Notes

Introduction

1. Australia ruled Papua (formerly British New Guinea) as a territory from 1906; in 1921, Australia assumed rule of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly Ger- man New Guinea) by mandate of the League of Nations. The two territories were first jointly administered by Australia in 1949 as the UN Trust Territory of Papua and New Guinea; a Legislative Council was established in 1951. In 1964, the Legislative Council was replaced by a House of Assembly with an elected indigenous majority. The territories were renamed “Papua New Guinea” in July 1971. Self-government was granted in December 1973, and full independence followed on September 16, 1975.

Chapter 1

1. The scene was filmed at a site known as “God’s Window,” a popular vantage point on the great escarpment along the Blyde River Canyon in South Africa. 2. Callon et al. (2002) use ideas associated with actor network theory to imagine their “economy of qualities.” For example, processes of qualification are instances of “translation”: “all the negotiations, intrigues, calculations, acts of persuasion and violence, thanks to which an actor or force takes, or causes to be conferred on itself, authority to speak or act on behalf of another actor or force” (Callon and Latour 1981, 279; see Callon 1986). The sociological method appropriate to actor network theory is one of following, that is, of following the associations and dissociations by which actors (including non-human actors) bind and unbind themselves and other actors into networks of varying length and durability. In this regard, actor network theory and its method converge with anthropological studies, such as my own, that track commodities in motion and trace networks of perspectives (see Introduction). 3. In 1988, Moffet observed Tushum’s influence at work in San Juan Chamula: “Whatever the motivation, Chamulans are undoubtedly some of the world’s most fanatical consumers. Chamulans use Pepsi in church ceremonies, chanting as the bubbles fizz to the top of a just-opened bottle. A few cases of Pepsi are a major part of a dowry. Almost invariably, a Chamulan trying to patch up a serious dispute with a friend will set before him a bottle of Pepsi. Nearly every Chamulan house displays a Pepsi poster, a crucifix and a red, white 242 Notes

and green banner of the PRI” (Moffet 1988). Belew (2003, 20) notes that in 2003, the majority of Catholics in San Juan Chamula preferred Coke over Pepsi to burp out the evil spirits killed by the consumption of poch. 4. Belew (2003, 22) notes: “Conversions to Evangelical Protestantism continue at a remarkable rate. One of the major draws of the religion is its prohibition on alcohol consumption—the Catholics require alcohol consumption and the Protestants forbid it at any cost. As a result, many women who are domestically abused by alcoholic husbands push for conversions to Protestantism that sym- bolize personal safety.” 5. The Belgian crisis reminds us of how consumer goods—especially ingestibles and comestibles—can define flashpoints for struggles over trust relations. Such struggles emerge particularly clearly in situations where people encounter goods not previously seen in the local marketplace. Timothy Burke thus describes the introduction of Stork Margarine to southern Africa in the 1940s and 1950s. Originally marketed by Lever Brothers in a wrapper with a picture of a baby on it, the margarine quickly prompted rumors that it was in fact “ren- dered baby , proof of the ghoulish practices of the settlers” (Burke 1996, 162). The rumors registered the way in which goods made in unknown places by unknown people harbor the capacity to arouse fears and anxieties and to dis- rupt the distanciated relations of trust intrinsic to modernity. 6. See Caplan 2000 on scares over eating beef in Britain. Caplan notes that the response to a breakdown in impersonal trust is often a reassertion of personal trust: “Trust, then, came from knowledge, ‘knowing’ where the meat had come from, under what conditions it had been produced, and, above all, knowing the person who sold it” (2000, 193). Similarly, the restoration of confidence in the products of The - Company could only begin with a personal apology by then CEO Douglas Ivester to all Belgian consumers, an apology seen by many at the time as coming long after it was due. 7. It is precisely this misalignment that is exploited if not actually sustained by agencies that sell their expertise in knowing local consumers to transnational clients marketing global (see Mazzarella 2003).

Chapter 2

1. Pasi Falk (1991) argues that Coke is the perfect “synthesis drink,”mediating the oppositions between intoxicant and medicine, and pleasure and sobriety, as well as tradition and modernity. 2. Confidence is the right word (trust in trust, impersonal trust, or systemic trust), though the word that marketers themselves use is trust, in part because they imagine and speak of the relationship between companies and consumers in highly interpersonal terms (see Luhmann 1988). 3. TO Digest was a wartime publication of The Coca-Cola Company that ceased operation in 1948. All quotes from TOs in this chapter come from issues of TO Notes 243

