that Corozine sees “commercial music styles” as having developed practices of their own:

The musical vocabulary of the common practice (classical) orchestration differs primarily from that of commercial arranging in its sound, particularly concerning its rhythmic and harmonic structure. The term “classical” characterizes music that represents the vast wealth of instrumental and vocal music that has characterized Western music since the sixteenth century and which has been performed primarily in our concert halls. The term “commercial” denotes the styles of jazz, rock, musical theatre, MOR (middle of the road), and most of the musical styles that composers and arrangers use in writing for film, television, popular recordings, and live performances. (Corozine, 2002, p. x)

Arrangement for Popular music therefore requires perspectives from arranging, string-specific instruction and arrangement literature, Popular music, and the recorded medium. My review shows a gap in knowledge, practical and theoretical, where arrangement for RPM is concerned. Recognising the historical,

19 cultural, and technical elements of arrangement, I then explore efforts to culturally and historically situate arranging practices for RPM. That includes relating and connecting knowledge of a specific tradition of music (for example, Western Art music) to other traditions (for example, Indian classical music); investigating wider cultural and historical contexts (such as technical advances that allow “fake” strings to be part of Popular music, or the countercultural hippie movement’s use of the Sitar); and comprehensively engaging with intertexts of practice.

In search of inclusivity

In this section I examine literature that focuses on arranging, string-specific technical issues, Popular music, and the recorded medium. I first examine literature that focuses on strings. Predominantly, arranging literature takes a broad approach to instrumentation and so strings are only a small part of a larger canon.2 The typical structure of an arranging text is a few chapters on fundamental or shared aspects of arranging, and a number of chapters that target specific instruments or instrument families. Three examples that epitomize the typical structure are Blair (2011), Nestico (1993), and White (1992). This structure frequently results in a disconnect between instrument- specific information and information about the practice of arranging. As an example, in the chapter called ‘Writing An Arrangement’, Nestico uses global subheadings to address techniques in a non string-specific way including: ‘The Melodic element’, ‘Harmonic relationship’, ‘Introductions ~ transitions ~ endings’, and ‘Vamps’ (1993, pp. 153-215). Nestico spends the majority of ‘The String Section’ chapter listing ranges, typical voicings, and instrument playing techniques like bowing (1993, pp. 121-141). Of the entire book only two pages really provide string-specific arranging information, and this is as a list of nine dot points (Nestico, 1993, pp. 140-141). Here is an example of how vast areas of harmonic theory are glossed over by one of Nestico’s dot points:

2 Examples of this include: Adler (2002); Blatter (1997); Cacavas & Kaplan (1993); Kennan & Grantham (2002); Piston (1955); Read (1976); Riddle (1985); Runswick (1992); Sevsay (2013); and Shatzkin (1993).

20 Keep in mind that a string sound requires a completely different approach than that written for winds and brass. Writing strings in a closed, saxophone-type voicing sounds meager and is not using them to the best of their capabilities. (Nestico, 1993, p. 140).

A rare and notable example that addresses string-specific arrangement is Slean (2009) who covers both strings and the RPM context noting elements that include aspects of arranging, production, and intertexts of practice, for example she instructs the arranger to:

decide what role the strings are going to play. This will dictate how you write. In Radiohead’s “How to Disappear Completely,” the strings hover in a kind of atonal mist around the band. Quartertone clusters surge and retreat without ever really surrendering to the song’s harmonic structure, and the effect is chillingly disorienting. Compare that with the Nelson Riddle-style arrangements of the ‘50s and ‘60s where strings would melodically decorate gaps in the vocal, almost like another “singer.” (Slean, 2009, p. 58)

Typically, though, the piece is brief and the tone more along the lines of music criticism rather than providing any systematic way to understand or create with. It is therefore more by way of commentary than instruction or analysis.

The string-specific instructional literature aimed at performers, educators, or students is typically populated with notated examples of standard works, in some cases these notated examples make up the majority of the literature (see Harbar, 1997). It is quantitatively biased towards violin and fiddle, largely neglecting or ignoring violas and cellos. This can be seen in, for example, Haigh (2010, 2009), Harbar (2007, 1997), Lieberman (2004), Norgaard (2000), and Sanchez (2014). Literature from a production perspective, by which I mean literature such as Music Production: for producers, composers, arrangements, and students (Zager, 2011) exemplifies typical approaches to arranging literature in that the string-specific material is only a small part of a much larger set of practices. Instructional literature for production often takes the form of brief “how to” articles in professional journals and magazines. Becka’s Mixing Strings (2007) is a notable example of string-specific instructional literature from a

21 production perspective. Here he is talking about how to deal with common problems of violin timbres being harsh:

Harshness can … be minimized with selective mic placement while recording … and during the mix by automating an EQ plug-in to smooth out problematic notes. … First, find the offending band by looping a harsh section and boosting the EQ at a middle Q setting of 5 to 10. Once you narrow in on the target, write the EQ gain flat for the entire song, pulling the band's gain down only when the brittle notes appear. (Becka, 2007)

When it comes to comprehensive detail about processes, techniques, and considerations of string arranging, there are string-specific considerations that are entirely idiosyncratic. They include aspects like timbre, ensemble roles and interactions, and string-specific performance techniques. Additionally string- specific literature can discuss technique and other considerations in their wider historical and cultural contexts. To clarify: the history of string arrangement is different to the history of brass or percussion arrangement, for example, and those differences have an impact on the semantics of arrangement, which renders non string-specific literature unable to adequately address those elements.

The arranging literature has a more overt foundation in CPE music than the instructional literature. The CPE was a period during which arranging and orchestration first became established practices separate to composition (McAulay, 2014). This link endures in the significant amount of arranging literature that relies exclusively on CPE approaches (see for example, Berlioz & Strauss, 1991; Lovelock, 1968; Piston, 1955; Rimsky-Korsakov, 2013; and Sevsay, 2013).

There is a common trait shared by arranging literature for giving highly detailed prescriptions at the micro textual level, again a side effect of a mistaken universality assumed for musical “laws”. A pointed example of such micro- prescription comes from Piston (1955): ‘When the bow is drawn starting at the lower part and proceeding toward the point, straightening the elbow joint, the stroke is called down-bow’ (p. 8).

22 Such detail results in significant restrictions on the literature’s relevance to string arranging for RPM, especially when attempting to approach it from the perspective of culturally significant patterns. The literature is characterised by a repetition of content, themes, and structures that renders most of it little more than slight variations of the same lessons. White (1992) is typical in beginning with “fundamentals” such as notation, scoring, and texture. He progresses to the behaviours of different instrument families before ending on global arranging considerations such as balance, melody, and accompaniment, illustrated by some ensemble examples.3

Arrangement literature can often see a complete divorce between specific instruments and global arranging techniques. Delamont (1965), for example, focuses on global discussion of arranging techniques without fully relating those techniques to their use for specific instruments. That is very much emblematic of the age in which the laws of CPE musical theory took on the character of the dawning scientific mindset in the West. The iconic personality from the CPE is J. S. Bach in that respect, and his work is noted for its scientific and mathematical “universality”:

For many people the hallmark of Bach’s music lies in the lucidity of its structure and the mathematical satisfaction of its proportions. These contribute to the fascination it holds for professional composers and performers; but they might also account for its proven attraction to mathematicians and scientists. (Gardiner, 2013, p. 125).

There is a complementary relationship to be noted in the link between CPE “universals” and the development of the physical sciences during that era. Kepler’s astronomy, for example, relies on a musical metaphor. At the dawn of the CPE, Kepler distinguishes himself from the likes of encyclopaedist Robert Fludd ‘in the way in which a practitioner does from a theorist’ (1619, as cited in

3 Other examples that are a similar combination of chapters on CPE fundamentals, instrument- specific chapters, and chapters on global arranging considerations include: Adler (2002); Baker (1970); Berlioz & Strauss (1991); Garcia (1954); Grove (1985); Kennan & Grantham (2002); Lovelock (1968); Mancini (1986); Nestico (1993); Piston (1955); Read (1976); Riddle (1985); Shatzkin (1993); and Turkel & Smith-Eisenhower (1988).

23 Pesic, 2014, p. 73). Kepler’s contrast notes that Fludd ‘has advice on the composition of figured melody, an art which I do not profess’ and ‘also digresses to various musical instruments, comma to which I had not even given thought’ (Kepler, 1619, as cited in Pesic, 2014, p. 73).

Consequently it is unsurprising to note that close examination of string-specific literature foregrounds highly detailed micro textual elements and minimises or ignores any issues to do with culturally and contextually specific meanings made with string arrangements. A typical string-specific contribution to the arrangement literature will cover basic information about stringed instruments, for example ranges and tunings for the violin, viola, and cello. It will typically also cover playing techniques such as double stops, glissando, harmonics, bowing options like staccato, and pizzicato. The techniques are evidenced by score excerpts, technical scores, or audio examples and will often include typical string ensemble chord voicings and textural techniques. Sometimes there are sections on writing parts that are ergonomic for string players. Literature that typifies such an approach includes Adler (2002), Cacavas and Kaplan (1993); Mancini (1986); Nestico (1993); Sebesky (1994); Sevsay (2013); Shatzkin (1993); and White (1992). Instructions about writing melodies, harmonies, and other textures are usually relegated to separate global chapters which address all instrument families (see White, 1992). Some of the more advanced literature skips specific elements (such as tunings and range, for example) and goes straight to higher level, more universal rules of harmony and rhythm (see, for example, Cacavas & Kaplan, 1993).

In cases where arranging literature addresses both Popular and Art music contexts, it typically falls back on CPE doxa (Hewitt, 2009; Nestico, 1993; Slean, 2009; Turkel & Smith-Eisenhower, 1988). White (1992) exemplifies by citing string-specific examples exclusively from the Art music canon, such as Tchaikovsky and Bartók (pp. 126-148). White (1992) notes Popular music and Folk music examples in more general arranging concerns, but does so using instruments other than strings. For example, he cites Eight Days a Week by the Beatles in a section on guitar arrangement (White, 1992, p. 164). This speaks to a trend in arranging literature of seeing strings as predominately “classical” and

24 “orchestral” instruments by rooting discussion of them firmly in examples of practice from the Art music canon (see also, Burton, 1982).

The most influential literature focusing on string-specific aspects of Popular music is typically authored by well known composers and arrangers. Examples include Mancini (1986), Riddle (1985), and Rooksby (2007). Mancini’s (1986) string-specific material is dominated by both technical notation and score excerpts of creative works (pp. 213-241). In fact, the notation so dominates the chapter that the written text between notation functions as mere descriptions of the scores rather than explanations of how to use techniques outside the context of each specific example.

Everett (2008) provides excellent contextualization of strings in Popular music through a descriptive survey of specific examples (pp. 109-116). The descriptions are of the following order:

A very common role for strings is as background sweetener, through organ-like sustained chords, as in the Everly Brothers’ tender “Let It Be Me,” the Beach Boys’ “Don’t Talk (Put Your Head on My Shoulder)” (1:01+) and “God Only Knows” (second verse and thereafter), or the Box Tops’ “The Letter.” (Everett, 2008, p. 110)

This particular example is sandwiched between a sentence about songs that appear to use strings as an afterthought, and a sentence about more ‘important’ background strings. There is a literature that might be described as journalistic that takes a similar approach to Everett. It is found in popular and professional press publications. Examples include Cahill (2005), Fagien (1999), and Mossman (2012). They take up the issue of strings in RPM but only contribute to the discussion of arrangement by contextualizing a few creative works rather than systematically developing processes, principles, and organisation of strings for RPM.

Strings in the studio

In literature focused on the Art music canon, the performance context, whether live or recorded, goes typically unspecified (for example, Blatter, 1997; Lovelock,

25 1968). Pejrolo and DeRosa (2007) provide clarification on the disconnect between Art music literature and production, ‘[t]raditional orchestration books guide the reader within the context of a nineteenth century live orchestra that could not use microphones’ (p. 98). Any arranging practitioner who has worked in both live and recorded contexts will know that there are great differences brought into consideration in either context (Riddle, 1985, p. 114). At the very minimum, recorded technology has an impact on ensemble size and dynamic considerations (Pejrolo & DeRosa, 2007, pp. 98-99). Zager (2011) goes so far as to claim, ‘[t]he creative use of reverberation creates an ambience, which directly affects the manner in which the arrangement is written. Studio arrangers (of popular music) think of technology as part of the arrangement’ (p. 54). Hence a focus on studio practice is essential to theorising string arrangement for RPM. Nestico (1993) provides an example of arranging literature explicitly focused on the recorded context with a full chapter on multi-track recordings and how they can affect the arranging process (pp. 229-252). Nestico warns about the impact of different contexts for strings:

Arranging for recording purposes is quite different than writing for a concert. The amplification equipment for a record date is very flattering to a small string section, but for concerts or club dates you would be best served by writing strong unisons, thirds and sixths, and reinforcing the string section with support from the woodwinds. (Nestico, 1993, p. 141)

Explicit acknowledgement of the effects of recorded contexts is a common aspect of arranging literature in more contemporary literature. Mancini (1986) makes a short but insightful contribution: ‘Modern recording techniques are extremely flattering to the strings. A well-recorded string section will sound much larger than it actually is’ (p. 239). Although these examples explicitly connect to the recorded context, they both do so only briefly, and only in relation to one or two direct implications for arranging practice. Miller (2015) addresses the effects of the recorded context in subsections on scoring for the recording studio (pp. 27- 31). However, Miller’s sections are only formatting and terminological guides for standard studio scoring practice rather than arranging or orchestration processes more generally.

26 While Cacavas and Kaplan (1993); Corozine (2002); Lieberman (2004); Mancini (1986); Nestico (1993); Riddle (1985); Rooksby (2007); and Sussman and Abene (2012) deal with both live and recorded contexts, the recorded context typically appears as anecdotal or fleeting asides. Riddle’s (1985) string-specific recording advice is a fleeting example of the impact that microphone placement can have on both ensemble size and compositional note choice,

The medium has to be considered as well. If you are writing an arrangement for a recording session, a skillful engineer can place the string “mike” in a position that will ensure a warm intense “C” above high “C,” even though the violins may number as few as the eight I mentioned. (Riddle, 1985, p. 114)

Rooksby (2007) is explicit about the recorded context but confounds terms of arrangement and production. For example, he uses the term “pitch” as being interchangeable with “frequency”: ‘Pitch-wise, strummed guitar chords cover most of the cello range and the lower half of the viola. So cello and viola parts could easily be masked by guitars’ (Rooksby, 2007, p. 125). Rooksby’s (2007) arranging perspective means that the issues of the recorded context are left mostly implicit (pp. 124-125 & 132-136).

Instructional literature provides more comprehensive insights into the recorded context. Becka (2007) manages to clearly identify and explain some basic production considerations in relation to strings such as panning, equalisation, compression, reverb, and multi-tracking:

Traditional orchestral panning (violins left, violas center and cellos and basses right) should be your starting point, but when strings are integrated into a pop ensemble this approach can sometimes cause instruments in the string section to compete with other instruments in the mix. … [offers an alternate panning approach] This method of panning the strings across the center will make the individual parts more prominent because they’re not fighting for space in such a tightly panned group, but are spread across a wider soundstage. (Becka, 2007, p. 22)

Becka’s focus is on the process of mixing strings but can inform arrangement. Becka (2007) states that, ‘Lack of artificial ambience or effects brings the

27 instrument directly to the front of the mix, giving the part an intimacy and urgency that can add to the drama of the song’ (p. 22). Here, if an arranger wants a more intimate function for strings then less reverb is likely to be appropriate. Additionally, minimal reverb affects both the standard of performance (reverb can quite often smooth over small inconsistencies), and compositional decisions (quicker subdivisions are suitable because minimal reverb will not wash the decay tails of the notes together).

Zager (2011) makes connections about how the recorded context effects arrangement (pp. 53-99). Zager speaks in terms directly relevant for an arranger as well as a producer, and even manages to address the typical “real world” conditions which impact on creative decisions:

Budget restrictions mostly dictate the number of players. … if there are only six violins playing high divisi (divided) parts, the section will sound very thin. If the parts are played in the midrange with close harmony, the section will sound full. (Zager, 2011, p. 58)

Zager (2011) suggests the order instruments should be recorded in, and how to augment a real string component using sequenced elements when a large ensemble is required but the budget is limited (pp. 86-99). Zager’s helpful approach is limited by a scope much broader than strings and therefore lacks micro levels of detail that are only found in entirely string-specific arranging literature. Cahill (2005) and Mossman (2012) both address production considerations indirectly by describing the process of recording strings on albums by the Beatles. For example, Mossman (2012) recounts the recording process for Eleanor Rigby, ‘The strings were also close-miked and compressed (the Beatles limited dynamic variation using devices such as the Fairchild 660 limiter), giving them a heightened, larger-than-life presence’ (p. 51). Such articles are helpful in understanding the history of string production practices, however they only touch upon limited aspects of the much larger demands of string arranging for RPM.

In summary, the arranging and instructional literature addresses the four elements that are central to this research: arranging, strings, Popular music, and

28 the recorded medium. However, there is no literature that comprehensively addresses all those elements. A string arranger working in RPM currently therefore has to pursue literature from quite separate fields to gain an informed and thorough understanding of their practice. There is a distinct lack of literature that comprehensively integrates string arrangements, music production, and the broader context of RPM.

From universal laws to cultural and historical contextualisation

The lack of emphasis in culturally and historically situating arranging practices can be seen in the typical ways that arranging and instructional literature engage with intertexts of practice. In arranging literature it is fairly common to have notated technical examples to illustrate techniques. They are not from actual pieces but merely illustrate techniques in isolation (see, for example, Blair, 2011).4 Arranging literature also uses score excerpts of intertexts of practice (see Corozine, 2002).5 Another typical way for arranging literature to refer to intertexts of practice is by name in the written text or in a further listening discography (see Rooksby, 2007). The effect of the typical interaction with intertexts is that intertexts are positioned as single exemplars of a technique, which severely limits the depth and effectiveness of historical and cultural contextualization. And while the intertext might be an excellent example, more insight can be gained from examining how the technique is used in a number of other pieces, genres, cultural traditions, or time periods.

A complicating factor in using intertexts to communicate arranging practices is the problem of which intertexts to use. The literature typically restricts references to intertexts in either the Western Art music, Popular music, or non- Western geo-cultural canons. There are some instances where literature addresses intertexts from both Art music and Popular music, however this is

4 Examples of this include Garcia (1954); Kawakami (1975); Pejrolo & DeRosa (2007); Runswick (1992); and, Turkel & Smith-Eisenhower (1988). There are also examples of literature that focus on technical scores with few or no intertexts of practice, for example Garcia (1954); Kawakami (1975); Runswick (1992); and Turkel & Smith-Eisenhower (1988). 5 Other examples include: Adler (2002); Kennan & Grantham (2002); Read (1976); and Rinzler (1989); and White (1992).

29 often unevenly weighted towards one canon, for example, White’s (1992) intertexts are predominantly from the Art music canon. It is rare for literature to reference intertexts from all three, but even then this cross-canon approach is usually no more than a cursory exercise. Lieberman (2004), for example, quite thoroughly addresses Popular and non-Western canons but only makes scant mention of the Art music canon, and that is not with specific intertexts but by name-checking particular composers.

Unsurprisingly, much of the literature draws on arrangement or composition examples predominately or exclusively from the author’s own oeuvre (Cacavas & Kaplan, 1993; Mancini, 1986; Nestico, 1993; Sussman & Abene, 2012). That provides another barrier to integrated approaches. An oeuvre-centric approach effectively limits the intertextual canon as the focus on a specific author is really only representative of the body of work of that particular author. Such limitations are mirrored in the approach that address artist-specific oeuvres, for example The Beatles in both Cahill (2005) and Mossman (2012). The lack of literature that comprehensively address cross-canon intertexts of practice reinforces the tendency for arranging literature to typically restrict itself to knowledge of, and engagement with, one historical and cultural lineage of musical practice.

Finally, the lack of emphasis in culturally and historically situating arranging knowledge can also be seen in the typical structure and entry point of arranging and instructional literature which is the musical micro text. However there are a few examples of literature structured from a slightly more macro perspective, interestingly they are focused on Contemporary and Popular canons.6 Fagien (1999) is a notable example of a structure that approaches arrangement from a macro perspective. This paragraph summarizes Fagien’s structural approach:

To oversimplify, there are basically three ways to record jazz with strings, and arrangers can implement any combination of these. In the most elementary interplay, strings can function as an enhancement, weaving in and out of the

6 Some examples include Blair (2011); Everett (2008); Hindson, Barbeler & Blom (2007); and Runswick (1992).

30 melody to provide a purposeful ambience. Alternatively, the orchestrations can effectively state the melody and harmony with the leader improvising over the strings. … Finally, and often more demanding of artists and listeners, is orchestration in which the strings play and improvise as part of the band. (This approach owes in large part to Gunther Schuller’s pioneering Third Stream investigations of the 1950s and has been creatively employed by artists like Ornette Coleman.) (Fagien, 1999, p. 18)

Rooksby (2007) is a notable (and exceptional) example of arranging literature that connects some musical elements and techniques to their function in broader cultural terms.

Instruments convey not only musical information but stylistic meaning, which, in the context of popular music as a whole, also has to be considered when arranging. When instruments enter an arrangement strategy they bring not only timbres (the tonal character) but a symbolic value independent of any notes they play. To include certain instruments is in itself a gesture of style, and style in popular music counts for a lot. Such choices can say something about how seriously you want the music to be taken, or what genre you want to be seen as belonging in. You may therefore want to take such symbolic meanings into consideration. (Rooksby, 2007, p. 12)

Rooksby (2007) provides a useful historical example of the cultural identification of strings with “high art” Classical traditions and the impact this had on their use in early Rock and Popular music, highlighting the countercultural positioning of Rock at the time (pp. 12-14). However, the semantic claims Rooksby makes about strings come from assumed knowledge and anecdotal understanding of the relationship between cultural usage and meaning.

Literature that is historical and contextual tends not to be aimed at the creation of new music, but instead functions as academic or critical analytic texts. Notable examples include Bohlman (2002); Farrell (1999); Fletcher (2001); Miller and Shahriari (2009); and, Nettl, Capwell, Bohlman, Wong, and Turino (2004). Although Fletcher’s (2001) text is in essence analytical, it is of particular note

31 because of the way it attempts to situate a wide range of global music into their historical, social, and cultural conditions of development and use.

Moreover, music itself is but one aspect of the integrated pattern of human behavior that constitutes a culture; and musics of disparate cultural systems cannot properly be understood in isolation from other cultural traits. Necessarily, this book covers a wide field, embracing (where relevant) history, geography, religion, philosophy, language, other arts, and technology. (Fletcher, 2001, p. 32)

Such texts provide a useful pointer towards understanding and situating arrangement practices in their wider cultural and historical context, but they are of limited technical use to the arranger in the creation of new work. They also indicate a rich potential direction and, more importantly, a break with the assumption that CPE rules are the sole guide to what might be achieved creatively with string arrangements in changed historical circumstances.

32 Chapter 3: Theorising String Arrangement as Cultural Semantics

The science-like universality of CPE “laws” stands in distinction to the historically and culturally “messy” development of musical practice more generally. It is also a distinctly European and literate (written) heritage. The historical and cultural context of any creative work is central to understanding its function and form. The creation of a new string arrangement does not occur in isolation but is of its time and place. However, the arrangement literature typically overlooks matters of cultural and historical change or underemphasizes them in the systematic prescriptions for the development of new works. That offers a new opportunity to develop a vocabulary for talking, writing, and thinking about string arrangements for RPM.

In this chapter I argue the need for new theory and methods, and indeed a new vocabulary, underpinned by a cultural semantics approach that can make sense of established practice and also help in the creation of new work. I show why Lemke’s metafunctional approach is useful in the context of RPM, both for analysis and to inform practice, and to scaffold a theorisation of style as rhetorical formation, cultural semantic, and creative practice.

The theoretical framework of this thesis insists on observing the use of ‘semiotic resources’ in the context of their usage in and across texts (Lemke, 1995a; Machin, 2010; van Leeuwen, 2004, pp. 3-6; 1999, pp. 4-11). Lemke’s (1995a) metafunctional theory forms the core of the framework. He names his metafunction Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational and defines them as follows (Lemke, 1995a, pp. 39-44):

Presentational: the construction of how things are in the natural and social worlds by their explicit description as participants, processes, relations and circumstances standing in particular semantic relations to one another across meaningful stretches of text, and from text to text;

Orientational: the construction of our orientational stance toward present and

33 potential addressees and audiences, and towards the Presentational content of our discourse, in respect of social relations and evaluations from a particular viewpoint, across meaningful stretches of text and from text to text;

Organisational: the construction of relations between elements of the discourse itself, so that it is interpretable is having structure (constituent, whole-part relations), texture (continuities and similarities, with differences with these), and informational organisation and relative prominence across meaningful stretches of text and from text to text. (Lemke, 1995a, p. 41)

These metafunctions view any instance of meaning from three different perspectives assumed to be happening simultaneously in any act of meaning. To put it another way,

There is no meaningful event, action, or representation for which we do not construct a categorial what, an orientational which, an organizational how. These are the basis of the general semiotic metafunctions. (Lemke, 1987/1999)

I use the three metafunctions to define the features of each style of string arranging identified in the aural analysis of 500 albums. The Presentational metafunction details the musical and sonic elements, for example the use of fast scalic flourishes over structural transitions. The Orientational metafunction theorizes semantic elements that together describe the functional meaning of each style, for example “organic” or “foreign” or “expensive”. I also provide a brief sociocultural analysis of each style to contextualize the Orientational aspects. The Organisational metafunction draws attention to the exemplary intertexts of any given style, relevant intertexts and intertextual canons for the style, and institutions with which the style rhetorically identifies. Consideration of institutions provides insight into the provenance and configuration of each style.

Lemke’s metafunctions share a relationship with Halliday’s (1985; 1978) functional linguistics (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, pp. 41-44; van Leeuwen, 2004, p. xi). Halliday’s metafunctions are Ideational-Experiential, Interpersonal- Attitudinal, and Textual (Lemke, 2009, pp. 284-285; 1995a, pp. 40-41). Although Lemke’s work is based on Halliday’s metafunctions, the key difference is the

34 semantic level from which each approach proceeds (Graham, 2016). Lemke’s work approaches meaning from ‘above the clause’ at the level of culture while Halliday’s proceeds from below the level of the clause in the lexicogrammar (Graham, 2016; Lemke, 1989). Lemke puts the key difference between the approaches like this:

If the resources of grammar tell us what can be meant in a language, then discourse formations tell us what repeatedly is meant in a community. Discourse formations result from the deployment of linguistic resources in regular, patterned, repeatable and repeated ways. (Lemke, 1989, p. 1)

By situating his model at the level of discourse formation, Lemke situates his analysis at the level of discourse communities. The ability to situate analysis at the level of discourse community is key distinction between Lemke’s work and those who have used the Hallidayan metafunctional model for analysis, most notably van Leeuwen (1999). McDonald argues that:

what is needed for a social-semiotic treatment of any particular modality is a kind of triangulation between the analysis of its texts, the theoretical frameworks that have been applied to it, and the social meanings it has for its communities of users. (McDonald, 2011, p. 102)

There is an extensive literature that takes semiotic approaches to music analysis, including Hooper (2012), Nattiez (1990), and Tagg (2013; 1987; 1982). Meeùs (1993) details the differences in application between Peircean and Saussurean models of semiotics in the analysis of music. Two conceptual issues for both approaches are: the assumption of universals, or intrinsic meaning rather than socially constructed meaning; and the conflation of analytical position with both “production” and “consumption” perspectives seeming somehow seamless. Such approaches often attempt to combine a perspective that addresses both creators and audiences or alternately do not specify a specific reference community at all (McDonald, 2011; Meeùs, 1993; Moore, 2012, pp. 8-9; van Leeuwen, 2012; Tagg, 2013).

Middleton (2000) describes the history of textual analysis of Popular music (pp. 1-19). In his search for a new analytical approach, Middleton (2000) directs the

35 discussion to the field of social semiotics although he does not make explicit how social semiotics would align with his requirements (pp. 8-16). Others such as Moore (2012, pp. 12-14) and Clarke (2005) attempt to consolidate aspects of a semiotic perspective with other theoretical perspectives such as ecology and embodiment in order to ground any discussion of meaning in the individual’s experience of creating or interpreting it.

Van Leeuwen’s (1999) is the most prominent example that explicitly takes a metafunctional approach. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) apply the same approach to visual communication but van Leeuwen notes some problems applying Halliday’s (1985) metafunctions to music:

Looking back I would now say that different semiotic modes have different metafunctional configurations, and that these metafunctional configurations are neither universal, nor a function of the intrinsic nature of the medium, but cultural, a result of the uses to which the semiotic modes have been put and the values that have been attached to them. (van Leeuwen, 1999, p. 190)

McDonald (2011) critiques van Leeuwen’s Speech, Music, Sound (1999) both for his attempt to treat creator and audience as one discourse community and his ‘text-based semiotic viewpoint’ (McDonald, 2011, p. 106). Machin (2010) takes an intertextual approach to music, characterising it as a multimodal semiotic which makes sense only in relation to the discourses we have for understanding it (pp. 22-23). He notes that the ‘stages of analysis we carry out … are artificial [because] the meaning comes from the whole mix and not from these individual sound features and qualities’ (Machin, 2010, pp. 99-100). Here Machin identifies a key issue for semiotic analysis of music: that analysis by definition breaks music into smaller units and then attempts to combine the findings from those smaller units in order to describe the meaning of the more general or “larger” units.7,8

7 To use a food metaphor, the approach would be like trying to analyse a sandwich by removing the ham, analyzing the ham, drawing a conclusion about the ham, and putting the ham back into the sandwich with the assumption that you now understand the role, function, and meaning of ham in that sandwich.

36 That has an implication for theoretical assumptions about the construction and observation of musical meaning. If one does not view meaning as being made intertextually and being situated in use (for example who by, where, when, and for what purpose) one must assume that musical meaning derives from other sources. For the CPE-trained practitioner that can mean that the rules of music are understood as nomothetic, as universal and static rather than historically and contextually conditioned, and so meaning can be inferred from how musical elements operate in relation to those rules. For example, leaving a chord progression “incomplete” relies on the assumptions that it should be finished, that there is a limited array of ways to complete it “correctly”, and this relies on the underlying assumption that the rules of harmonic practice describe a stable and universal way of achieving completion “properly”. Moore (2012) exemplifies those kinds of assumptions (pp. 198-199):

The harmonic underpinning to the Rolling Stones’ “Satisfaction” explains the state Mick Jagger describes. This is a constant state, one of being unable to achieve satisfaction, to achieve closure. Musically, closure is unattainable here because the constant repeated sequence of the open-ended verse is simply a mixolydian I–IV; the I is so familiar that the closure otherwise attendant on achieving it is impossible here. The melody, too, is insistent upon its reiterated tonics. No wonder he can’t get no satisfaction – he has nowhere else to go. (Moore, 2012, p. 198)

Another key difference between van Leeuwen and Lemke’s approach to metafunction is that van Leeuwen’s uses ‘the material aspects of sound’ as the analytical entry point ‘rather than its communicative functions’ (van Leeuwen, 1999, p. 190). Lemke (1989) approaches meaning at the semantic level (p. 1) and so begins analysis with communicative functions before becoming concerned with textual specifics (Graham, 2016, p. 552). As Graham (2016) states, Lemke’s ‘is a project aimed at analyzing cultural systems as integrated wholes rather than

8 I suspect this is influenced by the use of written language to present the findings of analysis, in that written text is necessarily sequential and has difficultly describing the simultaneity of audio without imposing a hierarchy of structure. Past solutions to this have been to use the smaller units, typically musical elements like pitch or rhythm, and then work through to the larger contextual ones like song or culture.

