Architectural Family Ties Zanzibar and Oman in the 19Th Century Antoni Folkers and Frank Koopman

architectural family ties zanzibar and oman in the 19th century Antoni Folkers and Frank Koopman

From the times predating Seyyid Said’s arrival around 1830 on Zanzibar little architectural remains survive on the island. The trowel of the archaeologist has only re- cently started to unearth Zanzibar’s history. Of antique buildings little has remained because most of traditional Zanzibari architecture was erected in perishable material. The old capital of Zanzibar, Unguja Kuu, only knew a single stone building, the mosque, and the same applies to the island all over. The mosque at Kizimkazi, ruins of a group of merchants’ houses on Tumbatu and the Mnara Mosque in Stone Town are the rare examples of stone buildings from before 1800. So is the old fort, which was extended by the Omani around a small Portuguese sixteenth century establishment.

The architectural history of Oman shows a remarkable similarity to that of Zanzibar. ﬁ g. 61 The old fort in Zanzibar Stone Town Building technology and expression in form show a parallel development in a con- sistent division in ‘light’ architecture in perishable organic material, and a ‘heavy’ architecture in coral stone, lime and earth. Light architecture was for the individual dwelling and the workplace, heavy architecture for buildings meant to withstand aggression and time such as forts and mosques. Materials and technology applied in Oman and Zanzibar were similar, and mutually exchanged. Proof thereof is para- mount, and obvious from the name giving of building materials and architectural components. A mangrove pole is a boriti, a living room a sablah or seble and a water conduit a falaj or a fereji.1

Seyyid Said belonged to the Ibadhi sect within the Islam. The Ibadhi’s banned external pomp in their architecture and their buildings were plain and sober by appearance. The modernists have been charmed by the simplicity of Ibadhi architecture. 1 For foreign and scientiﬁ c names: see Le Corbusier admitted to be strongly inspired by the Ibadhi villages in the Algerian glossary

fi g. 60 55 fi g. 62 Mtoni mosque see also fi gs. 112-116 mud structures would accumulate heat to create a warm environment during the cold nights. We can perhaps see the juxtaposition of the heavy main palace building and the airy benjile at Mtoni as a reference to the traditional Omani division in architecture adapted to summer and winter climes. The benjile, a mysterious structure of which we have been unable to assess its origin, might have been parented to the tent- roofed platforms on which Indian princes took their tea. If that the case, the roofi ng of the benjile could have been consisted out of the fi ne matting which was used as well for the sails of the traditional Zanzibari ship, the mtepe.

Zanzibar does not know large seasonal climatic diﬀ erences, it is warm and humid throughout the year. Hence, the traditional Zanzibari, or Swahili architecture is of ﬁ g. 65 Ceiling construction scheme at light building in so-called wattle-and-daub, with steep pitched roofs that keep the sun Mtoni and rain out. Arish technology is in Zanzibar baristi and makuti technology, based on matted coconut leaves rather than the date palm leaves from Oman.