Digest, a copy of which is held in the Mark Pendergrast Research Files, box 25, item 1. 4. Melanesian men, who worked as stretcher bearers, scouts, and soldiers on behalf of the Allies, were called “Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels” by the Australian and American troops. The patronizing image of the “Fuzzy Wuzzy Angel” domi- nates a particular version of Australian national history that depicts indigenous Papuans and New Guineans as loyal “colonial subjects who did not exercise choices in response to the war’s disruption of their lives” (Reed 1999, 162). The image has also been invoked by PNG war veterans repeatedly seeking compen- sation from the Australian government. 5. Friedman (1992) also discusses how the double-sided nature of Coca-Cola— American and universal—was constructed and narrated in the exhibits at the old World of Coca-Cola in Atlanta. 6. This view of global commodity culture inverts David Suzuki’s view (Chapter 1) in one respect: whereas Suzuki denies any agency to Papua New Guineans in negotiating the consumption of foreign imports, the Pepsi bottlers assign Papua New Guineans complete agency, the sovereignty of the free market con- sumer. At the same time, however, both views treat consumer commodities as having fixed or inert meanings; soft drinks always and everywhere mean West- ern modernity. These meanings can be accepted or rejected, but not trans- formed or remade. 7. Nolan’s (1999) informative overview of the Coca-Cola product network (or supply chain) documents the ramifications of selling soft drinks on a global scale. The Coca-Cola system, Nolan estimates, purchases approximately 30 percent of the world’s total production of cans, 5 percent of glass containers, 4 percent of , and 30 percent of high fructose corn syrup. 8. Friedman (1993) notes that The Coca-Cola Company responded to the Atlanta Board of Education’s concern that there be enough clearly “educational” con- tent in the displays at the World of Coca-Cola by installing video booths that show five-minute clips integrating the history of Coke into the history of the United States. As a result, the old World of Coca-Cola was regularly visited by busloads of students visiting the nearby state capitol. 9. Insistence on quality control is a salient aspect of the company’s public face. A 1994 article in a PNG business magazine, for example, recounts a tour of the Port Moresby bottling facility much like that on which we were led by David Lane. The article notes that some bottles are returned “in a pretty filthy state,” but that the bottle washing process is “rather severe” in removing dirt and killing microbes: “CCA are concerned about their reputation because Coca- Cola, USA, imposes rigid standards of quality control. If these are not observed by the company which holds the bottling franchise, there is a clause in the fran- chise agreement which can cause them to lose it” (“Your Quality Control” 1994). In the company’s 2002 citizenship report, quality control and manage- ment of supply chains were offered as evidence of responsiveness to con- sumers: “At The Coca-Cola Company, quality belongs to all of us, not just to a single department. The Coca-Cola Quality System establishes standards, 244 Notes

self-assessments and continuous improvements that guide quality in products, processes and relationships across the Company. This includes everything from the conditions of physical facilities to advertising and trademark use to ingre- dient sourcing, packaging and distribution, as well as regulatory compliance and safety.” 10. Since at least 1997, PNG Recycling has purchased cans for recycling and export. There is no facility for recycling plastic (PET) bottles in the country. In its 2004 annual report, CCA notes that since 1999, CCA Fiji has been buying back empty PET bottles for recycling as part of the Mission Pacific program, in which consumers are paid by the kilogram for returned containers: “Over this period, an estimated 35 million PET bottles have been shipped to Australia for recycling into new bottles.”It is unclear from the report whether a similar pro- gram is operating in PNG, where concern over the environmental impact of plastic waste led to the introduction of bans on the import, manufacture, and sale of plastic shopping bags beginning in 2005. 11. “We designate certain bottling operations in which we have a noncontrolling ownership interest as ‘anchor bottlers’ due to their level of responsibility and performance. The strong commitment of anchor bottlers to their own prof- itable volume growth helps us meet our strategic goals and furthers the inter- ests of our worldwide production, distribution and marketing systems. Anchor bottlers tend to be large and geographically diverse, with strong financial resources for long-term investment and strong management resources. In 1998, our anchor bottlers produced and distributed approximately 43 percent of our total worldwide unit case volume” (The Coca Cola Company Annual Report 1998). 12. For more on Levitt’s vision of globalization and its effects on global advertis- ing, see Levitt 1983, 1988; and Mazzarella 2003. 13. In the aftermath of the debacle, Goizueta applied the same sort of calculations to his company’s products, arguing that the Coca-Cola “megabrand” claimed a larger share of the market than rival Pep- siCo, even if Pepsi-Cola outsold brand Coca-Cola Classic (a temporary situation that ended—along with the idea of the megabrand—in 1987). 14. According to one estimate, 58 percent of Papua New Guineans are without rea- sonable access to an adequate amount of drinking water from improved sources (United Nations Development Programme 2001, 150). “Reasonable access is defined as the availability of at least 20 litres per person per day from a source within one-kilometre of the user’s dwelling. Improved sources include household connections, public standpipes, boreholes with handpumps, pro- tected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collection” (United Nations Development Programme 2001, 256). 15. The financial situation here is, in actuality, more complicated. SP Brewery is majority owned by Singapore-based Asia Pacific Breweries Ltd., a joint venture of the Heineken N.V. international brewing group and Fraser and Neave Lim- ited. Fraser and Neave Limited owns 5.54 percent of CCA ordinary stock, acquired from The Coca-Cola Company in exchange for Fraser and Neave’s 75 Notes 245

percent ownership interest in F&N Coca-Cola, which holds majority owner- ship in bottling operations in Brunei, Cambodia, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Singapore, and Vietnam. 16. Curiously, the company seemed to be recycling this strategy five years later in the wake of Daft’s departure as CEO. In April 2005, Mary E. Minnick was appointed head of a new department formed to coordinate global marketing, new product development, and expansion plans. reported: “The analysts say it is no coincidence that someone who spent the last seven years in Asia overseeing Coke’s most innovative markets is now in the de facto No. 2 spot. In Japan, Coke regularly replaces 20 percent of its products each year, introducing roughly 200 new products or varieties. Coke investors are hoping Ms. Minnick ...will apply companywide the product development les- sons she learned in Japan, Coke’s most profitable market” (Warner 2005). 17. Doubts about how Goizueta and Ivester had accounted for the charges involved in their huge bottling transactions had surfaced on Wall Street in the mid 1990s (Greising 1998, 292). An article in Fortune magazine by Patricia Sell- ers (2000) raised doubts about the long-term viability of the anchor bottler system, wondering whether The Coca-Cola Company’s past success came at the expense of bottlers who paid higher prices for concentrate and sustained major losses in the economic turbulence of 1998 and 1999. These losses in turn translated into a $184 million loss in equity income to the company in 1999 from its bottling investments (see Hays 2004 for details). For more on “creative accounting” and dubious methods used by The Coca-Cola Company as well as other companies and accounting firms to assign and manipulate the value of assets, see McQueen 2003.