37 separate parts’ (pp. 551-552). Lemke’s metafunctional approach therefore provides an entry point for a practical and intertextual study of string arrangements from a cultural perspective as semantic elements in use.

Intertextuality

The importance of intertextuality is recognized across multiple approaches to functional linguistics, semiotics, and musicology (Allen, 2000; Bakhtin, 2008; Bazerman, 2004, pp. 53-58; Halliday, 1978; Hatten, 1985; Kristeva, 1980; Lemke, 2009, p. 292; Machin, 2010; Thibault, 1991, p. xii & 124). Hatten (1985), Machin (2010), and Moore (2012, p. 272) stress the important role of intertextuality for understanding music. Hatten argues that intertextuality,

as a theoretical and analytical approach embraces and reveals the richness of meaning afforded by a work's relationships (direct or indirect) with other works (specified or generic) or styles (literal or refracted) as those relationships feed into the strategies of the musical work. (Hatten, 1985, p. 4)

Lemke offers additional clarification for the value of intertextuality in semantic analytical perspectives.

The meanings made in different situation-types are connected in ways characteristic of a community’s culture. What makes the study of intertextuality particularly rewarding is its role in bridging between the use of lexicogrammatical resources in a text and the use of discourse patterns in a culture. (Lemke, 1995b, p. 86)

However, with a seemingly infinite number of potential intertexts there must be some way to determine a manageable number of most relevant intertexts. Lemke offers a solution:

Each community, each discourse tradition, has its own canons of intertextuality, its own principles and customs regarding which texts are most relevant to the interpretation of any one text. (Lemke, 1995a, p. 41)

There are clear intertextual canons of string arrangement that come from Western Art music, with particular reference to styles or approaches emblematic

38 of historical periods, for example the Romantic era. Similarly, Folk styles speak of a geographic embeddedness, a provenance that is cultural rather than historic. In terms of RPM, the only substantial group of works typically drawn on as an intertextual reference for strings is that of the large orchestral arrangements prevalent in Popular music between the 1950s and 1960s (Everett, 2008, p. 115). Of course strings are only part of the instrumentation in this orchestral canon, which also features brass and woodwind (Everett, 2008, pp. 115-116).9 As such, there is a need to identify and formalize intertextual canons that are relevant to string arrangers working in RPM even if only as an empirical exercise. That includes the ways in which Western Art music intertextual canons relate to both the recorded Popular context and non-Western contexts.

Music as cultural semantics and creative practice

Lemke’s metafunctional perspective allows me to approach string arrangements for RPM from a cultural viewpoint, with a strategy that unites the analytical with practice and the creation of new work. Thibault’s (1991) model of ‘praxis- oriented social semiotics’ helps to explain the importance of considering praxis in research design (p. 28). In reasoning his model, Thibault reinforces how research design and theoretical perspectives need to overlap with an explicit connection to context, purpose, and perspective.

For a theory to be truly praxis-oriented … it must be explicitly and self- reflexively connected to specific domains of social practice. … It refers to a unitary theoretical practice, which is able to construct meaningful and useful links between its own conceptual and analytical framework and specific domains of social practice in the service of an actional semiotics of social meaning making. This requires that we view our theoretical practices, the objects of our study, and their analytical approximations within the same unified conceptual framework. (Thibault, 1991, p. 6)

9 Alternate intertextual canons for strings in RPM are typically grouped by ensemble form or size, for example solo violin or quartet, rather than any substantial stylistic musical or semantic similarity. See, for example, Everett (2008, pp. 112-114) and Rooksby (2007, pp. 132-136).

39 My choice of Lemke’s metafunctions is motivated by a desire to treat music as a culturally situated semantics, to examine relevant intertexts for analysing and creating arrangements for RPM semantically. As Lemke defines it:

Text semantics concerns itself primarily with meaning relations within and between texts that are not made at the rank of the clause or below. It is both a textual and intertextual semantics. It deals with the global organization of meaning in a text. That global organization is conveniently seen as the interplay of two forms of organization: genre and rhetorical structures on one hand, and thematic ‘prosodies’ on the other. Genre structure and rhetorical structure embody familiar principles of the functional interrelations of parts within wholes. (Lemke, 1995b, pp. 90-91)

A perspective on string arrangements as culturally semantic necessarily proceeds from a contextualisation of strings in RPM as a practical history of arrangements in use. I define cultural semantics as an approach underpinned by Lemke’s text semantics, that is, an approach that can ‘characterize discursive formations at an appropriate level of abstraction from specific texts’, which in the present case is the level of culture (Lemke, 1995b, p. 90).

Situating arrangements in a “scalar” way (for example, genre and rhetorical structure; wholes and parts) requires a schema in which style, genre, arrangement, rhetoric, and semantics are shown in clear relations with each other.

String styles

A theory of string arrangements for RPM as styles is an artifact of investigating them as cultural semantics. It provides a way to identify, formalize, and manageably organise intertextual canons of strings in RPM without confounding them with the level of genre. I use the word style to consciously delineate the phenomena under investigation from what might be called ‘genre’ in another context. This is more than just a matter of keeping levels of abstraction manageably ordered. For the purposes of this project, the field under investigation is Popular music, defined as a diverse generic range of

40 “commercial” musics that exist in opposition to classical music (Beard & Gloag, 2005, p. 133; Shuker, 2013, pp. 5-6; van der Merwe, 1992, p. 2). It involves a collection of genres that include Folk, Rock, and Jazz as macro-genres. Genre also refers to the more specific nomenclature given to songs and albums that connect under a common aesthetic (Borthwick & Moy, 2004; Shuker, 2001, pp. 149-151). Genre is almost universally referred to as a classificatory device for music as a whole unit, in that it describes all of the sounds happening simultaneously and does not allow for or describe differences in layers of simultaneous sound (for example see Borthwick & Moy, 2004).

The seven styles of string arrangements I propose are patterns that are evident both in and across all song genres in the sample and wider listening. Thus treating the strings as styles instead of genres is a conscious choice in recognition of how they present and function as practical units of meaning. That is not to say that string arrangements could not be treated or understood as genres, particularly in theoretical discussions about identifying them and situating them in cultural context, just that using the nominal term ‘genre’ in the present context would confound analysis.10

Precedents for the use of “style” and “genre” as analytical terms are problematic in both the fields of music and social semiotics. In music analysis there are inconsistencies of definition particularly regarding standard usage in areas of music enquiry (Gayraud, 2014; Moore, 2001, pp. 432-442). Interdisciplinary research does not benefit from such inconsistencies, especially because the use of terminology is not even consistent within the literature of any specific area of musical enquiry (Moore, 2001). Van Leeuwen, who uses a Hallidayan social semiotics, makes a distinction between genre and style (van Leeuwen, 2004, pp. 117-159). According to van Leeuwen (2004), genre is about the structural “how” (p. 177). He states that genres, ‘are semiotic resources, “templates” for doing communicative things. As such, they are very versatile’ (van Leeuwen, 2004, p. 128). Whereas his definition of style is about how the “how” is textured, which he

10 In this thesis I use some literature about “genre” to contextualize my arguments.

41 breaks this into three types: individual style, social style, and lifestyle (van Leeuwen, 2004, pp. 139-159).

String styles appear to function as a blend of both style and genre in these terms in that they are both a model and a way of texturing the model. From the perspective of Lemke’s metafunctions, van Leeuwen is separating Presentational and Organisational metafunctions, with style being a way to interrogate the Presentational aspects and genre being a way to interrogate Organisational (coherence building) aspects. I argue that a definition of string styles is more usefully constructed using Lemke’s approach to metafunctions, in that string styles are identifiable as a combination of their Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational aspects.

I use Burke’s definition of style. Burke (1984) defines style rhetorically, noting its basis is identification: ‘in its simplest manifestation, style is ingratiation. It is an attempt to gain favour by the hypnotic or suggestive process of “saying the right thing” in the right context’ (p. 50). Style, for Burke (1984), is ‘a constant meeting of obligations … a complex schema of what-goes-with-what, carried through all the subtleties of manner and attitudes’ (p. 269). Burke’s definition of style and Lemke’s metafunctional descriptions provide a way to identify and categorise string styles by analysing clusters of intertexts that share similar musical and sonic features, similar meaning potentials, and identification with other similar instances in terms of what typically goes with what.

Rhetorical formations

In linking Lemke (1995a; 1995b) and Burke (1969), I emphasise the role of strings functioning primarily as “rhetorical formations”:

Rhetorical formations constitute an intermediate level of semantic structure in texts between generic structure and lexicogrammatical structure. The semantics of genre elements and their relations are specific to one separately defined genre or another. Lexicogrammatical resources enable us to make semantic distinctions which are potentially relevant in all text-types. The elements and relations of rhetorical formations are neither, though clearly which rhetorical

42 formations are likely to occur as realizations of a particular element in a genre structure may be more predictable than are its grammatical structures. (Lemke 1987/1999)

Graham and Paulsen note the paradoxical nature of such features:

Such a feature … is not without the suggestion of paradox: semantic devices which are far more stable than lexicogrammar, less reliant on genre for semantic salience and coherence-generating capabilities, and less predictable in terms of the genre in which any given RF might appear than are genre-specific ITFs. But it is precisely these paradoxical features that give RFs their analytical and practical force. (Graham & Paulsen, 2002)

Like genres, styles are flexible while still being able to recognize things as characteristic of a specific “type” (Graham, 2001, p. 3). Graham gives the example of the front page of a newspaper, where:

(e)ach day, over relatively long periods of time, newspaper front pages have remained recognisably “the same”. The contents of the page, the texts (including images) that “fill” the space of the genre, change on a daily basis. (Graham, 2001, p. 3)

Within genres, one can identify separate writing styles, and we can understand those “things” as rhetorical formations that appeal to the impulse for identification – so in the news, such features would appear as the way the weather is worded, the attitude of a specific reporter, or the method of grabbing attention with an article’s sub-heading.

In order to see strings at a similar level of abstraction we need to look not just at the textual elements but also at how the textual elements are typically organized in a given context. Lemke’s (1995b) aim for text semantics provides a guide for how to achieve this,

The task of an adequate text semantics is to characterize discursive formations at an appropriate level of abstraction from specific texts, to describe how discursive formations are instanced and combined in texts, and to identify the role of lexicogrammatical semantics in text meaning. (Lemke, 1995b, p. 90)

43 In this sense, string styles are an attempt to view strings semantically by observing intertextual patterns in usage at a level which is more abstract than lexicogrammar but which is paradoxically specified by lexicogrammatical elements. A categorization of string arrangements needs to have a more global view of how they are structured and how they function, matters which can only be decided once we observe the material in use and in context. Despite variations in the textual elements - which naturally happens in different songs through aspects like key, melody, tempo, and amount of reverb - strings are still recognizable as such and can therefore be observed. A way to achieve a meaningful semantic level of abstraction is, ‘[b]y pattern matching, by recognizing a whole discourse pattern, expectable in the situational context or activity’ (Lemke, 1995b, p. 89).

String arrangements therefore perform more than strictly musical functions. They are typically construed as part of the ‘melodic’ or ‘harmonic filler layer’ in some models (Moore, 2012, pp. 20-21). But a violin can play a melody in a number of different ways, all of which reference different pieces intertextually. For example, the violin could play a melody in a way that would be considered technically perfect by the CPE rules of the classical tradition (Everett, 2008, p. 112). Alternately it could play in a way that deliberately ignores many of the CPE rules of “good technique” and is (excuse the stereotype) how we might expect a fiddle player in an Irish pub to play a melody. Both of those violin performances would partake in the musical function of a “melodic layer” but they are also contextual references that enact vastly different functions in terms of cultural semantics, with one, for example, being reverent to CPE “laws” and the other being irreverent or playful to the same canons.

As an arranger, it is valuable to be aware that specific approaches to string arranging make meanings that stem from their historical and cultural usage and be able to treat this as another compositional tool, just as one would the range of a violin, or chord voicing and harmony (Rooksby, 2007, pp. 12-14 & 28). If the song lyrics are about tension, chaos, and alienation then using a style of string arranging that invoke those concepts can help emphasize the lyrics. In a song that is rhythmically quantized and electronic, using a very organic style of string

44 arranging can juxtapose organic meaning to the electronic and create a very different effect than if the strings were conceptually homologous to the rest of the song.

Elaborating on the notion of string arrangements enacting more than just strictly musical functions requires a brief example of the difference between musical and semantic functions. A drum kit playing a Bossa Nova groove is performing the musical function of rhythmic layer and dictating the rules of time and feel for that song. But the reality is more complex than that. An identifiably Bossa groove played on drums (or what would timbrally be recognized as a standard drum kit) is also referencing historical and contextual uses of itself. Even with a small working knowledge of music the Bossa Nova groove on drums is understood across a range of contexts—referencing historical, cultural, and geographic anchors. So in this case a semantic function of a Bossa groove played on drums might be to give a sense of the vintage exotic. Bossa Nova also identifies with Jazz standards and lounge music thanks to its appropriation into those repertoires (Manuel, 1990, p. 67). From this example we can see that semantic function draws on cultural usage via intertexts, that each text ‘is an “intertexts” for all the others, and none of their meanings is entirely independent of the others’ (Lemke, 2009, p. 292). Those references and associations all contribute to the meaning made by using drums in a certain way and begin to illustrate semantic functions of timbral elements in an arrangement.

Then comes the question of how we recognize that a drum kit is playing a Bossa Nova and what a Bossa Nova is. We recognize it as a Bossa Nova because it is has a number of musical elements that function as markers, or what Lemke (2009; 1995a) calls Presentational characteristics. By markers I mean recognizable features that recur from text to text. When used in a specific combination those features indicate that the drums can be classified as Bossa Nova. The features include rim clicks in a clave pattern and the kick drum on beat one and their upbeats (Blair, 2011, p. 33; Riddle, 1985, p. 112). The particular combination of features say “Bossa Nova” because it has been used in this way repeatedly, across many instances, has been labeled “Bossa Nova”, and performed similar sociocultural functions over and over again. In Burke’s terms, this coherence and

45 cultural semantic of “Bossa Nova” highlights use as the key factor in establishing rhetorical force:

often we must think of rhetoric not in terms of some one particular address, but as a general body of identifications that owe their convincingness much more to trivial repetition and dull daily reënforcement than to exceptional rhetorical skill. (Burke, 1969, p. 26)

In my analysis of the Rolling Stone corpus, there were a number of string arrangements with semantic functions that were about “drama”, by which I mean a close, homologous engagement with the emotion of the narrative. Yet these instances came from two different clusters of sonically similar string arrangements; one with a clear link to written traditions of music, the other with a clear link to aural traditions of music. Likewise, there were a number of arrangements that were “organic” but they came from three different clusters of sonically similar arrangements. So a single semantic function, or Orientational metafunction, in itself wasn’t enough to define a string style in any meaningful way. But where there were clear patterns of combinations of both Presentational and Orientational features, they started to meaningfully define the seven string styles: they display what Lemke calls “stylistic similarity” for the arranging community:

Sets of texts which share both thematics and genre organization constitute the distinctive text-types of a community. Because of social habits and conventions of co-patterning, texts of the same ‘type’ will also tend to share the same RFs [rhetorical formations] and lexicogrammatical choices in their realizations. Just sharing the same RFs and probabilities for specific lexicogrammatical realizations, even when genre and thematics are not shared, is what some analysts mean by stylistic similarity. (Lemke, 2002, p. 36)

However, there remains an underlying question about what makes a string style consistent, recognizable, and definite enough to have clear boundaries from other styles. And more importantly, there is the question of how semantic dimensions are evidenced in instances of specific string arrangements.

46 The Organisational metafunction as rhetoric

The Organisational metafunction is the key to understanding string arrangements as cohesive cultural semantic styles with rhetorical force.

When we look in more detail at the Organizational bases of intertextuality, we see that such things as genre structure, rhetorical patterns, and various other text-forming strategies … play important roles. (Lemke, 1999)

I argue that string arrangements are styles that instantiate intertextual clusters of “similar” arrangements, and that those styles gain power and coherence by identifying with institutions as instance^institution rhetorical formations (Graham & Luttrell, forthcoming). Instance^institution is a type of rhetorical formation that describes a relationship where specific texts (instances) reference and instantiate specific institutions, simultaneously identifying with them. A string arrangement in one song can have a strong intertextual connection to a string arrangement in another song (through sonic or semantic similarity). But it is the identification of both arrangements with larger sociocultural and historic traditions that give a style its coherence and rhetorical force.

At the broadest level, string styles can be seen to identify with specific institutions. I argue that this is because of what Burke (1984) defines as piety, a term which for him has close links with style: ‘Piety is the sense of what properly goes with what’ in a given social or cultural context (p. 74). For Burke, the pieties of the church can be compared with those of a street gang, noting that one can be “pious” in terms of any institution. Piety is ‘a schema of orientation, since it involves the putting together of experiences’ (Burke, 1984, p. 76). By framing string arrangements as styles I am referring to institutions with which the styles are identifying and that the identification occurs through intertextual reference. The act of identification for an arranger is about knowing what to use in order to make one text similar to another and requires an awareness of the institutions and common practices associated with them. Like genres, styles ‘are resources that we can sometimes use for our own purposes, but access to them requires that we collude to some degree with the dominant cultural systems that have spawned them’ (Lemke, 1995a, p. 145).

47 I should clarify my use of the term institution: I take Hodgson’s (2006) definition of institutions ‘as systems of established and prevalent social rules that structure social interactions’ (p. 2). Denning’s description of music in social terms helps to further clarify the definition:

Sound constitutes subjects as social subjects, creating and sustaining social groups. The work of music is not only a performance of a social order; its very forms present an abstract model of the social order. (Denning, 2015, p. 11)

In relation to music and strings in particular, it would seem that relevant “institutions of power” would therefore include major cultural forces that have in the past, or do now, dictate terms of “social order”. Such forces would include, for example, church and monarchy, universities, governments, mass entertainment industries, and specific geo-cultural forces. Using the Organisational metafunction to observe a string arrangements identification with a given institution is a practical way to frame string styles as consistent, recognizable, and with well-defined boundaries.

Borderlines of style

In chapters five and six, I outline “ideal” examples of each string style. The exemplars provide the clearest identifiable instance of the style I could find in both the corpus and wider listening. That is not to say that every instance of a string style will be as definitive or as unambiguous as the exemplar. Unsurprisingly the boundaries of each style are always ambiguous. To explain this phenomenon it is useful to consider Burke’s explanation of how terms work as classificatory devices:

[terms] have strong centers of jurisdiction that become vague at the outer edges. You know well enough when you are at the center of one jurisdictional system rather than another. But the outer areas may overlap upon the outer areas of other jurisdictional systems. Or, to change the analogy, words are like planets, each with its own particular gravitational pull. The gravitational pull weakens, the farther away from the center a body is – and it may move so far away that it falls within the gravitational pull of some other planet. (Burke, 1966, p. 468)

48 Further clarification from Lemke explains the same phenomenon in terms of genres and ideal “types”:

Texts of the same genre (subgenre) will be near to one another in rhetorical terms, clustering around some ‘ideal’ abstraction of the normative text of the genre. ... Co-generic texts will tend to cluster around one or more ideal points, each representing one of the usual strategies for implementing that genre in the community. (Lemke, 1999)

The implication for string styles is that the classificatory terms, which represent ideal instances, function as a snapshot of the current centre of any given style I name here. In principle, the centres of the styles are dynamic because they are dependent on how new texts add to and modify the intertextual canon (Lemke, 2002; 1999).

In my use of the term, string styles are not a prescriptive checklist of features to use or rules to follow. Nor are they defined by combinations of features that are unaffected by cultural and historical change. String styles are a complex of identifications with certain institutions and intertexts which operate in varying degrees of persuasiveness. A comprehensive use of the features of a style will result in an arrangement that identifies with the ideal of the style. Examples from the corpus that occupy ambiguous areas between style ideals are either fulfilling an equal amount of “similarity” to more than one style ideal, or not providing enough intertextual features to clearly identify with any style ideal. Therefore they are not persuasively identifying with the centre of any style and instead occupy the outer edges of more than one. In practice, this is further complicated by examples that are composed or mixed in a way that provides limited opportunity to evidence key differentiating Presentational features. For example, arrangements that are only sustained long notes and mixed with lots of reverb provide little information on the nuances of rhythmic performance features.

Inhabiting this ambiguity can itself be an arranging technique; to vaguely identify with a number of styles simultaneously or not clearly identify with any. However the findings of the corpus analysis indicate that this is not how the majority of examples work. The useful information for a string arranger is what

49 the main styles are, and what the key features of each style are. With this information an arranger can craft an arrangement that addresses a brief by positioning the arrangement as identifying, in any degree, with a style or styles that share the features of the brief.

String styles develop because arrangers use particular combinations of features across numerous intertexts, over and over again. Repetition reinforces the style as an entity and is how styles can generate coherence. As new instances of string styles modify or refine different combinations of features, string styles themselves will change. Although that means that string styles are always contextualized it also means that recognizing them is not as simple as static checklist because the properties of style are forever in flux, despite their ongoing identification with stable institutions.

50 Chapter 4: Research Design

Positioning the researcher in productive blind alleys

My practice as a professional string arranger led me to the questions this thesis addresses. As a practitioner, I began to notice some patterns of similarities in string arrangements across macro-genres in RPM. The patterns implied intertextual relationships among arrangements. Intertexts are used in many aspects of music practice as a way to communicate intent and aesthetic, including as reference tracks for communicating ideas about arrangements in film composing and production mixes. However, I became aware that there was no scholarship treating string arrangements intertextually with the exception of some brief comparisons of a very limited number of specific works. Fricke (2002) and Walters (2009), for example, draw similarity between arrangements on Beck’s Sea Change and those on other albums. Fricke compares Beck’s album Sea Change with Nick Drake’s album Five Leaves Left while Walters compares it with Serge Gainsbourg’s album Histoire de Melody Nelson.

Years of informal observation led to an intuition that string arrangements might be usefully organised into “similar” clusters using their intertextual connections. Despite seeing those connections, the most useful way to organize the clusters into larger categories was not immediately obvious to me. I began by categorising musical function and role because it seemed like an effective way to organise the clusters and had precedents in other areas of musical analysis. Various blind alleys led me to realise that I was prioritising a subset of the Presentational aspects of arrangements but ignoring Orientational and Organisational cues that were also clearly in evidence.

The Presentational emphasis on musical role and function led to four initial categories to explain larger clusters of intertexts: textural / timbral, orchestral / cinematic, innovation, and focal point. The textural / timbral category consisted of strings that were primarily fulfilling a textural or timbral role. They supported the harmonic or rhythmic content in the song but did not really add any new information besides the “sound” of strings. Exemplars were arrangements that

51 consisted almost entirely of long notes: Roads by Portishead; Mirrorball by Elbow; and Fix You, The Scientist, and Clocks by Coldplay. But there were other strings I considered to be fulfilling a textural role that were much more active. Viva La Vida by Coldplay and Fidelity by Regina Specktor were rhythmically active. While Perfect Day by Lou Reed; Sunday by Sia; and Five Years and Starman by David Bowie were rhythmically and melodically active.

The orchestral / cinematic category featured strings that were quite active and added new information to the song. The role of these strings was typically melodic rather than harmonic, rhythmic, or textural. This category was quite large and so it was practical to think in terms of smaller subcategories that connected similarities of how the strings added new information to the song.

There was an orchestral / cinematic subcategory that used non-Western ideas: Paper Tiger, Lonesome Tears, Missing, and Round the Bend by Beck; River Man by Nick Drake; Ode to Billy Joe by Bobby Gentry; Melody by Serge Gainsbourg; Cemetery by Silverchair; and Something of an End by My Brightest Diamond. A subcategory of particularly flamboyant melodic strings often in disco and soul genres: Grease is the Word by Frankie Valli; Stayin’ Alive by the Bee Gees; and 1984 by David Bowie. A subcategory of big dramatic orchestral arrangements: Take it from Here, Never Again by Justin Timberlake; Suite IV Electric Overture by Janelle Monáe; and Don’t Stop ‘Til You Get Enough by Michael Jackson. A subcategory that was similar to strings in early Popular music: The Way You Look Tonight by Frank Sinatra; Ain’t No Mountain High Enough by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell; Tiny Dancer by Elton John; Back to Black by Amy Winehouse; Life on Mars and Starman by David Bowie; Karma by Lady; and Across 110th Street by Bobby Womack. Lastly, there was the cinematic and atmospheric subcategory which were dramatic but less active: Bitter Sweet Symphony by The Verve; Iris by The Goo Goo Dolls; I Don’t Want to Miss a Thing by Aerosmith; Paradise by Coldplay; Joga by Björk; and Paradise Circus by Massive Attack. However, identifying strings from this category became quite problematic for a number of reasons. For example, many of the arrangements that were cinematic and atmospheric would contain mostly long notes and could therefore also belong to the textural / timbral category.

52 The innovation category featured strings that did not fulfill any of the typical roles or functions of strings in RPM, or did so in an unconventional way. Although this category had the least unity in terms of how the arrangements actually sounded, there was a clear aesthetic of uniqueness and experimentation. The majority of arrangements in this category were actually blends of innovation and other categories, in that different sections of the song correlated with different categories. Examples of blended songs included: Aha! By Imogen Heap; One Step Inside by The Notwist; Ilo Veyou by Camille; How to Dissappear Completely by Radiohead; Varúõ by Sigur Rós; Keep the Dog Quiet by Owen Pallett; and 1000 Umbrellas by XTC. There were only a small number of arrangements that belonged purely to the innovation category: Machinery of the Heavens by Patrick Watson, and A Day in the Life by The Beatles.

The focal point category described strings that played an integral role or function in the arrangement of the song, be it harmonic, rhythmic, or melodic. I split focal point into two subcategories: foundational and feature. Foundational strings provided key harmonic, melodic, or rhythmic information and were often in very bare arrangements with few other instruments in the song. Examples of this included: He Poos Clouds by Owen Pallett; Eleanor Rigby by The Beatles; Way to Blue by Nick Drake; Starálfur by Sigur Ros; and You’ve been Flirting Again by Björk. The other type had strings as a focal point in the foreground of the song, and included solo stringed instruments or strings that took the role of a standard band instrument such as a cello playing the bass line. Examples of this included: Red by Elbow; Flames by VAST; Wonderwall by Oasis; Broken-Hearted Girl by Beyoncé; Don’t Speak by No Doubt; and Breathe Me by Sia. As a category, focal point was majorly problematic because it had very unclear boundaries to delineate itself from the other categories. For instance, 1000 Umbrellas belonged just as much to the focal point category as it did to innovation, and Breathe Me by Sia was orchestral / cinematic for most of the song until a focal point solo cello enters over the existing strings in the second half of the last instrumental double chorus.

53 Categorical clarification

The ongoing difficulties I had with the initial four categories indicated that musical role and function was not the most meaningful way to organise the categorisation of string arrangements in RPM. First, there was the issue of trying to define the boundaries of each category when the initial approach meant that many songs could technically be in more than one category. In hindsight, this was an indication that the level the categorisation was proceeding from was too specific; it was not yet at a level that would consistently separate fundamental differences. Second, was the issue of sonic likeness. I wondered how was it possible that there were so many variations in arrangements within one category. How could arrangements that shared a similar musical role and function sound very different to each other? And, how could this be a meaningful way to categorise string arrangements without having to divide them into an array of subcategories? These questions also indicated that the level of analysis was not yet right, and that I did not fully understand how “similar” examples were in fact similar.

It became clear that prioritizing any specific Presentational feature would raise similar issues. Therefore, it was not useful to categorise strings solely by things like form (ensemble size), production treatment (e.g. amount of reverb), structural presence (where they occurred in time or space, song structure and panning), or tonality (e.g. scales, chords). The preoccupation with specific Presentational features is a primary disadvantage with many precedents in musical literature, especially those from CPE lineage. Although useful for categorising specific Presentational features, analytical approaches that focus on those features do not provide insight into what they are commonly used in combination with or why.

As a further complication, I realised that by prioritising musical role and function I was relying on the relationship between the arrangement and the song in order to categorise the string arrangement. In other words, was the arrangement reinforcing or extending the musical content of the song? Strings need to be analysed in context, but I could not rely on the song to define the strings.

54 Otherwise I would end up with a category of string arrangements that were functionally similar, in that they “reinforced” content in the song, but sounded completely different to each other. The result of such an approach would be a theory that grouped the role and function of arrangements within songs instead of trying to make sense of string arrangements intertextually. Additionally, it would ignore the wider context. What were the sociocultural meanings and implications of using strings in a certain way? And how could an arranger use such a schema to write new arrangements?

Theoretical framework and the logic of method selection

At this point it is important to acknowledge that my identity as a researcher has a significant bearing on this methodology. I have tacit knowledge of string arranging from years of working as a cellist, arranger, and producer in Popular music. I know the context of my practice and have a solid practical understanding of the field. As a string arranger who is trying to further develop my practice I am aware of precedents for facilitating learning, and have identified both a gap in my own skill set and an absence of literature to address that gap. Thus, I identified a specific problem. As a researcher and educator, I am aware of how I learn and how I construct my understanding of the world and this is underpinned by a need to contextually and intertextually situate knowledge, analysis, and practice. In this way, I am aware of theoretical and methodical approaches to collecting and structuring information in order to make it useful to me as an academic, educator, and practitioner. In broad terms, I consider myself a Functionalist. Burrell and Morgan’s define functionalism as follows:

In its overall approach it seeks to provide essentially rational explanations of social affairs. It is a perspective which is highly pragmatic in orientation, concerned to understand society in a way which generates knowledge which can be put to use. It is often problem-orientated in approach, concerned to provide practical solutions to practical problems. (Burrell & Morgan, 1992, p. 26)

To achieve those ends I use a mixed method approach. A mixed method approach is one that ‘consists of integrating quantitative and qualitative research approaches’ (Gelo, Braakmann & Benetka, 2008, p. 267). Mixed method

55 approaches are often used in disciplines such as psychology, cultural studies, sociology, education, and music (Creswell, 2003, pp. 208-227; Gelo, Braakmann & Benetka, 2008; Moore, 2012, p. 218; Plano, Clark & Creswell, 2008). Using a mixed method approach helps to address the weaknesses of an approach that is either purely quantitative or qualitative (Gelo, Braakmann & Benetka, 2008, p. 266). Therefore it is valuable in a discipline like music where a researcher often wants to ask quantitative questions of qualitative data, or ask both qualitative and quantitative questions of data. The quantitative element is entirely necessary to the matter of arguing typicality, and that the primary role of the quantitative in this thesis.

The methods I use here are tailored to the demands of the research and so my research design is largely exploratory and inductive. The research design is shaped by approaches from two areas: music and cultural semantics. Cultural semantics provides the theoretical lens for the research and allows me to observe and analyse the corpus in a practical, situated, and intertextual manner. Music provides tailored methods that are specifically designed to target musical elements during data collection and analysis. My selection of research methods for all components are explained in terms of how the ‘data collection, analysis and interpretation’ responds to my theoretical framework (Gelo, Braakmann & Benetka, 2008, p. 274). There are three components to the research methods: Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis (IDAA), metafunctional categorisation, and creative practice.

Data and sample

Sampling strategy for the data set

The sampling strategy takes a large data set in order to produce both a broad and deep analysis of the presence and type of string arrangements for RPM. It uses mixed method sampling in that it includes features of both Purposive and Probability Sampling (Plano, Clark & Cresswell, 2008, pp. 206-228). This helps to circumvent a number of issues involved in data collection and interpretation that are inherent in translating audio into written text. Issues include how data is

56 encoded, sorted, and evaluated.

