Bilad As Sudan Dziedzictwo

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Bilad as-Sudan dziedzictwo przeszłości Bilad as-Sudan legacy of the past Bilad as-Sudan pod red. Waldemara Cisło, Jarosława Różańskiego i Macieja Ząbka 1. W. Cisło, J. Różański, M. Ząbek (red.), Bilad as-Sudan – kultury i migracje, Warszawa 2013. 2. W. Cisło, J. Różański, M. Ząbek (red.), Bilad as-Sudan – napięcia i konflikty, Pelplin 2014. 3. W. Cisło, J. Różański, M. Ząbek (red.), Bilad as-Sudan – dziedzictwo przeszłości, Pelplin 2015. Bilad as-Sudan dziedzictwo przeszłości Praca pod redakcją Waldemara Cisło, Jarosława Różańskiego, Macieja Ząbka Instytut Dialogu Kultury i Religii WT UKSW 2015 Recenzenci: prof. UJ dr hab. Robert Kłosowicz prof. dr hab. Arkadiusz Żukowski Okładka: Typowa zagroda Mafa z okolic Mokolo, północny Kamerun. Foto: A. Titone OMI (str. 1) Dawne pocztówki ze zbiorów Adama Rybińskiego, Warszawa (str. 4) © Copyright by Jarosław Różański, 2015 Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie 01-815 Warszawa, ul. Dewajtis 5 tel. +48 22 561 89 23, fax + 48 22 561 89 11 [email protected], www.wydawnictwo.uksw.edu.pl ISBN 978-83-65224-90-3 Wydawnictwo „Bernardinum” Sp. z o.o. ul. Biskupa Dominika 11, 83-130 Pelplin tel. +48 58 536 17 57, fax +48 58 536 17 26 [email protected], www.bernardinum.com.pl ISBN 978-83-7823-654-2 Skład, druk i oprawa Drukarnia Wydawnictwa „Bernardinum” Sp. z o.o., Pelplin SPIS TREŚCI KAROL PIASECKI Przemiany struktury antropologicznej ludności strefy Sudanu ......................................................................... 7 ADAM RYBIŃSKI Ludy Środkowego Sudanu ......................................................... 31 MACIEJ ZĄBEK Znaczenie kartek pocztowych jako źródła w badaniach afrykanistycznych ............................................ 57 KRZYSZTOF EDWARD RAK, BOGUSŁAW FRANCZYK Studium porównawcze osadnictwa w falezie Bandiagara, na tle podobnych założeń z innych rejonów świata ................ 85 ADRIAN CHLEBOWSKI Zarys historii badań archeologicznych i rozwoju metod badawczych w Kordofanie Północnym ...................... 113 EDYTA ŁUBIŃSKA Ekspansja Arabów na tereny Zande w XIX w. ....................... 145 JAROSŁAW RÓŻAŃSKI Figuil – zarys dziejów miasta i centralnej misji polskich oblatów Maryi Niepokalanej w północnym Kamerunie .................................................... 163 MICHAŁ ZĄBEK Obrona przed wchłonięciem. Zarys historii Gambii ............. 199 RYSZARD VORBRICH Bierny beneficjent versus lokalny partner projektów rozwojowych w Afryce ........................................ 231 MAGDALENA BRZEZIŃSKA Do Europy przez plażę. Relacje z białymi turystkami jako strategia migracyjna Afrykanów (Gambia, Senegal, Gwinea Bissau) ................... 257 Radosław Stryjewski Afrykańskie pamięci – rozmowy o dziedzictwie etniczno-religijnym z imigrantami senegalskimi w Europie ........................................................................... 287 Sabina Brakoniecka Historyczne uwarunkowania niepokojów religijnych w północnej Nigerii ............................................................. 333 Waldemar Cisło Aktualna sytuacja Kościoła północnej Nigerii w kontekście przemian społeczno-ekonomicznych .............. 