Chapter 3

1. A clear example of such use is the magazine Adbusters, which often contains mock advertisements that put familiar cultural forms in the service of express- ing alternative social messages (see Chapter 5). 2. In 1999, The Coca-Cola Company’s then wholly owned Singapore-based bot- tler, Fraser and Neave Coca-Cola Pty. Ltd., similarly faced competition from “parallel imports.” Because of the drop in value of the Indonesian rupiah, Coca-Cola could be shipped from Indonesia and sold at a price cheaper than its manufacturing cost in Singapore (Ismail 1998). 3. Coke also sued two small export companies in the United States, even though these exporters bought directly from Coca-Cola Enterprises, the company’s largest anchor bottler (40 percent of whose stock was then owned by The Coca- Cola Company). Lawyers for the exporters claimed that Coca-Cola violated antitrust statutes by trying to control prices worldwide (Hays 2000c). 4. Quoted from the World of Coca-Cola’s Web site (http://www.wocatlanta.com), which was revised for the opening of the new World of Coca-Cola in May 2007. 246 Notes

5. This claim is, of course, the rhetoric with which local ad agencies create a space for themselves in negotiating with transnational corporate clients; see Maz- zarella 2003. 6. See Mazzarella 2003 for a discussion of the marketing category of “global teen” and how the notion of “the Indian teen” required a significant modification of the category’s premises about “family” and “cultural tradition.”

Chapter 4

1. I encountered a similar sense of discomfort during a discussion with university students about a television advertisement for tinned meat. One student praised the ad for showing a woman in her kitchen cooking the meat in a frying pan with onions and greens. The student was pleased that the ad dispelled any idea that consumers simply eat the contents straight out of the can with no culinary preparation. 2. Steamships Trading is the largest non-mining company in Papua New Guinea. It began as a coastal shipping company in 1926 with the financial backing of a group of Australians. See company Web site: http://www.steamships.com.pg. 3. By the end of 1999, The Coca-Cola Company had reduced its holdings in CCA to about 37 percent of all ordinary shares (Coca-Cola Amatil Annual Report 1999). CCA sold its Snack Food Division in 1992 to United Biscuits of the United Kingdom. 4. From 1997 to 2001, CCA also operated in the Philippines. In 2001, The Coca- Cola Company and the San Miguel Corporation, the largest food and bever- ages company in the Philippines, repurchased the Coca-Cola Bottlers Philippines Inc., which San Miguel had owned from 1927 to 1997. 5. Two toea of each one kina (one hundred toea) bottle were to be donated to the Olympic effort. With a goal of K80,000, the promotion aimed at selling four million bottles, almost one for every person in PNG (pop. 4.4 million in 2000; CCA Annual Report 2000). 6. In 2000, sponsorship for the fun run, worth K300,000 was assumed by Trukai Industries, PNG’s major seller of rice. Trukai had already sponsored weightlift- ing and body building teams and competitions in Papua New Guinea for sev- eral years, associating in its advertising images of strong and energetic male bodies with Trukai’s brands of rice (Banian 2000). 7. Or, to take a different example, the advertising of brown rice—often rejected by consumers in PNG—by a superhero presenter, “Natural Brown.” A thirty-sec- ond television ad produced for Trukai Industries was described as promoting “a healthy lifestyle of good food and sports” and “communicating a number of positive messages to young Papua New Guineans,” including “respect in the home” (“Attempt to Improve Rice Relations,” National, September 4, 1997). 8. Given these media restrictions, sponsorship is particularly important for mar- keting alcohol and tobacco products. For example, SP Brewery is a major spon- sor of PNG’s national game, rugby (see Foster 2006). The company’s marketing Notes 247

manager told me words to the effect that if you are not in rugby, you are nowhere when it comes to marketing beer. 9. Toksave i go long ol gutpela kastoma bilong Coca-Cola olsem planti manmeri i resis tru long winim soka bal long dispela Coca-Cola soka bal promosen. Mipela i sot stret long ol bal nau givim ol wina. Plis holim ol “Win Can” inap next mun taim mipela i redi long givim ol soka bal. Mipela i sori tru long dispela liklik hevi. 10. The term “handout mentality” is not entirely unambiguous; it is sometimes used by relatively affluent Papua New Guineans to criticize as unreasonable the expectations of the so-called “grassroots” population that it is entitled to gov- ernment services and the largesse of better off kin (see Gewertz and Errington 1999). 11. EM TV also produces advertisements in-house. 12. In the 1990s, First Market Search published annual media surveys that were described as comprehensive studies of media reception and consumption in PNG. The surveys were conducted in the urban and rural areas of PNG’s three major cities and in the two major provincial towns of Rabaul and Madang. Respondents, men and women, were asked about their media consumption practices, preferences for radio and television programs, and awareness of advertisements for certain brand-name products. I thank Phil Sawyer for shar- ing copies of these surveys. In 1996, the EM TV Chief John Taylor mentioned to me that there was no reliable estimate of how many television sets there were in the country. 13. One ad executive quoted a price of seventy kina (then less than fifty-five U.S. dollars) for an average EM TV television spot in 1997. 14. In May 1985, the National Parliament of Papua New Guinea passed the Com- mercial Advertising Act. According to this act, all commercial advertising in Papua New Guinea must be locally produced by local agencies employing local talent—designers, artists, models, and so forth. Infractions were to be treated as criminal rather than civil offenses. Some advertising executives told me that exceptions to the act were permitted when required production facilities were not available in PNG. One executive, a director of client services, confessed ignorance of the act. When I explained it to him, he candidly remarked, “Well, we don’t follow that!” 15. Coincidentally, the assumptions expressed here about brand Pepsi resonate well with the globalizing marketing cosmology of Theodore Levitt (1983) embraced by The Coca-Cola Company under the leadership of . 16. The lyrics to the jingle are as follows: Whenever there’s a pool, there’s always a flirt, Whenever there’s school, there’ll always be homework, Whenever there’s a , there’s always a drum, Whenever there’s fun, there’s always Coca-Cola—yeah. The stars will always shine, the birds will always sing, As long as there’s thirst, there’s always the real thing. Coca-Cola is always the one, 248 Notes