The main criteria for selecting the data set was the need to represent a broad range of RPM from the 1950s11 onwards across a range of genres. It is key to my argument that string styles are independent of song genres so the data set must include a range of song genres. I was unable to find a reputable and comprehensive string arrangement specific list that addressed this scope. This meant I could not specifically target songs that contained string arrangements with the choice of data set. Therefore, it was important that the data set be large enough so that it would contain an adequate number of songs with string arrangements given that strings, although common, are not a core part of the instrumentation of Popular song (Nunes & Ordanini, 2014). A viable solution was to use a “best [number] of” list from a reputable music source. A list of albums instead of singles would help to downplay music business and marketing strategies, as there are politics around which songs are pushed as singles (Shuker, 2001, pp. 45 & 55-57). Singles were deemed an unwanted variable that might affect the presence of string arrangements and bias the styles of string arrangements in the sample.

The top three options for the data set were NME’s The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (NME, 2013a), Rolling Stone’s updated 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (Rolling Stone, 2012), and Top Billboard 200 Albums Year-End Charts (Billboard, 2014). Billboard was ruled out for a number of fundamental issues including: the year-end charts seem to only go back to 1985; and that these charts rank economic success and due to changing distribution models within the music industry there is an inconsistency in the way that data is collected across the time period. Finally, that 200 albums per year would be too unwieldy over the scope of decades and editing the list would undoubtedly have unintended repercussions. During the investigation of Billboard as a potential data set, it became apparent that for the purposes of this thesis it was more important to

11 Realistically the 1950s were the start of the modern incarnation of Popular music. This is apparent in things like the standardization of the ‘band’ lineup, technological and sociological change (Middleton, 1990, pp. 14-15), and the invention of Rock and Roll as a genre which had a significant impact on other genres and the industry more generally.

57 choose a list that was based on symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1989, p. 17) rather than one that recognizes economic success. I concede that economic value is a very clear-cut way of judging value. However I feel that the highest selling albums are more likely to represent value to a consumer than to a musician. I required a list of albums that had value to my practice and the practice of other musicians. Eliminating Billboard left NME or Rolling Stone as the potential data set.

A basic comparison of the content of the NME and Rolling Stone lists shows that there is around a 32% correlation between them. They also cover approximately the same time period, are ranked lists, and are both voted for by people held in esteem by their peers (NME, 2013b; Rolling Stone, 2012). The final decision to use Rolling Stone as the corpus was primarily because they disclosed the voters who participated in the polls that went towards constructing the list.12 That allowed me to confirm symbolic capital, as the voters were distinguished musicians, songwriters, production personnel, and music business people (Blashill et al, 2003).

I acknowledge a number of disadvantages in using Rolling Stone as the data set. The Rolling Stone list received criticism in the media for a number of reasons including a bias towards Rock and Pop genres, nostalgia, monoculturalism, and gender inequality (Blashill et al, 2003; Footman, 2003; Fusilli, 2012; Jones, 2008, pp. 101-140; Schmutz, 2005). It excludes or under-represents a number of genres, time periods, and artists. For example, Post-rock, Progressive Rock, and Metal genres are under-represented. The list is heavily weighted to the decade of the 1970s, which represents 37% of the list, while the 1960s, 1980s, and 1990s are each between 15-21% of the list. The 2000s are only 8% of the list, and the 1950s and 2010s are 2% or less.13

The inclusion of compilation albums in the Rolling Stone list, particularly “greatest hits” style albums, means that there are doubles of some material, for

12 This information has since disappeared from the website. The voters for the initial list in 2003 are available on page 178 of Rolling Stone issue 937. 13 Percentages here are all rounded to the nearest whole number.

58 example songs by Al Green and Elton John. Those doubles are at the expense of including new material to diversify the list. Additionally, compilation albums mean that some artists, particularly those whose careers centered on singles, were excluded. This is because singles-oriented artists tended to have their work released on multiple compilation albums and, as such, the list’s voting process saw their votes spread across multiple compilation albums rather than a singular album (Blashill et al, 2003).

Another problem was over-representation of particular artists. For example, Bob Dylan, The Beatles, and The Rolling Stones had ten or more albums featured in the list; The Who and Bruce Springsteen had seven and eight respectively; and, David Bowie, Elton John, Neil Young, and Radiohead each had five. Those ten artists make up seventy-one of the albums from the list, which is 14.2% of the corpus. Rolling Stone was also likely to bias US artists as it is a US publication in contrast to NME, which is a UK publication. Despite the negatives and limitations, Rolling Stone’s updated 500 Greatest Albums of All Time was a viable data set as any list of this nature would likely have similar problems with bias.

I acknowledge that a corpus of 500 albums (6824 songs) could be seen as an unwieldy sample size, however a set of specific criteria that responded to the conditions of this thesis reduced the sample to 430 albums (4996 songs). To be included in this research, I decided that a song must: • contain vocals that are playing a main role in the song thus it must not be an instrumental • be an audio recording that has been officially released (physical or digital) • be a studio recording (as opposed to a live recording), and • be on an album that is not a compilation or box set (that will exclude albums that are a corporate statement rather than an artistic one).

A specific criteria targeting string arrangements reduced the sample further to a manageable size of 576 songs. The specific criteria is that songs must contain real stringed instruments (i.e. violin, viola, cello), performed by humans, specifically for the purposes of the song. That disqualifies synthesized strings

59 and strings that are sampled from another context.14

Data collection method

It proved difficult to find examples of research that conduct large-scale aural analysis in order to inform what data to collect and how to collect it. Many precedents of large-scale analysis of audio were conducted either in part or in whole by computers, for example Daniels (2014) and Nunes and Ordanini (2014). Although many of these studies produce interesting findings, they are of limited use to this thesis. Gayraud describes the difficulties of using computers for style analysis:

Even though data-oriented studies of styles have been undertaken, computer technology is not yet able to automatically recognize musical styles because this depends on many cultural references that are hard to specify and encode in an automatic system. (Gayraud, 2014, p. 1077)

A human in the chain of data collection adds a level of complexity to research that must be acknowledged. All caveats on matters of interpretation and perception hold. The categories I developed for the data collection was ultimately my choice of what data to collect and how to encode it, and those choices undoubtedly influence the findings I present here. Due to the sheer volume of data collected for the template and potential number of references needed to corroborate analysis, it is clearer to detail the process as a procedural list (see appendix C). I was unable to obtain a complete downloadable list from Rolling Stone so I entered albums and songs into the spreadsheet manually. I have indicated cases in which track listing varied for different releases in the “comment” field. The spreadsheet also indicates the format I used to listen to each album since some were physical CDs and others were sourced from Spotify or other online locations (appendix B).

14 Judgments are informed by credit information as well as timbral information. In addition sampled strings are often treated differently than “real” strings in terms of composition and production features, in that they are exactly repetitive in pitch and rhythmic content and often have audible loop points.

60 Trial development

I used an informal trial process to test data collection spreadsheets with a selection of arrangements. The trial process also functioned as pilot tests to help refine the framing and identification of the string style categories. The spreadsheet is in appendix B. It records basic data such as song name, artist, album, year of release, rank in the Rolling Stone list, and whether physical credit information was available for the strings. The spreadsheet also records data about my confidence in judgments of the presence of strings so that data can be sorted to include or exclude the more ambiguous cases. I collected data about string style in two ways: first as a number which represents the list of string styles – both single and combination; and second as a written comment describing prominent Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features. The written comment also allows for a justification of the style classification, which is particularly important for songs that are borderline examples of string styles.15

Obstacles in sources and other complications

The lack of correct and comprehensive instrumentation attributions necessitated a system of classifications for representing the presence of strings that would more accurately represent my experience with the data. This was in the form of a sliding scale of presence classifications that took into account how confident I felt about my aural judgments. For cases that were inconclusive I took the position that if my expertise could not decipher strings in the song and there were no credits to indicate the presence of strings then that negated the song.

I need to acknowledge three other complications in collecting the data. First is a problem with collecting information that would confirm the presence and

15 Initially the spreadsheet documented string style and presence in regards to song structure but this proved far too complicated to be a useful way of collecting data for this thesis. The key issues were: there was too much variation in song structure in the corpus; the limitations of a spreadsheet as a way to collect data meant predefined and preordered song structure columns; and that not all songs have clearly identifiable structures for example the classification of what is the verse and what is the chorus can be ambiguous. A comprehensive examination of relationships between string style and song structure is outside the scope of this thesis.

61 location of strings from physical releases. There is no guarantee of identity between different versions of a physical release. That was a particular problem with versions released in different years or countries. Using physical credits to triangulate my aural judgments as to the presence of strings in any given track was more reliable than any available digital data. Comparing information on Discogs, Allmusic, and an artist’s official site reveals a number of inconsistencies both in detail of information and over which online source is the most complete. Second, there are a number of cases in which I was unable to access original audio mixes of an album. In such circumstances I would accept a remaster of an album but not a remixed version. Third was the human element in data collection and analysis. To maintain consistency I personally conducted all the required aural analysis, which meant that ear fatigue, general fatigue, and general morale had to be closely monitored. See appendix A for more information.

I now move to an account of the three research components that implement the research design.

Component 1: Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis

Both Western Art music and Popular music fields provide a number of methods for musical analysis. There is an extensive literature whose purpose is analysis for analysis’ sake rather than explicitly using analysis to inform practice.16 There are also established analytical approaches that are useful for composers or performers to guide the development of practice, such as studying scores or analysing performance. However, both strands are often held exclusively to each other in that the analysis is targeted either at composition or performance. There are also analytic methods for investigating style, a significant sector of which are from the discipline of psychology and use the idea of schema or schemata as a

16 An example of this is Schenkerian analysis (Cook, 1994, pp. 27-66; Neumeyer & Tepping, 1992). It is a purely analytic attempt to reduce tonal music to key information. Another is Lerdahl and Jackendoff’s A Generative Theory of Tonal Music (1983).

62 way to explain how styles are made of flexible elements and learnt during repeated exposure through pattern recognition (Hughes, 2014).17

There are also many precedents for aural analysis, specifically as a strategy to develop the listening skills and musicianship of a practitioner. A significant tradition is one that stems from Western Art music’s approach to pedagogy, what is referred to as traditional aural skills. More recently approaches to aural analysis have targeted other contexts and conditions. Examples include aural skills for Popular music (Green, 2014; 2002); production skills and technical ear training (Corey, 2010); and conceptual approaches to aural analysis for practitioners (Vella & Arthurs, 2003). Despite the strengths of musical analysis precedents, there does not appear to be a precedent for a practicable approach that combines aural analysis; analysis of a range of aspects including composition, performance, and production; and, analysis for praxis.

The study involves a large-scale aural analysis of a selection of recorded works with symbolic capital across a range of genres from 1952-2011. For the purposes of this research I define aural analysis as the analysis of an audio recording of a song via the sense of hearing. The findings of the aural analysis result in my demarcations of seven string styles that describe clusters of intertexts with similarities in their use of semiotic resources. Thus for the string styles to be considered a viable and transferable model of approaches to string arranging it is necessary that the aural analysis is large in scale and covers a selection of historical and generic examples. By using large-scale aural analysis as a method I am able to offer a model of seven styles of string arranging that is derived from and stands up to a statistically significant data set test.

Aural analysis is the most appropriate method for this component because it facilitates analysis of string arrangements in context and makes available data

17 Schemas feature heavily in the work of Gjerdingen (2007), Meyer (1996), Shevy (2008; 2006), and Snyder (2000). Schema explanations of style tend to generalize any shared presentation and meaning from a group of individuals’ experiences of perception and cognition rather than to examine style through sociocultural observation. For my research, this perspective fails to satisfactorily account for why string styles appear to present and function as reasonably consistent social and cultural entities, because the process of situating individual’s findings in the wider contexts one of speculative extrapolation rather than cultural analytic.

63 from composition, performance, and production aspects. It also compensates for two significant obstacles: 1) availability of sources other than audio recordings, and 2) the lack of comprehensive and academically rigorous sources of information to confirm the presence and personnel details of string arrangements in RPM.18 Therefore, any approach to data collection that is not aural analysis would be unreliable and limitative.

For example, using score or notation analysis would severely limit the data set because they are not readily available (Mancini, 1986).19 It would also privilege the musical elements that scores are good at representing, and exclude production elements (Tagg, 1982, pp. 41-42). Combining score analysis and aural analysis would privilege the limited number of arrangements that are available as sheet music.20 Using only sources that credit strings, either in CD liner notes or accompanying information included with the physical and digital releases, would result in significant margins of error. Typically, this is due to the lack of song-by-song instrumentation data available. In many cases instrumentation data is absent entirely. See appendix A for statistics that support the use of aural analysis over credit data.

Online sources of instrumentation information are problematic in that they tend to be: crowd-authored (Wikipedia), tend to offer only general album credits (Allmusic), or indexed by specific release (Discogs). Conducting large-scale data searches online is complex and often returns incomplete results, therefore it is unreliable as a primary source for academic research. The exception is official websites dedicated to specific arrangers or performers, but even these have issues with detail. Additionally, the process of finding information this way is not feasible for large-scale studies because each arranger and performer would have to be treated as a separate search term. Consequently, the problems with attributions mean it is difficult to locate where strings are, let alone begin to

18 Part of the issue is the early studio model of uncredited session and orchestral musicians (Everett, 2008, p. 113) 19 The notable exception being a complete book of scored Beatles arrangements (Beatles, 1993). 20 If the data set was small, transcribing the string arrangements from the recordings would be a way to solve this. However transcription is not a feasible option for large-scale studies.

64 describe and understand what they are doing. Furthermore, these issues have an impact on the selection of the data set because there is no way to easily locate a large data set that is exclusively examples of songs with string arrangements. The method of aural analysis then also becomes part of refining a data set to a relevant sample.

Aural analysis methods

The following section discusses the methods used for the aural analysis in relation to the theoretical framework. Although the original aim of this thesis was not to invent a new model of aural analysis, a new model emerged as a byproduct of the theoretical framework. This explains my decision to include a brief literature review of aural analysis approaches in this section rather than the literature review.

The aural analysis is designed specifically for the needs of this research. It uses two simultaneous listening strategies; timbral identification for stream segregation (Bregman, 1990; Iverson, 1995) and what I am calling Inter- Dimensional Aural Analysis (IDAA). IDAA is a new approach that allows specific analysis of the string stream as well as analysis of how the string stream functions in context. It is an attempt to consolidate a number of different methods of aural analysis into one more flexible and functional approach targeted at the needs of a practitioner.

Timbral identification is used to judge the presence and location of strings in the recordings. Although timbre is often neglected or taken for granted in discussions of aural skills, musicianship, and ear-training it does make an appearance in some of the newer literature (Covington & Lord, 1994; Karpinski, 2000; Tsabary, 2009). Karpinksi’s (2000) brief discussion of timbre puts forward two important points: that electrophones (i.e. synthesisers and electronic instruments) can confuse the ability to attribute a timbre to an instrument, and that listening to timbre should be done in context (both in time and in arrangement) (pp. 13-14). Karpinski (2000) makes a valuable claim, that ‘listeners use a variety of cues to determine timbre’ but unfortunately, he does

65 not expand on the statement in any real detail (p. 13). For my research, timbral identification relies heavily on concepts that are more often discussed in resources that address acoustics, synthesis, and audition. For example: Handel, (1989, pp. 169-173); Lee and Smith (2010); McAdams (1993, pp. 162-174); Pejrolo and DeRosa (2007, pp. 98-155); Rossing and Hanson (2010); and, Turkel and Smith-Eisenhower (1988, pp. 70-78).

When conducting the aural analysis for this thesis, I found that my judgment of what are “real” strings often relied on the noise component of the timbre more so than the tonal component. In songs where the presence of real strings was difficult to judge, I found myself listening for a range of specific elements such as bow noise, bow changes, and the attack and release portion of the dynamic envelope (ADSR). Other elements included imperfections in tuning and tone, and open strings because they have a different timbre to fingered notes of the same pitch due to resonance (Piston, 1955, p. 40). Finally, there were elements such as irregularities in vibrato, and all the little things a performer does to make their part more ergonomic to play including fingering, timing and placement of position shifts, and clipping the end of notes short to land more precisely on the next downbeat. In essence I am listening for micro-timbral information that is made up of particular combinations of frequencies (the spectral envelope), and how these frequencies presented in amplitude over time (the dynamic envelope) (Baldwin, 2012; Hodges & Sebald, 2011; Yost, 2007).

My experience is consistent with Iverson’s (1995) research into Auditory Stream Segregation21 and timbre where he identifies that both spectral envelope and dynamic envelope appear to influence the ability to perceive a stream. It is also consistent with other research on timbre that address the importance of dynamic envelope, in particular the attack portion, for the perception of source (Elliott, 1975; McAdams, 1993, pp. 162-174; Risset & Wessel, 1999; Saldanha & Corso, 1964; Thayer, 1974).

21 A concept developed by Bregman (1990, pp. 47-211).

66 The procedure for the aural analysis method was informed by the noise component of the string stream, which is often barely audible in the mix, so headphones were preferable to speakers in ambiguous cases. The knowledge of these non-tonal timbral components and my ability to aurally identify them has been honed by over twenty years of experiential learning as a cellist, and over ten years as an arranger and producer. My reliance on experiential skill reinforces that aural analysis for research of this nature needs to be conducted by a string expert.

Timbral identification is also crucial for being able to aurally differentiate real stringed instruments from other instruments that typically function in what Moore refers to as the ‘harmonic filler layer’ (2012, p. 21). This includes organ, guitar, horns, backing vocal vowels, and synthesised elements. In some instances, it is very difficult to differentiate real strings from a mellotron. Mellotrons ‘are electronic keyboards that … replay existing sounds recorded on strips of tape located underneath the keys’ (Reid, 2007). Despite having a number of options for “sound”, mellotrons have a universal timbre due to artifacts of the medium of tape such as frequency characteristics, dynamic range, and noise (Reid, 2007). However, tape was the predominant recording medium during the heyday of mellotron usage in Popular music, from the late 1960s to end of 1970s, so the timbre of real strings from this period often sound very similar to mellotron strings in that they are both encoded on the same medium and therefore susceptible to the same artifacts (Horning, 2012, p. 30; Resch, 2013; Zager, 2011, pp. xx-xxi).

Differentiating between real strings and mellotron is made even more difficult by a seeming trend in instrumentation of using mellotron in conjunction with real strings. For example, albums such as Hunky Dory by David Bowie, Aqualung by Jethro Tull, Physical Graffiti by Led Zeppelin, and a number of Beatles songs including Strawberry Fields Forever. Using timbral identification revealed that there are no real strings on Oasis’s What’s the Story Morning Glory album. This point was clarified by further investigation that revealed the instrumentation was only mellotron and other synthesized strings (Buskin, 2012). The key in this case was listening closely to the dynamic envelope. Even though timbral

67 identification helps to inform judgments of real strings in cases where other options a possibility it has likely increased the margin of error.

Details of Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis (IDAA)

I had formulated an experimental analytical methodology for my Honours research (Luttrell, 2013), which I refined for this thesis using the findings the literature review and a few small-scale pilot tests of the aural analysis. IDAA is designed to unite a variety of methods into one practicable multifaceted approach. It is informed by aural analysis of musical elements from a traditional perspective including things like intervals, chord progressions, and rhythms. It also integrates attributes of production analysis and semiotic analysis in order to address the simultaneous and multifaceted nature of analysing music as audio. IDAA combines approaches from composition, performance, production, and semiotic analysis. Therefore a researcher using IDAA needs a working knowledge of theory and methods from these areas.

In approaches from music, it appears to be typical that most methods are applied in isolation to other methods. For example, in the works of Almén and Pearsall (2006); Machin (2010); Middleton (2000); Moore (2012); and Tagg (1982). The result of applying methods in isolation is that the insight will only be from one area or perspective thus prioritizing a specific textual element or theoretical perspective, for example production or semiotics. IDAA takes its cues from Lemke’s (2009; 1998) social semiotics approach in that it doesn’t focus on a specific textual element but instead allows a researcher to step back from the text and observe patterns that emerge from any and all parts of the text, and patterns in how this text connects to intertexts.

IDAA is conducted by listening to a number of intertexts and collecting data about key features from the different dimensions: Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational.22 To identify Presentational features, analysis focuses on the areas of composition, performance, and production. In listening for those three

22 See appendix D for a detailed procedure for IDAA.

68 distinct areas, the listener should use relevant specific methods from music, for example traditional aural analysis, performance analysis, and production analysis. Orientational features can be identified using the Organisational features to examine a semiotic level of information. By that I mean how the usage of these semiotic resources across intertexts are used to mean. For example, the historical use of the Broadcast string style has been for the purpose of emphasising “drama”. Organisational features can be identified outright as specific “similar” intertexts, canons, or institutions. Alternately they can be examined as intertexts that share the combination of patterns in both Presentational and Orientational features.

IDAA is not a replacement for the more specific and targeted methods of analysis, but rather a way of integrating these methods into a framework that facilitates the observation of intertextual patterns in and across elements. In practice, IDAA works best when used across a substantial number of intertexts to observe groupings of intertextual similarities.23 There will not always be meaningful patterns in all of the elements of IDAA. For example, there may be no meaningful patterns in production features but meaningful patterns in compositional features. IDAA can be used to target a specific inquiry, in my case string arrangements in Popular music, or for the more diffuse purpose of examining similarities in songs, albums, artists, or Popular music genres. IDAA helps a listener to aurally identify functional similarities between two or more works from a number of perspectives without prioritizing elements or hierarchies of elements. Once the similarities are identified they can be used directly to create new work that is functionally similar to that which was analysed. In this way, IDAA is designed as an analytical approach for praxis.

An example of IDAA

To explain the use of IDAA in the analysis of each text, I will use my written comment for Eleanor Rigby as an exemplar. The comment was entered into the

23 My Honours thesis (Luttrell, 2013) used an earlier version of IDAA and was able to extrapolate meaningful analysis for praxis data from only two songs, although the songs were chosen for their “similarity” initially.

69 spreadsheet during multiple listens to the song and documents analytical details of the Presentational features as well as some Organisational features.

Eleanor Rigby (written comment example)

Small/medium ensemble (octet apparently). Strings are a primary part of the instrumentation (just voice). Small/medium reverb, though the sound has a pretty warm, naturalistic production. Strings enter at start (ch1): mid and upper strings doing short staccato, crotchet, chordal chugs; while lower strings doing a melodic bass line. The last phrase has the higher violin doing an intervallic quaver motif. At 0:13 (verse1), all strings do short staccato, crotchet, chordal chugs; in the second phrase, the upper strings do intervallic quavers. At 0:31 (pre-ch1), lower cello sustains pedal bass notes while upper strings do short, chordal chugs. Another cello does a midrange descending sustained line. A violin gesture over the transition is melodic but pretty stiffly performed. At 0:45 (verse2), all strings do short staccato, crotchet, chordal chugs, and then a cello plays an active bass line gesture. The second phrase adds a countermelodic violin line that is more sustained but still quite accented and clipped between the notes. This plays over the chugs and later over another active cello bass line gesture. 1:02 (pre-ch2) is very similar to the earlier prechorus but adds a melodic violin gesture halfway through, which is a heavily accented, crotched ascending line. 1:17 (ch2) is very similar to ch1. At 1:30 (verse3), the cellos do something that sounds like an Alberti bass quaver line. This is over a sustained violin high note and an accented descending line. There is also an added chordal harmony at the end of the line. At 1:38 (still verse3), the upper strings punch out high staccato crotchet chords, and the cello interjects with a melodic gesture that doubles the vocals then splits off into more of a bass line. At 1:48 (pre-ch3) is very similar to other pre-choruses. At 2:00, slightly longer moving chordal stabs resolve the song, ending in a sustained chord. The composition aspects are very classical in their techniques and voicings, etc. The performance is quite stiff and ‘professional’ and has that typical detaché style of articulation that is typical of classical playing. The vibrato is minimal but still used in the lines that aren’t the chugging ones. This is a great example of the Western Classical style and

70 evidences some clever writing.

I emphasise that the relationship between IDAA and the development of the seven string style categories was an iterative process. The general form of the seven style categories was developed and refined in a number of pilot tests of IDAA across diverse samples.

Aural analysis quantitative findings in brief

The quantitative findings of the aural analysis show that of the 430 eligible albums, 167 contain real strings (39%), and that of the 4996 eligible songs on those albums, 576 contain real strings (11.5%). It is notable that there were only ten songs in which I could not make a definite judgment about the presence of strings. I was able to source physical credit data about instrumentation for just over half the albums in the sample. The physical credit data strongly supports the use of an aural method of analysis as the physical liner notes were often unreliable in detailing live strings. Most of the 576 songs with strings quite convincingly correlated with the seven string styles, despite a few that were ambiguously borderline across two styles. I can then extrapolate from the aural analysis that my proposed seven string styles are an accurate description of the major styles of strings in RPM to date.

Of the songs with only one string style, the vast majority correlated with the Broadcast style (52.3%). This was followed by Western Classical (14.4%), Anglo Folk (14.1%), Euro Folk (1.2%), Experimental (1.2%), World (0.7%), and Eastern Classical (0.3%). However, there were a notable number of songs that contained two different string styles (13.2%) or even three string styles (1.7%). Some string styles were more likely to be used in combination with other styles than by themselves. For example, although the percentages of Euro Folk, Experimental, World, and Eastern Classical appear low as single styles, they factor in an additional 6.25% of the corpus as multi-styles. Five songs from the corpus contain simultaneous string styles, that is more than one string style is happening at the same moment in time. For a full explanation of the statistical findings of the aural analysis see appendix A.

71 Component 2: Metafunctional categorisation

This stage of the research takes the results of the IDAA to extrapolate the features of the seven string arrangement styles, characterising and providing exemplars for each. Each style is thereby categorised through its own list of intertexts, which in turn help define the style. Each style is then interrogated for recurring patterns across the intertexts in terms of their Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features. This process uses the written comments as well as some targeted re-listening to identify and detail the intertextual patterns, refining and developing the style descriptions. I note here that style names changed, quite dramatically in some cases, almost to the final draft of the thesis. I also note that, upon reflection, it became clear that the written comments in the spreadsheet only had minimal mention of Orientational features because the Orientational features were theorised at this later juncture through a further listening of the corpus. By that, I mean that the semantic functions of a string style are more clearly evident at the intertextual level than they are in the analysis of individual texts, specifically through the institutions that a given style identifies with. Each style is categorised by its Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features and, I emphasise again, I enter analysis of each arrangement from the rhetorical (identificatory) angle, which is to say through the Organisational metafunction.

Component 3: Creative work and practice as a method

The practice component of this thesis demonstrates the effectiveness of using the string styles to inform the design and creation of new string arrangements. The method detailed in the following paragraphs proposes how and where the string styles can be integrated into an existing arrangement practice, by using my own practice as the pilot test. The practice component of this thesis was by commission – songs were provided by a selection of local songwriters. The reason for this was to situate the practice in actual conditions in order to get a realistic idea of whether the string styles would function as applied praxis. The impact of this decision was a lack of control over the range of style briefs for arrangements because the briefs reflect the creative vision and tastes of the

72 songwriters. Consequently, none of the completed string arrangements explore Experimental, Anglo Folk, or Eastern Classical string styles. However, in songs where I was given more creative control, I did trial sections with the Experimental string style but ultimately the songwriters did not choose those elements.

Details of my personal workflow

Before I detail the method of using string styles for praxis, I need to acknowledge my own personal workflow. The key benefit of using an established workflow is that its familiarity renders the process fairly transparent, allowing me to focus on the creative and functional implications of string styles rather than learning new writing methods or technologies. My typical workflow involves listening to the song on repeat while I brainstorm ideas on paper in an idiosyncratic combination of words, diagrams, and notation. I then immediately start recording an improvised demo arrangement in Pro Tools (audio recording and production software) by physically playing in violin and cello lines to the demo audio file provided by the songwriter. It is important that the audio file is an accurate and up-to-date representation of the global arrangement and production concept because the string arrangement is written to integrate with both the compositional and production values of the song from the outset.

There is no fixed order for the improvised part of the process as it is completely dependent on the source material, the brief from the songwriter, and my instinctive response to the song. Some techniques I use include: looping a section and improvising until I am happy with an idea; playing in fully formed ideas from the brainstorming process; working linearly through the sections of the song; starting with the choruses or bridge, and then filling in the verses between them; working one instrument at a time through the whole song; and, writing section by section. The process of improvising and recording the arrangements allows me to create intuitive, playable, and idiomatic parts that embed timbral, dynamic, extended technique, and articulation information into the ideas from

73 the outset.24 I find my workflow results in more cohesive, creative, and fully realized arrangements which in my experience are much harder to achieve starting from notation.

Once I have a full arrangement, I do a rough mix in Pro Tools of what I envision for the production of the strings. This includes panning, volume, reverb, and any other audio effect ideas. I then send this rough mix to the songwriter, and sometimes the producer, for feedback. I have found that this step is crucial in getting the songwriter to understand the string arrangement in context because I can give them a concrete representation of what I am aiming for and how it can be achieved, including my suggestions for where the string arrangement sits in a mix and the role it performs in the global song arrangement. In my experience the majority of communication between songwriter and producer is either in words or in audio. By delivering the string arrangement demo as audio I am effectively communicating in the same language, not relying on the songwriter’s imagination, ability to read notation, and knowledge of string techniques. The downside of my process is that it can be a little time consuming; often involves workarounds for my intermediate violin playing skills; and sometimes results in doubles of notes or lines that would be immediately apparent in a score but harder to recognise in an audio demo.

Typically, I then notate the Pro Tools arrangement into Sibelius (music notation software) which allows me to make adjustments to parts especially for elements that are more intuitive to edit as notation rather than audio. Any modifications or adjustments suggested by the songwriter are negotiated and rerecorded into a new demo or fixed directly in the notation. There is a little bit of variability in the process regarding when the notation stage occurs. I usually notate after the initial physical demoing, but sometimes notation is done directly after the first demo, and other times I notate after modifications are made and the final arrangement is agreed on. This disparity is mainly to do with time management

24 Personally, I am more creative and intuitive as an improviser than I am as a traditional composer or arranger. It is likely due to the fact that more of my professional career has been centered around aural skills and improvising than score reading or the more traditional approaches to composition.

74 and being able to efficiently make changes to an arrangement, as often this feedback is given by email, online chat, or phone call rather than in person, so having a visual representation is valuable to aid clear and effective communication.

In addition to the role of string arranger I also took the role of string coordinator; liaison between string section and production team in the recording session; and cellist. This is an accurate reflection of the typical conditions of my practice more generally. For the arrangements that required performers other than myself I chose to work with a string quartet I regularly play with: Flora Wong (violin 1), Samuel Andrews (violin 2), Kieran Welch (viola), and myself (cello). This is another effort to eliminate variables and keep the workflow as transparent as possible. The quartet has been working together since 2012. We know each others strengths and weaknesses; have a good working dynamic and approach to communication; and have refined our ability to perform as an expressive and musically as a cohesive quartet.

Due primarily to monetary and time constraints, most arrangements are tracked with all string players together in a live room and then doubled or multi-tracked as necessary. Although this means that recording and editing a perfect take is often more difficult, the benefits of a more musically nuanced ensemble performance are typically worth the trade-off. The process of recording is vital to keep in mind when writing, scoring, and preparing string arrangements because it has a direct impact on the mixing and editing process. For example, a difficult violin line might be better tracked separately from the rest of the strings, or a string line that is designed to sit in the background of a mix drenched in reverb would need to be tracked separately so the engineer can mix it separate to the other strings.