Makuti was and is used on Zanzibar for roofi ng, for fi lling in gables and for fencing and wind breaks. Guillain’s engravings of Mtoni Palace show us roofi ng, service buildings fi g. 63 Fundi on makuti roof and fences in this makuti technology. Mz’ab, and the cubic simplicity and proportions of the Mtoni Mosque are of undeni- Of ‘heavy’ building only the lime and coral structures have survived at Mtoni. There able beauty. is no proof of mud building at Mtoni, although it might have been applied, either in bricks, the matofali or as infi ll in light weight wickerwork or timber framed structures. Oman was above all not a rich country. Ibadhi simplicity fi tted well the hard climate The fact that larger parts of the palace, in particular the northern wing, dilapidated and rugged landscape. The move to Zanzibar was a chance for Seyyid Said and his and disappeared in a short time span might indicate that these buildings were, per- family to escape from Omani hardship and build up wealth and power in the new haps partly, built out of mud. In the Omani palaces and forts it was common practice ‘island metropolis’ 2. Even so, Seyyid Said’s building projects would remain faithful to to combine stone and mud technology within one complex4. Another reason for the Ibadhi purism. Mtoni Palace and its sister palace Beit el Sahel were plain buildings at quick disappearance of these parts of the palace could have been the scavenging for fi g. 66 Ceiling reconstruction at Mtoni a fi rst glance, and even the interior was thought sober by contemporary visitors. Cap- coral stone for the erection of other buildings or the making of the oil storage facility. baths tain Guillain, who was invited to dine with Seyyid Said at Mtoni, was surprised about fi g. 64 Swahili house in Bagamoyo under the sobriety of the furnishing, cutlery, tableware and food. He thought ‘the served As we have seen, stone technology was not widespread in Zanzibar until the nine- construction (1985) see also fi gs. 4 and 9 pastries as massive and compact as the walls of Mtoni’3. teenth century. The same applies to Oman. As in Zanzibar, coral was most common It was only after Seyyid Said’s death, and in particular under his son Barghash’s reign, in Omani stone architecture. Coral was either quarried from fossilized rock forma- that Ibadhi simplicity made room for an exuberant ‘indo-saracenic’ architecture that tions or collected from living reefs. Coral stone technology is known since Hellenistic spread over the oriental part of the British empire during the last quarter of the nine- times5. Reef coral can be worked into fi ne ashlar and even carved for mouldings and

2 Pearce 1920, the title of his book teenth century. other decorative elements. Reef coral is quite soft when harvested but becomes hard speaks for itself: ‘Zanzibar, the Island through exposure to air. It is therefore necessary to season reef coral work before it is Metropolis of Eastern Africa’, Salme From ‘light’ building nothing remains on the Mtoni premises. This is no surprise as exposed to wear and tear. 1993: 230, 241 on the comparison light building was erected to serve short life cycles and subservient needs. In Oman Finely carved coral stone work can be found on the East African coast, but generally between Oman and Zanzibar there was another reason for the division in light and heavy building, which is to be predates the nineteenth century. It was in the Middle Ages, for instance in Kilwa and 3 Guillain 1856: 33 remarked that the pastries are “(...) massives et sought in the great fl uctuations in temperature. In the hot and humid summer pe- Lamu, that this technology reached its apogee. However, the fi nds of fi nely squared compactes comme les murailles de riod people would prefer to live in the well ventilated airy ‘arish’ houses with pitched ceiling tiles at the Mtoni bath complex, confi rm that this technology was not extinct 4 Damluji 1998: 14 M’toni”) roofs, built of date palm fronts, whereas in the dry winter season the fl at roofed heavy during Seyyid Said’s times. 5 RMIT2008: 100-101

56 architectural family ties - zanzibar and oman in the 19th century 57 Fossilized coral rock cannot be worked like reef coral to smooth fi nish and is only for decades and decades, stands proof of careful production and skilful application of good for fi lling work and rough masonry. Fossilized coral was used at Mtoni to erect the saruji technology. the load bearing structures; walls, columns and arches. The walls were built in succes- sive bands that remind of pisé technology, a building technique not unlike modern Lime plaster and red earth mortars blend chemically well with the coral stone. These concrete building in which a mixture of mud and small stones is poured in layers be- walls act as an entity that has uniform qualities in terms of reaction to mechanical tween wooden planks that act as temporary moulds. Layered walling techniques are forces, humidity and temperature. This does not apply to Portland cement render or also known from Oman6, where between layers wooden tie beams were sometimes mortar that has been used in renovations and alterations to Mtoni Palace in modern inserted. times. Cement does not marry well to earth, coral and lime and literally suff ocates the