Whenever there’s fun, there’s always Coca-Cola—yeah. Coca-Cola, always Coca-Cola! 17. One creative director, however, expressed caution over the sometimes-lingering perception of PNG-made goods as goods of inferior quality. 18. Schudson (1984, 212) thus refers to the “abstract people” represented in adver- tisements: “The actor or model does not play a particular person but a social type or demographic category. A television actress, for instance, will be asked to audition for commercials that call for a ‘twenty-six to thirty-five-year-old P&G [Proctor & Gamble] housewife.’” 19. For example, pattern advertisements for Gillette shaving products in PNG depict rugby players instead of baseball players. Similarly, a clean-shaven man is shown snuggling his cheek against the face of an infant instead of the face of an attractive woman; familial love thus displaces romantic love. 20. Similarly, community based marketing in the form of sponsorship creates more new contexts for soft drink consumption. That is, CCA and SP Holdings are official sponsors of the emergent urban public culture with which soft drink consumption is widely associated in Papua New Guinea. Through their sponsorship of major sporting events and holiday celebrations such as Remembrance Day, soft drink companies insinuate their products into the life of the nation, effecting thereby a convergence between consumption and citi- zenship. 21. Arnott’s Biscuits (PNG) Pty. Ltd. was until 2007 a subsidiary of Australian- based Arnott’s Biscuits, which has supplied the Australian market with biscuits (cookies and crackers) since the late nineteenth century. 22. Other winning photos included, almost predictably, a shot of three Asaro mud- men, masks off but still in hand, chugging bottles of Coca-Cola; and a striking image of a group of young men, several wearing dark sunglasses and affecting “attitude,” each man sporting a red-and-white Coca-Cola trademark— complete with Spencerian script and dynamic ribbon—painted on his bare chest. 23. Some respondents, however, commented upon the decidedly masculine inflec- tion of this ad. A forty-two-year-old man from Bundi who grew up in Kudiawa wrote, “I think [the] Coke advertisement shows ‘em man tru ya’ [‘here’s a real man’]. It shows a man’s sweat on his skin after a singsing [song/dance per- formance], therefore, what makes a man a man.” 24. According to the company’s Web site, “The Wrigley Company has established itself as the world’s largest manufacturer and marketer of chewing and bubble gum, and a leader in the confectionery marketplace with a diverse portfolio of innovative products. Wrigley products are a part of everyday life in more than 180 countries around the world.” 25. One Papua New Guinean production assistant with whom I spoke shared Kagoi’s opinion and criticized the ad for portraying Papua New Guineans as “backward” and “primitive.” Notes 249

Chapter 5

1. As an alternative to thinking of “economy” and “culture” as separate and dis- crete domains, one might think of different possible networks of economic practice, networks constructed differently out of people and things, responsive to different material constraints and ideas about what matters. I have taken this alternative in my approach to soft drink product networks and the economy of qualities. 2. In July 2001, The Coca-Cola Company and San Miguel Corporation acquired Coca-Cola Bottlers Philippines, Inc. from Coca-Cola Amatil Limited. As a result of the transaction, the company held 35 percent of the common shares in CCBPI and reduced its interest in CCA from 38 to 35 percent (The Coca- Cola Company 2001 Annual Report). 3. See Girard 2004 for a similar case in Texas in which the bottled water industry killed a state senate bill that would have levied a five cent tax on every bottle of water sold in the state for the purpose of raising funds to improve water-related infrastructure. 4. As spokespersons for Coca-Cola and McDonalds are quick to point out, boy- cotting local franchises affects the local employees and local suppliers of those franchises as much if not more than it affects “Americans.” 5. ’s Dispepsi can usefully be compared with the work of another art group, Superflex, also produced to challenge prevailing intellectual property regimes (http://www.superflex.net). In one project, Superflex collaborated with a cooperative of Brazilian guarana farmers to develop a soft drink— GUARANÁ POWER—that could be manufactured and sold independently of the multinational corporations that dominate the market for guarana (an ingredient in popular energy drinks). Rather than focusing on culture jam- ming, Superflex emphasized “self-organization,”bringing together “art, design, and commerce to challenge economic structures of dependency” (http://red cat.org/gallery/superflex.html).

Chapter 6

1. Especially plastic water bottles. “Carbonated soft drinks historically accounted for most of plastic bottle waste but the discarded containers of the bottled water industry are rapidly taking over. The share occupied by the bottled water industry has grown rapidly to almost 25 percent of this form of plastic resin production [in 2002]” (Clarke 2005, 56). 2. According to ’s Web site, The Minute Maid Company was pur- chased by The Coca-Cola Company in 1960: “In 2003, The Minute Maid Com- pany formed the core of the new Juices, Teas and Emerging Brands business unit of Coca-Cola North America. The new name reflects the broad portfolio of juices and other non-carbonated beverages that have taken on increasing importance to The Coca-Cola Company.” For a case study of two boycott 250 Notes

threats made against the company by Caesar Chavez’s United Farm Workers in the 1970s—threats made in order to compel Minute Maid to sign a union con- tract with its Florida grove workers—see Hall 1977. 3. In September 2006, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida issued a decision to dismiss the two Coca-Cola bottlers in Colombia from all remaining cases filed in 2001. The following month, SINALTRAINAL notified the Eleventh U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Atlanta of its intention to appeal the decision. 4. The September 2006 court decision also denied the motion to amend the com- plaints to bring The Coca-Cola Company back into the lawsuit. 5. In the April 10, 2007, edition of the Michigan Daily, Emily Angell reported that the ILO investigation had missed the March 31 deadline set by the University Dispute Review Board for producing a documented independent assessment of alleged human rights violations at Coca-Cola bottling plants in Colombia. 6. As well as creative use of some very old legal provisions, such as the Alien Tort Claims Act passed by the U.S. Congress in 1789 and seized upon by the Inter- national Labor Rights Fund to file more than twenty cases against American corporations such as ExxonMobil, ChevronTexaco, and Unocal for violations alleged to have been committed in countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, Nige- ria, and even Papua New Guinea (Kurlantzick 2005).