I send the performers the score, parts, and string audio demo prior to the recording session. We record the strings as per the individual requirements and conditions of each commission.25 Once the strings are recorded the outcome is in

25 Details of this are in chapter seven.

75 the hands of the engineer and producer. I often request, and recommend, that they send me an audio copy of the edited string parts so an expert ear can double check tuning and other instrument specific things that a non-string expert might miss. For example, “unrealistic” edits that do not account for physical movement in playing the instrument. After that I typically have no involvement or input into the songs and am delivered a final mastered copy of the song when it is released.

Proposed method for using string styles in practice

The string styles can be used at a number of junctures in the arranging process. The two points I find them most useful are the initial consultations with the songwriters, and during the process of writing and editing the arrangements. The initial consultations with the songwriter, and sometimes the producer, are to identify the creative vision for the song including any specific Presentational, Orientational, or Organisational features required from the strings. This involves a string arranger asking questions around the compositional, performance, production, semantic, and intertextual features of strings. Here is an example of some of the questions:

• Where do you want the strings to be structurally? All the way through, only in certain sections, only in the second half of the song etc. • What size / form do you want the string section to be? A solo instrument, quartet, larger ensemble, only cellos etc. • Are their any specific melodies, harmonies, or rhythmic ideas you had in mind? Or existing ideas in the song you want the strings to double or augment? • Are their any specific string techniques, timbres, or articulations you want? Arco, pizz, harmonics, etc. • What musical role / function do you want the strings to fulfill? Melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, textural, foreground, background etc. • Are there any specific sections you want the strings to feature in? Or specific sections where they need to be absent or in the background? • Do you want a lot of repetition or more of a dynamic journey for the strings?

76 • Do you have any production ideas for the strings? Close miced with a lot of definition, lots of reverb, or the use certain production effects etc. • Do you have any keywords for the vibe / mood you want for the strings? What do you want the strings to do emotionally? What are your intentions for the listener experience? • What is the song about? • Are their any reference tracks for the type of strings, string arrangement, or string sound you want? Specific songs, albums, artists, string players, arrangers, styles, production ideas etc.

The Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features are the core framework that informs my discussion with the songwriter to identify string styles for the brief. However, the language employed in the consultation does not explicitly use those terms. The reason for this is that the terms are not in common parlance. At present it is effective to identify the features with pointed questions that use musical terms but use the Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features to structure the information. The initial consultation varies depending on the songwriter and song. Two key elements that inform the approach taken in the consultation are: how much control the songwriter is willing to give the string arranger, and the training and vocabulary of the songwriter. The latter effects how you communicate with them most effectively. From the consultation I am either able to identify an appropriate style of string arrangement to fit the requirements, or can suggest a number of styles and give intertextual examples to a songwriter to refine the brief.

The string styles are also very useful during the process of writing the arrangements. The Presentational and Organisational features help to guide creative decisions about what is most appropriate for the song, how I can achieve the required Orientational features of each style, and how I can effectively situate the arrangement in the canon of intertexts. They also are useful as guidelines to inspire new ideas if I have difficultly intuitively responding to the song. Using the string styles as a set of guidelines rather than rules seems to be an effective way of writing to a brief and has enough flexibility to not inhibit creative potential. The strings styles are also used in the

77 discussions with the songwriters about modifications or adjustments to the string arrangement demo, again to enhance the process of guiding creative decisions.

78 Chapter 5: Four String Styles from Written Traditions

There are four string styles from written traditions. I have called them Western Classical, Broadcast, Experimental, and World. In broad terms, those four styles identify with Western Art music traditions. Consequently, they are all shaped by the written mode of communication because notated scores are the typical way that disciplinary knowledge has been communicated in these traditions.26 While Western Classical and Broadcast string styles have a clear and direct link to Western Art music traditions, Experimental and World string styles are not as clearly linked. Experimental strings identify with twentieth century approaches that are actively oppositional to the core of historically maintained values and practices of Western Art music. World style strings are a bridge between written and aural traditions in that they use aspects of written traditions to organise and formalise influences from aural traditions.

The influence of the written mode, specifically traditional music notation, can be seen across the compositional and performance features. String styles from written traditions tend to be reproducible with a high degree of accuracy and for this reason can feature large groups of coordinated players who perform a previously organized composition. Notation also tends to prioritise the musical information that can be accurately and meaningfully represented in this form, for example metric rhythm, equal temperament pitch, and structure though time. With meticulous notation the goal is for a performer to accurately sonify the rhythmic and pitch content written by the composer rather than ad lib or embellish the content with self-expression of new ideas (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 425 & 477 & 607; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 48). The connection to written traditions can also affect the production characteristics of string styles but this relationship is not clearly defined.27

26 Since the common practice period (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 606-608; Goodall, 2000, pp. 9-48). 27 This is likely due to the relative newness of audio recording, which means that there is less of a historical legacy of use to evidence connection between string style and production features. Additionally the rapid development of technologies and techniques, such as multi-track recording which is in favor in Popular music genre production, further complicates matters. See Zager (2011, pp. 134-135) for a brief summary of the difference between Popular, Classical, and film string recordings.

79 Western Classical string style

The Western Classical style of arrangement is based on rules established during the CPE, specifically the Baroque and Classical periods of Western Art music (1600-1820). As such, Western Classical also identifies with the institutions from which the style emerged: the monarchy, aristocracy, and church of renaissance and late feudal era Europe (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 477-478 & 605-606).

Presentational features

The Western Classical style is presented according to strict rules established during the CPE and curated through the conservatoire system. Arrangements are highly structured in that they sound notated, organized, and reproducible with a high degree of accuracy for the harmonic and rhythmic elements. Western Classical style arrangements are typically diatonic (Kostka, 2006, pp. 1-2), and use equal temperament tuning systems (Goodall, 2013, pp. 97-103; Lawson & Stowell, 1999, pp. 87-89). They use keys rather than modes (Cope, 2001, p. 1; Goodall, 2013, p. 92), and are built from a prescribed hierarchy of relationships between chords from concepts like harmonic progression and circle of fifths (Cope 2001, pp. 1-2; Goodall, 2013, pp. 86-94).28 This includes concepts like voice leading (Cope, 1997, pp. 13-14). They follow metric rules of dividing and structuring time, with all instruments conforming to identical rules of time. This includes time signature, tempo, accented groupings, and rhythm.

Musical roles like melody, harmony, and bass line often directly inform the content and function of parts. Timbre does not tend to be a feature of the melody or harmony lines in this style beyond basic articulation differences. Some examples also use era-specific techniques like Alberti bass (Power by Kanye West, Walcott by Vampire Weekend), homophony, counter melodies, and call and response like sections (1:50 Good Night by The Beatles). Arrangements can

28 I acknowledge that the chords and chord progressions of strings are customarily just a reinforcement of the chords in the songs but as Goodall (2013) points out many of the classic chord progressions developed during the seventeenth and eighteenth still feature heavily in modern Popular music (p. 88).

80 also identify with styles of specific composers from the Classical or Baroque eras, for example the outro of Dear Jessie by Madonna is reminiscent of Vivaldi.

Western Classical style arrangements encompass simple, static, and repetitive uses of musical elements through to intricate, active, and dynamic uses of them. They reflect the range of textures indicative of both Classical and Baroque eras from contrapuntal complexity, where each line or instrument has an independent melodic role, to simpler more consolidated textures where the role of instruments is to harmonize with or support a lead melody line (Goodall, 2013, pp. 83 & 120 & 124-125).

Ensemble size ranges from solo instruments to medium ensembles, though typically ensembles are small or chamber sized. This reflects the historical ensemble size and small-scale performance venues typical of the Classical era, such as large rooms in patron’s estates (Byrne, 2013, pp. 19-21). The form of ensembles also reflects the groupings that became standardised during this period such as string trios, quartets, and quintets (Pauly, 1988, pp. 157-160). Violins were the foundational instrument of many of the Baroque and Classical era ensemble compositions in Europe (McVeigh, 1992). Additionally, smaller ensembles reflect the labour implications of a shift in social order that enabled wealthy patrons to commission single works and performances – this patronage was less financially stable than of the ongoing patronage of the church or monarchy (Pauly, 1988, pp. 68-69).

Performance of the Western Classical style is controlled by established rules of aesthetic and technical rectitude which embody the meticulous relationship this style has with executing notation “correctly” (according to established conventions). Rhythms are executed strictly, which often means that the placement of notes in Western Classical style are slightly at odds with other instruments because of aesthetic differences with the groove and pocket of

81 different genres of Popular music (Zager, 2011, p. 96). Vibrato is ideally even, constant, and controlled.29

Audible position shifts and bow noises are kept to a minimum and not used as ornamentation as they are, for instance, in Folk or experimental performance. As such techniques like portamento are rarely used in favour of a more ‘pure’ tone and precise arrival and departure from notes, which became indicative of virtuosity and specific orchestral institutions in this style during the early twentieth century (Philip, 2004a, pp. 98-103 & 112-128 & 136-137; Philip, 2004b, pp. 141-204; Stowell, 2001, pp. 57-62). Ornamentation is restricted to a limited range of options such as trills, mordents, appoggiaturas, and turns (Lawson & Stowell, 1999, p. 67-70; Stowell, 2001, pp. 85-90).30 The use of ornamentation in modern Popular music through the Western Classical string style is infrequent. Articulation for this style is mostly legato, tenuto, détaché, staccato, or pizz. There is a specific articulation Presentational feature for this style, an emphasized non-legato détaché. This technique is a reflection of a prevalent historical performance practice opinion about how to perform unmarked notes in a score (Brown, 1999, pp. 168-186).31

Production aspects of the style tend to be naturalistic in respect of frequency profile and timbre. Western Classical style arrangements typically have short to medium reverbs, reflecting acoustic characteristics of typical performance venues of the Classical era (Byrne, 2013, pp. 19-21). Western Classical strings are clearly and easily identifiable as strings – and therefore often “feature” in

29 The vibrato I refer to is not historical performance practice vibrato, where it is used sparingly (Stowell, 2001, pp. 64-67), but the constant vibrato that became the norm in the early 1900s (Brown, 1999, p. 521). Theories to explain why vibrato suddenly became omnipresent include: the homogenizing influence of recorded music; the rise of famous performers; and to adapt performance to the poor conditions of un-nuanced early mechanical recording technologies (Brown, 1999, pp. 521-535; Katz, 2004, pp. 94-108; Philip, 2004a, p. 138; Philip, 2004b, pp. 205- 240) 30 Although improvised ornamentation was common in the historical eras, it eventually became more controlled by the composer via notation (Stowell, 2001, p. 87). 31 Many of these performance features are ramifications of how the recorded medium ended up homogenizing features and raising the standard for performances of music featuring stringed instruments (Phillip, 2004a; Philip, 2004b). These recordings of classical music are now major intertexts for the standard and style of current classical music performance (Phillip, 2004a, pp. 183-203).

82 sections of songs, positioned in the mid or foreground of a mix. For example She’s Leaving Home by The Beatles, Sad Lisa by Cat Stevens, Shiver Me Timbers by Tom Waits, and Disarm by The Smashing Pumpkins.

Orientational features

When placed within Popular music arrangements, the Orientational features of the Western Classical string style typically emphasise formality, seriousness, cultural gravity, and legitimacy. The style references and identifies with the values and hierarchical status of the institutions from which it historically emerges. Western Art music of the CPE was effectively a combination of Italian opera and German symphonic traditions (Denning, 2015, p. 86). Notions of formality, seriousness, and legitimacy have roots in the protracted terminological debates about divisions in European music between “higher” and “lower” forms that tend to divide music along written and aural lines of tradition (Denning, 2015; van der Merwe, 1992, pp. 15-20).

A nineteenth century classical musician was notationally literate, his music was made for members of the aristocracy or bourgeoisie, and the music is therefore on the “high” side of the high vs low art dialogue (van der Merwe, 1992, pp. 15- 18). By the twentieth century, van der Merwe (1992) argues that the classical music tradition is already defining itself by looking to the past for legitimacy: ‘[t]here was “serious”, “good”, or “classical” music, which was rapidly becoming predominantly the music of the past’ (p. 20). This aspect positions the classical tradition as separate to the other two main European traditions of Folk, and ‘parlour music’ which encorporated the “lower” forms of classical music (van der Merwe, 1992, p. 20).

The claims of high status were also inherent in early record companies’ labeling of Classical as a genre which, ‘was, initially at least, intended to grant…a deferential sheen of permanence and class, but by the 1960s it had come to mean, for many millions, simply “old-fashioned”’ (Goodall, 2013, p. 250). The divide between written and aural traditions of music making also factors into the discussion of status and legitimacy. According to Denning (2015) for early Popular music from 1910 until the 1930s, aural traditions and all improvisation

83 were synonymous in establishment circles with the term “fake” (pp. 209-212). The institutions of “formal training” for Classical music in the early period of recorded music were schools, conservatoires, armies, and apprenticeship to “master” musicians, or maestros (Denning, 2015, pp. 211-212). The character of those institutions is also responsible for the Orientational aspect of Western Classical style because they are positioned as formal, structured, serious, legitimate, and enduring social institutions related to the core of state and aesthetic authority. They are also institutions of privilege with access to compositional knowledge, instruments, funding, and performance venues.

Institutions like the church, monarchy, and aristocracy played a significant role as employers of composers and musicians of the era including: Bach, Mozart, Haydn, Lully, Handel, and Corelli (Crocker, 1966, p. 326; Goodall, 2013, pp. 79-80 & 103-108; Pauly, 1988; Stowell, 1992). Music of the Classical period typically had patrons, and was frequently performed either in custom buildings in England or the ‘grand palaces of aristocrats and princes’ in Europe (Goodall, 2013, p. 123). In its relation to church and Crown, the function of classical music was to enhance the social status of its patrons, to praise God, or both (Gardiner, 2013). While direct financial and labour links to church and monarchy are infrequent today the use of Western Classical style strings still serves to point to and reinforce the institutional provenances of the style.

Orientational aspects also extend to the people involved in executing the style because this provides contextualised evidence of attitudes and values. Arrangers and performers of the Western Classical style would need to have some level of CPE training in order to know the rules of the style and be able to execute them to a recognizable degree. This is a direct and continuing link with conservatoire institutions of music knowledge and reinforces the Orientational features of formality, seriousness, cultural gravity, and legitimacy.32

32 It was during the 17th century that ‘[Corelli’s] teaching initiated the first major school of violin playing’ (McVeigh, 1992, p. 50). The late 17th century also saw the first publications of violin- specific performance texts (Stowell, 2001, pp. 19-25).

84 Modern experiences of CPE training include formalised teaching environments and assessment of skill level via highly structured exams or competitions. Even though Lemke is referring to schools in general, his point is relevant for musical education institutions that specialize in the CPE,

The basic function of schools is to teach the literacy code, but that code is generally taught in relation to specific, highly valued written texts … which embody dominant cultural values and socially useful knowledge and discourses. In this schools only extend the general program of education: the attempt to rear each next generation to embody the beliefs and values of the last. … They do so not only through the texts they venerate and promulgate, but through the methods of teaching to which they require students to adapt. (Lemke, 1995a, p. 136).

In many CPE models of teaching and learning repertoire is the focus. This repertoire is so tightly controlled that institutions examining aptitude, such as AMEB in Australia, provide a syllabus which consists of a finite list of valued pieces which students can choose to be assessed on (AMEB, 2015).

Cultural discourse around learning instruments and employment also provides insight into Orientational aspects of the Western Classical style. Learning an instrument through a CPE-focused institution is more likely to be positioned as a potential career or a “serious” hobby. This is in direct contrast to the majority of cultural discourse around learning an instrument in a Pop music context. In today’s market, ongoing employment for a performing classical musician is increasingly hard to come by.33 The model of only a select elite being able to make a career in the classical tradition again reinforces the seriousness and status of the style. Due to the lack of employment opportunities, to be successful one has to be talented, dedicated, and from the “right” social networks. The musicians who do “make it” typically have access to unionised pay scales and job benefits in a way that is completely alien to the majority of Popular musicians.

33 A recent swing towards reinventing and reimagining Classical music traditions and Western Art music in general exemplifies both the artistic and commercial struggle of musicians to reinvigorate this tradition. A few examples of this are Topology and Ólafur Arnalds.

85 Classical traditions of music also have dedicated performance spaces and expectations of audience behavior that serve to enhance Orientational aspects of this style. Performance spaces are typically expensive; highly engineered examples of aesthetic and acoustic architecture; often located on areas of prime real estate in cities; and have a seating price structure that is a class system in itself. Despite historical Classical music performances allowing for interactive and vocal audiences, during the early part of the twentieth century the expectations of audience behavior at these venues became strict silence and full attention (Byrne, 2013, pp. 19-25).

The Western Classical style also asserts a long lineage of prestige as a legitimating style through its identification with classical traditions which were the first, or dominant, tradition connected with certain key technological innovations. One example of this is the invention of the modern violin and other members of the bowed string family during the Renaissance in Europe (Dilworth, 1992; Fletcher, 2001, p. 434; Goodall, 2013, pp. 56-57).34 The Orientational prestige can still be evidenced in the ongoing demand for original instruments that were made by, and carry the name of, famous historical instrument making houses like Stradivarius. Another example is the invention of the modern concept of notation which has its origins in the church and developed for the purpose of storing sacred music around 1000AD (Goodall, 2000, pp. 9-48).35 A final example is radio broadcasting which capitalised on and served to reinforce Orientational prestige by positioning Classical music as a high, elite, and legitimate art form (Connell & Gibson, 2004, p. 54; Goodall, 2000, pp. 212-215; Katz, 2004, p. 49).

Organisational features

Individual examples of Western Classical gain stylistic coherence through identification with the institutions of monarchy, aristocracy, and church within

34 Although there have been some functional modifications into the early 1800s (Stowell, 2001, pp. 28-51). 35 Monasteries still function as archives of sheet music from the 18th century in particular (Pauly, 1988, pp. 73-74).

86 which the style was developed, and the CPE-focused educational institutions where rules and values of the style are maintained.36 The key historical canon of intertexts for this style are from the Baroque and Classical periods of Western Art music. There are a number of modern instances of the Western Classical string style in Popular music, see appendix E for the complete list of intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis.

The earliest Popular music intertext from the corpus is Yesterday by The Beatles from 1965. The most recent intertexts from the corpus are tracks from Kanye West’s 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy of which the clearest examples are: Gorgeous, Power, All of the Lights, and Blame Game. The exemplar intertext for the Western Classical string style is Eleanor Rigby by The Beatles. It exemplifies the Presentational features of the style, and is notable for being the pivotal text that facilitated the repositioning of Popular music higher up the cultural ladder as a serious and valid art form (Graham & Luttrell, forthcoming). Kanye West’s use of Western Classical style strings is a great modern example of this same act of repositioning. For example, the use of Western Classical strings in All of the Lights serves to legitimate, or re-order the place of Hip Hop and Rap as a more serious and valid art form.

To demonstrate the coherence of this style across different song genres and modern eras I provide a brief selection of other notable intertexts. M79 by Vampire Weekend is recent example of the style and has sections where the production features treat the strings less naturalistically than is typical of the style. Through with Buzz by Steely Dan is a central example of the style from the 1970s. Something in the Way and Dumb by Nirvana feature only cello, and despite being inexpertly performed37 are examples of Western Classical string style in early 1990s Grunge. Disarm by The Smashing Pumpkins features a duo

36 This accounts for the geographical link to mostly Northern, Western, and Southern regions in Europe where these institutional structures were dominant (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 316). 37 Although atypical, it is possible for an arrangement to be of the Western Classical style and be executed by amateurs. Examples include: Dumb and All Apologies by Nirvana; I Shatter, Busby Berkley Dreams and Very Funny by Magnetic Fields. Amateur or inexpert execution of Presentational features has the potential to modify the Orientational and Organisational features of the style.

87 and is an example of the style occurring in an Alternative music genre. In the extended outro of So Much Love / Underture by Blood Sweat and Tears the Western Classical strings function as a completely separate layer to the band instruments resulting in cacophony which has interesting implications for the Orientational dimension. What a Wonderful Thing Love Is by Al Green is an ambiguous example in which the production and performance features are persuasively Western Classical but the compositional features lean towards the Broadcast style. Song for the Asking by Simon and Garfunkel is notable for being a very well crafted example and one where the performance features are more towards the Broadcast style but the string arrangement is still strongly identifying with Western Classical institutions through the compositional features.

By looking at the intertexts of Western Classical from the corpus in instances per year there are two notable spikes in presence; the late 1960s to early 1970s, and late 1990s to early 2000s. I posit that the first spike in presence is representative of the impulse that was driving Popular music to legitimate itself as a higher art, the key example of this is Eleanor Rigby in 1966 (Graham & Luttrell, forthcoming). I suspect the second spike is a reflection of sociocultural attempts to reestablish known systems of social order and hierarchy during a phase of rapid technological growth. This is evidenced by the first real boom of the Internet and the effects it had on democratizing and globalizing commerce and information.

Broadcast string style

The Broadcast string style is, I argue, the native Popular music string style. I say “native” for two reasons: 1) the style is an agnate of earlier Popular music forms, and 2) it is the most common style found in the corpus. It is based on orchestral traditions from “light music”; early Popular music, in particular 1940-1960s “Traditional Pop”; and the continuing presence of orchestral strings in music for cinema. It also identifies with traditions from the Romantic era of Western Art music (1780-1910). The name Broadcast is an abbreviation for the institutions of industrialized mass entertainment that the style emerged from and was shaped

88 by: recorded music, radio, cinema, and television. As such, this style has a deep connection to technological media, audience, and the framing of music as a commercial instrument of entertainment (Denning, 2015; Fletcher, 2001, pp. 610-615; Milner, 2009). Broadcast style strings encompass a spectrum of Presentational features, the extremes of which are: an active and dynamic use of musical elements, and a passive and static use of musical elements. Despite this, the key Orientational feature of using strings as an amplifier for emotion provides unambiguous coherence for the range of Presentational features in this style. For the purposes of this section I will discuss the features and intertexts of Broadcast as one integrated entity, except for in a few pertinent cases where highlighting the extremes is useful.

Presentational features

Broadcast style strings are composed using rules and idioms from a number of areas including CPE, Jazz, Parlour, film scoring, Popular music, and light music. This may seem like a bewildering number of influences but the key point that unites these influences of Broadcast is the expression of emotion, a direct link to the function of music in the Romantic era (Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 563-564). Broadcast arrangements typically feature medium to large ensembles that often include other orchestral instruments. This reflects the larger ensemble sizes and forms prominent in the Romantic era (Goodall, 2013, pp. 148-151; Grout & Palisca, 1996, p. 607); the large cinema orchestras of first half of the twentieth century in the United States (Marcus, 2004, p. 168; Platte, 2014; Waletzsky, 1995); and the use of orchestras as the “band” in Traditional Pop music (Everett, 2008, pp. 114-116).

Although Broadcast arrangements are key and tonic based, they feature a more prominent and sustained use of chromaticism than arrangements of the Western Classical string style. The chromaticism identifies with a trend in the Romantic era that attempted to push the expressive potential of harmonic complexity (Cope, 1997, pp. 15-17; Crocker, 1966, p. 448; Goodall, 2013, pp. 158-159 & 198- 200; Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 563-691). It also reflects the influence of the Romantic era on the twentieth century through more complex harmony in Jazz

89 and Popular forms, the reembracing of Folk idioms, and more (Denning, 2015, pp. 222; Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 765-770; van der Merwe, 1992, pp. 243-266; Waletzky, 1995).

An important feature in Broadcast is the wide pitch range in both melody and harmony, and the manipulation of range and register through dramatic changes for expressive effect (Grout & Palisca, 1996, p. 580; Machin, 2010, pp. 177-178). For strings this is particularly apparent in fast scalic runs that often signal structural changes in the song; the use of higher registers in choruses; and an overall expansion of pitch range as the song progresses. For example, Iris by The Goo Goo Dolls. Frequently there is an emphasis on strings in the high register, either as single pitches or tight harmonies. For example Oh Love, Well We Finally Made It by Barry White, Jealous Guy by John Lennon (choruses), Roy Rodgers by Elton John (choruses), Nobody Loves Me Like You Do by Whitney Houston. There is heavy use of dramatically manipulative musical techniques at structural transitions and emotional hit points. Typically this involves flourish gestures, scales, choruses in higher registers, and accents, for example Isobel by Björk. Flourishes in particular, connect the Broadcast style to both Romantic era compositions and film scores (Goodall, 2013, p. 174).

Broadcast still follows CPE metric rules of dividing and structuring time but often approaches it less rigidly, using rubato where possible. This is a nod to both live performance and Romantic era expressivity. It also reflects cinema scores that often have to follow the rhythms of film editing rather than more consistent tempos of pure music (Waletzky, 1995). Rubato is more prevalent in the early examples of Broadcast as later examples of songs became increasingly likely to have been tracked to a click. An early example featuring extensive rubato is I Get Along Without You Very Well by Frank Sinatra. Arrangements of this style sound notated and reproducible with accuracy, which is largely implied by the coordination of such large ensembles.

The role of strings in Broadcast style ranges from a chordal or textural pad in the simpler form of this style, to active melody or harmony lines often with complex rhythms and lots of subdivisions. However, the common theme is that strings

90 stay out of the way of main vocals. In the passive form strings often have more complex harmonies but less complex rhythmic information and no real melody, for example Roads by Portishead. In the more active form, it is typical of the rhythmically and melodically active string parts to occur in the gaps between vocal lines. The other very common solution is to write the active lines as unison or octave unison which limits the harmonic complexity. In fact, some Broadcast style arrangements consist solely of the unison line, for example What’s Going On by Marvin Gaye and Walk on the Wild Side by Lou Reed. The relationship dynamic which prioritizes vocals with the instruments providing support has provenance in: Alfred Newman film scores (Marcus, 2004, pp. 177-180); styles of Opera and Lied in the nineteenth century (Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 625-651); Broadway and Hollywood Musicals (Goodall, 2013, pp. 265-266); and the widely accepted technique of only using simple musical information under words you want a listener to focus on (Waletzky, 1995).

Performance features of Broadcast also center on the idea of emotional expressivity, this basically manifests as an exaggeration of CPE standards of good performance, tuning, and timing. Included in this is the approach to and execution of dynamics, vibrato, accents, ornaments, and articulation.38 There is a high level of virtuosity in performances for this style, often because the compositional features are difficult to play, for example fast ensemble unison flourishes and melodies. Vibrato is also an exaggerated version that is generally faster but also variable in speed for expression (Brown, 1999, pp. 545-550). The result is a very lush and dramatic vibrato. A frequent use of legato articulation in this style results in a liquidity of the performance of melody and harmony lines. Other articulation includes thick pizzicato (pizz con vib), tenuto, staccato, and marcato. In the more melodic string lines there is frequent use of exaggerated accents and articulation to emphasize the lines.

Portamento is often used to highlight position changes, especially large ones, to emphasise expressive qualities in the same way that it became commonly used

38 See Milsom & Da Costa (2014) for a discussion of expressiveness and links to oration in historical performance practice during the 19th century

91 by the mid 1800s (Brown, 1999, pp. 564-565). There is a particular type of fast portamento between position changes that frequently features in Broadcast, for example We’ll Be Together Again by Frank Sinatra and Please Call Me, Baby by Tom Waits. Similarly, this reflects the use of portamento during the Romantic era (Stowell, 2001, pp. 60-62). There is also a string imitation of the big band brass articulation “Fall Off”, for example Don’t Stop ‘Til You Get Enough by Michael Jackson and I’m Glad You’re Mine by Al Green.

Production features of Broadcast tend to emphasize medium to large reverbs, which helps to blur aural identification of individual instruments as well as facilitate a richer timbral function for strings. For example, I’ve Seen That Movie Too by Elton John, All at Once by Whitney Houston, and The Power of Good-Bye by Madonna. Strings can range from easily identifiable causally to very blended into the mix of instruments. They can be anywhere from foreground to background in the mix, although the function of them is typically “supportive” to mood and narrative no matter where they sit in the mix.

Orientational features

The Orientational features of Broadcast string style typically emphasise emotion, drama, beauty, and often artistry and glamorousness. Broadcast identifies with the institutions of broadcast entertainment that flourished in the early twentieth century, but this style has earlier historical roots through its identification with music from the Romantic era of Western Art music.

The Romantic era was a departure from earlier eras in its new take on the purpose of music, and how best to express it:

If “Romantic” still means anything specific in the history of music, it best refers to a period when the composer’s or performer’s personal emotions, or sentiment, became paramount in the dialogue between music and audience. (Goodall, 2013, p. 144)

By focusing on the communication of emotion, music of the Romantic era became more about expression of the self and the self’s relationship to the world than an art form through which to praise God or honor a wealthy or courtly patron

92 (Goodall, 2013, p. 144). In order to express this new emotional music there was an expansion of degrees in the use of Presentational features, this enabled dramatic changes by providing a more diverse musical pallet of options. An example of this is the expansion in the size of the symphony:

The Romantic taste for monumentality and expressivity demanded still more volume, more brilliance, more color, and more variety. (Hanning & Grout, 1998, p. 381)

A key idea of the Romantic era was that music itself could express and communicate emotion (Hanning & Grout, 1998, p. 373).

Around this time a strong and direct connection between music and narrative re- emerges, in particular using music to help communicate and enhance the emotional and dramatic journey of a story. The connection to narrative can be seen in the prevalence of historical forms, both with and without vocals. Examples of this are the Romantic era ballads of Shubert, Schumann, and Brahms; symphonic poem of Lizst in particular; leitmotif of Wagner in particular; program music; Grand Opera; Opéra Comique; and Lyric Opera (Goodall, 2013, pp. 171-175; Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 614-619 & 645-647 & 564 & 626-629). It is this connection to narrative and emotion that clearly makes orchestral film music an Organisational intertext for Broadcast style strings,

In its purest form, the symphonic poem style is what orchestral film music grew out of in the 1920s and ‘30s, its job to support and describe something outside music. (Goodall, 2013, p. 172)

Lietmotif is defined as, ‘a musical theme or motive associated with a particular person, thing, emotion, or idea in the drama’ (Grout & Palisca, 1996, p. 645). As a compositional device it is clearly connected to techniques in the film music canon (Machin, 2010, p. 155). As an example scores by early film music composers like Alfred Newman are often described in terms of lietmotif (Marcus, 2004, p. 179). The Orientational aspect of drama also influences the structure of Presentational features to be more narrative-like. By that I mean they have more development through the work instead of relying on repetition of earlier sections as was popular in forms that dominate earlier eras.

93 A key Orientational difference between Broadcast and Western Classical style strings comes from the global changes to patronage and audience that took place from the 1800s onwards. Up until then, patronage had revolved around the church, monarchy, and aristocracy but increasingly the model became ‘the freelance composer’ (Goodall, 2013, p. 135). Alongside this, the industrial revolution of the late 1700s had led to more time for recreation in daily life and a mass audience who were looking to music as a form of entertainment (Grout & Palisca, 1996, p. 626; Hanning & Grout, 1998, p. 412). The development of industrialized mass entertainment institutions like cinema, radio, and recorded music enabled even larger populist mass audiences (Crocker, 1996, pp. 484-485; Denning, 2015, p. 72; Marcus, 2004, p. 172; Tomka, 2013, pp. 244-248). Whilst the Western Classical string style was allowed to continue as “serious” music a splinter faction of “light music” emerges from these populist traditions.