A walls if used as plaster. Cement plaster is therefore now slowly and carefully removed The walls of Mtoni Palace are of considerable thickness. The ground fl oor walls have in the ongoing conservation works to the palace, to be replaced by traditional lime- an average thickness of no less than 70 centimeters. The thickness of the walls was earth plaster fi nish. based on the Omani tradition of building ‘heavy’ constructions for the winter climate and serving defensive purposes. Typical in these walls is the use of tall niches or The upper stories of Mtoni were constructed of coral rag set in earth-lime mortar ‘rawzanah’. The total thickness of the wall ensures high stability for horizontal loads, like the ground fl oor walls. Yet it is probable that the fi rst fl oor arcade around the while through the niches a substantial saving in material is achieved. Another eff ect central court was made of wood as was common in Seyyid Said’s time. Beit Fransa for is that the overall internal surface of the wall is considerably raised compared to a fl at instance, the Muscat house of Ghaliyah bint Salim bin Sultan, a niece of Seyyid Said9 wall. This will increase the heat radiation desired in the Omani winter. has beautifully worked timber arcades and balustrades around the court on fi rst fl oor level.

B Cavities left behind by wooden tie beams, probably mangrove poles, are found in the heavy masonry as lintels over door openings, and unexpectedly, over the arches around the main courtyard at Mtoni Palace. It is surprising to fi nd these poles infi g. 68 Loggia at Salome’s garden serted over arches because arches are structural elements themselves supposed to see also fi g. 95 support heavy loads over large wall openings. These fi nds7 do confi rm the assump- tion that the arches were not built up with voussoirs and a keystone but were cast over a formwork. This technique, again, is not uncommon in Oman, where arches were cast over a formwork of wedged palm fronts thus creating the typical Omani arch with the small point at the apex8. There are many examples in Islamic building tradition of decorative use of arches. This is contrary to the Roman building tradition, where arches always have a structural purpose to support construction above open- C ings in walls.

The mortar used in the walls consists of red earth mixed with water, and the base plaster coat as well. At Mtoni Palace the technique of lime based plaster, or saruji, ap- ﬁ g. 67 A-B-C arch structure found in Mtoni plied as ﬁ nal coat reached a high standard. Finely cut edges and smooth surfaces that Palace do sometimes barely exceed a few millimeters show us the high level craftsmanship of Seyyid Said’s builders, the fundis.

Quick lime was and is obtained in Zanzibar through ﬁ ring of coral rock and seashells

6 Archnet 2008: 3 in open kilns. High quality lime putty requires patience, the longer quick lime is left 7 RMIT 2008: 95 slaking in water, the stronger it becomes. The excellent state of preservation of plas- 8 Damluji 1998: 15-16 terwork in Mtoni Palace, which has been exposed to high temperature, wind and rain 9 Damluji 1998: 162

58 architectural family ties - zanzibar and oman in the 19th century 59 The two stone staircases in the main building of Mtoni Palace have partly survived, ﬁ g. 71 Hijaz mouldings on Stone Town facades and traces can be discerned of the vaults that once covered them. This technology can be found in Oman. The surviving seventeenth century vaults in Jabrin palace were decorated with painted geometric patterns.

The ﬂ oors and roofs were made of coral stone on timber joists. Like in Oman, the room widths depended on the availability of timber sizes. The mangrove or boriti poles used as single span joists would allow a width of not much more than three meters. For wider rooms heavy teak beams would be used as joists to increase the width to more than four meters, or as sleepers to create double span ﬂ oors of up to six meter width. The use of boriti is known in Zanzibar and Oman, mangrove poles were imported in Oman from East Africa. Large teak beams used in Oman and Zanzi- bar were taken from India10, at later date indigenous hardwoods from Zanzibar’s own forests or mainland forests were used.

fi g. 69 Staircase at Jabrin castle, Oman The fl oor itself consisted of coral blocks resting on the beams, which were plastered on both sides to create a smooth and esthetic surface. The only remaining fl oor in situ, a fragment of roof fl oor over the cold baths’ wing, does not consist of coral rag fi g. 72 Mtoni Palace inner court showing as usual but of the earlier mentioned fi nely squared coral ceiling tiles. parapets and rainwater spouts see also fi gs. 29 and 30 We do not know whether the ceilings were decorated with paint or carving as is usual in representative rooms in Oman.