Chapter 7

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Manuscript Collections

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Films

Advertising missionaries. Directed by Chris Hilton and Gauthier Flauder. Bondi, NSW, Australia: Aspire Films, 1996. The cup. Directed by Khyentse Norbu. New York: Coffee Stain Productions, Palm Pictures, 1999. Distributed by Fine Line Features. The gods must be crazy. Directed by Jamie Uys. South Africa: New Realm, Mimosa, and C.A.T. Film, 1980. The red violin. Directed by François Girard. Santa Monica, CA: Lion’s Gate Films, 1999. Index

Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables. actor network theory, 241n1, 249n1 Bakan, Joel, 56, 80, 192, 227 ACT UP, 192, 193, 194, 226 Bergin, John, 92, 94–95 Adbusters, 87, 180, 184, 186, 245n1 Berman, Marshall, 19 advertising: as capitalist realism, 89, 96, Bestor, Theodore, xvi 99, 123, 180, 248n8; and censorship, bottlers, soft drink: in Africa, 193; 124–25; for Coca-Cola, 78, 88–97, anchor, 61–62, 102, 200, 244n11; in 120–21; global, xx, 56–58, 89, Colombia, 197–202, 208, 250n5; 92–96, 119, 124, 134; international, consolidation of, 51, 61–62, 71, 75; 89–92; multilocal, 89–90, 91, 122; inventories of, 71, 245n17; in PNG, for new products, 115–16; for soft 53–55; and school partnerships, drinks in PNG, x–xi, xxiv–xxv, 212, 215; and standardization, 53, 114–25, 135–40, 248n23; for teens, 56–57 93–95, 97, 136, 218, 246n6; uniform boycott, xx; and Coca-Cola, 171, 172, and pattern, 56–58, 91, 92, 124, 203, 206, 233; and political con- sumerism, xxiii, 168, 173 248n19; wartime for Coca-Cola, branding, 29, 76, 97, 231; standardized, 40–47, 89, 100, 139, 235. See also 95 Coca-Cola Company: advertising brands: and commodity chains, 22–23, for; Commercial Advertising Act; 76–77; imagery of, 78, 116; and loy- Pepsi-Cola: and advertising in PNG alty, xx, 116; management of, 28, Advertising Missionaries, 99–101, 107 34, 72, 84; trust in, 79, 80, 163–64; agency: of consumers, 7, 10, 23, 167, value of, 28–31, 77, 163, 164, 169, 168, 227, 243n6; rhetoric of, 175 190; and value creation, xviii, Aitsi, Peter, 109, 110 xxii–xxiii, 76, 217, 229 Albro, Robert, 234 Buffet, Warren, 62–63, 209 Alien Tort Claims Act, 198, 250n6 Burke, Timothy, 13–14, 23, 242n5 Allen, Frederick, xiii Bush, George W., 224, 225 American Beverage Association, 211, 213, 215, 216, 224 Cadbury Schweppes, 51, 66, 219; Anderson, Benedict, 36 brands of, 126 Appadurai, Arjun, 17, 22, 27, 30 Callon, Michel, xviii, 14, 23, 83–84, Applbaum, Kalman, 101, 156 241n1; and product networks, xix, appropriation: of Coca-Cola, 9, 63, 83, 7–8, 19, 22, 26, 35, 50, 80; and prod- 125, 129, 177, 178, 179, 181, 217, uct networks in PNG, 101 230; of commodities, 11, 13, 15–16, Cal Safety, 204, 205, 227 18, 24, 29, 80, 101, 178 Candler, Asa, 78, 79 Austin, J. Paul, 52, 60, 69, 199 cargo cults, 113, 135, 139, 238 270 Index