The populist traditions are more flexible to absorb influences outside of the Western Art music canon and frequently end up functioning as entertainment, performed in locations such as hotel ballrooms, even though the Presentational features of Western Classical and Broadcast strings share many aural similarities (Denning, 2015, pp. 83 & 103-107 & 193; Goodall, 2013, pp. 251-253). Therefore whilst Western Classical strings are emphasizing aspects such as formality and seriousness, the Broadcast string style - whose primary function is entertainment - is characterized by Orientational aspects that are more focused on dramatization and emotional journey.39

Examining the workforce in the intertextual traditions from early Popular music helps to contextualize the Orientational aspects of Broadcast strings that emphasize artistry and glamour. First, it is in the light populist tradition that we start to see the emergence of the ‘violin-based “universal orchestra”’ (Denning, 2015, p. 193). This is evidence that the commercial Popular music tradition is

39 See Timm (2014) for a discussion of the function of film music, which largely mirrors the Broadcast connection to emotion and narrative journey.

94 orchestral and can be seen in the early intertexts from the corpus including albums by Frank Sinatra and Ray Charles.40

Second, prior to “sound films” a large number of musicians were employed in live orchestras to accompany films. Even though in latter years the number of live jobs reduced dramatically, the large Hollywood studios still employed large orchestras and frequently paid better than other avenues of employment for orchestral musicians (Marcus, 2004, pp. 167-172; Platte, 2014). Additionally the ongoing and increasing dominance of conservatoire institutions as the educational locus for strings had a number of interesting effects on the development of Presentational features, for example transference of portamento from solo to orchestral forms:

But it seems highly likely that by the middle years of the [19th] century it was becoming an established and accepted practice in many orchestras. This was undoubtedly hastened and institutionalized by the proliferation of conservatoire training, which prepared violinists to be soloists (for whom portamento was an essential expressive device) even though their careers would mostly be spent as orchestral players. (Brown, 1999, p. 564)

Finally, is the direct connection to spheres of both Art music and Jazz through the composers, orchestrators, and conductors hired to work in the heyday of cinematic orchestral music such as: Nelson Riddle, Max Steiner, Ennio Morricone, Aaron Copland, Erich Korngold, and Alfred Newman (Mancini, 1986; Marcus, 2004, pp. 165-190; Morricone, Miceli & Anderson, 2013; Riddle, 1985; Waletzky, 1995). It is through these connections to a highly trained workforce that the Orientational aspects of artistry and aesthetic are grounded.41

40 I suggest that the use of the orchestra is due, in large part, to the lack of other timbral options when arranging and orchestrating songs. Options like synthesis were not yet invented, available, or “accepted” as sound sources. The use of the orchestra, as a form which cited cultural baggage to an Art music tradition, is also likely to be a way of making early Popular music more accessible to people who held Art music traditions in esteem. 41 I have not even mentioned the use in film of actual works from Romantic era and twentieth century from classical composers like Tchaikovsky, Ravel, Holst, and Mahler. See Kalinak (2014, pp. 615-616) for specific non-Hollywood Art music composers.

95 The Orientational aspect of beauty comes from reference to the tradition of Western Art music. In order for something to be “beautiful” it has to fulfill the aesthetic requirements set by the context, which includes genre and historical setting. Broadcast string styles do this with direct reference to the Romantic era of Western Art music. Interestingly the idea of aesthetic, in particular the quest to uncover natural universal laws of musical beauty, is predominately a European obsession (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 476-477 & 687-692). The film industry, and Hollywood in particular, was responsible for formalizing a new language of meaning in music through the standardization of cue sheets for live film accompaniment which provided Presentational, Orientational, and specific intertextual examples drawn from amongst other places the Western Art music canon (Kalinak, 2014, p. 615; Machin, 2010, p. 155; Marcus, 2004, pp. 165-166; Waletzky, 1995). In these cue sheets the links between Presentational and Orientational features were often a direct use of idioms from the Western Art music canon (Kalinak, 2014, p. 615).

Organisational features

Broadcast arrangements gain stylistic coherence through their identification with institutions of industrialized mass entertainment. In particular, how these institutions have refined Presentational and Orientational features from the Romantic era of Western Art music. The historical canon for this style includes intertexts such as Fantasy Overture from Romeo and Juliette by Tchaikovsky. More recently orchestral Hollywood film scores provide a cinematic canon of intertexts. Of significance are the works of three composers from the first half of the twentieth century: Max Steiner, Erich Korngold, and Alfred Newman (Marcus, 2004, p. 169; Timm, 2014; Waletzky, 1995). Newman is credited as pioneering the “Newman string sound” (Waletzky, 1995; Timm, 2014, p. 107) which is a very lush and expressive style of strings that is a direct Organisational reference for Broadcast style strings.

Early orchestral Traditional Pop music also provides a canon of intertexts for this style, through artists such as Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, and Patti Page. The earliest examples from the corpus were twelve songs from Frank

96 Sinatra’s In the Wee Small Hours album from 1955, all arranged by Nelson Riddle. The song This Love of Mine is of particular note for three reasons: the instrumentation is just the orchestra and singer, typical of instrumentation at this time in Pop music; it has a good mix of chordal and more melodic gestures; and is typical of production and performance features for this style. The latest examples are from two albums from 2007. Nude and Reckoner from Radiohead’s In Rainbows album are both good examples of a newer trend that uses production to heavily blend Broadcast style strings into the overall song texture. Amy Winehouse’s Back to Black album features a number of instances: Rehab, Back to Black, Love is a Losing Game, and Tears Dry on Their Own. Winehouse’s whole album is a very deliberate reference to earlier styles of music and production aesthetic. The strings on it are a good example of distilling the essence of Broadcast style into a recognizable entity that is executable with a smaller ensemble than typical of the style (17 players in credits). Of note is the title track Back to Black. For the complete list of all Broadcast string style intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis see appendix F.

There are a number of songs from the aural analysis that are central examples of Broadcast style strings. Here are five exemplars which represent the variety of approaches in Broadcast style: Life on Mars by David Bowie, Long and Winding Road by The Beatles, The Dangling Conversation by Simon and Garfunkel, Roads by Portishead, and At Last by Etta James. At Last is the emblematic example for Broadcast: it is a mixture of the active and passive approaches to Presentational features, and more generally it is very famous and pervasive as a Popular music intertext.

Other notable examples of Broadcast strings feature in a number of subgenres of music and demonstrate how Broadcast strings are a functional tool to emphasise the Orientational aspects of emotion and drama in Popular song. Two examples of how this can be achieved with a less active approach to the Presentational features are: Imagine by John Lennon and Unfinished Sympathy by Massive Attack. Four examples of how this can be achieved with a more active approach to the Presentational features are: Perfect Day by Lou Reed, I Can't Believe You Love Me by Barry White, Back Stabbers by The O’Jays, and Don’t Stop ‘Til You Get

97 Enough by Michael Jackson. Look What you Have Done for Me and One of These Good Old Days by Al Green are an example of how to achieve Broadcast string style with an ensemble that is smaller that typical of Presentational features. Hyperballad by Björk is a good example of Broadcast strings that use their Orientational aspect of drama and emotion to shape the journey of what is essentially an electronic song in the Folktronica or Acid House subgenre.

By looking at the intertexts from the corpus for Broadcast string style in instances per year there is a consistent trend of usage from 1955-1979, with a spike in presence around 1969-1974. From 1982 there are considerably fewer instances of Broadcast style per year with a few exceptions including 1985, 2002, and 2007. As I infer in previous research the 1980s saw a dramatic decrease in the popularity of strings in Popular music instrumentation more generally (Luttrell & Graham, forthcoming). I posit that the trend of the 1980s, which saw electronic instruments and synthesisers come to dominate a lot of the instrumentation combinations in Popular music, was particularly detrimental to the popularity of Broadcast style strings. I propose that these new non-acoustic timbres were symptomatic of an era where Popular music was disillusioned with nostalgia and on a quest for something new. Therefore Broadcast strings, which had been a mainstay of acoustic Popular music expression for decades, suddenly fell out of favour. For context, the 1980s also saw what was really the advent of the modern use of digital recording technology in music and including CDs as a distribution medium (Byrne, 2013, pp. 123-143; Chanan, 1995, p. 167; Milner, 2009, pp. 185-236).

Experimental string style

The Experimental string style is an umbrella term for a diverse spectrum of arrangements based on ideas and practices from twentieth century Western Art music and a selection of twentieth century Popular music. Experimental style belongs to a legacy of counter-institutional discourse that identifies with the institutions from Western Classical and Broadcast style strings but positions itself, Orientationally, in opposition to them. The name “Experimental” refers to the choice and usage of Presentational features that would be considered as

98 outside the scope of musical function, role or expression that is dictated by the historical norms from CPE traditions.42

Presentational features

Experimental string style is the least aurally cohesive of the string styles, due in large part to the wide range of Presentational features that it comprises. However, there is a conceptual cohesiveness in the usage of Presentational features. Fundamentally this is about challenging composition, performance, and production features that are typical of the CPE identifying string styles, Western Classical and Broadcast. As such I will frame the discussion of Presentational features for the Experimental style in broader descriptions than in other styles. This will help to call attention to the conceptual cohesion and compensate for the small number of Experimental arrangements identified in the corpus.

It is worth mentioning a concept that gained momentum in the early twentieth century in order to ground the discussion of Presentational features’ conceptual cohesion in the sociocultural context. The concept centers on expanding the definition of music to include sound and noise, and was championed by composers such as Russolo, Varèse, Cowell, and Cage (Cox & Warner, 2004, pp. 3-61). In more general terms, this idea spoke to a fascination with and focus on timbre and texture present in twentieth century Western Art music (Cope, 2001, pp. 33-76; Kostka, 2006, pp. 222-244; Simms, 1996, pp. 101-120).

Compositional features of the Experimental style include strings that are not bound by traditional musical roles or functions, for example rhythm, melody, or harmony. Experimental arrangements often perform a textural role, but expand the definition of texture to include sound and noise. For example, Black Angel’s

42 I acknowledge the term “Experimental” is often used to define and describe a movement of Art music that includes work from composers such as John Cage and Morton Feldman (Cope, 2001, pp. 103-129; Nyman, 1999). Nyman (1999) defines “experimental” as separate from “avant- garde”, the latter ‘is conceived and executed along the well-trodden but sanctified path of the post-Renaissance tradition’ (p. 1). Using Nyman’s definition, avant-garde is a clear instance of counter-institutional discourse because it is directly connected to the knowledge of workings in the Western Art music tradition. My use of the string style term “Experimental” covers both of these Art music movements, along with a selection of other twentieth century Art music and Popular music subgenres. All of which are united in their Orientational function of being resistant to the dominant rules established and maintained by CPE institutional traditions.

99 Death Song by The Velvet Underground, Heroin by The Velvet Underground (5:00-6:40), Neighbourhood #4 (7 Kettles) by Arcade Fire (most verses), Legs by PJ Harvey (instrumental bridge), Pyramid Song by Radiohead (intro), and Sky Saw by Brian Eno (2:52-end). To achieve the noisy texture many of these arrangements feature heavy use of harmonics and artificial harmonics, often played by large groups of string players in a seemingly unstructured way.

Experimental arrangements also have a much weaker connection to specific ensemble forms and sizes than other string styles and can range from solo instruments to large ensembles. Although Experimental has provenance in written traditions of music, its oppositional stance is often reflected in the subversion or disposal of traditional notation. This can be evidenced in arrangements that feature musical elements and effects difficult to prescribe and regulate with traditional notation.43 An effect of this is that Presentational features often sound disordered or chaotic because their occurrence in time does not rely on the metric divisions and approaches to structuring time inherent in traditional notation.44 For example Five Years by David Bowie (4:08-20) features strings that seem to function independently of each other and the time world of the song.

Experimental arrangements often push or dispose of the boundary between consonance and dissonance. The use of this approach identifies Experimental with specific twentieth century Art music movements such as post tonal music (Fielding & Helmcke, 2014; Kostka, 2011) and sound mass or micropolyphony (Cope, 2001, pp. 33-39; Cope, 1997, pp. 101-108; Kostka, 2006, p. 239). Examples of the approach include: Man-Size – Sextet by PJ Harvey, Old Friends by Simon and Garfunkel (many examples from 1:52-2:22), A Day in The Life by The

43 A frustration that inspired many twentieth century composers to experiment with new forms of notation (Cope, 2001, pp. 39-41). 44 Not to say that highly structured and notationally prescriptive pieces can’t sound aurally chaotic but that is the more emblematic of the avant-garde movement (Nyman, 1999). There is also a significant tradition in Western Art music, ‘toward less control by the composer and more creative responsibility for the performer’ (Kostka, 2006, p. 284). This can be seen in indeterminacy and aleatory, and also the rise of graphic scores and new notational systems to cope with these new demands (Cope, 2001, pp. 77-101; Cope, 1997, pp. 150-167; Kostka, 2006, pp. 284-300).

100 Beatles (1:55 and 3:58), and How to Disappear Completely by Radiohead (5:03- 23).

Performance features of Experimental arrangements are closely tied to the compositional features through the focus on timbre, for example the use of extended instrumental techniques (Cope, 2001, pp. 49-59; Kostka, 2006, pp. 222- 223). Extended techniques include those that ‘require the performer to use an instrument in a manner outside of traditionally established norms’ (Burtner, 2005).45 String styles that identify with and uphold CPE norms mainly use arco or pizzicato in forms that prioritize the pitch component above the unpitched component of the sound. Therefore, extended techniques include things like harmonics, scratch tone, extreme sul ponticello, snap pizzicato, and col legno battuto (Kostka, 2006, pp. 225-227). For example, the use of col legno battuto in Machinery of the Heavens by Patrick Watson, and Grace by Jeff Buckley (3:41-48).

The use of portamento and glissando in the Experimental style is typically quite extreme in that it covers large pitch ranges, is performed slowly, and features in arrangements for extended periods of time.46 For example: Slipstream by Jethro Tull (0:51-end), Moonage Daydream by David Bowie (3:54-end), Climbing Up The Walls by Radiohead (3:51-4:05), and The Modern Adventures of Plato, Diogenes and Freud by Blood, Sweat and Tears (2:51-57). The use of extensive portamento and glissando is a reflection of a twentieth century Western Art music trend that reimagined the equal temperament scale as a pitch continuum (Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 750-753).

Production features of this style are extremely diverse. Arrangements can feature naturalistic production, for example Man-Size – Sextet by PJ Harvey, Slipstream by Jethro Tull, and Old Friends by Simon and Garfunkel. Arrangements can also use extensive production techniques to disguise or blend the strings into

45 Burtner (2005) acknowledges that this definition relies on establishing the context in which these norms operate, including genre and historical contexts. He goes on to suggest that current definitions of extended techniques may be clarified by considering which techniques are missing from instrumental education offered by specific institutions. 46 Portamento and glissando are not a feature of the Western Classical style but these techniques feature in Broadcast as short and fast gestures used to highlight drama.

101 a mix so that they are difficult to causally identify. Often this is compounded by the use of string timbres that are less causally evident, and through the use of electric stringed instruments instead of acoustic ones. Experimental arrangements that feature extensive production manipulation use a range of approaches including: effects, processing, editing, equalisation, reverb, and volume. Examples of production manipulation include: Lady Godiva’s Operation by The Velvet Underground, All I Need by Radiohead, Love Is Like a Bottle of Gin by Magnetic Fields, and Idioteque by Radiohead. Although the production features of Experimental arrangements are very diverse they reflect an historical trend, initiated by early electronic music, for the manipulation and experimentation with texture and timbre through electronic processes (Kostka, 2006, pp. 245-263).

Orientational features

Experimental style string arrangements in Popular music typically emphasise the Orientational aspects of strangeness, challenge, dissent, being confrontational, and tension. They also frequently emphasise chaos and “other”. Those Orientational aspects rely on counter-institutional discourse which establishes a heteroglossic relationship (Lemke, 1995a, pp. 37-57) with the pro- institutional discourses of Western Classical and Broadcast string styles. Lemke explains the relationship between discourse, intertexts, Presentational and Orientational aspects:

Each of these communities has its own Discourses, and reads any text in relation to its own system of intertextuality, which in turn embodies its own beliefs and evaluative attitudes. … We will see that in most cases it is not necessary to know a particular intertext in order to interpret the text we are reading: any (cothematic) intertext of the relevant discourse formation will probably do just as well. It is the relevant thematic patterns we need to be familiar with, and the value stances associated with them by particular social discourse voices. (Lemke, 1995a, p. 45).

102 Thus the Presentational features of the string styles provide insight into the Orientational aspects in relation to the intertextual canon specific to each discourse.

Many of the Presentational features of Experimental arrangements are evidence of institutionalised knowledge of the rules and conventions of Western Art music traditions. However, there is a different Orientational stance in that Experimental challenges, subverts, or renounces those institutional rules through the selection and use of Presentational features. The challenge to traditional ideas and rules of music directly connects Experimental style to a wave of composers in the 1960-1970s whose experimentation ‘seem[s] to many musicians to push the limits of what can be called “music”’ (Kostka, 2006, p. 297). Here lies a paradox at the heart of the workforce for this style; to be truly oppositional you have to know the rules in order to know how, and why, to break them.

For Experimental arrangements that use Presentational features to overtly reference the twentieth century Western Art music canon, there are also Orientational aspects of elitism, intellectualism, and cerebral rather than emotional expression. The elitism and intellectualism stem from the social and financial contexts that facilitated the development of twentieth century Western Art music and the employment of its composers.

Meanwhile the ‘big’ international names among classical composers of the 1960s – Oliver Messiaen, …Morton Feldman, …Krzysztof Penderecki, … John Cage, … György Ligeti, Igor Stravinsky – had what one might call a Sunday- supplement visibility: their new works were reviewed and discusses in the broadsheets, large cultural institutions commissioned them, publically funded radio stations played them, universities studied them, but the general public was largely unaware of, and uninterested in, their music. (Goodall, 2013, pp. 313- 314)

The relationship between intellectualism and twentieth century Art music was clear in North America during this time with universities acting as patrons for a large number of composers (Crocker, 1966, p. 486; Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp.

103 784-788). Their compositions were typically unable to attain any real commercial success and the safety net that university patronage provided - from having to please the populace to survive financially - made room for challenging and esoteric music to become fashionable, which in turn often limited the audiences even further (Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 785 & 803).

To explain the Orientational aspect of strangeness it is necessary to contextualise the Presentational features. Experimental arrangements often feature things like noise, a post tonal approach to tonality, a non-metric approach to time, and extended instrumental techniques. Even though many of these concepts and techniques are in fairly standard usage in a number of contexts, they still have the power to signify strange or “other” in Popular music. Especially when enacted by strings, for example Radiohead’s Johnny Greenwood cites Penderecki when explaining the string arrangement for Climbing Up the Walls (Sweeting, 1997). The power of strangeness and “other” is dependent on how uncommon the Presentational features are in the context. That is to say if Experimental becomes a popular and prevalent string style in Popular music, and more Popular music more generally starts using Presentational features from the experimental subsets of twentieth century Art music, the Orientational aspects for this string style will change.47

The findings of the corpus suggest that the Experimental string style is far more likely to be used in combination with other string styles. It features in just over three times the amount of combination styles as it does single styles (see appendix A). One reason for this could be that the Orientational aspect of strange through a whole song is too excessive for the majority of songs and artists in Popular music. Another reason could be that juxtaposing Experimental with other less strange styles, for instance Broadcast, emphasizes the Orientational aspect through contrast. This is an area for future research.

47 For a discussion of how Orientational features can change over time through use see Cope’s (2001) example of twentieth century Art music (pp. 197-210).

104 Organisational features

Experimental arrangements establish stylistic coherence by identifying with the institutions of Western Classical and Broadcast style strings, but positioning themselves oppositionally as counter-institutional discourse. A major historical canon of intertexts for this style are from twentieth century Western Art music. In particular, movements that actively challenged the dominant institutional rules and assumptions about musical function and expression such as: experimental, avant-garde, post tonal music, and futurism. String-specific historical intertexts include Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima by Penderecki and Atmosphères by Ligeti.

Experimental arrangements also identify with a selection of twentieth century Popular music including Avant-Garde and Free Jazz, and the countercultural movements in Popular music that gained momentum during the 1960s - which include artists such as Frank Zappa and The Velvet Underground.48 There is a direct connection to The Velvet Underground through the violist John Cale, who features in a number of the intertexts for Experimental string style: Lady Godiva’s Operation by The Velvet Underground, Black Angel’s Death Song by The Velvet Underground, Heroin by The Velvet Underground, and Sky Saw by Brian Eno. For the complete list of all Experimental string style intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis see appendix G.

The earliest instances of Experimental arrangements from the corpus are from 1967: A Day in the Life by The Beatles, Black Angel’s Death Song by The Velvet Underground, and Heroin by The Velvet Underground. To put this in context, the ‘“long sixties” … also reflected a general pattern of emancipation efforts and challenge to established authorities and social hierarchies’ (Tomka, 2013, p. 429). The most recent example is Radiohead’s All I Need from 2007. There are three key intertexts that cover the range of Presentational features for this style: Man-Size – Sextet by PJ Harvey, Moonage Daydream by David Bowie (3:53-end),

48 Although strings do not feature as a strong instrumental component in all of these historical intertexts, the spirit of experimentation with sound and noise rather than focusing on the sound source ties them to the canon of intertexts.

105 and Black Angel’s Death Song by The Velvet Underground. Each of these exemplars feature different ensemble sizes, compositional ideas, and approaches to production. For other notable intertexts see the examples in the Presentational subheading.

World string style

World style strings are based on practices from Western Art music that are overtly influenced by Folk traditions and non-Western styles. Arrangements in this style are not clearly associated with a specific geo-cultural tradition, hence the name “World”. This style bridges written and aural traditions by using Presentational influences from aural traditions, but crafting and structuring them using Western Art music techniques, arrangers, and performers.49 The institutions for World strings are: industrialized mass entertainment in particular recorded music (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 45), and institutions that provide insight into social order in the discourses around nationalism and globalism.

Presentational features50

The compositional features of World style strings use Western Art music techniques, particularly those also used in Broadcast style, to structure arrangements. World style typically features medium to large ensembles. There is a high level of coordination in and between all strings in the arrangements that imply that they were notated to some extent.

The musical role of strings in World style is typically a mix of textural, harmonic, and melodic. A textural role is achieved through sustained chordal sections, for example the following arrangements are mostly textural Round the Bend by Beck and River Man by Nick Drake. When performing harmonic and melodic roles the

49 I wish to acknowledge the problematic area of cultural appropriation, and reinforce that this style reworks influences to an extent that they are new material. 50 See Luttrell (2013) for a detailed analysis of intertextual features of this style evidenced in a small number of works: Round the Bend by Beck and River Man by Nick Drake; and Paper Tiger by Beck and Melody by Serge Gainsbourg.

106 strings have an interactive relationship with the vocals, in a way that is more deliberate and equal than Broadcast style. Examples of this include: Paper Tiger by Beck and Melody by Serge Gainsbourg. Melodic phrases tend to feature unison or octave unison. Examples of this include: Dollars & Cents by Radiohead (3:02- 4:10), Paper Tiger by Beck (a clear example at 3:31-4:00), and Moonlight Mile by The Rolling Stones (3:38-4:00 despite one errant cello gesture). Melodic phrases can solely feature the unison line. However, they also frequently split the string ensemble in two, establishing an interactive and often call and response relationship between the two halves of the ensemble. For a clear example of this see Paper Tiger by Beck (3:11-31). As a result, melodic phrases are often quite fragmented and vary throughout each section of the song as well as through the song in general.

The tonality, rhythms, articulation, and performance of World arrangements are typically where the influence of Folk and non-Western elements present. Tonality accounts for scales, modes, chord voicings, and note choices for harmony and melody that are outside or atypical of the approaches in the diatonic Western Classical style and the chromatic Broadcast style. This often includes an approach to intonation that is atypical of equal temperament compositions and performances, for example notes often dwell just outside of the “middle” of the pitch.

A principle Presentational feature of World arrangements is the extensive use of ornamentation and articulation that are atypical in Western Art music traditions. The ornamentation and articulation used in World should not clearly be part of any specific geo-cultural string playing traditions or it should be a tightly woven collection of them. A specific example of World ornamentation is portamento between notes – to the extent that “slides” is a more appropriate term. World slides occupy the territory between Broadcast and Experimental manifestations of portamento: they are prominent when used and not throwaway gestures; they are often slower than in Broadcast; but they are also structured or controlled unlike in Experimental. In fact World slides are more similar to the approach to portamento in Euro Folk and Eastern Classical styles. Slides feature prominently in all but one example of World from the corpus. Some specific examples include:

107 Let it Down by George Harrison (1:52 and 3:12), Moonlight Mile by The Rolling Stones (choruses in particular), Pyramid Song by Radiohead (clear example at 1:50-2:24), and Jigsaw Falling into Place by Radiohead (3:11-46). If the Presentational features discussed in this paragraph are not clear or present enough, arrangements can be ambiguous as to whether they belong to World or Broadcast style. Similarly if the Presentational features are too geo-culturally specific then it can be ambiguous as to whether the arrangement belongs to World style or one of the aural styles.

Production features of World are similar to Broadcast in that they tend to use medium to large reverbs as a way to unify the timbres and textures of the ensemble. For example Dollars & Cents by Radiohead. World arrangements often feature naturalistic production but can also be quite heavily manipulated using equalisation and effects. In some cases the production of the strings changes dramatically throughout the song, an example of this is Round the Bend by Beck.

Orientational features

The Orientational aspects typically emphasized by World style arrangements include foreign, exotic, “other”, dramatic, and virtuosic. I do not intend to enter into discussion about how “normative” assumptions imply value judgments which is a big feature of historical ethnocentric views, particularly those of European Art music practitioners to non-Western musics (Bohlman, 2002, pp. 36-39; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, pp. 3-4). Rather my point is thus: “other” is a functional concept – if something is not typically of a thing it is inherently outside of, or alternate to, that thing. This is the spirit in which I intend the use of the terms “foreign” and “exotic”, to mean different or unusual from a specifically and self-conscious Western perspective. The only value aspect here is that if something is less common it is often valuable due to its “otherness”.51 I will

51 This research in on Western RPM. I am writing this as an Australian cellist who was classically trained but has also had a tertiary education that predominately focused on Western Popular music, and Art and experimental music from the nineteenth century onwards. Thus the functional “other” for this project is anything outside of the main Western Art music and Popular music canons.

108 expand on this in more detail later in a discussion of the Organisational aspects of discourses around nationalism and globalism.

The Orientational aspects of foreign, exotic, and “other” stem from the usage of certain Presentational features in certain contexts. First, World arrangements are atypical in that they are not a common string style in the context of RPM (see appendix A). Second, they are atypical in that they do not identify with the Western Art music tradition as compellingly as Western Classical, Broadcast, or even Experimental arrangements do. Third, unlike the aural string styles - Anglo Folk, Euro Folk, and Eastern Classical - World arrangements consist of combinations of Presentational features that when used together do not decisively identify with specific geo-cultural traditions of string playing. Experimental arrangements share the Orientational aspect of “other” but unlike World, which gestures to “otherness” in sociocultural terms, Experimental gestures to “otherness” as abstraction.

The World Orientational aspects of dramatic and virtuosic have much in common with those same aspects of the Broadcast style. The dramatic is provided by the identification with Broadcast in terms of the expansion of expressive techniques, the connection to narrative, and the motivation for music to be a vehicle of emotional expression. Performances are of a high quality in this style, judging by both Western Art music criteria and RPM criteria. The implication is that this style requires highly skilled players to execute: this is reinforced by compositional features that frequently include gestures that are difficult to play. The highly skilled players are likely not only to be trained in CPE traditions but also to have some degree of training in aural traditions of music. This is particularly evident in the ornamentation and articulation that are a primary feature of World arrangements. Therefore, the Orientational aspect of virtuosic reflects the blend of written and aural tradition training that enables the successful execution of this style.

Organisational features

World style arrangements are a mixture of Western Art music, Folk music, and non-Western traditions. Instances of World gain stylistic coherence through

109 institutional identification with two areas. The first is recorded music: in particular the boom in electrical recording between 1925-1930 (Denning, 2015), and affordable cassettes in the 1970s (Fletcher, 2001, p. 612). The second is discourses around nationalism and globalism; in particular the relationship between Folk music traditions and Western Art music movements like exoticism, which gained popularity in the late 1800s (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 456-479; Grout & Palisca, 1996, pp. 665-677; Kostka, 2006, pp. 164-172). Both of these institutional connections are examples of how vernacular musics can influence and be appropriated into the mainstream musical canons in such a way as to change the vocabulary of the mainstream style, and often impose Orientational features of one context to another (Denning, 2015, p. 222).

The institutions that shape discourse around nationalism and globalism provide coherence to the state of flux in periods of inwards and outwards cultural focus that influence the World style. This is driven, in large part, by new technological developments in recorded music. Swings towards nationalism create conditions that inspire musicians to infuse their music with Presentational features from specific cultural traditions, particularly those that form part of their personal identity. Swings towards globalism create conditions where musicians are inspired to share and take part in a global exchange of Presentational features.

I have already mentioned three examples of such swings but to understand the conditions of the World style it is worth mentioning a few other notable examples. Global conflicts have an impact on things like migration and trade, for example: both World Wars, the Cold War, and more recently global terrorism (Bohlman, 2004a, pp. 225-228; Fletcher 2001, pp. 140-142; Tomka, 2013, pp. 423-428). European borders continue to be in flux (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, pp. 313-315). Governments often prioritise nationalism by providing funding for nationalist music (Bohlman, 2004a, pp. 214-215). The 1980s witnessed the start of Western educational institutions adding world music to their curriculums, which until that point had been predominantly focused on Western Art music (Bohlman, 2002, preface; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, pp. 40 & 316). There was also the invention of institutionalised Western celebrations of world musics in the form of awards and festivals such as: the Best World Music Album Grammy

110 Award, Eurovision Song Contest, and a number of world music festivals (Bohlman, 2004a, pp. 210-211 & 225-228; Bohlman, 2004b, pp. 314-315; Bohlman, 2002, pp. 41-46; The Grammys, 2016). All of these instances are examples of contextual factors which influence Presentational and Orientational features of World string style.

Let it Down by George Harrison from 1970 is the earliest example of the World style from the corpus, despite being a combination of both Broadcast and World styles. The earliest example of World I am aware of, River Man by Nick Drake, predates this by a year and is also a combination of Broadcast and World styles. Melody by Serge Gainsbourg in 1971 is another notable early intertext for this style. The most recent intertexts from the corpus are Faust Arp and Jigsaw Falling into Place by Radiohead from their 2007 album In Rainbows. It is also worth noting that the corpus showed a clear connection to the artists Beck and Radiohead, who together account for eight of the eleven songs featuring World arrangements. Both artists have regular associations with string arrangers who are key Organisational references for this style, David Campbell and Jonny Greenwood respectively.52 There is also an Orientational aspect worth mentioning for this point, which is that both Beck and Radiohead regularly employ alternative and experimental techniques that situate them in the fringe or avant-garde of Popular music as a genre. I propose that the World string style Orientational aspects of “other” and exotic make it both attractive and useful to artists who position themselves at the edges of the Popular music genre.

The exemplar intertexts for World style are: Paper Tiger by Beck, Moonlight Mile by The Rolling Stones, and Jigsaw Falling Into Place by Radiohead. All three are solely World style and feature slightly different approaches to the combination of Presentational features. Another notable intertext is Cemetery by Silverchair which features a smaller ensemble than typical. Cemetery also demonstrates how the absence of key Presentational features can quickly make the World style more ambiguous, in this case push the arrangement towards both Western

52 The Radiohead examples are from 3 albums, Beck from 1 album. However wider listening to other string arrangements by both Campbell and Greenwood suggest that World is a string style closely connected to their personal aesthetic.