357 KAROL PIASECKI PRZEMIANY STRUKTURY ANTROPOLOGICZNEJ LUDNOŚCI STREFY SUDANU Sudan to po arabsku „Kraina Czarnych”. Nic bardziej mylnego z punku widzenia antropologii, bowiem Sudan jako strefa geo- graficzna i kulturowa jest obszarem przejściowym pomiędzy Czar- ną a Białą Afryką. Kolejne źródło pomyłek wynika z tożsamości nazwy strefy geograficznej i państwa (od 2011 roku dwóch państw). Wymusza to konieczność ciągłego przypominania, o który Sudan chodzi: czy o strefę pomiędzy Sahelem a lasami równikowymi czy o państwo/państwa we wschodniej Afryce. Tu chcemy zająć się Sudanem jako strefą geograficzną, co z punktu widzenia an- tropologii oznacza konieczność uwzględniania w naszych rozwa- żaniach także przylegającego do niego od północy Sahelu, a nawet i całej Sahary oraz południowego obrzeża Sudanu czyli pogra- nicznej strefy lasów równikowych. Dopiero wtedy rozważania nasze będą miały sens. Zachodnią granicę tak określonego obsza- ru wyznacza Ocean Atlantycki i leżące na nim Wyspy Kanaryjskie, których dawna ludność związana była głównie z Afryką. Wschod- nią granicę stanowi Morze Czerwone, ale jest to, i zawsze była, łatwa do przekroczenia granica. Karol Piasecki, Katedra Etnologii i Antropologii Kulturowej, Uniwer- sytet Szczeciński 8 Karol Piasecki Czasowe ograniczenia są równie trudne do wyznaczenia. Za- sadniczo interesować nas będzie problem zmian struktury antro- pologicznej, jakie zachodziły w ostatnich kilku tysiącleciach. Oczywiście będziemy musieli, w miarę możności, odnieść się do jeszcze głębszej przeszłości, przy czym sięganie dalej niż epoka mezolitu jest już ryzykowne, bowiem wnioskowanie oprzeć mo- żemy jedynie na podstawie pojedynczych znalezisk, często zresz- tą niekompletnych. Tym bardziej, że przełom plejstocenu i holo- cenu miał katastroficzny charakter, który musiał znaleźć odbicie w radykalnych zmianach struktury antropologicznej. Górne ogra- niczenie czasowe stanowić będzie początek epoki kolonialnej, tj. w zasadzie początek ery nowożytnej. Oczywiście wykorzystywać będziemy wiele późniejszych (a nawet wręcz współczesnych) materiałów, które mogą rzucić światło na przeszłość. Aby prześledzić zmiany ludności Sudanu należy zapoznać się na początku z aktualną strukturą antropologiczną tego regionu. Całościowe jej ujęcie pojawiło się wraz z rozwojem antropoge- ografii, niezmiernie ważnej części antropologii, bez której zrozu- mienie dziejów ludzkości jest co najmniej utrudnione, jeśli w ogó- le wręcz niemożliwe. Jej burzliwy rozwój trwający od początku epoki Wielkich Odkryć Geograficznych przerwała w pierwszej połowie XX w. II wojna światowa. Dziś antropogeografia rozu- miana jest opacznie jako próba rasistowskiego opisu ludzkości, a głównym dowodem na istnienie owego rasizmu jest fakt, iż an- tropogeografię stworzyli biali Europejczycy1. Koncepcja rasy geograficznej w antropologii stanowi rozwi- nięcie klasyfikacji zoologicznej na poziomie subgatunkowym. Analizując zróżnicowanie morfologiczne populacji ludzkich dzie- li się nasz gatunek na podgatunki, zwykle mające silne związki 1 Dodatkowym argumentem przemawiającym przeciwko antropogeografii miał- by być fakt, że zajmowali się nią antropolodzy niemieccy w czasach III Rze szy. Przemiany struktury antropologicznej ludności... 9 z klasycznym trójpodziałem na Białą, Żółtą i Czarną Odmianę (lub Wielką Odmianę, Wielką Rasę, w zależności od autorów). Następnie wydziela się w ich obrębie mniejsze jednostki, a we- wnątrz nich kolejne, etc. Ponieważ poszczególni ludzie zaliczeni do każdej z takich jednostek, różnią się od siebie, operujemy śred- nimi wartościami cech i zakresem ich zmienności. Na skutek mie- szania się różnych populacji oraz licznych migracji, metoda ta zawodzi na niższych szczeblach i rasy bądź podrasy mogą mieć silnie porozrywane zasięgi (nieraz zlokalizowane na różnych kon- tynentach!). Natomiast ujęcie typologiczne – zgodne z metodą typologii indywidualnej Polskiej Szkoły Antropologicznej2, wychodzi od jednostki, którą zalicza się do konkretnego „typu antropologicz- nego”. Typ ten, jako fenotyp, stanowi oczywiście realizację geno- typu, który pod względem cech rasowych jest uwarunkowany przez genotypy rodziców. Zakłada się, że cechy rasowe są ze sobą silnie sprzężone3 i dziedziczą się na zasadzie plejotropii, tj. od- działywania jednego genu na wiele cech. Nadto w grę wchodzić może działanie kilku sprzężonych genów. Zmienność rasowa ma tu charakter strukturalny i nie jest ciągła. Charakterystyczny ze- staw cech dziedziczony razem nazywamy „elementem rasowym”. W przypadku, gdy rodzice przekazują potomstwu różne elemen- ty rasowe, wypadkowy typ antropologiczny jest zwykle średnią tzw. „czystych” ras4. Pomimo licznych zastrzeżeń co do tej kon- cepcji5 i głoszenia obecnie przez genetyków poglądów, jakoby w kolejnych pokoleniach następowało całkowite wymieszanie 2 Dalej w tekście oznaczanej jako PSA. 3 Co jest potwierdzone przez liczne obserwacje. 