The ﬂ oor beams were inserted in the walls, but often a cornice was added to support the beams and to allow removal of beams at a later stage. On the exterior of the wall, a protruding dado, called a hijaz in Oman11 would indicate the ﬂ oor level and serve as water drip to protect the facades.

fi g. 70 Boriti fl oor construction at Beit el Sahel The roofs at Mtoni were fl at, with the exception of the Persian baths. The domes over these baths might be the eldest surviving in Zanzibar, but dome technology was known in East Africa since the early Middle Ages. The domes of the mosques at Kilwa have survived many centuries and multiple wars. Flat roofs were constructed as the fl oors, and fi tted with a parapet, which was more often than not crenellated. The few historic images that we know show thatched saddle roofs over large tracts of the main building and decorative merlons on the parapets on the northern wing. The erection of pitched roofs over the fl at roof slabs was no less than a necessity in Zanzibar. The heat accumulation through the exposure to the tropical sun and the leakages caused by the frequent and torrential rainstorms made the Omani type fl at roofs unsuitable for Zanzibar. By the late nineteenth cen- No traces remain of roof parapets at the surviving ruins at Mtoni. The only sign of

10 RMIT 2008: 96-98, among other tury practically all buildings in Stone Town would be covered with pitched roofs made ﬂ at roof structure are the copper water spouts at the central courtyard. Spouts were sources of thatch and later tin sheets. common in Oman, but they were wooden or ceramic, not copper as far as the ones 11 Damluji 1998: 14 found in Mtoni12. 12 Damluji 1998: 15

60 architectural family ties - zanzibar and oman in the 19th century 61 The main entrance doors to the palace are unfortunately lost. No doubt these were of wood. A lot of care was given to the composition of the window. The windows double leaf doors of heavy timber, studded with bronze or copper knobs and carved were placed just above fl oor level and subdivided into fi ve sections. The two lower jambs and lintel beam, like we can still admire in a number of Omani origin nine- sections were fi tted with shutters and a protective balustrade. The two middle sec- teenth century houses in Stone Town. The doors of Omani houses were the scarce tions with a shutter and a decorative arch framing the view The single top section was elements where decoration was allowed13. meant for ventilation with a grating and a top hung shutter.

No proof has been found whether there were ground fl oor windows in the external This type of window has, as stated above, not been found on Zanzibar, but its exis- walls in Saleh’s times. It might have been that there were small openings for ventila- tence prior to the advent of glass casements can be guessed at. The windows that tion only, as is the case in many Omani forts. were used by Seyyid Said probably were of the type that is still widely used on Zan- During Seyyid Said’s times the ground fl oors might have been fi tted with windows, as zibar. The windows are as a rule larger than the traditional Omani ones, but still sub- contemporary images suggest. Certainly windows were present at the majlis, at the divided into sections. The two lower sections would be fi tted with wooden shutters other wings it remains to be clarifi ed. The secrecy required for female quarters and and decorative wooden or forged iron banisters, the two top sections with casements fi g. 76 Traditional Omani window the treasury rooms mentioned by Ruete14 might have been ground for restrained use and timber shutters. The shutters themselves at Mtoni seemed to have been plain, of windows on ground fl oor level as well. and not louvered as became standard at later times.