111 Classical (through ensemble size, production, and some performance features) and Broadcast (though compositional and some performance features). For other notable intertexts see the examples in the Presentational subheading. For the complete list of all World style intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis see appendix H.

World style is not very prevalent in the corpus, but I suspect this is because it is still relatively new in comparison to the other string styles. I predict that World will become a major string style in the next few decades, especially during the next significant period of flux from globalism to nationalism and back again. I base this theory off a trend in the corpus; the majority of instances of the World style were between 2000-2002. This aligns precisely with a recent swing to globalism. Bohlman (2002) cites 2001 as the time when ‘globalization became truly globalized’ (preface). The impact of recorded music and new technologies of distribution have a key role in the development of this style therefore it is hard to accurately predict future trends. This is due to the rate of change in technology and how this technology affects the sociocultural workings and institutions of social order.

112 Chapter 6: Three String Styles from Aural Traditions

There are three string styles from aural traditions: Anglo Folk, Euro Folk, and Eastern Classical. They are shaped by traditions of culturally specific forms of string playing which typically use aural and oral transmission of knowledge.53 Aural string styles include a number of features that are possible to learn by ear but hard to accurately and meaningfully represent using Western musical notation. These features include: dramatic manipulation of timbre as a musical element; heavy use of ornamentation; non-equal temperament tuning and pitch organization systems; and non-metric rhythms and rhythmic organization systems.

Anglo Folk, Euro Folk, and Eastern Classical are likely to feature solo or small groups of musicians, and often appear as if the arrangement is improvised in the recording studio rather than being fully planned prior. In the aural string styles the arranger and performer are often the same person, typically a virtuoso in the cultural idiom. Frequently this results in blurred boundaries between compositional and performance features. As such, the division between compositional and performance features for the aural styles is less distinct than in the written styles. Production features of the aural styles are variable but in general terms aural styles seem to favour close micing of instruments, and be more likely than the majority of written styles to feature non-naturalistic production effects.

Anglo Folk string style

The Anglo Folk string style is based on Celtic Folk and American fiddle traditions of string playing. The name Anglo Folk reflects how this style connects musicians of a number of areas under a cultural musical tradition. Historically it is a style that is linked to people in places such as Ireland, Scotland, and Wales

53 Although a number of these aural traditions do use some form of notation the function of it is more descriptive than prescriptive. Notation in these contexts acts as a mnemonic device and does not require the level of detail that Western notation has in order for a composer to control the outcome (Fletcher, 2001, p. 477; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 48).

113 (Lieberman, 2004, pp. 150-154).54 More recently this has expanded to include the Celtic Folk influence on American fiddle styles, particularly American Old- Time, Bluegrass, and Country (Haigh, 2009, pp. 143-162; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 150-154; Sweeney, 1992, p. 84). Anglo Folk is by no means restricted to these locations, but is a reflection of a tradition that is now manifest in practitioners’ identification with these historical geographical centers of tradition rather than the geographical sites themselves (Bohlman, 2002, pp. 77-81 & 117-118). Anglo Folk emerges from the cultural institution of Folk music, specifically the Celtic tradition.

Presentational features

A central compositional feature of Anglo Folk is the small size of string ensembles. There is a significant number of songs from this style that feature solo violins. Of the examples with small ensembles the typical size ranges from two to around four players. The emphasis on solo instruments reflects historical usage of violins in Irish and Scottish Folk music (Cooke, 1992, p. 241; Haigh, 2009, p. 32). Solo cello is rare; one example is The Scarecrow by Pink Floyd. Ensembles that only feature cello are also rare; two examples are Legs by PJ Harvey and The Way You Say Good-Night by The Magnetic Fields. Anglo Folk is thus a violin dominated string style.

Anglo Folk arrangements often fulfill direct musical functions such as melody, harmony, rhythm, or bass line. Frequently the melody and harmony take the form of short phrases and gestures that have an interactive relationship with other instruments in the song. This is especially apparent in transitional instrumental sections between sections with vocals. Examples of this include: I am a Pilgrim by The Byrds, Mozambique by Bob Dylan, Country Comfort by Elton John, Waiting For a Train by Boz Scaggs, and Don’t Pass Me By by The Beatles. Strings can also double melody or harmony gestures in the songs, for example Mozambique by Bob Dylan (verses specifically). Harmonies frequently feature the interval of a fifth or play a more active line against a drone or pedal note; this

54 I acknowledge that Scottish fiddle traditions were more likely to be written down than other traditions like Irish fiddling (Haigh, 2009, p. 54).

114 can be achieved using double or triple stops on a single instrument or as a small ensemble (Haigh, 2009, pp. 73-75 & 158-161 & 192-194 & 236-240; Sanchez, 2014, pp. 262-269). Examples of this include: Blind Love by Tom Waits, Rag Mama Rag by The Band, Mozambique by Bob Dylan, The Dirty Jobs by The Who, She Never Met a Man (She Didn't Like) by Dolly Parton, End of the Line by Roxy Music, Before the Deluge by Jackson Browne, Return of the Grevious Angel by Gram Parsons.

In terms of tonality the more active string gestures can depart from diatonic, pentatonic, or chromatic ideas. However, there is an emphasis on, and motion towards, returning to the tonic of the song which is achieved through accented notes or frequently occurring notes. For an example see I Am Stretched On Your Grave by Sinead O’Connor (4:27-end). Anglo Folk arrangements are typically a combination of active melody or harmony gestures and less active sections that feature chordal accompaniment either as sustained drones or as rhythmic gestures. Examples of arrangements featuring combinations of gestures include: Flashback Blues by John Prine, Return of the Grievous Angel by Gram Parsons, and Violence by Mott the Hoople. Ain’t Talking by Bob Dylan is an example of an arrangement that is mostly sustained drone.55 An example of rhythmic Anglo Folk is The Dirty Jobs by The Who.

Anglo Folk style melodies, and melodies in Celtic music more generally, are often described as ‘lilting’ (Wild, 2010, p. 30). It would appear that this is a reflection of the influences of spoken languages on music in Celtic regions, and also includes Lilting which is a style of vocal music with nonsense lyrics (Bohlman, 2002, p. 78; Cooke, 1992, p. 241; Mullins, 2014). Mullins’ (2014) study of specific works of Lilting proposes a strong connection between certain phonetics and the rhythmic and metric stylistic characteristics. Lilting, both as a style and a descriptive term, is also a connection to social use and function that includes dance and human movement (Cooke, 1992, p. 241; Mullins, 2014, p. 92). The influence of vocal forms on Anglo Folk arrangements is likely a reflection on the

55 The sustained drone Presentational feature appears heavily in the American Old-Time fiddle style (Haigh, 2009, pp. 158-161; Sanchez, 2014, pp. 219-235).

115 aural and oral transmission of knowledge for this style. Lilting as a descriptive term for this string style reflects certain combination of Presentational features, in particular accents and rhythm. By rhythm I mean the typical types of subdivisions, where the subdivisions are most likely to occur in phrases, and where the notes are placed in relation to the beat.56 The purpose of this paragraph is to draw attention to how rhythm, ornamentation, articulation, and accents contribute to the feel of lilting which is an attribute of a great number of intertexts from Anglo Folk.

Ornamentation and articulation are foregrounded as dominant differential characteristics of Anglo Folk, and reflect the usage in Irish fiddle traditions in particular (Haigh, 2009, pp. 47-51; Sanchez, 2014, p. 187). The types and execution of ornamentation and articulation makes Anglo Folk very different from the written styles, and is also a key difference between it and the other aural styles of Euro Folk and Eastern Classical. Although specific examples of ornamentation have been strongly bound to different substyles and regional types of fiddling, recorded technology has contributed to a homogenization of ornamentation (Cooke, 1992, p. 240; Sanchez, 2014, pp. 187-248). There is a particular way of approaching and departing notes with slides, “upslides” and “downslide”’, that is typical of Anglo Folk (Sanchez, 2014, pp. 163-167). The speed of the slide gesture and where it occurs on the beat emphasises the change in pitch, and positions this change as almost as important as the centre intonation of the intended pitch. This particular technique is an intentional expressive quality of Anglo Folk, and makes it very different from Western Classical and Broadcast style strings.57

Ornamentation featured in Anglo Folk includes: rolls, grace notes, scalic triplet runs, cuts, bowed ornamentation like “Scotch snap”, and different ways of accenting notes (Haigh, 2009, pp. 47-51 & 72-76; Sanchez, 2014, pp. 187-248).

56 A study that specifically describes this is much too detailed for the scope of my current research. It is frequently addressed in educational resources for these fiddling styles, however it is often demonstrated rather than explicitly explained (see, for example, Sanchez, 2014). 57 To the point where CPE traditions would consider this technique as indicative of a “bad” or “amateur” performance.

116 For examples of ornamentation see: A Better Place to Live by Dolly Parton, Tomorrow is a Long Time by Rod Stewart. For a Dancer by Jackson Browne, I Am Stretched on Your Grave by Sinead O’Connor, Flashback Blues by John Prine, and Good Riddance by Green Day (1:21-40). In Anglo Folk, vibrato is used as an expressive device, rather than to produce a consistent tone, and so encompasses a wide range of speeds, range, and sites of application.

Performance features are centred on techniques that enable the execution of a range of different timbral colours. Techniques include bow holds, bowing techniques, groupings of bowing techniques, speed and placement of bow, and pizzicato (Haigh, 2009; Sanchez, 2014). These techniques differ from the typical CPE techniques used in Western Classical and Broadcast styles. A key point of difference is the use of the non-pitched “noise” component that foregrounds timbre as an expressive device in Anglo Folk. There are a number of specific bowing techniques that emphasise both noise and rhythm, for example “the chop” from Bluegrass fiddling (Lieberman, 2004, p. 60; Sanchez, 2014, pp. 247- 248). Another key difference Anglo Folk has to styles dominated by CPE-trained performers is the use of open strings, which are typically avoided in string styles identifying with CPE conventions. More generally is the impression that Anglo Folk is an improvisatory style and largely in the hands of the performer. This appears to stem from the lack of controlled and structured repetition in the Presentational features, and the lack of having to coordinate large numbers of string performers.58 Examples that showcase the improvisatory impression are: Country Honk by The Rolling Stones, Romance in Durango by Bob Dylan, and Cyprus Avenue by Van Morrison.

Anglo Folk typically features naturalistic production and the strings tend to be clearly and easily identifiable in the mix. Although typically naturalistic, the timbre of strings in Anglo Folk can tend towards “boxy” or “scaly” through an emphasis on the mid or high mid range of the frequency spectrum (roughly

58 Many examples of fiddle-focused literature encourage improvisation, such as Haigh (2009) and Sanchez (2014, pp. 283-290). But there is a paradox here: historically as primarily an aural / oral tradition there was a limit to how much improvisation was acceptable before the key musical information became hard to clearly decipher (Cooke, 1992, p. 244).

117 300Hz-1kHz and 1kHz-6kHz). Examples of this include: Don’t Pass Me By by The Beatles, Mary’s Place by Bruce Springsteen, and Flashback Blues by John Prine. This timbral tendency could be for a number of reasons that include production choices like microphones and microphone placement. But it also might be a reflection on the inherent timbral qualities of the instruments used in this style.59 Reverbs tend to be fairly small and short. A few examples of Anglo Folk feature the use of effects and processing: The Equaliser by The Clash; Sunday Morning by The Velvet Underground and Nico; Ready or Not by Jackson Browne; and Mellow by Elton John. I’d suggest that the use of effects is due to the recorded versions similarity to a live performance version of the song. In live Anglo Folk performance the stringed instrument is likely to be DI’ed and perhaps run through effects pedals, both of which modify the timbre.60

Orientational features

The Anglo Folk string style typically emphasizes the Orientational aspects of organic, human, and spontaneity when used in Popular songs. This is in large part due to the flexibility and seeming lack of tightly controlled or rigidly organised Presentational features in the style. Nowhere is this more evident than instances of solo string players. Solo players have the flexibility to improvise and use variation in intonation and timing as an expressive device in the way that an ensemble string player cannot. The improvisatory feeling of Anglo Folk gives the strings an organic quality, as if they are playing along with the song.

The major influential factors on Presentational features for Anglo Folk appear to stem from peoples’ speech patterns and social coordination, such as for dancing or work gangs. This is in contrast to the long-standing CPE approaches to expression that revolve around abstract rules and aesthetics, even in the cases where courtly dances was the application. In context then, Anglo Folk arrangements have an overt and strong connection to the qualities that are

59 There appears to be less prestige and status attached to instrument choice in Anglo Folk than in say Classical string styles. See anecdotal point in Sanchez (2014, pp. 21-22). 60 There is also a strong precedent for using electric violins for this style see (Sanchez, 2014, pp. 290-295).

118 associated with terms like “organic” and “human” through the Presentational features, which are imitative of human social interaction. The organic aspect and adaptability is also evidenced in the way that music from Celtic traditions has been able to reinvent and reimage itself as a popular force in the modern global context, but still function as a reference to historical versions of itself for associate coherence (Bohlman, 2002, pp. 7 & 77-81).

Anglo Folk arrangements also emphasise the communal aspect of music making: music as participation in a social event. Historically, the social function and use of Folk music is communal:

In the idealized Folk society, all music theoretically belongs to the community, and because the means of producing music – family traditions, group interaction, community ritual – are shared, music becomes an aesthetic metaphor for communality. (Bohlman, 2004a, p. 218)

A significant number of traditional and modern sites of Celtic music performance and consumption are small communal locations (Bohlman, 2002, p. 80; Miller & Shahriari, pp. 334-343). These sites are often locations for regular social engagements that encourage participation in the music making, and approach it as a loosely structured and largely democratic happening (Bohlman, 2004b, p. 315; Haigh, 2009, pp. 37-39; Lieberman, 2004, p. 151). Anglo Folk strings have a strong connection to social participation, but they also have a connection to social status.

Frequently in Anglo Folk style violins are referred to as fiddles. Fiddle is a term applied to historical antecedents and many culturally specific forms of the violin (Dilworth, 1992, pp. 5-11: Fletcher, 2001, p. 434; Haigh, 2009, pp. 11-12). Fletcher (2001) writes, ‘[t]he folk fiddle… was to become the most popular string instrument of Europe’ (p. 434). In essence, fiddle was a term for a popular and populist instrument. Goodall contextualizes this in Orientational terms:

Despite the superiority of stringed instruments, the medieval fiddle or vielle had not been deemed fit for decent society: too common for the well-to-do, it belonged instead to the wandering street musician, suitable for the drunken rollicking of the peasantry but not a lot more. (Goodall, 2013, p. 58)

119 The modern usage of the term fiddle is informed by these origins and paints the meaning of fiddle in contrast to that of the term violin:

the term “fiddle”, which for centuries in the United Kingdom, Ireland and North America has been used as a synonym for the violin and is still in use today to distinguish between those “violinists” who have learned the playing style and repertory of classical Europe and “fiddlers” who play a local dance or dance-song repertory with a very different style. Their instruments are identical; it is the style and repertory which is different. (Cooke, 1992, p. 235)

Bohlman goes further in discussing the fiddle as a popular and present instrument in a variety of ethnic contexts. In doing so he highlights the terminological division in Orientational terms:

We might wonder whether this extreme adaptability is a possible explanation for the currency of the term “fiddle,” as if to distinguish its many ethnic varieties from the stalwart violin of Western art music. Its name and its functions underscore its familiarity; the fiddle is never a foreigner in ethnic musical styles. (Bohlman, 2004b, pp. 299-300)

Not only is the fiddle a communal instrument of social participation, it also has an Orientational aspect that positions the music played by it as being of the people.

Organisational features

Anglo Folk arrangements gain associate coherence as a style by identifying with the Celtic tradition of the institution of Folk music. The Celtic tradition has a strong link to the violin, or fiddle, as an emblematic instrument in its music (Bohlman, 2002, p. 80; Cooke, 1992, pp. 240-241; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, pp. 332-344). Although Anglo Folk has historical roots in specific geographical locations, the impact of recorded technology and the adaptability of the Celtic musical tradition more generally have seen it become a key stylistic tradition on the global stage (Bohlman, 2002, pp. 77-81). The Organisational features for Anglo Folk include the following substyles of fiddling: Irish, Scottish, American

120 Old-Time, Bluegrass, and Country (Haigh, 2009, pp. 30-77 & 143-162 & 179-201 & 221-240).

The earliest example from the corpus is Anything to Say You’re Mine by Etta James in 1961. This example is mostly Broadcast string style but strays into Anglo Folk for a few seconds (1:42-49). The earliest full example of Anglo Folk is Sunday Morning by The Velvet Underground and Nico in 1967. However, it is not a central example of Anglo Folk due in large part to the production features. The earliest central example of the Anglo Folk style is Don’t Pass Me By by The Beatles in 1968. The most recent examples from the corpus consist of five songs from Bob Dylan’s 2006 album Modern Times: When the Deal Goes Down, Someday Baby, Workingman's Blues #2, Beyond the Horizon, and Ain't Talkin'.

The exemplar intertexts for this style are: For a Dancer by Jackson Browne, I Am a Pilgrim by The Byrds, Tomorrow is a Long Time by Rod Stewart, and Mozambique by Bob Dylan. Other notable intertexts include Good Riddance by Green Day (bridge) which is an example of an Anglo Folk arrangement that is used in an Acoustic Rock song by a Pop Punk band. In the same vein, Neighborhood #3 (Power Out) by Arcade Fire is an example of Anglo Folk in an Indie Rock or Art Rock song. Violence by Mott the Hoople is a particularly virtuosic instance of Anglo Folk. For other notable intertexts see the examples in the Presentational subheading. For the complete list of all Anglo Folk string style intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis see appendix I.

By looking at the corpus findings as number of instances of Anglo Folk per year there are four dramatic spikes in presence: 1968, 1971, 1976, and 2002. I posit that this is due to the strong relationship that Anglo Folk appears to have with certain song genres like Folk and Country.61 The spikes in presence reflect periods of cultural interest in Folk and Country genres, particularly the 1960- 1970s booms in Folk and Folk-Rock, and Country Rock (Shuker, 2001, pp. 74 & 133-136). Historically the 1960-1970s are also a time when the discourses around authenticity, humanness, and communal social participation were very

61 It is also likely due to the extensive use of Anglo Folk by artist Bob Dylan, who is a very present artist in the sample chosen for the aural analysis (see the chapter four for further discussion).

121 present in the West, due in part to resistance to the Vietnam War and the growing interest in environmental protection and social equality movements (Tomka, 2013, pp. 429-431). Culturally there was a revival of mainstream interest in Celtic traditions in the 1990s seen in Riverdance (who were part of Eurovision intermission entertainment in 1993), Enya, and the American re- interest in Country music (Bohlman, 2004a, p. 226; Haigh, 2009, p. 36; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 151-152). The spike in 2002 also coincides with the swing towards globalism discussed in World style.

Euro Folk string style

The Euro Folk string style is based on Eastern European Folk and fiddle traditions of string playing. The name “Euro Folk” reflects the geographical origins of this style. As with Anglo Folk, this style now exists as an identification with a geo-cultural tradition and reflects the modern diaspora of practitioners. More recent examples of this tradition include its influence on Jazz violin and Gypsy Jazz. Euro Folk emerges from the cultural institution of Folk music, in particular the influences of nomadic Romani and Klezmer traditions.

Presentational features

As with Anglo Folk, Euro Folk typically features solo string players or small ensembles. There is a precedent for soloists in historical instances of Jazz violin because most Big Bands did not use string sections (Lieberman, 2004, p. 84). The musical function of strings in Euro Folk is largely melodic though they sometimes present as a counter-melodic line. Examples include: Baba O’Reily by The Who, Two Words by Kanye West, It’s So Hard by John Lennon, As You Said by Cream, Running Dry by Neil Young, and 50 Pieces by Andrew Bird. Euro Folk arrangements tend to incorporate non-Western modal approaches into the European chordal harmony traditions, and are thus a blend of traditional tonalities and Western Art music practices (Denning, 2015, pp. 201-206; Manuel, 2002, p. 314: Manuel, 1989, pp. 70-71). They often feature non-Western scales, harmonic minor scales, and frequently prioritize intervallic relationships that are

122 different from those typically used in CPE harmonic language (Cooke, 1992, p. 238; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 87-88 & 158 & 163; Reel & Welch, 2004, p. 36).

Euro Folk rhythms often feature very fast subdivisions of the beat and more generally, the placement of notes in time takes a cadenza-esque approach. By that I mean performance can push and pull time by varying the placement of notes either side of the “centre” of the beat. In Euro Folk arrangements time is used as an expressive device. An example of this is Baba O’Reily by The Who. Another technique used to emphasise time as an expressive device is ornamentation, which effectively serves to highlight rhythms and note placement. Two specific examples are grace notes and ghost notes (Lieberman, 2004, pp. 89 & 163).

The compositional features of Euro Folk tend towards material with a high degree of complexity (Lieberman, 2004, p. 158). Therefore this style relies on very accomplished and virtuosic performers to convincingly execute. Improvisation is also a feature of this style, in a similar way to the Anglo Folk style. Improvisation is a clear link to historical instances of both Jazz violin and Gypsy music (Denning, 2015, pp. 206-215; Haigh, 2009, p. 127; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 85 & 158). Again, improvisation blurs the line between compositional and performance features. This is especially the case for ornamentation (Denning, 2015, pp. 206-207; Harbar 2007; 1997; Sweeney, 1992, pp. 104 & 110). Examples of arrangements with a high degree of complexity include: Baba O’Reily by The Who, Velvet Rope by Janet Jackson, and Running Dry by Neil Young.

Ornamentation is a key differential characteristic for Euro Folk. It includes many techniques that use variations in pitch and intonation as an expressive device including glissandi, slides, and bends (Harbar, 2007; 1997; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 89-90 & 158 & 163). Euro Folk also uses specific types ornamentation from European Folk and fiddle tradition, such as: the “gypsy trill”, melisma, turnarounds, “kvetch” – a Klezmer bend ornament, and “krekhts” – a type of Klezmer gracenote (Haigh, 2009, pp. 111-114; Harbar 2007; 1997; Reel & Welch, 2004, p. 37). The approach to vibrato encompasses perhaps the widest scope of possibilities out of the seven string styles. It can fluctuate from slow to very fast,

123 and feature a pitch range that can be very small to very large (Lieberman, 2004, pp. 88 & 158). The scope of vibrato possibilities include approaches from CPE traditions through to what Lieberman calls ‘“hysterical” vibrato’ (Lieberman, 2004, p. 88). Two Words by Kanye West is an example of very wide vibrato.

Like Anglo Folk, Euro Folk features the “noise” component in timbre and achieves this by means of a number of performance techniques. Techniques include bow and left hand pressure, and things like false harmonics (Haigh, 2009, p. 113; Harbar, 2007; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 88 & 90). There is also a particular lilt that is a result of left and right hand coordination during the execution of the compositional and performance techniques that are used in this style (Lieberman, 2004, p. 90).

Production features of Euro Folk arrangements are variable but often use small to medium reverbs and place the strings in the mid or foreground of the mix as feature instruments. For example Baba O’Reily by The Who, As You Said by Cream, and Running Dry by Neil Young. Although Euro Folk strings are fairly easy to causally identify as strings, their timbre is often slightly less naturalistic than other styles. Typically, this presents as an emphasis on the high mid range of the frequency spectrum (roughly 1kHz-6kHz), for example The New Workout Plan by Kanye West. There are a few instances of Euro Folk that use production effects and processing on strings, for example Velvet Rope by Janet Jackson. Euro Folk traditions have a history of using amplification in live settings to raise the stringed instruments to a similar volume as other band instruments (Harrison, 1992, p. 254). This is likely to have had an impact on the approach to timbres and processing of strings in recorded settings.

Orientational features

Like Anglo Folk, Euro Folk arrangements typically emphasise the Orientational aspects of human and spontaneous. Again, this is largely due to the Presentational features appearing to be less tightly planned and structured and therefore more adaptable and organic. However, these Orientational aspects are slightly different in Euro Folk arrangements because the arrangements also emphasize aspects of virtuosic exhibitionism and emotional intensity. Whereas

124 Anglo Folk emphasizes the communal aspect of music making, Euro Folk is more about showmanship and performance. The virtuosity of the performers is bought to the fore by a combination of compositional and performance features that overtly enable performers to demonstrate their technical and expressive skill (Lieberman, 2004, p. 158). The aspect of virtuosic exhibitionism is likely to stem from the historical social role of musicians as specialist professional entertainers (Bohlman, 2004a, pp. 222-223). Sweeney (1992) states, ‘[o]ne ethnic group which transcends national boundaries and has preserved a lively culture is that of the gypsies, whose traditional function as professional entertainers also persists’ (p. 109). Even the historical social function of this style – which includes being the music at dances, celebrations, weddings, and rites of passage – puts the performer in the role of entertainer (Bohlman, 2004a, p. 214; Denning, 2015, p. 61; Lieberman, 2004, p. 155 & 158).

Historical perspectives on Euro Folk traditions in early recorded music affords additional clarification of the Orientational aspects. In describing discourses around classifications of “folk music” in the early twentieth century Denning (2015) writes, ‘Roma musicians … had long been characterized in nineteenth- century European discourse not as a rural national peasantry with a Folk music, but as outcast urban entertainers, virtuoso improvisers on other people’s music’ (p. 101). Even though there was strong historical opinion regarding the worth of this supposedly “imitative” style, the point remains that both virtuosity and the typical social function as entertainment have been emblematic of Euro Folk traditions, at least as far back as early recorded music (Denning, 2015, pp. 101- 102).

The aspect of emotional intensity is in large part a product of virtuosic exhibitionism, in that performing in an exaggerated way will increase the “expressiveness” and “drama” of a performance. Prior to the development and proliferation of amplification technologies it is likely that performances in loud locations, such as dances and weddings, would have required a performer to

125 exaggerate their gestures and volume.62 Emotional intensity is also inherent in the expanded range of gradations in each Presentational feature, for example the wide variety of types of vibrato that are encompassed by Euro Folk. The expanded range of choices in gradation of Presentational features help to enact the emotional intensity Orientational aspect of Euro Folk. This is compounded by the speed in which the choices are made in relation to one another, and the frequent dramatic contrast of these choices.63

Organisational features

Examples of Euro Folk gain stylistic coherence by identifying with Eastern European traditions of the institution of Folk music. Two of the key influences are Romani and Klezmer traditions, both of which spread through Europe and into the US by means of the diaspora of Romani and Jewish people (Bohlman, 2004a, pp. 207-208: Denning, 2015, pp. 39 & 174: Lieberman, 2004, pp. 157-158; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 314).

There appears to be a history of connections between Romani and Klezmer musicians, partly due to the diaspora and partly due to shared conditions of employment as itinerant musicians (Bohlman, 2004a, p. 223; Lieberman, 2004, p. 158). There is also a theory that Romani people were originally from Northern India and spread through Europe in earlier waves of migration (Lieberman, 2004, p. 157; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 314; Sweeney, 1992, p. 104). This potential link to India is interesting because there are a number of overlaps in Presentational and Orientational features for Euro Folk and Eastern Classical strings styles. To the point where there is a notable ambiguous area between them for string arrangements that are not at the center of either style.

62 In a similar way to operatic singing, which is often performed acoustically. It exploits the exaggerated use of musical elements, like vibrato, to help the voice cut through and perceptually dominate other sounds in the venue. 63 I am not suggesting that there is any universality in musical meaning that can be attributed to musical elements, nor that there is a consistent physical metaphor connecting musical elements to meaning. My argument is that it is the range of techniques, and the rate of change between them that evidence exaggeration, and have long histories of being used for “dramatic” purposes.

126 The historical Organisational intertexts include Popular music fiddle styles like Jazz violin and Gypsy Jazz (Haigh, 2009, pp. 266-291), as well as other Eastern European fiddle traditions (Haigh, 2009, pp. 116-141). Some examples of emblematic performers, and good Organisational references for Euro Folk style, are Stéphane Grappelli (Lieberman, 2004, p. 95) and Alicia Svigals (Haigh, 2009, pp. 106-107).

The earliest example from the corpus is Something Happened to Me Yesterday by The Rolling Stones from 1967. Stylistically, it is closer to Jazz violin than it is to the earlier traditions of provenance for Euro Folk. The most recent examples from the corpus are two songs from Kanye West’s 2004 album The College Dropout: The New Workout Plan and Two Words. The New Workout Plan is a combination of Broadcast64 and Euro Folk styles and is notable for two reasons: it uses production to manipulate some of the repeated string gestures, and in some sections it is an example of two simultaneous string styles. Two Words is a combination of Broadcast and Euro Folk styles and is notable for: the extremely melodramatic performance of the solo violin line, and also being an example of two simultaneous string styles. Both of the Kanye West examples are evidence that string styles function independently to song genre. In these cases the Orientational aspects of strings contrast quite significantly with those of the song genre.

The exemplar intertexts for this style include: 50 Pieces by Andrew Bird, Velvet Rope by Janet Jackson, Baba O’Reily by The Who, and Running Dry by Neil Young. All of these intertexts are examples of a range of the Presentational features and strongly emphasise the Orientational aspects of emotional intensity and virtuosic exhibitionism. As You Said by Cream is another notable intertext for featuring only cellos, and is an interesting example of manipulating the role of the cello through the song. For other notable intertexts see the examples in the Presentational subheading. For the complete list of all Euro Folk string style intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis see appendix J.

64 Although this example of Broadcast style has a bit of ambiguity with Western Classical.

127 Eastern Classical string style

The Eastern Classical style is an amalgam of Eastern traditions of string playing, most notably from India. At present, this style is predominantly based on the Indian Classical traditions of Hindustani and Carnatic music. The Eastern Classical style is also influenced by other Eastern traditions of string playing, including Arabic and Asian. However, to date, the Arabic and Asian influences on string arrangements in the context of Western RPM have not been as strong as the influences of Indian traditions.65 As the current form of this style is predominately from Indian traditions of music, Eastern Classical currently identifies with the institutions of religion and spiritualism, India’s caste-system, and institutional discourses around the role of tradition.

Presentational features

It is worth mentioning that even though many of the violins featured in the historical instances of this style are fundamentally the same as Western violins, they are often used differently. For example, the traditional physical hold is resting on the feet rather than under the chin (Cooke, 1992, p. 246; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 160-161). Violins are more likely to be tuned in open tuning, for example DADA (Cooke, 1992, p. 246). Historically, there has been a difference in left hand technique in that many Carnatic violinists used two fingers rather than four, but this is less dominant as a modern playing technique (Cooke, 1992, p. 246; Lieberman, 2004, pp. 160-161). These differences in use have had a significant impact on the development of Presentational features. Even the modern instances, which frequently use Western instrument holds and tunings, are referencing the Presentational features shaped in the past. There is also a heavy precedent for using modified versions of the violin in Indian violin traditions, for example the double violin used by L. Shankar (Haigh, n.d.).

65 Farrell (1992) offers a possible explanation, ‘There is also a case for claiming that the relationship between the West and Indian music is a unique one. No other oriental culture has had as much influence on the West as that of India, whether in the realms of academia or the romantic imagination.’ (p. 2).