4 Ze względu na zjawisko dominacji częste są odchylenia od średniej. 5 A. Wierciński, Kontrowersje wokół Polskiej Szkoły Antropologicznej. Teoria i empiria w Polskiej Szkole Antropologicznej, „Seria Antropologia”, t. 11, 1985, s. 1-36. 10 Karol Piasecki a ludzkość zmierzała ku zupełnej metysyzacji i zatraceniu cech uważanych za rasowe, obserwowana rzeczywistość potwierdza sens typologii indywidualnej. Metoda ta do wyjaśniania procesów etnogenetycznych i geograficznego zróżnicowania człowieka jest wysoce użyteczna i została wielokrotnie sprawdzona w praktyce6. Znakomicie nadaje się też do mapowania zróżnicowania wewnątrz- gatunkowego człowieka7. Spośród wielu ujęć struktury antropologicznej strefy Sudanu (szerzej: Afryki) na szczególną uwagę zasługują dwa powstałe w zasadzie w okresie międzywojennym: Egona von Eicksteda i Renato Biasuttiego8. Różnice pomiędzy nimi polegają głównie na ilości wyróżnianych ras geograficznych, których zasięgi są w ogólnych zarysach podobne (Ryc. 1 i 2). Skupimy się tu na 6 Interesujące jest, że nawet jej przeciwnicy przyznają, że doszło w ostatnich czasach do reprodukowania czystych Tasmańczyków poprzez krzyżówki mieszańców biało-tasmańskich (rdzeni, „czyści” Tasmańczycy wymarli na początku XX w.), na zasadzie zgodnej z prawami Mendla. 7 Porównaj: I. Michalski, Struktura antropologiczna Polski w świetle Woj- skowego Zdjęcia Antropologicznego, Łódź, 1949 i tenże: Remarks about the anthro- pological structure of Egipt, w: Publications of the Joint
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    AS-SALAAMU-ALAIKUM: THE MUSLIM MAROONS AND THE BUCRA MASSA IN JAMAICA ©Sultana Afroz Introduction As eight centuries of glorious Muslim rule folded in Andalusia Spain in 1492, Islam unfolded itself in the West Indian islands with the Andalusian Muslim mariners who piloted Columbus discovery entourage through the rough waters of the Atlantic into the Caribbean. Schooled in Atlantic navigation to discover and to dominate the sea routes for centuries, the mission for the Muslim mariners was to find the eternal peace of Islam as they left al-Andalus/Muslim Spain in a state of ‘empty husks’ and a land synonym for intellectual and moral desolation in the hands of Christendom Spain. The Islamic faith made its advent into Jamaica in1494 as these Muslim mariners on their second voyage with Columbus set their feet on the peaceful West Indian island adorned with wooded mountains, waterfalls, sandy beaches and blue seas. The seed of Islam sown by the Mu’minun (the Believers of the Islamic faith) from al-Andalus gradually propagated through the enslaved African Muslims from West Africa brought to serve the plantation system in Jamaica. Their struggle or resistance (jihad) against the slave system often in the form of flight or run away (hijra) from the plantations led many of them to form their own community (ummah), known as Maroon communities, a feature then common in the New World plantation economy.i Isolationism and lack of Islamic learning made Islam oblivion in the Maroon societies, while the enslaved African Muslims on the plantations saw their faith being eclipsed and subdued by the slave institution, the metropolitan powers and the various Christian churches with their draconian laws.