The scant information on the facades of Mtoni left to us does not provide a clear im- Windows were set in the rawzanah in the heavy walls. The windows were placed at age of the type of windows that were originally used by Saleh bin Haramil. On Zanzi- the outside of the niches, fl ush with the external wall fi nish. Window shutters would bar in general there is hardly a trace of early to mid-nineteenth century windows. In open inwards and fi t in the depth of the niches, without protruding into the room. Oman, on the contrary, due to the drier climate and continuation of tradition, older The niches extended well over the windows, to end in pointed arches just under the fi g. 73 Kilwa castle main door windows are still to be found. Early nineteenth century windows were not glazed, as ceiling. The higher sections of the niches were used for shelving, and sometimes in plate glass was at that time still rare, but fi tted with shutters, grating and balustrades the top section a ventilation opening was inserted.

ﬁ g. 77 Rawzanah at Mtoni

ﬁ g. 74 Old photograph possibly showing front door of Mtoni Palace

ﬁ g. 75 Main door at Beit el Sahel

ﬁ g. 78 View through opened rawzanah at Mtoni

13 Burton 1872: I/86 14 Salme 1993: 157,308 ﬁ g. 79 Reconstructed majlis at Mtoni

62 architectural family ties - zanzibar and oman in the 19th century 63 Not all niches in Mtoni Palace were ﬁ tted with windows, quite a few were blind and used for storage only. Perhaps, as can still be seen in Beit el Sahel, wooden cupboards and wardrobes were inserted in the niches instead of windows.

Contrary to the exterior, the interior of the majlis or sablah and other representative rooms was lavishly decorated. Mirrors, fi rearms, American Regulator Clocks, swords and paintings were hung on the walls between the niches and fi ne Chinese celadon, ceramic bowls from Maastricht and silverware were displayed on the shelves. On the black and white checkered marble fl oors carpets and fi nely woven mats were laid, and the ceilings might have been decorated with paint. From the ceiling glass- chandeliers from Murano were hung. Of these interiors there is quite substantial fi g. 80 Interior of Beit el Sahel documentation available through old photographs and engravings15.

East Africa, India and Arabia have been parented since antiquity and mutually infl u- enced each others’ architectural cultures. Zanzibar, in particular, was and is a meet- ing place of people and cultures from every corner of the world. The famous British urban planner Henry Lanchester remarked, whilst drafting Zanzibar’s fi rst masterplan in 1923, that ‘(...) it is characteristic of Zanzibar to-day never to be bigoted about anything. She took amicably to the Persians of the Middle Ages; she was friendly with the Portu- guese; she tolerated the Indian; she assimilated the Oman Arab; and she welcomed the English’. 16 From a remote past, foreign infl uences were welcomed and assimilated in a friendly way to blend into Zanzibar’s unique cultural fl avour. Mtoni Palace is a typical example of this blending of cultures. Although the remains are only a fraction of the original expanse of the palace, they remind us of the pleasant years that Seyyid Said and Sayyida Salme spent here in the nineteenth century cultural melting pot that was Zanzibar.

ﬁ g. 81 Majlis at Beit el Sahel

15 Salme 1993: 165 16 Lanchester 1923: 21

64 architectural family ties - zanzibar and oman in the 19th century ﬁ g. 82 sultan said’s extensions

12 fi g. 84 34 1 Large courtyard 2 Rear entrance 10 3 Garden entrance 4 Baths 10 5 Main building - Saleh’s house 1 6 North eastern wing 2 7 Extension? 10 8 Assumed main staircase 12 6 9 Arcades on ground and fi rst fl oor levels 10 Sarari’s apartments on ground and fi rst fl oor 10 5 11 Service rooms? 12 Gardens 8 10