Center for Science in the Public Inter- 190, 213, 216, 219, 236, 250n2; est, 153, 213, 219 localization of, 34–35, 47–56, 67, charity, 227, 240; corporate, 113, 175, 70–71, 193; marketing of, xvii, 34, 227 158–59; as relationship company, citizenship, consumer, xiv, xxii, 151–53, xii, 86; trademarks of, xxi, 22, 168, 186, 193, 220, 228, 236; 40–47, 247n16; and WWII, xviii, 36, defined, 166; limits of, 173, 208, 37–47, 83, 235–36 221, 226; in PNG, 105; transna- Coca-Cola Enterprises, 63, 162, 201, tional, xxiii, 170–71, 189, 208, 235, 205, 206, 217, 218, 245n3; and 238; and value creation, xviii school contracts, 215, 216, 219 citizenship, corporate, xiv, xxii, 151–53, Coca-Cola Export Corporation, 37, 38, 157, 189; and Coca-Cola, xxii, 52, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 58, 84; and adver- 69, 150, 152, 157–66, 170, 192, 212, tising, 56, 89; expansion of, 59 217, 243n9; and codes of conduct, Coca-Cola FEMSA, 200, 201, 204 206; defined, 155, 156; and gover- Coca-Cola Zero, 220 nance, 164–66, 193, 225; limits of, coca-colonization, 62, 63, 175, 176, 173, 194, 227; in PNG, 106; 177, 212; anti-, 174, 175, 180, 209; transnational, xxiii, 164, 193; and de-, 177–85 value creation, xviii, 157, 161, 163 Cola Turka, xxvi, 46, 175–76 Coca-Cola: as American, 40–41, 46, 47; Colombia, 171, 172, 188, 197–202, 207, as local, 48–50; as modern, 44, 46, 219 105, 243n6; per capita consumption Commercial Advertising Act, 247n14 of, 63, 64–66, 107, 218; ubiquity of, commodities: branded, xiii, 19, 23, 33, 48, 84–88; as universal, 42, 91 97, 135; domestication of, 6, 8, Coca-Cola Amatil, 52, 62, 129, 244n15, 9–10; in motion, xv-xvi, 9, 26; 246n3; in Philippines, 160–61, 187, mutability of, xix, 7, 11–17, 83, 177. 246n4, 249n2; in PNG, 54, 64, 67, See also appropriation: of com- 101–104, 106, 108, 113–14, 116, modities 119, 125–26; and promotions, 111, commodity biography, 12–13 12, 120, 131–34, 132, 133, 248n22; commodity chains, xv, 22–27, 28, 63, and quality control, 53–56, 243n9; 76–77, 226; defined, 22 and sponsorships, 104, 174, 246n5, commodity fetishism, 53, 82, 105 248n20 commodity network, xii, xiii, xix; and Coca-Cola Company, The: accounting civic engagement, xxiv; and global- methods of, 245n17; advertising for, ization, xvi, 22, 62, 154; and soft xxii, 22, 40–47, 247n16; in Africa, drinks, xvii, 19, 125; and trust, xviii, 165, 192–97; annual meetings of, 201, 226. See also product networks xxiii, 149, 150–51, 151, 152, 153, connectivity, complex, xxiv, 10, 97; 187–88, 192, 204, 209, 234; and defined, xii-xiii, 26; and inequality, antitrust, 66, 70, 245n3; foreign xix, 26; and soft drinks, xiv, 140; expansion of, 37–38, 47–56, 48, 67, and worldly things, 17, 22, 237 70–71, 193; and franchises, xx, 34, consumerism, 72, 100, 101, 176, 185, 36, 47–56, 71, 193, 249n4; in India, 236, 239; anti-, 87; modern, 135; xxiv, 67, 93, 165, 208, 229–35; lay- political, xxiii, 166, 168, 169–70, offs at, 70–71; lobbying for, 162–63, 171, 226 Index 271 consumption: cross-cultural, 13, 17, distanciation, 41, 240; defined, 18; and 20, 24; ethical, 173–76, 225–26, 227, trust, 19, 242n5 238–39; of soft drinks in Mexico, Dobb, Paul, 104, 108 20–21; of soft drinks in PNG, Dunn, Jeff, 86 126–29 consumption work. See labor: of con- economy of qualities, xix, 7–8, 10, 34, sumers 237, 241n1, 249n1; competition in, Contractor, Dhruti, 208, 234, 235 88 Cook, Ian, 26 EM TV, xxiv, 108, 115, 122, 135, Coombe, Rosemary, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 247n11, 247n12, 247n13. See also 83, 182 Papua New Guinea: television in cooperatives, consumer, 167–68 Errington, Frederick, xxv, xxvii, 53, 54, corn syrup, high fructose, xvii, 220, 224 55, 56, 94, 113, 114, 129, 130, 131, corporate personhood, 156, 157 221, 223, 247n10 corporate social responsibility, xxii, Evans, Mike, 223 151, 155, 160, 163; and the state, Ewen, Stuart, 236 173 creolization, 9, 17, 119–20 fair use, 182 culture: hybrid, 119–20, 131; tradi- Farley, James, 49 tional, 117–18, 119, 120, 129, Frank, Thomas, 184, 185 130–34, 138–39, 141–45. See also Frenette, Charles, 96, 97 global culture; national culture Friedman, Jonathan, 6, 10 culture jamming, xxiii, 153, 180–85, Friedman, Ted, 43, 243n5, 243n8 181, 211, 212; defined, 180 Friedman, Thomas, 58 Cup, The, 4–5, 6–7, 12, 99 Funil, Somanil, x, xxvii Daft, Douglas, xi, xii, xv, xxi, 27, 35, 53, 70, 71, 86, 96, 192; and annual Geertz, Clifford, ix meeting, 187–88, 190, 197, 209; and Gewertz, Deborah, xxv, xxvii, 53, 54, citizenship, 150, 157, 161, 163, 171, 55, 56, 94, 113, 114, 129, 130, 131, 203, 203; and cultural diversity, 178; 221, 223, 247n10 on globalization, ix, xiii, 67–69, 88, Gibbon, Peter, xxi, 7, 23, 55 237; and obesity, 160, 178 Giddens, Anthony, xv, 18–19, 24, 25 democracy: consumer, 69, 135, 207, Gill, Lesley, 172, 201 208; participatory, 227–28, 236; and global culture, 91; and consumerism, 4; soft drinks, 137, 139, 212 and diversity, 35–36, 58, 72; and Departmant of Agriculture, U.S., 214, homogeneity, xi, xvii, xix, 6, 10, 16, 215 33, 63; and youth, 94, 136, 139 Department of Health and Human global high-sign, xx, xxi, 36, 40–44, 89, Services, U.S., 224 95 diet: and disease, 221, 222, 223; of globalization: anti-corporate, 233, 237; Pacific Islanders, 222–23 and commodity connections, xi; disembedding: of social relations, defined, 17; dialectics of, 19–20, 21, 18–19, 35, 37–47, 70; and trust, 76. 35, 70; economic, 168, 223, 225; and See also distanciation health, 70, 223; methods for studying, 272 Index