128 Eastern Classical typically features solo string players or small ensembles. This is a direct link to the historical use of violin in both Hindustani and Carnatic music (Lieberman, 2004, p. 160; Wade, 2004, pp. 101-103). However, instances of Eastern Classical in the corpus are often from songs with combination styles featuring larger ensembles. Larger ensemble size is a link to the Westernized forms of string ensemble found in the Indian film industry, of which Bollywood is a significant component (Farrell, 1999, pp. 203-205; Manuel, 1990, pp. 179-184). Although Carnatic music and musicians featured heavily in the Indian film music industry prior to the 1950s, since then, film music has largely been reflective of Folk traditions and fuses this with timbres and structures from other external traditions (Viswanathan & Allen, 2004, pp. 114-115). This functions to blur the boundaries of Eastern Classical and World style, particularly in examples with larger ensembles. For instance: Daylight by Coldplay and Frozen by Madonna.

The main role of strings in Eastern Classical arrangements is melodic: notably imitating, doubling, and interacting with other melodies in the song - especially vocal melodies.66 This is a direct link to the typical function of the violin in Carnatic music (Capwell, 2004, p. 35; Fletcher, 2001, p. 244; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 112; Wade, 2004, pp. 102-103 & 206). It also links to the traditional hierarchy of musical elements, ‘[i]n Indian classical music, melody takes priority’ (Wade, 2004, p. 24). Examples of this include: Within You Without You by The Beatles, Half by Soundgarden, and Frozen by Madonna.

Tonality in Eastern Classical features melodic and harmonic minor scales, non- Western scales and modes, and the use of variations in intonation as an expressive device. Because Eastern Classical strings often imitate or double melodies, especially vocal ones, the rhythms are typically more flexible in where they sit on metric subdivisions of the beat. The perception of this is compounded by the presence of ornamentation, which often disguises the timing of the arrival

66 There are also sections where strings take the role of drone, for example We Will Fall by The Stooges. This is often an ambiguous borderline area with Experimental, especially in the corpus because most of the examples with drones are from violist John Cale. A drone is a key component of both Hindustani and Carnatic music, and usually plays the I or I and V of the scale (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 95; Wade, 2004, pp. 48-52).

129 or departure from the note. In the solo versions of this style there appears to be and element of improvisation, whereas the instances with larger ensembles are more structured. This is a reflection of the approach to improvisation in the Hindustani and Carnatic traditions, respectively (Fletcher, 2001, p. 252; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 109; Wade, 2004, p. 25).

The Presentational features of Eastern Classical share some commonalities with Anglo and Euro Folk, in particular the strong emphasis on ornamentation as a differential Presentational feature. Again, this results in a blurred line between compositional and performance features, particularly in the solo instances of Eastern Classical. Ornamentation, or gamaka, is intrinsically linked to Indian Classical music as a way of embellishing and beautifying the melody (Cooke, 1992, p. 246; Lieberman, 2004, p. 160; Pesch, 1999, pp. 73-78; Viswanathan & Allen, 2004, pp. 47-48).

A significant ornamentation feature in the Eastern Classical string style is the use of heavy and prevalent portamento between notes, and more generally the use of pitch and intonation as a feature of ornamentation (Capwell, 2004, p. 30; Fletcher, 2001, pp. 244-248; Lieberman, 2004, p. 160; Pesch, 1999, pp. 73-78). Examples of this include Daylight by Coldplay and Within You Without You by The Beatles. Eastern Classical typically lacks “traditional” CPE vibrato, but some of the pitch changing ornamentation gives the impression of functioning as slow and wide vibrato, for example a style of vibrato called āndolan, (Cooke, 1992, p. 246; Fletcher, 2001, p. 247; Wade, 2004, p. 73). Examples of this include Daylight by Coldplay and Within You Without You by The Beatles. Like Anglo Folk and Euro Folk, Eastern Classical typically features non-pitched sounds as part of the timbral vocabulary. This is typically achieved through bow placement and speed, for example what CPE traditions would label as ponticello.

Production features of Eastern Classical are quite variable. There is a range of approaches to reverb and other audio processing typically used in this style. For example: Half by Soundgarden, We Will Fall by The Stooges, and Within You Without You by The Beatles. As with the performance features, the production features of Eastern Classical are likely to emphasise components of the sound

130 that are unpitched. The timbre of strings in this style often features equalisation that emphasizes the mids and upper mids more heavily than the naturalistic styles; resulting in a timbre is more “honky”, “buzzy”, or “nasal”. For example We Will Fall by The Stooges and Within You Without You by The Beatles (3:35-40).

Orientational features

The Orientational aspects emphasized by Eastern Classical arrangements include: organic, virtuosic, exotic, and traditional. There is an overlap with the Orientational aspects of World, with virtuosic and exotic; Anglo Folk, with organic; and, virtuosic, with Euro Folk. These overlaps in Orientational aspects describe some of the potential ambiguities in the string styles.

For the Orientational aspect of organic, the solo forms of Eastern Classical feature a lot of variation, which gives the impression of an improvised performance. Although the larger ensemble forms of this style appear to be much more structured,67 the heavily featured ornamentation still emphasizes an organic aspect. The heavy and frequent use of pitch manipulation through techniques like portamento, are a link to the characteristics of the human voice. The virtuosic aspect is similar to Euro Folk in that the technical and expressive skill of the performers is often foregrounded by difficult and complex Presentational features. Virtuosity also describes the performer and the conditions of performance,

Indian classical music, unlike the communal music of Africa or the ensemble music of Southeast Asia, is individual, soloistic, and often virtuosic. (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 92)

Although Eastern Classical tends to be not as exhibitionistic as Euro Folk, it still foregrounds the performers as experts, especially through the knowledge and execution of specific ornamentation techniques.

67 Likely because they are typically arranged by Western musicians: George Martin for Within You Without You, Craig Armstrong for Frozen, and Audrey Riley and Coldplay for Daylight.

131 The aspect of exotic appears to stem from two areas. First, is ornamentation. Although versions of slides and portamento are featured in some of the other string styles, the particular type of portamento and the extent to which it is used in Eastern Classical sets it apart from most other string styles.68 Capwell (2004) suggests that these types of ornaments function as a link to ancient divisions of the scale into twenty-two parts (p. 30). Fletcher (2001) expands on this by discussing the modern context, ‘[d]espite the superficial resemblance of present- day Indian musical temperament to that of Western equal temperament, flexibility of intonation remains a primary element in the performance of Indian Classical music’ (p. 247). Additionally, the use of variations in intonation are so extensive as to push the perception of pitch outside of the equal temperament scale. In the context of RPM, such variation would likely be regarded as either “wrong” or “not from this tradition” depending on if the listener has knowledge of intertexts from Eastern traditions of music (Wade, 2004, pp. 64-65).

Second, is the precedent established in the West’s use of India and Indian traditions for the Orientational function of “exotic” (Farrell, 1999).

India was also a mystical and sensual wonderland, framed by music and drama, a place for the West to dream spiritual and sensual fantasies, whether amid the moral ambiguities of Victorian England or in the hedonistic playground of the late twentieth century. (Farrell, 1999, p. 10).

This is particularly apparent during the sudden trend of incorporating Indian Presentational elements into Western Popular song during the 1960s (Farrell, 1999, pp. 168-200).

The Orientational aspect of “traditional” describes the strong, but not inflexible, connection of the Presentational features of this string style to historical instances of itself. Hindustani and Carnatic musics are described as classical traditions for this very reason (The Classical Traditions, 1999, p. 89; Fletcher, 2001, pp. 225-226; Viswanathan & Allen, 2004, pp. 101-102). Part of what gives

68 The overlap with World style is that it does feature these elements, but uses them less frequently and usually not to the same extent.

132 this classical tradition such authority is the ongoing efforts to preserve connections to ancient texts,69 which still underpin many of the aesthetic, philosophical, and functional aspects of modern performative arts (Capwell, 2004, pp. 29-30; Fletcher, 2001, p. 225). India’s relationship with Britain, in terms of musical exchange, adds an interesting dimension to discussion of how and why the connection to tradition is so strong,

The principal artistic consequence of British rule sprang from a negative source: the majority of British colonists found Indian arts – and Indian music in particular – incomprehensible, and left them alone. Traditions of music and drama therefore continued at many of the regional courts. (The Indians for their part found little to admire in the music of the British; and to this day there is less promotion of European music in India than in most Asian countries.) (Fletcher, 2001, p. 238)

Tradition is also evidenced through the connection with institutions of knowledge transmission that I will discuss in the next section.

Organisational features

Eastern Classical arrangements identify with Eastern traditions of string playing. Currently the most predominant of these traditions are Indian Hindustani and Carnatic music.70 The predominance of Indian traditions in the current form of Eastern Classical means that this style identifies with institutions that are more representative of India than other Eastern traditions. Thus the institutions that currently give Eastern Classical strings associative coherence are: religion and spiritualism, Indian’s caste-system, and institutional discourses around the role of tradition. In this way, Eastern Classical arrangements identify with similar types of institutions to Western Classical arrangements, despite being from a different canon of intertexts.

69 Such as the Nātyashāstra. 70 This is likely due to extended periods of isolationism in places like China, Japan, and Korea. Additionally, it is likely due to the ongoing popularity of native stringed instruments in traditional music in other Eastern locations, like the Chinese Erhu and Eastern Mediterranean Kemenche.

133 The predominance of Indian traditions in this string style can be contextualised by considering the ongoing relationship between India and the West (Farrell, 1999). There is a long history of European presence in India, notably through trade routes and organizations like the East India Company (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 237-241). Trade saw the importation of the violin, which gradually became a core feature of both Hindustani and Carnatic music (Bohlman 2002, p. 117; Capwell, 2004, p. 38; Cooke, 1992, pp. 246-247). The influence of recorded music technology helped to facilitate the connection to tradition for the diaspora, and bring traditional music to new locations:

The subcontinent enjoyed one of the earliest recording industries in the world, relying on the international potential of early transnational companies (e.g. His Master’s Voice and EMI), but also developing local and regional distribution networks. The spread of the South Asian diaspora in the twentieth century was paralleled by the extension of recording and other media networks, thus making South Asian music readily available wherever South Asian communities were found. (Bohlman 2002, pp. 123-124)

More recently the boom in spiritual tourism to India, which started in the 1960s, can be seen directly influencing Western RPM through artists like The Beatles (Farrell, 1999, pp. 168-200; Norman, 2011, pp. 139-159). The 1960s also saw sitar player Ravi Shankar cross over into the Western musical sphere, notably in his collaborations with Popular and Jazz artists (Farrell, 1999, pp. 170-200).

Indian Classical music has a long history of connection to religion and spirituality, as do most of the South Asian traditions of music (Music in Religion and Ritual, 1999, p. 263; Wade, 2004, pp. 14-20). From some perspectives, in ancient times, ‘Music was viewed as a creation of divine agency’ (Wade, 2004, p. 13). The Carnatic tradition is more closely linked to religion than the Hindustani tradition – the North has no dominant faith but is a mix of them (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, pp. 91-92 & 109). Historically, the connection of music to spirituality has been an attraction for Western interactions with Indian culture, ‘[d]uring the 1960s, many Westerners turned to the East – India in particular – in search of spiritual enlightenment. Because Indian music is especially spiritual it soon became popular with Western audiences’ (Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 104).

134 The Indian caste-system is no longer in use, but still penetrates many attitudes towards social hierarchy as a hereditary class system of worth (Fletcher, 2001, pp. 227-229; Miller & Shahriari, 2009, p. 88). Historically, Hindustani and Carnatic music, being Art music traditions of divinity and the court, were associated with the elite, but also affected a longstanding bias that put men and soloists at the top of the hierarchy (Ollikkala, 1999; Sankaran & Allen, 1999; Viswanathan & Allen, 2004, pp. 70-86).

It must be stressed that Indian classical music, at least in remembered time, has been the province of the elites and not the masses in Indian society, whether North or South. It is the elites who have made Indian classical music a highly theorized system. (Wade, 2004, p. 4)

Additionally, the instrument hierarchy in traditional South Indian ensembles has been described as akin to the caste system (Nettl, 2004, p. 15). In this way, the hangover of the caste system is symptomatic of a tradition that emphasises the importance of the role of tradition in the arts, and society more generally.

Another example is the formal and enduring institutions of musical learning. The main historical institution for the transmission of knowledge was lengthy and intense master (guru) to disciple apprenticeships (Burton Alter, 1999; Capwell, 2004, pp. 31-33; Slawek, 1999). However, in more recent years institutions like schools and universities, which are often funded by the government, have become a new way of transmitting knowledge (Burton Alter, 1999; Ramanathan, 1999).

The earliest example from the corpus is Within You Without You by The Beatles from 1967. Interestingly, the strings for this song were written by George Martin and performed by conservatoire-trained musicians (Farrell, 1999, p. 185; Martin & Hornsby, 1994, p. 203). Farrell points out his perceived issues with the string arrangement:

The Western strings slur and slide because this is what appears to happen in Indian music; so the sliding becomes a timbral device, rather than illuminating the movement to, and creating tensions between, one note and the next, as in Indian music. (Farrell, 1999, p. 187)

135 I question the extent to which these elements are actually observable in the Presentational features of an arrangement, but I acknowledge that I do not have comprehensive training in Indian Classical music. Nevertheless, the use of slurs and slides in Within You Without You still strongly identifies with the institutions for this string style.

The most recent example from the corpus is Daylight by Coldplay from 2002; which is a combination of Broadcast (most choruses), World (most verses), and Eastern Classical (the repeated sliding motif). The gesture that repeats through many sections of the song has emblematic slides and an approach to tonality that make it clearly Eastern Classical (examples of it include the intro, the verse at 2:53, and the outro). The verses often start with Presentational features that are not geo-culturally specific, and are therefore more like the World style in that they are not clearly attributable to other specific traditions of string playing. The only two examples from the corpus that feature Eastern Classical as a single string style are Within You Without You by The Beatles and Half by Soundgarden. Both of these are interesting because other material in the song is also explicitly referencing Eastern traditions of music.

The key intertexts for Eastern Classical include Within You Without You by The Beatles and Daylight by Coldplay. Other notable intertexts outside the corpus include: The Cutter by Echo and The Bunnymen; and Forsaken by Jonathan Davis and Richard Gibbs from the Queen of the Damned movie soundtrack. Interestingly, these songs both feature L. Shankar as the violinist, which corroborates the connection to virtuosic performers. There are a number of emblematic violinists for this style including L. Shankar, Dr. L Subramaniam, and Dr N Ramjam. Toxic by Britney Spears is also an intertext for this style. For other notable intertexts see the examples in the Presentational subheading. For the complete list of all Eastern Classical string style intertexts from the findings of the aural analysis see appendix K.

136 Chapter 7: Praxis and Application

Overview

The practice component consists of nine string arrangements for five different artists. All American and Mona Lisa were arranged and recorded in June 2014. All other arrangements were written between April and November 2016. Six of the arrangements are submitted here as final mixes that haven been or will be officially released. The exceptions are: The Hunter which is a finalized demo string arrangement; Cruel which is a demo string arrangement that is unfinalised due to circumstances outside my control; and Always which is due to be remixed. Audio of both the demo string arrangement and final product, and the score for each arrangement can be found in appendix L. In this chapter I will use the string style framework of Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features to discuss the initial brief, the process of writing the arrangement, the recording, and the outcome.71 SONG ARTIST DATE STRING STYLE All American Bandito Folk June 2014 Broadcast Mona Lisa Bandito Folk June 2014 Broadcast Fall Amela Duheric April - May 2016 Broadcast Never Said a Word Amela Duheric April - May 2016 Western Classical The Joker Amela Duheric April - May 2016 World + Western Classical The Hunter Thomas Bryce June 2016 World + Broadcast *a demo Cruel Audra McHugh June 2016 ongoing Broadcast + Euro Folk *an unfinalised + World demo The Least That You Brett Orr (for Vincent October 2016 Broadcast Can Do (Smile) Perry) Always Kevin Suierveld, Travis November 2016 Broadcast Lee, and Vincent Perry *will be remixed (for Vincent Perry)

71 Note that I have no control over the final mix of the song.

137 All American by Bandito Folk

Although both arrangements for Bandito Folk were completed early in the research, I had already established a fairly clear idea of the string styles. There was no concrete brief for these two songs other than to add strings to the arrangement.72 The lack of a specific brief meant that I had full creative control. In order to identify an appropriate string style I took my cues from the song itself, the extended repertoire of Bandito Folk, and my previous experience writing a string arrangement for them.

The band arrangement for All American was already quite dense. The song appeared to be driven by the dramatic emotional climax that builds from the interplay of major and minor chord progressions into the major tonality of the long instrumental outro. I thought that Broadcast string style was the most appropriate choice to fit in with the existing arrangement and Orientationally provide a dramatic and emotional lift to the journey of the song. The general approach to the Presentational features is a textural chordal one but the strings are more active in the sections without vocals as a way of continuing the lyrical emotional journey when the vocals are absent. The voicings of the chords are often used to highlight the emotional journey with the use of tension building chord extensions. As a way of highlighting the emotional climax at the end of the song the instrumental outro is the first time the strings venture into the high register. The song ends with the strings tapering off into a solo cello as a way to mirror the decrease in density of the band arrangement.

The string arrangement for All American is a fairly central example of the Broadcast string style and uses a combination of textural chordal and lyrical gestures as Presentational features. The choice of the less active type of Broadcast also meant the strings could sit comfortably in the mix considering backing vocals and a French Horn were to be added to the band arrangement after the strings had been written and recorded. The production treats the

72 I had previously worked with Bandito Folk, they had provided the song Into The Fire for my Honours research which I arranged using a mixture of World and Broadcast style strings (Luttrell, 2013).

138 strings in the way I had anticipated. The modification of band arrangements often happens between the demo arrangement and the final recording and it is well worth factoring into the considerations a string arranger makes for the Presentational features of a string style.

Mona Lisa by Bandito Folk

I chose to use the Broadcast string style for this song because it would suit the density of the existing arrangement and fit into the historical intertextual tradition of using Broadcast strings in songs of this genre. For the Presentational features I mainly used a textural chordal approach and had designed the strings to sit in the back of the mix with a fair amount of reverb. This was to ensure that the arrangement for the whole song wasn’t too cluttered especially in the sections with vocals where the lyrics were quite syllabically dense. The bridge uses high register harmonics to emphasise the emotional point of difference to the rest of the sections in the song. Rhythmically the strings are very simple, either playing long notes or reinforcing the ensemble hits in verse two. For the Orientational features I intended the string arrangement to highlight the drama and emotion of the song in the more cinematic rather than virtuosic way.

The original string arrangement continued the chordal textural approach in the outro: my suggestion was that the band instruments fade out and the strings become less reverberant so that the song ended with an example of Western Classical style strings. During the recording session we workshopped a few ideas for the outro and ended up choosing to layer a take of the violins playing a lyrical melody that highlighted the ensemble movement around the chord changes over the chordal quartet I had written. The production in the final version maintains the very reverberant string sound during the outro. Thus Mona Lisa is a fairly central example of the passive type of Broadcast style strings.

Fall by Amela Duheric

During the initial consultation Amela identified a number of Presentational features she had in mind for the song. This was presented as a written

139 conversation and a synthesized demo of an idea for strings in the chorus. The synthesized demo featured a large ensemble with a lot of reverb, detaché quaver subdivisions, a stepwise descending high string line, and a more active lower string line. Her structural suggestions included less active strings in the verses to keep out of the way of the vocals. Amela identified a number of intertexts for this song that included a list of contemporary Pop like: Adele, Ellie Goudling, One Last Night by Vaults (strings specifically), Writing’s on the Wall by Sam Smith (strings specifically). I clarified the Orientational features by interrogating what she liked about the reference tracks and how this matched to the synthesized demo she had provided which were described in terms like “dramatic”, “emotional”, and “beautiful”. Our discussions of Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features clearly indicated that the Broadcast string style would be most appropriate for what Amela wanted.

The budget and time restrictions for recording this string arrangement meant I had to work out how to write a Broadcast arrangement with that we could effectively execute with three string players (violin, viola, cello) in a small studio in Samford. The original demo for this song was just a piano and vocals. I started arranging by translating Amela’s synthesized string idea into a more idiomatic string version, with the intention that each chorus would be more dramatic than the previous. The prechoruses of this song really resonated with me, so I tried to make them a real feature in terms of building the drama of the song to give a sense of direction and momentum into the choruses, which I felt quite static in comparison. Here I was trying to exploit the Orientational features of Broadcast.

After the choruses and prechoruses were written the verses were about connecting the song together and staying out of the way of the vocals. I used melodic flourishes between vocal phrases that are a Presentational feature of Broadcast string style to engender the lushness and drama which would keep the verses coherent with the choruses. I was arranging with the Presentational features of Broadcast in mind, production would have a fair amount of reverb and we intended to double track the parts so we could create the illusion of a larger ensemble. I used lots of the Presentational features of unison and octave unison to have powerful string lines that didn’t harmonically clutter the song.

140 Amela’s feedback indicated she was happy with the Orientational and Organisational features of my arrangement but she wanted a few changes to Presentational features in some sections. The only major change was a rewrite of the bridge where I featured a cello and violin simple ascending melodic gesture that split into two parts for the last phrase and set up the last chorus. I also added high tremolo violin for the final chorus, it added a point of difference to the earlier choruses so the final chorus felt like an arrival point for the drama of the song.

Amela had made major changes to the instrumentation of the song between the demo she sent and the day we recorded the strings. The addition of drums, bass, electronics changed the song from a piano ballad to an Indie Pop song. Despite this, the string arrangement fitted in with the new instrumentation and there were no major changes to the string arrangement during the recording process. Interestingly this situation supports the theory that strings style functions separately from song genre. The final mix treats strings in a way that is congruent with Broadcast style but uses less reverb than I had imagined.

Never Said a Word by Amela Duheric

The Organisational reference Amela used for this song was the artist Regina Specktor though she did not identify any specific intertexts for songs or string examples. Amela had a few suggestions for Presentational features including where she wanted the strings structurally, for example entering at the first chorus; and some basic texture ideas of starting the arrangement small, building into a full and active bridge, then dying away again towards the end of the song. She also provided a description that helped to identify the Orientational features:

full…melodic...bright and light but at the same time the content is pretty heavy and sad…the bridge to me feels like the stormy season where or almost like when the wind starts blowing heavier and the autumn leaves are blowing in the air. (Amela Duheric, personal communication, April 22, 2016).

My initial interpretation of the brief was that the Western Classical style was likely to suit; I was aware of a number of Regina Specktor songs that used

141 Western Classical style strings.

This arrangement was to be recorded under the same conditions as Fall so my aim was to keep the instrumentation to a quartet – which would also fit the smaller ensemble size prevalent in Western Classical string style. The audio demo Amela provided was a very basic recording of piano with main vocals and a few vocal harmonies. I started with a pizzicato idea in the choruses (which is fairly close to what ended up in the final arrangement), and a single simple cello taking the role of bass line instrument in the verses and choruses. I assumed that Amela would be unlikely to add too many more instruments to this song so I kept in mind that the cello was likely to be the default “bass” instrument and should probably keep to the lower register.

The melodic idea for the bridge, which imitates the vocal line a few beats earlier, was part of my initial reaction to the song and functions as a canon. By using the Presentational features of a canon the Organisational features could also identify the technique ergo the string arrangement with historical uses of canons, the popular emblematic eras for this are prior to and including the Baroque period (Kostka, 2006, p. 150). The canon would also fulfill Amela’s request for the bridge to be active by overlapping the melodic gestures, which sets up an illusion of perpetual motion. The Western Classical string style was a really useful entry point for developing this arrangement because it gave me a clear idea of the Presentational features especially the tight quartet feel, the palette of articulations, and the “traditional” roles and functions for the instruments.

Amela liked the arrangement, especially the bridge. She had a few minor suggestions including: changing some pizz to arco (cello in choruses), some articulations (upper strings in verse1), and a few places where lines needed to be doubled or up an octave. When preparing the final score I chose to put the rhythmic subdividing violin in the bridge as an ossia staff so it would be tracked separately and could be treated differently in the mix to the rest of the quartet as more of a texture than a line. The only major change to the string arrangement during the recording was to use the pizzicato instrumental as the last chorus because Amela had removed the instrumental from the final song. This also

142 meant deleting a second canon I had written as the original outro. There were also a few chords that needed adjusting during the recording session as the piano was playing different chords to the demo. The production treats the strings with less clarity than I had intended and positions them a little further back in the mix.

Even though the Western Classical string style sets up Orientational features like formality and seriousness personally I felt that when this was juxtaposed with the “cute” piano-driven song the whole song came off as playful, almost satire. I had observed this relationship in a number of Regina Specktor songs with strings so I felt that the Organisational references were appropriate. I think the juxtaposition helped to fulfill the brief of a light song about serious things in that the string style is serious but its relationship to the rest of the elements in the song is playful.

The Joker by Amela Duheric

Amela’s brief for The Joker included language indicating Orientational and Presentational features, ‘depth and mysterious undertones…strings to add warmth and fill out the sound... strings that sit behind and cater to the vocals’ (Amela Duheric, personal communication, April 22, 2016). She also suggested other Presentational features: the bridge was the structural climax of the song, and that she favored cellos or lower registers for this song. The Organisational references Amela provided were New York by Paloma Faith (for the whole song), and To Let Myself Go by Ane Brun (for mood). Although Amela had used the Paloma Faith song as an intertext for the whole song rather than the strings, I noted that the strings in it were Broadcast style, mostly passive chordal with the exception of a few feature gestures that included slides. There were no strings in the Ane Brun track but it gave me a solid reference for the Orientational features Amela was trying to achieve with The Joker. My initial ideas for this arrangement were that it was likely to suit either Broadcast or World style strings.

I wrote the bridge first, the idea for it came to me almost fully formed. It was actually more in the Western Classical string style, which did not really fit the

143 brief but seemed to fit the song. The rest of the string arrangement was not as easy to write and the ideas that felt like they were working for the song were again not really fulfilling the initial brief. I had originally been trying to write a cello dominated melodic gesture idea for the choruses that was more in line with the Western Classical style in the bridge but this felt heavy handed, boring, and did not fit with the Orientational features of the brief especially World’s exotic drama.

I revisited the World and Broadcast findings from the aural analysis and decided that a less busy approach to the choruses, one that used more of the World Presentational features like non-Western articulations and harmonies, might help to solve the problem. From this I came up with the idea of a static long note featuring a slide to the next note, which became the nucleus of the choruses. I also added the messy harmonics in some of the transitional sections that, until then, had been a very clumsy part of the arrangement. The verses then were about linking the other elements of the song together in a journey through time and staying out of the way of the main vocals. The initial string arrangement turned into a double quartet.

Amela really liked the bridge and choruses but had a few suggestions overall. The suggestions included: a few chord changes in the choruses, different octaves in the bridge, and adding an outro. I was unhappy with the last chorus because it was messy - the original string demo had three different ideas for Presentational features all played together. After a few attempts at rewriting the last chorus I used the World Presentational feature, an upper and lower string component that play different gestures, to refine the ideas. Although the initial version of this arrangement came together very quickly I found it quite difficult to edit. During the process of notation I was able to reduce the double quartet to a quartet with an ossia staff for the higher octave violin in the last chorus. Towards the end of the arranging process Amela mentioned that there was a trumpet in the final instrumentation, with a feature in the outro. Due to the limited turnaround time I wrote two alternate string gestures for the outro, one that would sit behind a more active trumpet part, the other that could take the place of a trumpet. This gave us an option to decide on when we were recording.

144 There were no major changes to the string arrangement during the recording process. However, after advice from the violinist, we ended up recording a different violin line in some sections of the piece. This was to compensate for the lack of a second violinist, and was more about choosing material that would be easier to tune when tracked with the viola and cello. In the final mix the engineer sampled the messy harmonic and used it in a number of places that were not in the string arrangement. Overall this arrangement ended up with a combination of Western Classical style strings in the bridge and outro and mostly World style strings in the other sections. It is more of a borderline instance of the World style though, which I think is mainly due to the production. If the strings had more reverb and were positioned a little further back in the mix, like the demo string arrangement, it would be a clearer example. Despite this the string arrangement does enhance the otherness and drama of the song through its identification with the Orientational features of World style strings.

The Hunter by Thomas Bryce

Thomas was aware of my research and prior to this commission. We’d had a number of conversations about the World string style because we were both admirers of a number of intertexts from the style. The initial consultation with Thomas focused on feel; he’d identified Orientational features such as dreamy, floating, atmospheric and slightly eerie and had also suggested I write the arrangement drinking red wine in low light conditions which I interpreted as implying melancholy. Thomas’s Organisational reference for The Hunter was Round the Bend by Beck, which I had identified in the aural analysis as a combination of Broadcast and World string styles. I suggested other Organisational references including Van Morrison, Nick Drake, and Fugitive Motel by Elbow. The latter two included examples of World and Broadcast strings. My suggestions for Presentational features were that the strings would be quite sparse and that the production should treat the strings as a texture by using a lot of reverb and placing them in the background of the mix.

Despite having a very clear idea of the brief, and personally loving the song, I had a lot of difficulty writing a string arrangement that I felt did justice to The Hunter.

145 I had tried on at least three separate occasions to write but was struggling to translate the brief into a concrete arrangement. Despite having written World style strings a number of times the usual vocabulary of Presentational features, for example dramatic melodic call and response gestures, weren’t working with this song. I had also tried following the bass line with a cello but it was too busy due to the quick chord changes and identified with Anglo Folk style strings. The turning point involved revisiting the Orientational and Organisational features.

I wrote three versions of an arrangement. The first was a sustained chordal textural version that slowly introduced a medium sized ensemble using harmonics and drone notes held over chord changes to extend the chords so that the Orientational aspect would be towards “foreign”. It also uses the journey of register expansion and high register in the emotional climax of the song typical of the passive type of Broadcast string style. The second version was a solo cello that was designed to highlight the virtuosic and dramatic Orientational features through its interaction with the vocal lines - I was attempting to achieve World style using a single instrument. The third version combined the solo cello and chordal textural arrangements into one. Thomas chose the third version and there was only a minor change to one solo cello gesture.

My arrangement was difficult to score because there was a lot of timbral information that was hard to represent with traditional notation. This included variations to the way the sustained notes are played to fade in and out of “noisier” timbres, and the exact timing of the solo cello gestures which relied heavily on their relationship to the lead vocals and so were not entirely metric. This arrangement has not been through the final recording stage and I expect that the audio demo of the string arrangement will be just as important for the performers as the score because Thomas is very attached to the timbral and timing expressivity in the demo. My arrangement fulfills the brief of the Beck intertext in that it is a similar combination of World and the passive type of Broadcast style. It is an interesting example of how the song itself can shape the choice of Presentational features of a string style, and how it is possible for an arranger to negotiate this with this brief in order to achieve the required Orientational and Organisational features of a string style.

146 Cruel by Audra McHugh

For this song I was negotiating the string arrangement with both the songwriter and the producer. The brief for this song included the Organisational reference of the artist Portishead. Orientational features included the words “hypnotic” and “intimate”. The Presentational features were that the strings should be present in most if not all sections of the song, feature in the solo section, and generally not be too busy. From this I advised that there were three approaches to string style that would likely fulfill the brief for this song. The first was the Experimental style; the example intertext I provided was specific parts of Climbing up the Walls by Radiohead. The second was the passive type of Broadcast style, which was featured in two key intertexts by Portishead, Roads and Glory Box. The third was World style; the example intertext I provided was Paper Tiger by Beck. Both the songwriter and producer indicated they were very interested in both the Experimental and World styles but thought that the strings should not be too overtly “weird”. I decided that I would aim mainly for Broadcast style strings with sections of either Experimental or World.