9 7 11 11

A single, spacious courtyard is allotted to the whole In a corner of the yard cattle were slaughtered, were reckoned wholesale by bags, while the butter, body of buildings that compose the palace, and skinned, and cleaned in quantities, all for the sole imported from the north, especially from the island in consequence of the variety of these structures, use of the house, which, like every house in Zanzi- of Socotra, came in jars of a hundredweight each. probably put up by degrees as necessity demanded, bar, must provide its own meat. In another corner Only spices were measured by the pound. Still more the general effect was repellent rather than attrac- sat Negroes having their heads shaved, while near astonishing was the quantity of fruit consumed. tive. Most perplexing to the uninitiated were the them a lot of lazy water-carriers lay full length on Every day thirty or forty, or even fi fty men brought innumerable passages and corridors. Countless, the ground, paying not the slightest attention to the loads of fruit on their backs, apart from the consign- too, were the apartments of the palace; their exact urgent calls for water, until unpleasantly reminded of ments delivered by the little rowboats which supplied disposition has escaped my memory, though I have their duty by a muscular eunuch. I have known these the plantations along the shore. I am probably mak- a very distinct recollection of the bathing arrange- leisurely gentleman to start up, and to dash away ing no extravagant estimate if I put Bet il Sahel’s ments at Bet il Mtoni. (Sayyida Salme/Strachey like lightning with their jugs at the mere frown of daily consumption of fruit as high as the capacity of 1907: ebook) their formidable taskmasters. Near by nurses sunned a railway van; but some days, for instance, during ﬁ g. 83 View from the east (1885-1890) themselves and their little charges, whom they were the mango harvest, the demand would be still larger. regaling with fairy tales and stories. The kitchen, The slaves intrusted with all this fruit were extremely too, was in the open, and the smoke ascended free- careless; they would plump the heavy baskets from The house of Saleh bin Haramil was The large courtyard between the core The northern wing housed the apart- ly to heaven as it might fancy, for chimneys do not their heads violently to the ground, so that half the extended by Seyyid Said with a baths’ and the extensions bristled with life and ments of the sarari, the secondary wives exist. Strife and confusion were the rule among the contents would be bruised or squashed. (Sayyida host of culinary sprites, the head cooks dealing out Salme/Strachey 1907: ebook) complex, an L-shaped two-storied was a service courtyard in the first place and their offspring, like Sayyida Salme boxes on the ears in liberal style to the quarrelsome or dilatory scullions of either sex. In the Bet il Sahel apartment block, and probably further where retainers, servants and animals and her mother. Life took place in the kitchen the animals were cooked whole, and I have wings to the northeast which have crossed paths. rooms spread out onto the interconnect- seen a fi sh arrive carried by two sturdy blacks; small fi sh were not taken in excepting by the basketload, completely disappeared. ing arcades and galleries. ﬁ g. 85 Aerial overview from the north nor fowl but by the dozen. Flour, rice, and sugar

66 mtoni palace mtoni palace sultan said’s extensions 67 the baths

The large bath’ complex was a novelty that Seyyid Said brought to Zanzibar.

The row of cold Omani type baths, on top of the falaj, the water channel running through the palace, served as place to pray, clean, rest and even eat.