xv, 22, 23, 26, 238; strong, 6, 8, 21; India Resource Center, 232, 235 weak, 6–7, 8, 10, 21 internationalism, utopian, 43, 57 global teenager, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, Isdell, E. Neville, 52, 196, 204 246n6 Ivester, Douglas, 66, 67, 70, 87, 190, glocalization, 33–37, 58, 68, 104, 175, 242n6, 245n17 178; defined, xx Gods Must Be Crazy, The, 3–4, 5–6, 99, Jacka, Jerry, 125 100, 132 Joyce, Stan, 112 Goizueta, Roberto, ix, xiii, 51, 59, 67, J. Walter Thompson, 89, 90 68, 70, 72, 75, 87, 200, 245n17; on globalization, 60–62, 63, 247n15; on Kendall, Donald, 59–60, 90 trademarks, 78, 81, 244n13; vision Keough, Don, 84, 86 of, 62–66, 88, 103, 135, 160 Killer Coke, Campaign to Stop, 153, governmentality, transnational, 203, 204, 205, 207, 232, 236 164–66, 170–71, 193, 195, 202, 205, Knauft, Bruce, 100, 101 239 Kopytoff, Igor, 12 Grassroots Recycling Network, 152, 150, 190, 191 labor of consumers, xviii, xix, 11, 26, Greising, David, xiv, 60 29–30, 72–73, 80, 219; control over, 83, 86, 87, 96–97; and value, 28–30, Hagelshaw, Andrew, 215 80, 85, 164, 217, 231 Haksar, Sharad, 229, 230, 230, 231, 232 Leahy, Patrick, 214 Hannerz, Ulf, 25–26 Lederman, Rena, 14–15 Hau‘ofa, Roger, 141, 142 Levitt, Theodore, 63–64, 72, 92, Hays, Constance, xiv 244n12, 247n15 health: and betel nut chewing, 141–42; Lindstrom, Lamont, 113, 135 and diet, 221, 224; and soft drinks, Löfgren,Orvar,36 106–7, 108, 159–60, 214–20 Louis, J. C., xiii, 90 Health GAP, 192, 193, 194, 208 Lovemarks, 28–31, 84, 240 Hega, Alphonse, 131–34, 132, 133, 139 Herbert, Ira, 75, 86, 113, 121 Malinowski, Bronislaw, xii, 13 Hertz, Noreena, 163, 174, 227 marketing: and children, 108–9, Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages, 229, 212–20; and Coca-Cola, 78, 83–84, 231, 232 86, 188; community-based, 103, Hirsch, Eric, 131, 132, 133, 134 107, 108, 110, 113, 248n20; gray, 81; Hoffa, James P., 150, 151, 197 integrated, 90; micro-, 58–59, 68, Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr., 79 88; occasion-based, 87–88; in home: and Coca-Cola, 11–12, 21, 41, schools, 161–62, 205, 212, 215, 218, 42, 72, 95, 114, 139, 140; and Coca- 219; social science of, 91; for soft Cola Export Corporation, 58; drinks in PNG, xxv, 100–114, 116 mutability of, xix–xx, 11–12, 17–22, Marx, Karl, 18, 29, 36, 77 114, 208, 234 materialism and modernity, 4, 39–40, Hosler, Mark, xxvi, 184, 185 136 Howes, David, 14, 17 Matten, Dirk, 154, 164, 165 Hunter, John, 52–53, 61, 68 Mauss, Marcel, 227 Index 273

Mazzarella, William, 72, 81, 242n7, Noor, Farish A., 175 246n5, 246n6 McCann Erickson, 89, 90, 94, 135 objectification, 11, 80. See also appro- McQueen, Humphrey, xiv, 79, 81, priation 245n7 O’Hanlon, Michael, 15, 15–16 Mecca-Cola, 174, 175 Oliver, Thomas, xiv Meireles, Cildo, 177, 177–78, 179 Micheletti, Michele, 153, 166, 168, 173, Papua New Guinea: anthropology of, 225, 226, 227 xiv, xxii; and diet, 222, 246n7; field- Michigan, University of, 206, 207, work in, ix, xvii; political history of, 250n5 241n1; radio in, 109–10, 141–43; Miller, Daniel, 11, 23, 24, 26, 29, 227, soft drinks in, 43, 44–46, 99–145; 239 television in, 134, 246n1, 246n7, Minnick, Mary, 245n16 247n12 Mintz, Sidney, xv, 8, 38, 83, 87, 106, Partui, Bonaventura, x, xi, xxvii 127, 128, 134 Pendergrast, Mark, xiii, xxvi, xxvii, 47 Minute Maid Company, 197, 249n2 PepsiCo, 64, 95, 102, 126; annual meet- Miyoshi, Masao, 33 ing of, 190, 208; and bottlers, 62, modernity: and Anthony Giddens, 18; 205; formation of, 59; and recy- global, 5, 8, 18, 44, 63; and soft cling, 191–92; and snack foods, 60, drinks, 105, 130, 138–39, 243n6; 218 vernacular, 8. See also materialism Pepsi-Cola: and advertising, 90, 182, and modernity 183, 184, 218; and advertising in Monserrate, Hiram, 201, 207, 235 PNG, 46, 117–18, 121, 122, 124, Moreira, Marcio, 89, 91, 92, 134 129–30, 135, 136–38, 140; and mar- multilocalism: and advertising, 89, 91, keting, 22, 50 95; and Coca-Cola, 33, 47, 66, 69; Pepsi-Cola International, 44, 50; adver- and globalization, 58, 67–68 tising for, 57, 89, 90, 92; franchises for, 57; overseas expansion of, national culture: in PNG, 104–5, 118, 59–60, 67 121–23, 143–44; and soft drinks, 45, politics: of consumption, xix, 166–71, 46, 64, 176 212; of knowledge, 31, 167, 221, National Soft Drink Association. See 229, 237–40; and nation-states, 154, American Beverage Association 156, 164–65, 211, 220; of products, Negativland, xxvi, 181–84, 183, 186, xxii, 153, 166, 168, 177, 189, 225, 249n5 226, 227 Nestle, Marion, 212, 213, 215 Ponte, Stefano, xxi, 7, 23, 55 network of perspectives, xvi, xviii, xix, Pottasch, Alan, 90 10, 30, 73, 123, 131, 145, 235, procurement, global, 50–51 241n1; and Coca-Cola, 63, 134; and product networks: alignments within, soft drinks in PNG, xxii, 27, 101, xviii, xx, xxii, 25, 28, 30–31, 80, 123, 103, 110, 114, 129, 140; and worldly 125, 131, 145, 170, 231, 237; and things, xx, 25, 117, 125, 237 imagination, 26, 133, 140, 144; and Niugini Beverages, 102 inequality, 8; and qualification, Nolan, Peter, xii, 50, 65, 75, 76, 243n7 xviii, xix, 35, 49, 55, 101, 218; and 274 Index