The strings were designed so the production could make them very reverberant and place them in the background of the mix. I also indicated that it might be appropriate to treat the string arrangement like a sample when producing the song like Glory Box. I wrote two versions of the initial arrangement, one that was a thicker texture and one a thinner texture. These initial arrangements relied on a number of non-Western Presentational features like slides. The feedback for these initial arrangements was that the choruses were appropriate but the intro and verses were problematic because they were extending the harmonic language of the song too much. The feedback also indicated that the instrumental needed to be more animated, more like the scalic gesture in the middle of it.

I made major changes to the arrangement to push it more decisively towards the Broadcast style rather than the World style. I also rewrote the instrumental to be more like the scalic gesture the producer and songwriter liked – here I experimented with Euro Folk string style. Whilst I managed to represent the key ideas in Euro Folk style I found it very difficult to craft the parts in this style due

147 to my lack of training in the Presentational specifics of virtuosic articulation and melodic gestures for this style. I also modified the outro so that the gestures were simpler and less harmonically challenging. I wrote the outro idea using Pro Tools by sampling and sequencing the material I had in previous versions of the arrangement. This arrangement is yet to be finalized or recorded due to scheduling and workload priorities of the songwriter and producer.

The Least That You Can Do (Smile) by Brett Orr (for Vincent Perry)

The final two arrangements were for Vincent Perry, a drummer currently completing a Philosophy Doctorate at Griffith University specializing in Soul and Motown. (Smile) was originally part of a string quartet recording commission. My role was as cellist and string coordinator, a role that included fixing up the scores the arranger had sent through so that they were more playable for strings.73 The original string arrangement for (Smile) was only violins holding a pedal note in the second chorus and a pedal note in octaves in the outro. I saw an opportunity to rewrite the string arrangement using the original arrangement as a structural guide to the Presentational features of the strings. Vincent and I had discussed the practice component of his research in detail so I had a solid idea of the Orientational features and Organisational intertexts for the project. Since the project represented an overt lineage to Soul and Motown, I decided that Broadcast style strings would be the most appropriate because it was heavily used in Soul and Motown historical intertexts.

The timeframe for this arrangement was extremely tight; I had less than three hours between receiving the original string arrangement and the recording session. Due to the condensed timeframe I was unable to demo in an arrangement and had to notate directly from the ideas I had. Using my knowledge of Broadcast string styles I was able to quickly complete an arrangement that made use of the Presentational features like unison, and active gestures that emphasise the emotional peaks of the song. This can be heard

73 The other two songs in the commission required extensive re-orchestration including some sections with new string arrangement material.

148 clearly in the second chorus (3:10) where the strings start in unison in use a diverging chromatic scalic gesture to emphasise the build into the last part of the chorus which is chordal with passing notes in an expanded register. The other notable use of a scalic gesture to emphasise the emotional hit point in the song is the fast upwards run that announces the arrival of the higher octave of pedal notes in the outro (approx. 4:28).74 The rest of the string arrangement is mostly the passive type of Broadcast which is either unison, octave unison, or chordal.

There were no changes to the string arrangement during the recording session. We double tracked the quartet to create the illusion of a larger ensemble, a Presentational feature typical of Broadcast. Vincent was very happy with the new arrangement and how efficient and stress free the recording session was. He also asked for my advice for the Presentational production features for the song and I was able to advise him of ways to achieve the Broadcast string style with the quartet including mic placement, double tracking, and the typical amount of reverb and volume in a mix. The experience of arranging and recording this song in such a limited timeframe confirmed for me that the string styles are a functional and effective way of approaching string arranging. In the past I would have struggled to execute an arrangement under these conditions but now I was able to quickly identify the style via the intertexts and execute an arrangement that identifies with this canon of intertexts. Additionally, the string styles provide an arranger with knowledge of the Presentational production features of a style that can be very useful during the recording session.

Always by Kevin Suierveld, Travis Lee, and Vincent Perry (for Vincent Perry)

A month after the previous commission Vincent approached me with another three songs he wanted the quartet for. He had been impressed with my work on the previous session and gave me complete control over the string arrangement for Always. The brief was the same as his other songs in that it was really just the Organisational features with a few specific artists such as Marvin Gaye. I decided the more active type of Broadcast would likely be the most appropriate style.

74 Unfortunately it is heavily buried in the final mix, but can be found in bar 45 of the score.

149 My intent was to showcase the Presentational features of Broadcast that emphasised the drama and glamour of the Orientational features. In particular was the use of unison and octave unison for melodic lines; the use of flourish gestures to emphasise emotional peaks of the song; and high register parts especially in the narrative peaks of the song. I began by brainstorming an active line for the choruses. Once I came up with the melodic idea I was quickly able to orchestrate it for the quartet, adding a descending counter line for the latter choruses. I also added more flourishes and accented passages in the latter sections of the song and pushed the strings into a higher octave at the start of the last instrumental chorus. This helped the string arrangement build and develop through the song, again Presentational features of the Broadcast string style. I was not happy with the featured violin solo line I had written for the instrumental (at 2:21 in the DEMO file), which was impeded by my poor violin playing skills, but I knew that Flora the violinist would be able to workshop this section with me during the recording session.

There were no major changes to the arrangement during the recording other than workshopping the featured violin solo line in the instrumental. For me, this highlights the benefit of having the arranger involved in the recording process, and working with performers you are familiar with. We double tracked the quartet again, using the same approach to the Presentational production features of the style that had worked in the previous session.

There were a number of elements added to the song after the strings, including the female backing vocals and sax solo, that I feel conflict with material in the string arrangement.75 Again, this is typical of the real conditions of practice in that the global arrangement and production are out of the control of a commissioned string arranger. After listening to the current mix I convinced Vincent to remix the song, and offered advice of how to produce the strings in the new global arrangement. For example, during the instrumental, I recommended that he cut alternating violin and sax phrases so it would be more like call and response. The other option would be to delete the violin solo

75 As well as the effectiveness of the semantic function of the strings.

150 entirely but keep the chordal strings.76 These options would be more typical of strings in Broadcast style as well as Motown and Soul arrangements more generally. Despite this, I think Always is a very successful example of the heart of Broadcast string style, partly because it references the specific version of Broadcast present in a number of key historical intertexts. Additionally this arrangement is evidence that the string styles can be useful for an arranger even if the only brief is intertexts and Organisational features.

76 We recorded the solo separately to the chordal strings in this section. This is a clear example of how knowledge of the production process can be used to record string arrangements in a way that allows for some flexibility. This is one way to compensate for a string arrangers’ lack of control over the global arrangement.

151 Chapter 8: Discussion and Conclusions

This thesis proposes a new theory for string arrangements for RPM: there are seven styles of string arrangements and these styles function as instance^institution rhetorical formations. The theory of string styles is based an aural analysis of string arrangements from Rolling Stone’s updated 500 Greatest Albums of All Time (Rolling Stone, 2012), and was found to account for the majority of instances in the corpus. The seven string styles describe combinations of Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features that intertextually identify with larger social and cultural institutions for associative coherence.

I assert that treating string arrangements as styles is useful to a string arranger for both the purposes of analysis and informing new creative practice, particularly in regards to situating new creative practice in the intertextual canon. In order to frame and treat strings as cultural semantics I developed a new methodology, Inter-Dimensional Aural Analysis, which uses Lemke’s metafunctions to facilitate analysis for praxis. IDAA combines methods for targeted analysis into a macroscopic approach that examines intertextual patterns across a range of musical and semantic features. Four of the string styles identify with institutions that prioritise written traditions; these string styles are Western Classical, Broadcast, Experimental and World. The remaining three identify with institutions that prioritize aural and oral traditions; these string styles are Anglo Folk, Euro Folk, and Eastern Classical. A practice component found that the string styles are useful to an arranger both as a new way to communicate with songwriters and producers in the process of negotiating a brief, and in the process of writing and refining an arrangement.

The limitations of this thesis mean that descriptions of the seven string styles are predominantly based off one large study. Although the corpus was chosen to be a representative selection of Popular music with symbolic capital between 1952 and 2011, it can only function as a sample of the massive amount of music released over this time period. The corpus also appears to show some bias towards certain artists, genders, genres, and time periods. Despite these issues I

152 believe that the selection of any list of a similar scope would have been just as problematic given that the world’s recorded music catalogue is in the hundreds of millions of tracks. In addition, a number of small-scale pilot tests outside the corpus and many years of casual listening went towards informing the development of the theory of seven string styles. Some of the intertexts found during casual listening are mentioned in chapters five and six because they provide a better exemplar of a given style than any arrangement from the corpus. This research provides a solid starting point for future research into string arrangement styles, and also how to negotiate large-scale corpus aural analysis as a method in academic research.

As this thesis is the first full-scale deployment of IDAA, there are a few aspects that would benefit from refinement when this methodology is used in future research. Predominantly, the proposed refinements are to the specifics of data collection.77 I would recommend developing a consistent glossary of descriptive terms so that written comments are more easily analysed.78 I would also recommend, when IDAA is used for large-scale analysis of style, that the researcher adds a column to the data collection spreadsheet that indicates how central or ambiguous the style classification is. IDAA also takes for granted that the researcher will have intermediate knowledge and training in the areas of composition, performance, and production in order to be able to aurally identify and analyse these features.

On the completion of the aural analysis I stand by the decision to choose Rolling Stone’s updated 500 Greatest Albums of All Time as the corpus (Rolling Stone, 2012). Despite being a very large sample size, as indicated a number of times in the feedback I received during this thesis, it was necessary in order to locate enough examples of string arrangements in Popular music for observations of string styles to be meaningful. Without such a large initial corpus it would have been difficult to locate a significant sample of songs with string arrangements. In addition to the disadvantages I have identified with the corpus, there are a

77 They were identified towards the end of the data collection for this thesis. 78 This would also allow for the use of word analysis software to navigate aspects of the data.

153 number of findings that are potentially corpus specific. To get a meaningful picture of whether trends in this corpus are representative of wider trends it will be necessary to contextualize this corpus analysis with others of a similar magnitude. As an example, whether trends in this corpus indicating the dominant prevalence of Broadcast, Western Classical, and Anglo Folk string styles speak to trends in Western Popular music more generally. I strongly suspect this is the case but at this stage I cannot make predictions that are more than conjecture without engaging in further corpus aural analysis research.

I concede that IDAA could be seen as inefficient in that it requires lots of engagement and effort when some of the data collection might not be relevant to the findings. However, this is the nature of research that investigates the usage of intertextual patterns in situated instances of creative work in order to develop theory that applies outside of a specific set of examples. There are ways to focus the usage of IDAA. For example, defining specifics of what you are investigating; doing quick preliminary listens to a selection of intertexts to help highlight areas of likely similarities; and small-scale pilot studies. The unused information I collected during this thesis provides a wealth of data for future research. Additionally, the process of using IDAA has dramatically improved my ability to hear, analyse, and evaluate a large amount of data in a short period of time. In this way, using IDAA is similar to other approaches to aural analysis and aural skills in that constant usage improves the skills and efficiency of the user.

The findings of the aural analysis are fairly conclusive that the seven string styles are a good representation of the major intertextual canons of string arrangements for RPM. There are a few instances of arrangements that exist in the ambiguous area between styles. This can be because an arrangement does not use enough Presentational, Orientational, or Organisational features to clearly identify with a style. Alternately, it can be because an arrangement is an equal, and ambiguous, balance of more than one style. For example, a number of the songs that feature John Cale as string arranger and performer use lengthy sections of drone pitches - sometimes double-stopped - and texture these with a- metric bowing and frequent ornamentation. Often these arrangements also feature and exacerbate the non-pitched component of the sound and treat this as

154 another a-metric element. In terms of Presentational features, this description could apply to Experimental, World, Anglo Folk, or Eastern Classical style strings depending on slight nuances in the compositional and performance features. If the intertextual canon is not clear, in that the instance is not identifying persuasively with any of the institutions, then the Orientational aspect is also hard to identify due to this ambiguity. However, in almost all of the ambiguous instances they are still, in essence, describing the seven string styles despite occupying the borderlines between them. In practice, the use of string styles is complicated by other factors including the demands of the songwriter and producer, the budget, the timeframe, and the string arranger’s subjective reaction to the song.

To test the theory that string styles exist inside and across genres, the aural analysis had to be conducted on a wide range of song genres. Preliminary findings suggest that some string styles are more likely to appear in some song genres. For example, it appears that Anglo Folk strings are more likely in the song genres of Country, Folk, and Singer / Songwriter. But I have also found Anglo Folk style strings in acoustic Pop Punk, Good Riddance by Green Day. Another example that reinforces that the use of string style is not bound to specific song genres is Kanye West’s song All of the Lights, where the song genre is Hip Hop but it has Western Classical style strings. The theoretical implication of this observation needs to be explored in more detail as it supports the theory that string styles function as rhetorical formations, and relationships between string style and song genre are far from predictable.

The significance of the findings of this thesis is threefold. First, that Lemke’s metafunctions appears to be a very useful and illuminating way of approaching the design of a theoretical framework and methodology for analysing style in Popular music. It allows for the cultural semantic examination of intertextual patterns in aural data in the context of RPM, and helps frame analysis that contributes to praxis. Second, by using this approach to analyse string arrangements for RPM I have been able to address a gap in knowledge around how to use analysis to contextually situate new instances of practice in the existing canon of intertexts. Third, this thesis functions as a history of string

155 arrangements in RPM that is indexed by style through identification with institutions and intertextual canons, and that is described in terms of intertextual patterns in musical features and semantic functions. Approaching strings as rhetorical formations illuminates the role of strings in RPM and as such, it is useful to both the academic community and the community of Popular music practitioners. Although targeted at string arrangers, the string styles will be useful to others including songwriters, engineers, producers, and educators. The success in framing and analysing strings as styles would strongly suggest the theoretical framework and methodology would be transferable to studies of the role of other instruments in RPM, for example brass.

From my experience designing and conducting this research, and from reflecting on the findings, I would argue that every string arranger should have intermediate level training in composition, performance, and production so that new creative practice can be more effectively conceived in the foresight of the “end product” of the song. This includes the ability to create demo string arrangements with a rough guide to ideas for performance, mixing, and production so that communications with songwriters and producers are through audio demos and not notation. Knowledge of all three areas will also help an arranger write and present an arrangement that is fairly intuitive to play so as to elicit good performances. By that I mean the arrangement is logically notated with the recording process in mind to aid performing, recording, and mixing; and is generally organized in a way that does not make the jobs of the performers, engineers, and producers more difficult than recording “good performances” in a short amount of time.

In my experience as a string arranger who also takes the role of cellist in recordings, the arranger often works as a translator for the string performers who typically have a different vocabulary from the engineer and producer.79 This is not such a problem with performers who are experienced session musicians in the Popular music context. However, there is still a benefit to having the string

79 As a broad generalisation performers in the string ensembles I have worked with are typically conservatoire trained or Anglo Folk trained whereas engineers and producers are more likely to be trained in acoustics, technical ear training, studio production, or Popular music.

156 arranger work as the liaison between the interests of the songwriter, the needs of an engineer, the wants of a producer, and the skills and limitations of players. I also advocate for string arrangers who want diversity and flexibility in their practice to invest in basic training in the seven string styles, whether this be as self-education or in a more formal setting. CPE training and twentieth century Art music study will help inform the execution of the four styles from written traditions. The three aural styles will need individual attention due to style specific ornamentation and performance techniques.

I intend to continue researching string styles in order to contribute to a more thorough history of strings in RPM. I also intend to use the seven string styles to construct a practical resource for string arrangers. Because the string styles are an observation of clusters of patterns in intertexts they are subject to change and adapt as future intertexts become part of the relevant canon of string arrangements. It is highly probable that new string styles will develop in the future, perhaps out of the emergence of new influential institutions or perhaps from existing institutions that strings in RPM currently do not identify with.

From observing recent minor trends in styles of string arrangement I predict that there is likely to be a new string style that has clear Organisational ties to recorded technologies and production. The new style is likely to reflect the continuing momentum of the production process as a contributor to the creative act of music making. There is already evidence of this in Presentational patterns in and across a number of intertexts, but as yet the usage of these features are not prevalent enough to function as its own style. At present string arrangements that have been heavily manipulated in the recording and production appear to be just heavily manipulated versions of the seven string styles.

The aim of this thesis is to provide an answer to the question: How are string arrangements for recorded Popular music best theorised for analytical and practical purposes? By using Lemke’s metafunctions and the perspective of cultural semantics to inform the approach to analysis it is evident that these broad categories are seven styles of string arrangement. The styles are intertextual clusters of Presentational, Orientational, and Organisational features

157 that are made coherent and meaningful through their identification with institutions as rhetorical formations. The seven string styles appear to be both a valid and functional way to approach both analysis and practice. This was demonstrated in a large-scale aural analysis of the existing canon of string arrangements for RPM, and through the creation of nine new string arrangements. My contribution to knowledge is a new model for understanding and writing string arrangements for RPM. The model is a new way to approach the analysis and organisation of string arrangements in RPM and is designed to help an arranger understand and situate their creative practice in the existing canon of intertexts.

158 Appendices List

Access appendices via this link: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/91ea95yeaon79px/AAAvHYCQONTWjxSljjEYvE2 ea?dl=0

Appendix A) Aural Analysis - quantitative findings

Appendix B) Aural Analysis - full data collection spreadsheet

Appendix C) Aural Analysis - detailed procedure

Appendix D) IDAA details

Appendix E) Intertexts List - Western Classical string style

Appendix F) Intertexts List - Broadcast string style

Appendix G) Intertexts List - Experimental string style

Appendix H) Intertexts List - World string style

Appendix I) Intertexts List - Anglo Folk string style

Appendix J) Intertexts List - Euro Folk string style

Appendix K) Intertexts List - Eastern Classical string style

Appendix L) Practice Component (nine arrangements)

• N.B. Please listen to the “FINAL” audio file where available. For The Hunter and Cruel listen to the “DEMO” audio file.

NUMBER SONG ARTIST FILES

1. All American Bandito Folk DEMO (AUDIO)

FINAL (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

159 2. Mona Lisa Bandito Folk DEMO (AUDIO)

FINAL (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

3. Fall Amela Duheric DEMO (AUDIO)

FINAL (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

4. Never Said a Word Amela Duheric DEMO (AUDIO)

FINAL (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

5. The Joker Amela Duheric DEMO (AUDIO)

FINAL (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

6. The Hunter Thomas Bryce DEMO (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

7. Cruel Audra McHugh DEMO (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

8. The Least That You Vincent Perry FINAL (AUDIO) Can Do (Smile) SCORE (.PDF)

9. Always Vincent Perry DEMO (AUDIO)

FINAL (AUDIO)

SCORE (.PDF)

160 Reference List

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170 10.1057/9781403978363 Martin, G., & Hornsby, J. (1994). All You Need is Ears. New York: St. Martin's Press. McAdams, S. (1993). Recognition of Sound Sources and Events. In S. McAdams & E. Bigand (Eds.), Thinking in Sound: the cognitive psychology of human audition (pp. 146-198). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. McAulay, K. (2014). Arranging. In W. F. Thompson (Ed.), Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: an Encyclopedia (Vol. 2, pp. 83-86). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi: 10.4135/9781452283012.n28 McDonald, E. (2011). Dealing with Musical Meaning: Towards an Embodied Model of Music. In S. Dreyfus, S. Hood, & M. Stenglin (Eds.), Semiotic Margins: Reclaiming Meaning (pp. 101-23). London: Continuum. McVeigh, S. (1992). The Violinists of the Baroque and Classical Periods. In R. Stowell (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Violin (pp. 46-60). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Meeùs, N. (1993). A Semiotic Approach to Music. Contemporary Music Review, 9(1-2), 305-310. doi: 10.1080/07494469300640521 Meyer, L. B. (1996). Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology [University of Chicago Press ed.]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Middleton, R. (1990). Studying Popular Music. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press. Middleton, R. (2000). Introduction: Locating the Popular Music Text. In R. Middleton (Ed.), Reading Pop: Approaches to Textual Analysis in Popular Music (pp. 1-25). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Miller, R. J. 1. (2015). Contemporary Orchestration: a Practical Guide to Instruments, Ensembles, and Musicians. New York, NY: Routledge. Miller, T. E., & Shahriari, A. C. (2009). World Music: a Global Journey (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Milner, G. (2009). Perfecting Sound Forever: The Story of Recorded Music. London, GB: Granta Books Milsom, D., & Da Costa, N. P. (2014). Expressiveness in Historical Perspective: Nineteenth-Century Ideals and Practices. In D. Fabian, R. Timmers, & E. Schubert (Eds.), Expressiveness in Music Performance: Empirical Approaches

171 Across Styles and Cultures (1st ed.) (pp. 80-97). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Moore, A. (2001). Categorical Conventions in Music Discourse: Style and Genre. Music & Letters, 82(3), 432-442. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/stable/3526163 Moore, A. F. (2012). Song Means: Analysing and Interpreting Recorded Popular Song. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Morricone, E., Miceli, S., & Anderson, G. B. (2013). Composing for the Cinema: the Theory and Praxis of Music in Film. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. Mossman, K. (2012). It was 50 Years Ago Today. Strad, 123, 50-55. Mullins, C. E. (2014). Blah, Blah, Blah: Making Sense of Nonsense in Irish Vocal Music. Musical Offerings, 5(2), 87-117. doi: 10.15385/jmo.2014.5.2.2 Music in Religion and Ritual (1999). Music in Religion and Ritual. In A. Arnold (Ed.), Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 5 - South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent (p. 263). Routledge. Retrieved December 17, 2016, from Music Online: The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Nattiez, J. J. (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Nestico, S. (1993). The Complete Arranger. U.S.: Fenwood Music Co. Neumeyer, D., & Tepping, S. (1992). A Guide to Schenkerian Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Nettl, B. (2004). Introduction: Studying Musics of the World’s Cultures. In B. Nettl, C. Capwell, P. V. Bohlman, I. K. F. Wong & T. Turino (Authors) Excursions in World Music (4th ed.) (pp. 1-19). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Nettl, B., Capwell, C., Bohlman, P.V., Wong, I.K.F., & Turino, T. (2004). Excursions in World Music (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Norgaard, M. (2000). Jazz Fiddle Wizard: a Practical Guide to Jazz Improvising for Strings. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Norman, A. (2011). Spiritual Tourism: Travel and Religious Practice in Western Society. London: Continuum International Publishing.

172 NME. (2013a). The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Retrieved October 20, 2014, from http://www.nme.com/photos/the-500-greatest-albums-of-all-time- 100-1/324644#/photo/1 NME. (2013b). How We Settled the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time Once and For All. Retrieved October 20, 2014, from http://www.nme.com/blogs/nme- blogs/how-we-settled-the-500-greatest-albums-of-all-time-once-and-for- all Nunes, J. C., & Ordanini, A. (2014). I Like the Way it Sounds: the Influence of Instrumentation on a Pop Song’s Place in the Charts. Musicae Scientiae, 18(4), 392-409. doi: 10.1177/1029864914548528 Nyman, M. (1999). Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Ollikkala, R. (1999). The Social Organization of Music and Musicians: Northern Area. In A. Arnold (Ed.), Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 5 - South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent (pp. 398-408). Routledge. Retrieved December 17, 2016, from Music Online: The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Pauly, R. G. (1988). Music in the Classic Period (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Pejrolo, A., & DeRosa, R. (2007). Acoustic and MIDI Orchestration for the Contemporary Composer. Oxford; Focal. Pesch, L. (1999). The Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pesic, P. (2014). Music and the Making of Modern Science. MIT Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qf97s Philip, R. (2004a). Performing Music in the Age of Recording. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Philip, R. (2004b). Early Recordings and Musical Style (Paperback ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Piston, W. (1955). Orchestration. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Plano Clark, V. L., & Creswell, J. W. (2008). The Mixed Methods Reader. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

173 Platte, N. (2014). Performing Prestige: American Cinema Orchestras, 1910-1958. In D. Neumeyer (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Film Music Studies (pp. 620- 638). New York: Continuum. Rauscher, D. J. (1963). Orchestration: Scores and Scoring. London: Free Press of Glencoe. Ramanathan, N. (1999). Institutional Music Education: Southern Area. In A. Arnold (Ed.), Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 5 - South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent (pp. 475-482). Routledge. Retrieved December 17, 2016, from Music Online: The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Read, G. (1976). Contemporary Instrumental Techniques. New York: Schirmer Books. Reel, J., & Welch, E. M. (2004, August / September). Gypsy soul. Strings, 19(2), 36- 38. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.e zp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/237167959?accountid=13380 Reid, G. (2007, October). Streetly Mellotron M4000. Sound on Sound. Retrieved from http://www.soundonsound.com/reviews/streetly-mellotron-m4000 Resch, M. (2013, November). A Brief History of the Mellotron. Keyboard, 39(11), 16-17. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.e zp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/1447210061?accountid=13380 Riddle, N. (1985). Arranged by Nelson Riddle: the Definitive Study of Arranging by America's #1 Composer, Arranger, and Conductor. Miami, FL: Warner Bros. Publications. Rimsky-Korsakov, N. (2013). Principles of Orchestration (Dover edition). New York: Dover Publications. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/lib/qut/detail. action?docID=1897445 Rinzler, P. E. (1989). Jazz Arranging and Performance Practice: a Guide for Small Ensembles. Metuchen, NJ: London: Scarecrow Press. Risset, J. C., & Wessel, D. (1999). Exploration of Timbre by Analysis and Synthesis. In D. Deutsch (Ed.), The Psychology of Music (2nd ed.) (pp. 113- 169). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

174 Rolling Stone. (2012). 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Retrieved October 20, 2014, from http://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/500-greatest- albums-of-all-time-20120531 Rooksby, R. (2007). Arranging Songs: How to Put the Parts Together. San Francisco, CA: Backbeat Books. Rossing, T. D., & Hanson, R. J. (2010). Bowed Strings. In T. D. Rossing (Ed.), The Science of String Instruments (pp. 197-208). New York, NY: Springer New York. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7110-4_2 Runswick, D. (1992). Rock, Jazz and Pop Arranging: all the Facts and all the Know- How. London: Faber Music. Saldanha, E., & Corso, J. (1964). Timbre Cues and the Identification of Musical Instruments. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 36(11), 2021- 2026. doi: 10.1121/1.1919317 Sanchez, M. J. (2014). Fiddle For Dummies [EBL version]. Wiley. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/lib/qut/detail. action?docID=1840833 Sankaran, T., & Allen, M. (1999). The Social Organization of Music and Musicians: Southern Area. In A. Arnold (Ed.), Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 5 - South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent (pp. 409-422). Routledge. Retrieved December 17, 2016, from Music Online: The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Schmutz, V. (2005, July). Retrospective Cultural Consecration in Popular Music: Rolling Stone’s Greatest Albums of All Time. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(11), 1510-1523. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.e zp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/214763994?accountid=13380 Sebesky, D. (1975). The Contemporary Arranger. New York: Alfred Pub. Sevsay, E. (2013). The Cambridge Guide to Orchestration. New York: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/lib/qut/detail. action?docID=1182955 Shatzkin, M. (1993). Writing for the Orchestra: an Introduction to Orchestration. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

175 Shevy, M. (2006). Commusication 1: Popular Music Genre as Cognitive Schema (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (304978538). Shevy, M. (2008). Music Genre as Cognitive Schema: Extramusical Associations with Country and Hip-Hop Music. Psychology of Music, 36(4), 477-498. doi:10.1177/0305735608089384 Shuker, R. (2001). Understanding Popular Music (2nd ed.) [EBL version]. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/lib/qut/detail. action?docID=166144. Shuker, R. (2013). Understanding Popular Music Culture (4th ed.) [EBL version]. Routledge. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/lib/qut/detail. action?docID=1097834. Simms, B. R. (1996). Music of the Twentieth Century: Style and Structure (2nd ed.). New York: Schirmer Books. Slawek, S. (1999). The Classical Master-Disciple Tradition. In A. Arnold (Ed.), Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 5 - South Asia: The Indian Subcontinent (pp. 483-493). Routledge. Retrieved December 17, 2016, from Music Online: The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Slean, S. (2009, January / February). Arranging Strings. Canadian Musician, 31(1), 58. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.e zp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/216335365?accountid=13380 Snyder, B. (2000). Music and Memory: an Introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Stowell, R. (Ed.) (1992). The Cambridge Companion to the Violin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stowell, R. (2001). The Early Violin and Viola: a Practical Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sweeney, P. (1992). The Virgin Directory of World Music (1st American/Owl Book ed.). New York: Henry Holt.

176 Sweeting, A. (1997, Dec 20). The Right Side of the Tracks: the Making of OK Computer. The Guardian Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/245198094?accountid=13380 Sussman, R., & Abene, M. (2012). Jazz Composition and Arranging in the Digital Age. New York: Oxford University Press. Tagg, P. (1982). Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice. Popular Music, 2: 37-67. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/stable/852975 Tagg, P. (1987). Musicology and the Semiotics of Popular Music. Semiotica, 66(1/3), 279-298. Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32723531/semiota.p df?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1490615366& Signature=sFEy4lIc3I596ObWLeaVSoWRrk4%3D&response-content- disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DMusicology_and_the_semiotics_of_ popular.pdf Tagg, P. (2013). Music's Meanings: A Modern Musicology for non-musos. [EBOOK] New York: The Mass Media Music Scholars' Press, Inc. Thayer, R. C. (1974). The Effect of the Attack Transient on Aural Recognition of Instrumental Timbres. Psychology of Music, 2(1), 39-52. doi:10.1177/030573567421005 Thibault, P. J. (1991). Social Semiotics as Praxis: Text, Social Meaning Making, Nabokov's Ada. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctttsm45 Timm, L. M. (2014). Film Music: The Soul of Cinema. (3rd ed.). USA: Pearson Learning Solutions. Tomka, B. (2013). A Social History of Twentieth-Century Europe. London: Routledge. Tsabary, E. (2009). Which Aural Skills are Necessary for Composing, Performing and Understanding Electroacoustic Music, and to What Extent are they Teachable by Traditional Aural Training? Organised Sound, 14(3), 299-309. doi: 10.1017/S1355771809990112 Turkel, E., & Smith-Eisenhower, E. (1988). Arranging Techniques for Synthesists. London: Amsco Publications.

177 van der Merwe, P. (1992). Origins of the Popular Style: the Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon. van Leeuwen, T. (1999). Speech, Music, Sound. New York: Macmillan Press. van Leeuwen, T. (2004). Introducing Social Semiotics: An Introductory Textbook. London: Routledge. van Leeuwen, T. (2012). The Critical Analysis of Musical Discourse. Critical Discourse Studies, 9(4), 319-328. doi: 10.1080/17405904.2012.713204 Vella, R., & Arthurs, A. (2003). Sounds in Space, Sounds in Time: Projects in Listening, Improvising and Composing. London: Boosey & Hawkes. Viswanathan, T., & Allen, M. H. (2004). Music in South India: The Karṇāṭak Concert Tradition and Beyond: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. New York: Oxford University Press. Wade, B. C. (2004). Music in India: The Classical Traditions (Revised ed.). New Delhi: Manohar. Waletzky, J. (Director) Smilow, M. (Producer) (1995). Music for the Movies: The Hollywood Sound [DVD]. West Long Branch, NJ: Kultur. Walters, B. (2009, May 14) Histoire de Melody Nelson. Rolling Stone, (1078), 68. Retrieved from http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.e zp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/220178483?accountid=13380 White, G. (1992). Instrumental Arranging. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Wild, C. (2010). The String Teacher as Arranger. American String Teacher, 60(2), 28-31. Yost, W. A. (2007). Perceiving Sound Sources. In W. Yost, A. Popper & R. Fay, Auditory Perception of Sound Sources (pp. 1-12). Boston, MA: Springer US. doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-71305-2_1 Zager, M. (2011). Music Production: for Producers, Composers, Arrangers, and Students. Lanham: Scarecrow Press.

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