The Persian baths were perhaps designed by a Persian architect who allegedly built the beautiful baths at Kidichi. The dome-roofed intricate plan fi g. 86 Reconstructed view on Seyyid Said’s extensions fi g. 87 Rear entrance consisted of cold, warm and heat rooms. A peculiar feature of Bet il Mtoni were the multitu- We had no special schoolroom. The lessons took Under Azze bint Sef’s pressure, there had reigned The Persian baths were reserved for dinous stairways, quite precipitous and with steps place on an open veranda, to which pigeons, par- a kind of monastic life at Bet il Mtoni. (Sayyida apparently calculated for Goliath. And even at that rots, peacocks, and bobolinks enjoyed unrestricted Salme/Van Donzel 1993: 176) Seyyid Said and his first consort only. fi g. 89 Omani baths interior you went straight on, up and up, with never a land- access. This veranda overlooked a courtyard, so ing and never a turn, so that there was scarcely any that we could amuse ourselves by watching the lively hope of reaching the top unless you hoisted yourself proceedings down below. Our academical furniture 3 there by the primitive balustrade. The stairways consisted of one enormous mat, and equal simplicity were used so much that the balustrades had to be distinguished our apparatus for study: Koran with its 1133 13 13 1133 13 13 1133 13 13 constantly repaired, and I remember how frightened stand, a small pot of ink (domestic manufacture), a 12 12 12 12 everybody was in our wing, one morning, to fi nd bamboo pen, and a well-bleached camel’s shoulder 4 how both rails had broken down during the night, blade.(Sayyida Salme/Strachey 1907: ebook) 11 11 11 and to this very day I am surprised that no accident 11 occurred on those dreadful inclines, with so many By seven o’clock in the morning, after partaking of 2 people going up and down, the round of the clock. some fruit, we were on the veranda, awaiting the fi g. 90 (Sayyida Salme/Strachey 1907: ebook) mistress. Pending her arrival, we would have jump- 1 Main building 5 Cold room 9 1100 8 ing and wrestling matches, and would clamber about 2 Seyid Said’s extension 6 Warm room the balustrade, doing our best to risk our lives. One 3 Omani cold baths 7 Latrines 1 of us would be stationed as sentinel at a suitable 4 Persian hot baths 8 Boiler room 6 fi g. 88 Lamu castle courtyard 9 Ante room place, whence a fi ctitious cough warned us of the 7 10 Steam tub pedagogic approach. In a twinkling every pupil was 11 Living and praying room down on the mat, looking the picture of innocence, 5 12 Bathing rooms and upon her actual appearance we all bounded to 13 Latrines our feet, to pay the tyrant obsequious reverence. (Sayyida Salme/Strachey 1907: ebook)

68 mtoni palace sultan said’s extensions mtoni palace 69 ﬁ g. 91 Persian baths at Mtoni

ﬁ g. 95 Reconstructed views on baths from gallery

ﬁ g. 93 Cold room Persian baths ﬁ g. 94 Falay inside Omani baths

I have a very distinct recollection of the bathing Entering one of the bath-houses – they were all built The so-called “Persian” bath stood apart from the arrangements at Bet il Mtoni. A dozen basins lay all on the same plan – you beheld two raised platforms, rest; it was really a Turkish bath, and there was no in a row at the extreme end of the courtyard, so that one at the right and one at the left, laid with fi nely other in Zanzibar. (Sayyida Salme/Strachey 1907 : when it rained you could visit this favourite place woven matting, for praying or simply resting on. ebook) of recuperation only with the help of an umbrella. Anything in the way of luxury, such as a carpet, was Each bath-house contained two basins of about four forbidden here. Whenever the Mahometan says his The richly-coloured cupolas, and the extreme fresh- yards by three, the water reaching to the breast of prayers he is supposed to put on a special garment, ness of the groves, gives you some idea of an a grownup person. This resort was highly popular perfectly clean – white if possible – and used for no Oriental scene. (Browne 1846: 338) with the residents of the palace, most of whom were other purpose. Of course this rather exacting rule is in the habit of spending several hours a day there, obeyed only by the extremely pious. Narrow colon- I never observed her [Azze] to go out unless grandly saying their prayers, doing their work, reading, nades ran between the platforms and the basins, escorted, excepting when we went with the Sultan ﬁ g. 92 Kidichi baths sleeping, or even eating and drinking. From four which were uncovered except for the blue vault of to their bath-house, intended for their exclusive use. o’clock in the morning until twelve at night there heaven. Arched stone bridges and steps led to other, (Sayyida Salme/Strachey 1907: ebook) was constant movement; the stream of people entirely separate apartments. Each bath-house had coming and leaving never ceased. (Sayyida Salme/ its own public; for, be it known, a severe system of Strachey 1907: ebook) caste ruled at Bet il Mtoni, rigidly observed by high and low. (Sayyida Salme/Strachey 1907: ebook)

ﬁ g. 96 Marhubi baths ﬁ g. 97 Kidichi baths entrance

70 mtoni palace the baths mtoni palace the baths 71