worldly things, 19, 226, 237. See also 211, 214–15, 216, 218, 219, 221, network of perspectives 227; and school partnerships, promotions: in PNG, 110–13, 116, 130; 212–14, 217, 250n1 for soft drinks, 110–11 Solomon, Elizabeth, 27, 28, 137, 139, property, abstract: and copyrights and 140, 221 trademarks, xviii, xxi, 77, 78, 80, 81, South Pacific Brewery, 67, 102, 118, 234; and goodwill, 79–80, 83; laws 244n15, 246n8 about, 182, 185 South Pacific Consumers Protection Programme, xxvi, 222 Qibla Cola, 174, 175 South Pacific Holdings, 102, 106, 112, qualification: of Coca-Cola, 40–41, 46, 126, 129 49, 129, 157, 218, 230; control over, space-time, 18, 75, 87. See also distanci- 77, 79, 81, 82, 83, 97, 153, 193, 238, ation 239; of Pepsi-Cola, 138; of prod- sponsorship: and Coca-Cola, 52, 88, ucts, 7–8, 14, 22, 23, 55, 71, 72, 158–59; and music, 108–10, 123, 75–97, 119, 231, 241n1 129–30, 137; Olympic, 104; in PNG, quality control: in advertising, 56–57; 103, 104–14, 119, 131, 246n6, and Coca-Cola, 53–56, 231, 243n9 246n8; and youth, 159–61, 205 Sprite, 54, 93, 94, 97, 185 Ramu Sugar, 53–56 Srivastava, Amit, 232, 233, 234, 235, recycling, 189–92; in PNG, 244n10 237 Red Violin, The,12 sugar industry, xv, xxiii, 220, 224–25; in rights: of consumers, 212, 222; pour- Brazil, 224, 225; in PNG, 53–55 ing, 212, 213, 215, 218; of workers, Superflux, xxvi, 249n5 197–202 surplus value: and commodity chains, Roberts, Kevin, 28–30 22; and copyrights, xviii, 80; extrac- Robertson, Roland, xx, 34, 36, 72 tion of, xviii, xxi Rogers, Ray, 203, 204, 206, 209, 233, Suzuki, David, 6, 243n6 237 Tanga Islands, ix-xi; and soft drinks, x- Sahlins, Marshall, 225 xi, xi, xii schools. See marketing technical observers, 38; in New Guinea, Schudson, Michael, 89, 96, 99, 248n18 38–39, 43–44. See also TO Digest shareholder activism, xxiii, 188, 189, Tedlow, Richard, xiii, 84 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 226 Thomas, Nicholas, 16, 44 shareholder resolutions, xxiii, 187–89; Thorne, Lorraine, xvi for healthcare, 192–97; for recy- TO Digest, 38, 242n3 cling, 189–92; for worker rights, Tomlinson, John, xii, 18, 19–20, 26, 97 197–202 trademarks: and Coca-Cola, 78–84, SINALTRAINAL, 198, 200, 201, 206, 229, 230; litigation over, 79, 81, 182, 250n3 186, 229–31; value of, 82. See also soft drinks: and children, xxiii; as col- property, abstract lectibles, xiv, 13, 83; and obesity, Trobriand Cricket,20 215, 216, 221; sales of in schools, Trotter, John C., 199, 200 Index 275 trust: and brands, 76, 163–64; in Coca- 231, 234, 249n3, 249n1; fountains, Cola, 24–25, 36–37, 52, 69, 162, 87, 128; privatization of, 233–34; 242n6; of consumers, xviii, xxi, tap, 65–66 xxiii, 28, 30, 35, 242n2; loss of, xx, Watson, James, 7, 95 24–25, 70, 164, 201, 242n5, 242n6; Weiner, Mark, 235–36 and modernity, 19, 24; and politics, Whatmore, Sarah, xvi 226; and trademarks, 79; and value, White Label campaign, 167, 228 xviii, 162–63 Wilk, Richard, 36, 46, 58, 72, 175 Woodruff, Robert, 37 use value and consumption, xviii, xx, Woods, Chris, 180, 181 36, 84 Worker Rights Consortium, 169, 206, 227 value: chain, xxi, 23, 29, 50, 51, 55, 170; World of Coca-Cola, 82, 82, 85, 135, and consumption work, xix, 28, 76, 243n5, 243n8, 245n4 231; creation of, xvii, xxi, xxiv, 82, World Health Organization (WHO), 155, 169, 217, 229; and knowledge, xxiii, 221, 222, 223, 224 30–31, 240; and network of per- World Trade Organization (WTO), 223 spectives, xx, 28; tournaments of, worldly things: Coke bottles as, 4, 21, 22. See also use value and consump- 86, 178–80, 179; embedding of, xix- tion; surplus value xx, 17–22, 34, 95, 134, 139, 201; and home, xvii, xix, 21, 27, 72, 86, 114; Wallerstein, Immanuel, 22 meanings of, 83, 85; value of, Wal-Mart, 172, 173, 174, 191, 205, 227 28–31, 231 Wardlow, Holly, 9, 9 Wrynn, V. Dennis, 43 Ware, Carl, 69 Warhol, Andy, 81, 135, 209 Yazijian, Harvey, xiii, 90 water: access to, xxiv,164–65, 171, 230, 232, 244n14; bottled, 66, 71, 163, Zyman, Sergio, 88, 97, 185