  • Historical Dictionary of the Gambia

    Historical Dictionary of the Gambia

    HDGambiaOFFLITH.qxd 8/7/08 11:32 AM Page 1 AFRICA HISTORY HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF AFRICA, NO. 109 HUGHES & FOURTH EDITION PERFECT The Gambia achieved independence from Great Britain on 18 February 1965. Despite its small size and population, it was able to establish itself as a func- tioning parliamentary democracy, a status it retained for nearly 30 years. The Gambia thus avoided the common fate of other African countries, which soon fell under authoritarian single-party rule or experienced military coups. In addi- tion, its enviable political stability, together with modest economic success, enabled it to avoid remaining under British domination or being absorbed by its larger French-speaking neighbor, Senegal. It was also able to defeat an attempted coup d’état in July 1981, but, ironically, when other African states were returning to democratic government, Gambian democracy finally suc- Historical Dictionary of Dictionary Historical cumbed to a military coup on 22 July 1994. Since then, the democracy has not been restored, nor has the military successor government been able to meet the country’s economic and social needs. THE This fourth edition of Historical Dictionary of The Gambia—through its chronology, introductory essay, appendixes, map, bibliography, and hundreds FOURTH EDITION FOURTH of cross-referenced dictionary entries on important people, places, events, institutions, and significant political, economic, social, and cultural aspects— GAMBIA provides an important reference on this burgeoning African country. ARNOLD HUGHES is professor emeritus of African politics and former direc- tor of the Centre of West African Studies at the University of Birmingham, England. He is a leading authority on the political history of The Gambia, vis- iting the country more than 20 times since 1972 and authoring several books and numerous articles on Gambian politics.
  • Origins of the Islamic Scholarly Tradition in Sub-Saharan Africa

    Origins of the Islamic Scholarly Tradition in Sub-Saharan Africa

    3 Origins of the Islamic Scholarly Tradition in Sub-Saharan Africa The growth of literacy in Arabic and acjami in sub-Saharan Africa is closely linked to the expansion of Islam and the trans-Saharan trade, which was the main vector of Islamic expansion. Islam began to penetrate West Africa in the ninth century. But it was around the eleventh century that the elites of many urban chiefdoms and empires in West African Sahel became Islamized through contact with North African and Saharan traders (Hunwick 1997:5; Triaud 1998:10 and 6, Hiskett 1985:19-42). The growth of the trans-Saharan trade and the expansion of Islam brought about a transformation of the West African societies that were subjected to their influence. The process was reinforced by a new form of state that developed in West Africa from the eighth to the sixteenth centuries. It was described by Bathily (1994:44-51) as the military-merchant state. In contrast to stateless societies (Horton 1985:911 et seq., 113 et seq.) which were based on agriculture and, to a lesser extent, on livestock, and the traditional African state based on agricultural, pastoral and agro-pastoral activities, the political economy of the military-merchant state was based mainly on the tertiary sector (Bathily 1994:44) and its expansion was a critical period in the growth of literacy in Arabic. The military-merchant state was dominated by three types of elite: military, commercial and religious, each of which carried out a vital function for its development. The military aristocracy, often originating from the political elite of the old traditional states, specialized in weaponry and was responsible for security.